The Encyclopedia of Ecotourism

130 A.A. Lew

each associated with a major province, and Kashmir region is similar to that of India,
well over 1000 smaller ethnic groups. both in its trekking opportunities and polit-
Pakistan, Nepal and Bhutan, along with ical sensitivity. The Karakoram Highway
India, share portions of the great mountain passes through this region, allowing a
ranges to the north, while Sri Lanka and backdoor entry into China for tourists.
the Maldives are tropical island countries Periodic military tensions with India on
at the southern tip of India. The summer one side and Afghanistan on the other can
monsoon (winds from the south-west) make this journey through the Himalayas a
bring some relief to the otherwise year- risky prospect. More severe, however, has
round hot and humid weather of lowland been ethnic and political conflict among
South Asia. Drier shrub and grasslands are Pakistan’s major ethnic groups (Baluchis,
found in much of Pakistan and adjacent Pushtun and Sindhi), which has limited all
areas of India, as well as on the Deccan forms of tourism to Pakistan in the 1990s.
Plateau in central India.
Below the northern mountains are the
Next to Southeast Asia, South Asia is densely settled agricultural lands of the
the most popular ecotour destination on Indo-Gangetic Plain (Indus River in
the Asian continent (Table 8.3). Most of Pakistan and Ganges River in India and
this interest lies in the Himalaya region; Bangladesh). Like East Asia, the many peo-
mountain trekking in this area is among the ple in this region have caused considerable
ultimate ecotour experiences. Large num- environmental degradation. Native ecosys-
bers of foreign mountain trekkers have had tems have been replaced with agricultural
major impacts on the local culture and ecosystems that may have functioned well
environment in the largely impoverished in earlier times, but are often environmen-
Himalayan region, particularly in Nepal tally dysfunctional under current popula-
and Kashmir (Weaver, 1998). Nepal’s tion pressures. Volunteer tourism that
Annapurna Conservation Area Project has supports efforts to make traditional agricul-
been a major conservation effort to address ture more sustainable is one form of eco-
some of these impacts in one of the most tourism experience that is potentially
popular trekking regions, although several available in most South Asian countries,
other smaller efforts are also under way though the market is rather modest.
(Pobocik and Butalla, 1998). All, however, Slightly lower populations reside in drier
are seriously underfunded and under- areas to the south of the Indo-Gangetic
staffed. Plain, where several ecotour destinations
have been developed in national parks and
Bhutan has created a particularly wildlife refuges, as well as on the Thar
unique experience designed to sustainably Desert with its popular camel treks.
maintain its strong traditional culture and
religion. Long closed to the rest of the Much of the ecotourism in India is cen-
world, Bhutan limits its arrivals by requir- tred on the country’s many national parks
ing a fully planned itinerary supplied by and wildlife refuges. Jim Corbett National
Bhutanese tour operators and a minimum Park, for example, was created in 1936
expenditure of US$200 per day, well from a popular hunting ground for the
beyond the means of a typical budget trav- British (Rao, 1998). Ranthambor National
eller. This has helped to keep Bhutan less Park’s (390 km2; 150 mile2) dry forests in
commercialized than Nepal, and among the south-western Rajasthan preserve 300 tree
most traditional cultures on the planet. species and 50 aquatic plant species. These
Kashmir (in the Himalayas) and Assam forests, and many others on the Deccan
(south and east of Bhutan, and bordering Plateau, are havens for the Indian tiger,
Myanmar) are two corners of India that although poaching is a constant problem.
contain a diversity of cultural (non-Hindu) Three hundred species of birds are pro-
and natural attractions, but have been dis- tected in Keoladeo Ghana National Park,
rupted by separatist movements that have and Bandipur National Park, in south-west-
kept tourism to a minimum. Pakistan’s ern India, is a habitat for wild Asian ele-

Asia 131

phants. Outside Kashmir in the north, The cultural and geological diversity of
Pakistan has far fewer floral and faunal Southwest Asia and Central Asia has cre-
resources, although its Arabian Sea coast is ated more countries in this region than in
rich in shellfish and sea turtles, as well as any other part of Asia. Asia Minor and the
sharks. Caucasus include: Turkey, Georgia,
Armenia, Azerbaijan, and sometimes
The two Indian Ocean countries of Sri Cyprus. The Arabian Peninsula includes:
Lanka and the Maldives are both significant Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, Iraq, Kuwait,
ecotour destinations, although political Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar, United Arab
unrest in northern Sri Lanka has seriously Emirates, Oman and Yemen. Iran and
reduced the country’s tourist arrivals. Afghanistan comprise most of the highland
Scuba-diving and snorkelling are major areas just south of the Caspian Sea and the
activities in both countries, with dive safaris countries of Central Asia. Turkmenistan,
and reef tours a speciality on the coral atolls Uzbekistan, and Kazakhstan cover the
of the Maldives. Sri Lanka also has varied internal drainage basins of Central Asia,
and lush jungle vegetation extending into its while Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan are situ-
cooler highland areas where animal and ated in the high mountains of the Pamir
birdwatching and trekking are popular Range and Tian Shan, respectively.
activities. The island’s diverse wildlife
resources are complemented by ancient and The arid conditions throughout the
contemporary Buddhist sites. region create highly sensitive and endan-
gered aquatic ecosystems, the largest of
South Asia accommodates many people, which are the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf
cultures, landscapes and ecotour opportu- in Southwest Asia, and the Black Sea, the
nities into a relatively confined area. Caspian Sea and the Aral Sea in Central
Human impacts are significant throughout Asia. These water bodies concentrate
and efforts to protect sensitive environ- drainage from their surrounding watershed
ments present major challenges. Trampled and serve as sensitive measures of regional
earth and litter are common in remote environmental degradation. Most are
trekking areas, while poaching and loss of severely polluted, though concerted inter-
habitat are problems in nature preserves. national efforts in the 1990s to address
The competition for survival between these problems have helped to some
humans and the environment is greater degree. Ecotourism offers an alternative,
here than in any other region of Asia, mak- especially in Central Asia, to the large-
ing it perhaps the most in need of a vibrant scale and heavy industries that have
and influential ecotourism industry. caused environmental widespread damage.

Southwest Asia and Central Asia The potential for ecotourism in the
many countries that span Central and
Southwest Asia and Central Asia together Southwest Asia is considerable. Unfor-
cover a diverse land area second in size tunately, political and civil unrest and con-
only to East Asia among Asia’s subconti- flicts in many parts of this region make it
nental regions. They are combined here the most dangerous of all the regions in
because of a high degree of shared cultural Asia in which to travel. Yemen, Israel,
and environmental characteristics, includ- Lebanon, Turkey, Cyprus, Iraq, Kuwait,
ing an overall low population density, Iran, Afghanistan, the Caucasus and
mostly arid grassland and desert climates, Tajikstan have all experienced major civil
mostly Islamic religious beliefs, and histor- wars, military incursions and terrorist con-
ical ties that involve the Arab and Ottoman flicts that have closed major portions of
empires. The major differences between their territory to international travel for
Southwest Asia and Central Asia are colder varying periods of time during the 1980s
winter temperatures and a history of Soviet and 1990s. The Central Asian republics
control in the north. have had additional growing pains in
establishing legitimate rule and economic

132 A.A. Lew

stability following their independence has some 20 nature reserves protecting a
from the Soviet Union in the early 1990s, diverse array of wetland areas and the
though their remote locations and poor plant and animal life that depend on them.
transportation infrastructure may be even In western Jordan runs the Great Rift
greater barriers for international visitors. Valley, a deep depression which includes
Every country in the region has its politi- the Jordan Valley, the Wadi (‘oasis’) Araba,
cally sensitive areas and these issues need Lake Tiberias (Sea of Galilee) and the Dead
to be kept in mind in any discussion of Sea, the lowest point on earth. In eastern
ecotourism resources in Central and Jordan there are wetland parks managed by
Southwest Asia. the Worldwide Fund for Nature in the
oases of the Shaumari and Azraq.
Throughout Southwest Asia, nature
tourism is poorly developed, with most North of the Arabian Peninsula area lies
tours focusing on archaeology, ancient a large area of highland plateaux and
cities, churches and monasteries, tradi- mountains covering the non-Arabic speak-
tional markets, and village and urban life ing countries of Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan
(Ady, 1997). On the Arabian Peninsula, day and those in the Caucasus. Turkey has the
and overnight trips to Bedouin villages best developed tourism industry in this
offer the most intimate desert experience sub-region, and while the others have con-
for most foreign visitors. Modern technol- siderable potential, political unrest has
ogy has been developed in efforts to make caused most of them to be largely closed to
the most efficient use of water in this arid travel for most of the 1980s and 1990s. As
land, and this has also created a type of in the Arabian Peninsula, archaeological
educational ecotourism in the more devel- and historic sites are the mainstay of
oped areas of the region. In Israel, for tourism throughout highland Southwest
example, people from other arid environ- Asia, which has historically served as the
ments come to learn new ways of address- ‘crossroads’ of the world. The higher eleva-
ing shared problems. tions are considerably cooler than the
Arabian Peninsula, and many distinct
Ecotourism opportunities are more plen- forested regions are protected in Turkey’s
tiful on the outer edges of the Arabian nature reserves and 21 national parks.
Peninsula, where civilizations have existed Some of these parks, created as early as
for thousands of years. Major ecotourism 1958, were initially established for archae-
activities include: ological and historical purposes but have
since become rich habitats of protected bio-
• diving in coral areas and viewing sea logical diversity. Wetlands are also more
turtles, usually away from major cities plentiful in Asia Minor and the Caucasus.
where pollution has caused consider- Trekking in the mountains (including
able coral damage; ski-mountaineering in Georgia), bicycle
touring and sea kayaking along the
• desert treks, usually by four-wheel Mediterranean coast have become popular
drive, to see and photograph flora and eco-adventure travel experiences.
fauna; these often focus on oases and
coastal wetlands that attract large num- Further to the east, tourism returned to
bers of birds; Iran by the late 1990s, though visas for
independent travel are very difficult to
• hill trips to see wildflowers, wildlife, obtain. Rampant urban and industrial
rock and cave art, and to collect fossils. development, combined with devastation
from the Iran–Iraq War in the 1980s, have
There are also areas of considerable eco- caused widespread environmental damage,
tourism potential. These include the especially along coastal areas of the Persian
Farasan Islands, which support the largest Gulf and Caspian Sea. The country has
wild gazelle population in Saudi Arabia, in established a few national parks, mostly in
addition to a great variety of birds, dol- forested areas of the Alborz mountain
phins, turtles and whales in its coral reefs
and mangroves (Ady, 1997; see also
Arabian Wildlife online magazine). Israel

Asia 133

range where the rare black-bearded and plains in its western portions and high
spiral-horned Alborz sheep reside. How- mountains in the eastern parts. For most of
ever, these parks are almost entirely the 1990s, Tajikistan has suffered through
unmanaged and unprotected. The situation civil war, resulting in the deaths of tens of
is even worse in civil war-torn Afghanistan. thousands and in hundreds of thousands of
refugees. Such circumstances make travel
Central Asia’s northern location deep close to impossible to Central Asia’s high-
within the continent of Asia results in est mountain peaks (over 7000 m or 23,000
extremes of summer heat and winter cold. ft high) where intense winter blizzards can
Arid conditions are most prominent in the last for several days. Kyrgyzstan, on the
southern lowland areas, with higher pre- other hand, is possibly the most democra-
cipitation in the mountains in northern tic and stable of the Central Asian coun-
Kazakhstan, which borders Siberia. Desert- tries. Most of the country is located in the
based ecotourism resources are quite simi- Tian Shan mountain range, which is a
lar in these drier, sand-covered areas to major potential ecotourism area for China,
those of the Arabian Peninsula; migratory as well. Ala-Archa Canyon is a national
birdwatching on wetland areas is the prin- nature park not far from the Kyrgyz capital
cipal attraction. However, the greater dif- of Bishkek where numerous trekking trails
ference between summer and winter lead visitors to glaciers on the country’s
temperatures in Central Asia results in highest peaks.
large numbers of summer insects, which
become a major distraction. Because of Southwest Asia and Central Asia cover a
their location on the former edge of a large large area with many shared characteris-
Jurassic sea, the south-eastern mountains tics, including history, religion, politics
of Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan have and sensitive environmental resources.
some outstanding dinosaur sites, including Ecotourism, combined with archaeological
the Kugitang Reserve, located on the tourism, has great potential in almost every
Turkmen side of their shared border. These corner of this region. However, there
mountains are also rich in mineral remains a great need throughout to
resources. The intersection of desert, grass- increase environmental awareness and to
lands and mountains make for a rich diver- address major environmental problems.
sity of ecosystems that have already Political turmoil is also a major problem
attracted hunters and fishermen from that stands in the way of tourism develop-
around the world who are starting to ment. Once these issues are addressed,
threaten some of the region’s endangered Southwest Asia and Central Asia could
large game (Sievers, 1998). both blossom as major international eco-
tourism destinations.
Kazakhstan is the ninth largest country
in the world in land area and, in addition Ecotourism Planning and
to its southern sand dune areas, consists Development
mostly of rolling plains rising to older
mountain areas in its eastern portions. It is Although growing in popularity, eco-
also one of six countries that border the tourism remains a relatively small, niche
Caspian and Aral Seas. Despite serious market. In some cases ecotourism products
environmental degradation due to the are offered as a means of education, public
diversion of tributaries and fertilizer relations and financial support for organi-
runoff, there is still considerable wildlife to zations whose primary interests are nature
be seen along the shores of these land- and cultural conservation. In other
locked seas, and they have become the instances, ecotourism is used as a market-
focus of major international ecological ing tool to entice conservation-oriented
restoration efforts. consumers to purchase tourism products
that support biodiversity research efforts.
Highland Central Asia consists of the
much smaller countries of Takjikistan and
Kyrgyzstan, each of which has lowland

134 A.A. Lew

Both of these uses of ecotourism have been The success of these conferences, com-
approached through regional, national and bined with the growing importance of eco-
international organizations, many of which tourism to most PATA member countries,
are focused on Asia. The activities of some has resulted in the establishment of the
of these major international groups are dis- PATA Office of Environment and Culture,
cussed below. centred in PATA’s European headquarters
in Monaco. This office serves as a clearing
Tourism industry organizations: Pacific Asia house for news and publication on eco-
Travel Association and national organizations tourism and sustainable tourism, as well as
promoting these among PATA members. It
The PATA is a major international associa- is also responsible for administering
tion of tourism industry providers, includ- PATA’s Green Leaf programme.
ing travel agents, hoteliers, tour providers
and government tourism organizations. In addition to PATA, several national-
PATA covers all of Asia, with the exception level ecotourism associations have formed,
of Southwest Asia and Central Asia. Its primarily to promote the interests of eco-
member countries also include Oceania tour operators, including environmental
(Australia and the Pacific island nations) conservation organizations that provide
and North America, which is considered ecotourism services. The Indonesia
part of the Pacific Rim. Ecotourism Network (formed in 1995) and
Ecotourism Society Pakistan (formed in
Even though environmental ethics were 1998; ESP, 2000) are among the more active
written into its original charter in 1952, it national-level ecotourism industry groups.
was not until the 1990s that PATA became Efforts to establish similar groups in other
involved in developing and promoting eco- countries, including China and India, have
tourism destinations in a major way (PATA, been less successful.
1992). In 1992 PATA members adopted
the ‘PATA Code for Environmentally Intergovernmental organizations: World
Responsible Tourism’ (PATA, 1999a). A few Tourism Organization and UNESCO
years late PATA started its Green Leaf pro-
gramme, through which tourism-related While PATA is the primary international
companies reaffirm their support of the tourism industry association operating in
Code by paying an annual membership fee Asia, the WTO serves as an intergovern-
and, in return, receive the right to promote mental association of national tourism
themselves through the PATA Green Leaf agencies. Most of the world’s countries are
symbol. This is a membership programme members, in addition to several hundred
only, not a certification programme. affiliated private groups. In addition to
gathering and standardizing tourism statis-
PATA held its first Adventure Travel tics among member countries, the WTO
Conference in 1988 in Kathmandu, Nepal. sponsors meetings that address contempo-
The following year, the conference was rary tourism issues. It has focused on sus-
expanded to add a travel mart (bringing tainable tourism issues for many years,
together ground tour providers, mostly in starting with the Manila Declaration in
Asia, and tour sellers, mostly in the devel- 1980 (WTO, 1999a). Several of its confer-
oped world), and the year after that the ences (and resulting proceedings) focus on
title of the conference was expanded to tourism in Asia. Of particular interest for
include ‘ecotourism’. Every year attendees the ecotourism industry have been several
at the PATA Adventure Travel and conferences in the late 1990s on develop-
Ecotourism Conference discuss how they ing the Silk Road for tourism, affecting
are promoting ecotourism and debate China, Central Asia and Southwest Asia,
issues such as certifying ecotour products and the Asia-Pacific Ministers Conference
and industry responsibility (annual pro- on Tourism and Environment (PATA,
ceedings are available at PATA, 1999b).

Asia 135

1997). While such ministerial meetings can in the Sikkim region of India. The
often seem stilted and hyperbolic, they are Earthwatch Institute (1999) is a similar
worthwhile in identifying issues that have organization offering ecotourists work on
reached the attention of national and inter- educational and scientific tours, for exam-
national political bodies. Three major ple, with wolves in India and on preserv-
political barriers to the sustainable devel- ing Angkor Wat in Cambodia.
opment of tourism (and ecotourism) in
Asia were identified at the 1997 meeting: The Sacred Earth Network (1999a) facil-
itates communications for environmental
1. The dilemma of balancing economic NGOs in ‘northern Eurasia’ (defined as the
development and ecosystem management. states of the former Soviet Union). A search
2. Rapid population growth and its impact of their online database (SEN, 1999b) using
on the environment and travel demand. the word ‘ecotourism’ resulted in 60
3. A lack of political and lobbying strength entries, all of which are involved (or hope
in the tourism industry to promote a sus- to be involved) in ecotourism programmes.
tainable tourism agenda. Some of these are:

The United Nations Educational and • The Sustainable Tourism Center in
Scientific Commission (UNESCO) has Georgia;
come to play a major role in ecotourism
development through its World Heritage • Kamchatka Institute of Ecology and
Centre and its designation of World Nature Protection;
Heritage Sites (UNESCO, 1999). While
many of these sites are cultural (including • Dashkhovuz Ecological Club in Turk-
almost all of those in Europe), a large num- menistan;
ber in Asia are nature related (Table 8.1).
Their designation often leads to a consider- • Tabiat-Environmental Movement of
able increase in tourist arrivals and Kyrgyzstan;
UNESCO works with other organizations to
promote sustainable tourism in the conser- • ARMECAS/Armenian Ecotourism Associ-
vation of designated World Heritage Sites. ation; and

• International Public Center of Study of
Local Lore and Ecotourism, ‘Caucasus’
in Azerbaijan.

Non-governmental organizations Conclusions

Most non-governmental organizations (NGOs) Asia is an incredibly vast and diverse con-
are primarily concerned with sustainable tinent, both in terms of human settlements
development issues, and secondarily with and physical attributes. Each of its large
tourism. Examples of NGOs that are partic- subcontinental regions has much to offer
ularly active in Asia include the Sacred the ecotourism industry. Some areas are
Earth Network, the Mountain Institute and already well developed, most notably insu-
the Hong Kong-based Ecumenical Coalition lar Southeast Asia and the Himalayas.
on Third World Tourism, which focuses on Others are just now emerging as eco-
the social impacts of tourism, including tourism destinations, including Siberia,
prostitution, child labour and community Mongolia, western China and parts of
empowerment. The Mountain Institute peninsular Southeast Asia. Great potential
(1999) sponsors environmental and cul- exists elsewhere, though major barriers to
tural conservation and development pro- immediate development also exist.
jects in alpine regions in the developing
world, including the Himalayas. ‘Volun- Similarly diverse are the natural and
teers’ are able to participate in pro- cultural resource conservation policies in
grammes, including the development of a Asia, which span the entire spectrum from
community-based ecotourism programme economic to environmental priorities. In
China, for example, conservation efforts
often have significant economic goals; local

136 A.A. Lew

governments are involved in resource A potentially positive trend in the 1990s
development as much as resource protec- has been a growth in domestic and intra-
tion (Lindberg et al., 1997). India, on the Asian tourism. For many years tourism to
other hand, has had a long history of con- developing countries has been a one-way
servation for the sake of preserving the nat- venture, seen by some as a form of
ural environment. In Southeast Asia and exploitation. Ecotourism comes out of a
Central Asia ecotourism is being viewed as tradition of less exploitative alternative
an alternative form of development to more tourism and it has had some significant
destructive industries, such as mining, tim- impacts. With the growing Asian middle
ber and large-scale agriculture. class, there has been a significant increase
in domestic and intra-Asian ecotourism
Throughout Asia, however, there is a across the continent. These better educated
critical need for enhanced environmental and travelled citizens can provide a voice
stewardship, a need which ecotourism can for increasing conservation efforts in their
help to realize. This is primarily seen in home countries. At the same time the vary-
the underfunding of conservation efforts, ing cultural behaviour and expectations of
despite the growing economic success and domestic tourists, Asian tourists, and
globalization of Asian countries. In South tourists from Europe and North America in
Asia, most of the economic growth has sensitive ecotourism destinations further
been in urban areas, while continuing rural complicates the form of environmental
poverty limits the extent of conservation conservation and tourism development
efforts in India and the Himalayan coun- that is emerging (Lew, 1995; Lindberg et
tries. On the other hand, in Southwest and al., 1997). Ecotourism has a good future in
Central Asia, along with bordering areas in Asia, but one that will take creativity,
China, cultural divisions and ethnic con- patience and an understanding of the
flicts have made travel difficult and, like social changes that every corner of this vast
the economic imperative, have jeopardized continent is experiencing.
environmental and cultural conservation
efforts and the ecotourism potential that
these regions can offer.

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Chapter 9

Oceania (Australia, New Zealand
and South Pacific)

R.K. Dowling

School of Marketing, Tourism and Leisure, Faculty of Business and Public Management,
Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Western Australia, Australia

Introduction established ecotourism industry, demon-
strable government support, well-estab-
There is a considerable divergence in style lished infrastructure, national strategy and
and scale of tourism in the island nations industry association. At the other end lies a
of the Pacific (Craig-Smith and Fagence, number of Pacific island nations which
1992). The island microstates of Oceania have few of the above elements but have
are not a homogeneous grouping. Varia- outstanding natural attributes and enthusi-
tions in population size, resource bases astic communities. Boundless opportuni-
and relative isolation will clearly affect the ties exist for ecotourism development in
ability of such nations to develop robust the Pacific, as recognized by the Cook
tourism industries (Milne, 1992a). Unlike Islands (McSweeney, 1992) and Samoa
their Australian and New Zealand counter- (Tourism Resource Consultants, 1991, as
parts, the Pacific island microstates have a cited by McSweeney, 1992). One great
very small domestic tourism market advantage of the South Pacific region is
(Fagence, 1997). that it has considerable natural resources
and is still at an early enough stage of
Overviews of ecotourism in Oceania tourism development for alternative
have been made by Hay (1992), Hall options to still remain available (Weaver,
(1994), Carter and Davie (1996), Fagence 1998b). Somewhere in between, and in
(1997) and Weaver (1998a, b). Hall (1994, reality probably closer to Australia than the
p. 137) asserts that ‘in few regions around Pacific island countries, is New Zealand,
the world has interest in ecotourism been which markets its ‘clean and green image’.
as pronounced as it has been in Australia,
New Zealand and the countries of the Common to all is their relative isolation
South Pacific’. He adds that ‘the natural from the major population centres and
environment of the south-west Pacific is a tourist trails of the northern hemisphere.
major tourist drawcard’. Ecotourism in Of course this is the very reason that they
Oceania comprises an eclectic assortment are now viewed as opportunities for eco-
of levels of understanding, government tourism development given their unspoilt
commitment, maturity of destination and environments, diversity of cultures, rela-
approach to business. At one end of the tive security and friendly people. The
spectrum is Australia with its well- countries form one of the world’s rapidly

© CAB International 2001. The Encyclopedia of Ecotourism 139
(ed. D.B. Weaver)

140 R.K. Dowling

growing tourist regions. This growth is that the development of tourism in the
from a small base and hence the growth is small islands of the Pacific must be built
relative, rather than absolute, in number. around a niche market with an environ-
However, with increasing ease of accessi- mentally sustainable product. Under the
bility, cost, organizational aspects and European Union-funded Pacific Regional
favourable exchange rates, many of the Tourism Development Programme, the
countries of the region are emerging as Tourism Council of the South Pacific
‘new world’ destinations for the travellers (TCSP) has been actively promoting eco-
of Europe and North America. Hall and tourism and it has been championed for a
McArthur (1996, p. 131) state that ‘since number of countries in the region. Choy
the early 1980s the number of visits to (1998, p. 382) argues that ‘the lesson from
national parks and reserves has grown the experience of the Pacific islands over
dramatically in Australia and New the last two decades is that the combina-
Zealand, and will continue to grow as tion of sun, sand and sea in an exotic envi-
tourist authorities increasingly market ronment is not sufficient for continued
nature-based tourism or ecotourism activi- success’.
ties’.
The use of ecotourism as a solution to
However, the region is not without its tourism problems in the Pacific islands is,
challenges. Problems facing the Pacific however, also problematic. Just under a
island countries include their relative iso- decade ago when describing an ecotourism
lation, rising population growth, limited conference in the Pacific, Valentine (1993,
resources, lack of infrastructure and finan- p. 108) noted that there were less ecologists
cial resources, a limited pool of skilled present than either developers, architects,
labour, and the reliance on the export of bankers, administrators or bureaucrats. He
raw materials (Sofield, 1994). Tourism is argued that there was an urgent need to put
attractive to these countries, because it ecology back into ecotourism.
offers a solution to these problems and in
recent years tourism has been touted as an There is little obvious homogeneity in
emerging industry for the Pacific island Oceanian ecotourism. The countries are
countries. Yet, perhaps because most of the vastly different geographically, are physi-
Pacific islands are remote, difficult to cally separated by huge tracts of ocean and
access and expensive to visit (Craig-Smith, comprise differing cultures. The one thing
1994), just over a decade ago the regional that binds them all together is their posi-
performance in tourism attraction was tion in the Pacific Ocean and their rela-
described as ‘lacklustre’ (Economist tively unspoilt natures. A brief review is
Intelligence Unit, 1989). Thus the chal- now made of ecotourism in Australia, New
lenge for ecotourism in the Pacific region is Zealand and the Pacific islands (Fig. 9.1).
to turn its problems into opportunities.
Australia
Sofield (1994) provides a litany of envi-
ronmentally disastrous tourism develop- Recent developments in Australian eco-
ments in the South Pacific. They include tourism have placed it at the forefront of
mangrove reclamation for resort develop- global ecotourism initiatives (McArthur
ment in Fiji, coastal construction in and Weir, 1998). The country has made
Vanuatu, and the clearing of vegetation in remarkable accomplishments in eco-
Tonga. Barrington (1996) describes a simi- tourism over the past few years (Depart-
lar situation in the Cook Islands which she ment of Industry, Science and Tourism,
argues is a paradise under siege from both 1998). These include implementation of a
tourism and general development. Many range of ecotourism strategies, setting up
have argued that these situations threaten national and local ecotourism associations,
tourism development in the Pacific islands the publication of an annual industry
and that ecotourism offers a viable solution guide, hosting international ecotourism
to this problem. Craig-Smith (1994) argues

Fig. 9.1. Location map of Oceania (based on outline in Hall, 1994).

Oceania 141

142 R.K. Dowling

conferences, establishing an international visitors per year (GBRMPA, 1998)), Uluru
research centre, establishing best practice (Ayers Rock; Fig. 9.2) (350,000 visitors per
ecotourism techniques, setting up eco- year) and the Tasmanian wilderness.
tourism education and training courses,
and developing the national ecotourism The considerable progress in ecotourism
accreditation scheme (EAA and ATOA, over the past decade is mainly attributed to
1997). a clear and demonstrated lead by the
Federal Government through its National
Ecotourism in Australia is being devel- Ecotourism Program executed between
oped by 600 operators and it is estimated 1994 and 1996. The programme fostered
to generate a turnover of AU$250 million the development of national ecotourism
per annum. The industry employs approxi- through innovative projects that aimed to
mately 4500 full time equivalent staff, increase Australia’s competitiveness as an
which represents 1% of the total tourism ecotourism destination, enhance visitor
industry employment in the country appreciation of natural and cultural values
(Cotterill, 1996). Natural tourist icons and contribute to the long-term conserva-
include the Great Barrier Reef (1.5 million tion and management of ecotourism

Fig. 9.2. Climbers on Uluru (Ayers Rock) central Australia (photo by Jane James).

Oceania 143

resources. A National Ecotourism Strategy email. With publicity generated by the
was launched in March 1994 which pro- 2000 Summer Olympics held in Sydney,
vided an overall framework to guide the Australia is facing a major tourist influx
integrated planning, development and that will have an impact on prospects for
management of ecotourism in Australia on sustainable ecotourism.
a sensitive and sustainable basis
(Department of Tourism, 1994). The principles of ecotourism have wide-
spread application and they can act as an
Australia’s ecotourism development has exemplar for other forms of environmen-
benefited greatly from the formation in tally responsible tourism through the pro-
1991 of the Ecotourism Association of motion of best practice in planning, design,
Australia (EAA). In particular, the EAA management and operations (Department
pioneered, in conjunction with the of Tourism, 1995; Tourism Council
Australian Tourism Operators Association Australia, 1996). Lessons learned in the
(ATOA), the National Ecotourism ecotourism industry can be applied to all
Accreditation Program (NEAP) which was types of tourism, for example, through the
launched in November 1996 (Common- greening of hotels and resorts (TCA and
wealth of Australia, 1996a) (see Chapter CRC Tourism, 1998).
29). The programme distinguishes bona
fide ecotourism products on the basis of Another major trend in Australian eco-
eight principles including best practice tourism is the rapidly expanding knowl-
environmental management, education, edge base gained from research and
contribution to local communities, sensi- education. A number of Australian univer-
tivity to different cultures, consistency of sities offer ecotourism educational courses
product delivery and ethical marketing. and carry out ecotourism research (see
The entities eligible for accreditation are Chapter 40). The knowledge base is also
nature-based tour companies, natural improving and the EAA and the Federal
attractions relating to the regional environ- Government’s Office of National Tourism
ment, and accommodation providers in are both very active in the dissemination of
natural areas. Another recent initiative is ecotourism information nationally.
the development of a National Nature and
Ecotour Guide Certification Program. The ‘Partnerships’ was one of the buzzwords
key components for this are interpretation, of the 1990s, especially as it related to gov-
education, ecological sustainability, mini- ernment accomplishing its objectives.
mal impact techniques, operations and Partnerships require a shared vision,
awareness. shared risks and shared benefits in order to
be successful (Walters, 1992). The 1998
Trends EAA conference concluded with specific
recommendations to pursue improved part-
There is strong market demand for eco- nerships with the indigenous and cultural
tourism in Australia (Hatch, 1998). Its rich tourism sectors, the conservation sector
and diverse natural heritage ensures and the heritage sector (McArthur and
Australia’s capacity to attract international Wight, 1999). This vision, if pursued, will
ecotourists and gives Australia a compara- enable Australia to maintain its position at
tive advantage in the highly competitive the forefront of ecotourism development.
tourism industry (Department of Industry, Finally, Australian ecotourism is becoming
Science and Tourism, 1998). Ecotourists more professional in orientation and
are generally from higher education groups whereas in the past many traditional eco-
that are comfortable with technology. Thus, tourism operators were involved in it for
many of their ecotour enquiries and book- ‘environmental’ or ‘lifestyle’ reasons there
ings are transacted via the Internet and is now a focus on increased professional-
ism and business orientation (McKercher,
1998).

144 R.K. Dowling

Issues its national ecotourism programme and
strategy, rapidly growing industry associa-
There are a number of issues emerging in tion, the national ecotourism accreditation
the development and growth of ecotourism and guide certification schemes and multi-
in Australia. They include ecotourism’s tude of training and education courses.
environmental (ecological, cultural and Other innovations include built design
economic) sustainability (Burton, 1998) principles, water and waste minimization
and the role of indigenous people. Since practices, marketing strategies such as
the natural environment underpins eco- using the Internet, and the increasing inter-
tourism, it is essential that it is protected est in partnerships.
and conserved. While there have been
many successful Australian ecotourism New Zealand
operations which have been built on sus-
tainable principles (Commonwealth of Tourism is well established in New
Australia, 1996b), some entrepreneurs Zealand and it makes a major contribution
operating in natural environments under to the country’s gross domestic product,
the banner of ‘ecotourism’ are simply not foreign exchange earnings and employ-
looking after the environment and are ment. Traditionally the focus of tours to
merely pursuing ‘easy’ profits (Fries, 1998). New Zealand have been on the Maori cul-
ture and/or adventure tourism. However,
The other key issue facing Australian the recent overseas promotion of the coun-
ecotourism is the place of indigenous try by its tourism board is one of a fresh,
people and culture (Bisset et al., 1998). A green and unspoilt environment and the
key characteristic of the Australian defini- number of visitors interested in New
tion of ecotourism is that it is based on cul- Zealand’s natural features has increased
tural as well as natural values. In this accordingly. Key attractions include the
regard the National Ecotourism Strategy glow worm caves at Waitomo (250,000 visi-
states that ‘cultural involvement requires tors per year), the fiords of Milford Sound
consultation and negotiation with local (200,000) and whale-watching at Kaikoura.
communities (particularly indigenous com- Over 55% of the country’s 1 million inter-
munities) and organisations responsible for national visitors per year, visit one or more
the management of cultural heritage val- of its national parks (New Zealand Tourism
ues’ (Department of Tourism, 1994, p. 18). Department, n.d.) (Fig. 9.3).
The reality is, however, that there is mini-
mal involvement in ecotourism by indige- Much of the tourism industry in New
nous people in Australia despite the strong Zealand is now based on the natural envi-
demand for it by international visitors. Yet ronment, and in the mid-1990s concern was
to leave people out of the equation in expressed about the relationship between
tourist visitation to natural areas is merely tourism and the environment (NZTB and
to replicate the Western view that wilder- DoC, 1993; Hall, 1994). Notwithstanding
ness areas must be areas where humans do ecotourism’s potential to support environ-
not live. This is errant nonsense and badly mental conservation it was also argued that
needs to be addressed in Australia. Such the policies of directing tourists into nat-
issues are particularly important for areas ural environments was creating distur-
in northern Australia such as Cape York bance and causing adverse impacts
and the Kimberley Region, where indige- (Warren and Taylor, 1994). At this time it
nous people compose a large portion of the was suggested that visitor pressure on
population. Other aspects of indigenous some icon attractions such as the Waitomo
ecotourism include the impacts it has on Caves and Milford Sound could not be sus-
communities and the intellectual property tained even in the medium term without
right issues associated with interpretation. major attention being given to reducing
adverse visitor effects. Ward and Beanland
Australia’s ecotourism industry is at the
leading edge of ecotourism worldwide with

Oceania 145

Fig. 9.3. The Mackay Falls on the Milford Track, southern New Zealand (photo by Ross Dowling).

(1996) suggested that as there was still opment. The report’s principal recommen-
much to learn about the New Zealand envi- dation to the Minister for Tourism was for
ronment it was difficult to anticipate visi- the government to implement a national
tor impacts on the environment before they sustainable tourism development strategy.
occurred. It was envisioned that such a strategy
would increase environmental awareness
In 1997 the government investigated within the tourism industry, maintain high
this situation and identified three principal environmental quality, provide appropri-
adverse environmental effects associated ately for the indigenous people and the
with tourism (Parliamentary Commissioner land, and promote industry–government
for the Environment, 1997). These were the partnerships. This recent development in
loss of quality of the natural environment, sustainable tourism is significant for the
a reduction of amenity values from incre- development of ecotourism as it brought
mental development and the rising costs to about considerable changes to the tradi-
the local communities of establishing tional types of tourism. Guides are now
infrastructure required for tourism devel-

146 R.K. Dowling

expected to be knowledgeable about both tourism ventures with and for Maori people.
the natural and the cultural environments For example, a survey of the Hokianga
as well as proficient in specific adventure District of Northland found that the area
activity skills (Ryan, 1997). has considerable potential for marae-based
ecotourism ventures (Mitchell et al., 1998).
While ecotourism has been firmly The relatively unspoilt natural environ-
defined and characterized across the ment combined with the willingness of the
Tasman Sea in Australia, in New Zealand a local community to develop ecotourism
clear definition of the term still remains proved to be positive factors. In addition
elusive. B. Ryan (1998, p. 1) states that eco- the researchers noted that if the negative
tourism as a concept remains without a aspects of infrastructural and economic
widely agreed definition and he argues the limitations were overcome then ecotourism
need for both descriptive and prescriptive ventures could be developed to form part
definitions of the term. Interestingly he dis- of the livelihoods of these communities.
cusses ecotourism from a number of
stances including its status as a product, a However, as with the situation in
property and a social construction. Australia, for New Zealand ecotourism to
Following this discussion Ryan para- truly embrace Maori culture, let alone
phrases Budowski’s (1976) definition as develop Maori ecotourism, it will need to
‘Ecotourism is a symbiotic relationship understand the Maori view of the environ-
between conservation and tourism’. His ment instead of imposing our own interpre-
prescriptive definition includes the three tation on it. Manuka Henare, a Hokianga
‘essential’ criteria of it being nature-based, Maori, defined Maori tourism as ‘essen-
environmentally sustainable and contribut- tially a spiritual experience. People come
ing to conservation. to a place to learn more about themselves.
They come not just to see but to be intro-
Writing more recently, Simmons (1999) duced to a world unseen too. The spiritual
suggests that this operational definition is a character is the competitive advantage
positive step toward shifting the focus of Maori tourism can claim’ (Urlich Cloher,
the definition from its current product ori- 1998, p. 2).
entation to a process orientation. He argues
that there needs to be a more robust defini- Thus in New Zealand, ecotourism is at a
tion of ecotourism which acknowledges the relatively embryonic stage. Without an
environmental resource base on which it agreed definition, formalized national strat-
fundamentally depends. To achieve this egy or accreditation scheme, its ecotourism
goal he adds that a first step is to establish development faces some challenges. This is
a set of indicators of environmental change particularly so because the demand for
induced by tourism. New Zealand nature-based tourist activities
is high, and consequently the industry is
Pearson (1998) suggested that there are demand-led. This is a situation that could
four key issues facing ecotourism in New have significant impacts on the resources if
Zealand. These are the nature of the indus- they are not managed appropriately. C.
try as well as a lack of clarity, management Ryan (1998, p. 304) asks whether eco-
and coordination. To redress this situation tourism in New Zealand is condemned to a
Pearson calls for the industry to embrace a duplication of small companies increas-
definition, develop a national strategy and ingly dependent upon overseas markets
establish an accreditation system. A major and the marketing strategies of intermedi-
part of this strategy should be the integra- aries in the channel of distribution over
tion of the natural and cultural environ- which they have little or no control. He
ments as primary visitor attractions suggests that one answer is the creation of
incorporating the sound industry base built coalitions of operators offering products in
around the Maori culture. partnership with each other.

A number of studies have been carried
out on the possibility of developing eco-

Oceania 147

South Pacific diverse flora and fauna (TCSP, 1990, p. 18).
An ecotourism development project on
Tourism in the South Pacific has been Makira Island has been established by a
advanced by the TCSP and the South number of local villages to show how con-
Pacific Regional Environmental Program servation and development can be inte-
(SPREP). However, there is a great diversity grated (Gould, 1995). Ecotours are being
of environments and level of infrastructure run by the locals in a bid to protect their
in the nations of the region, so commonali- old-growth forests and generate funds to
ties of ecotourism policy, planning, devel- improve health and education services.
opment and experience are few. For Another successful project is the
example, the government of Niue has mar- Guadalcanal Rainforest Trail which ‘offers
keted ecotourism based on its fringing reef an opportunity for ecologically sustainable
and caves and chasms (Milne, 1992b). The tourism development, controlled and man-
Wotho Atoll in the Marshall Islands, some- aged by indigenous Solomon Islanders’
times described as the world’s most beauti- (Sofield, 1992, p. 99).
ful atoll, has been suggested as a prime site
for high-value ecotourism development Fiji
due to its white sandy beaches, fringing
coconut palms, and crystal clear waters Almost a decade ago the case was made for
rich in assemblages of coral and fish the development of nature-based tourism in
(Valentine, 1993). In Tuvalu the country’s Fiji in order to adapt to changing markets
tourism strategy is low-key and is directed from short-haul to long-haul tourists (King,
at international visitors who are attracted 1992) and as an alternative means of pro-
by its small size, remote nature, extensive tecting the indigenous forest resources
marine environment and friendly, relaxed (Weaver, 1992). In a survey of the country
people (TCSP, 1992a). in the mid-1990s Ayala (1995, p. 39) argued
that Fiji is a natural ecotourism destination
Tourism development in Samoa is based with its more than 300 islands of diverse
firmly on its natural and cultural environ- geological origin encompassing a variety of
ment (TCSP, 1992b, p. 105). The country’s species and habitats of outstanding scien-
tourism master plan acknowledges the tific and heritage value, landscapes of
need for strong environmental guidelines exceptional scenic beauty, as well as
for tourism developments while enriching unique marine features. She noted that its
the environmental awareness and experi- key assets include a relatively undisturbed
ence of the general interest tourist. In addi- environment, strong heritage and cultural
tion the country has invoked an ecotourism traditions and existing tourism infrastruc-
strategy in part to utilize its protected areas ture. She concluded that the islands have a
in order to create a representative frame- unique opportunity to integrate their nat-
work of natural reserves and icon sites. ural, cultural and heritage assets to deliver
This survey revealed a widespread aware- a high-quality ‘ecoproduct’ with distinctive
ness of ecotourism and a number of eco- ecological dimensions. These include the
tourism products already in operation sacred red prawns of Vatulele and turtle
(Fagence, 1997). On six islands in calling at Nacamaki. However, Ayala also
Micronesia (Saipan, Rota, Guam, Palau, suggested that, to capitalize on ecotourism,
Pohnpei, Kosrae) tourism and conservation Fiji would need to improve its marketing
is being trialled by the US Department of through the potential of joint marketing,
Agriculture’s Forest Service Tropical improve its training and service delivery,
Forestry Program (Wylie, 1994). instigate better coordination of its inter-
island links, and establish integrated
In a general review of environmental tourism circuits for international visitors.
protection and tourism development, the
Solomon Islands were described as having Today Fiji relies heavily on tourism
a spectacular array of scenic beauty areas
(marine and terrestrial) and interesting and

148 R.K. Dowling

based on its natural environment. It pro- other villages in the region are now setting
vides a major source of jobs, especially for up their own cooperative ecotourism soci-
indigenous Fijians living in traditional vil- eties.
lages, and it is the principal source of for-
eign exchange income. As a consequence By way of contrast, Jean-Michel
the government has begun to show concern Cousteau, son of the famed French marine
about the impact of tourism on Fiji’s nat- ecologist, Jacques Cousteau, has estab-
ural environment and its society (Haywood lished an upmarket ecolodge on the island
and Walsh, 1996). In 1997 an ecotourism of Vanua Levu. Through operating the
plan was prepared for the country which resort his aim is to show that it is possible
specified five principles on which eco- to be environmentally friendly and finan-
tourism should be developed (Harrison, cially successful at the same time (McCabe,
1997). These are environmental conserva- 1998). This was something that Valentine
tion, social cooperation, complementarity, (1993, p. 115) had argued 5 years before
centralized information, and infrastructure when he proposed that ‘there is a need for
development. A key point involves the research on successful small-scale village-
acceptance that ecotourism, with its strong based ecotourism and the design of practi-
link to village-based community tourism, cal working examples’. The resort contains
can only complement, but not replace only 20 bures (traditional Pacific island
other forms of tourism. Policies that have building primarily used for accommoda-
been proposed to help implement the plan tion) which have been built with local tim-
include environmental sustainability, pub- ber and thatch and are oriented in such a
lic awareness campaigns, the embrace of way as to take advantage of the trade
cultural tourism, and the promotion of winds, thus eliminating the need for air
local economic benefits. Another key sug- conditioning. In addition their elevated
gestion is the establishment of a techni- nature allows the air to circulate under-
cally oriented government Ecotourism neath, also keeping them cool as well as
Committee, to act as a focus for ecotourism preventing rot and deterring bugs. Mosquito
development. control has been advanced by establishing
endemic plants to attract birds and by cre-
The integration of ecotourism and vil- ating a series of ponds to lure mosquitoes
lage-based community tourism is illus- away from the resort where fish, toads and
trated through the development of several shrimp can then eat their larvae. The envi-
grass roots ecotourism operations which ronmentally friendly resort includes a high-
have been established (Young, 1992). These tech video link which allows non-diving
include the Bouma ecotourism venture on guests to communicate with divers, and
Tavenui Island (Lees, 1992) and the Abaca view the surrounding undersea environment
Ecotourism Co-operative Society which on a giant screen, through the telecommuni-
was established at Koronayitu in 1993 cations Uplink video system (Murphy, 1997).
(Gilbert, 1997). This area is the last remain-
ing large area of unlogged tropical montane Discussion
forest in western Viti Levu, Fiji’s largest
island. With pressure on the area for log- This survey of ecotourism in Oceania
ging and mining the local village commu- raises a number of trends and issues.
nities established the Abaca Cultural and Across the region there is great diversity of
Recreation Park. It consists of an ecolodge natural attributes, potential ecotourism
built from the remains of an old logging resources, infrastructure development,
village, educational tours, and walk trails involvement of the indigenous people, and
to scenic and historic sites. Earnings in the levels of understanding. Common to all
first year were equal to the whole commu- countries, however, is the relative isolation
nity’s total income before the business of the region, the political interest in eco-
commenced operation. As a consequence tourism as a perceived generator of eco-
of the success of this initiative a number of

Oceania 149

nomic benefits and desire by local commu- network of protected areas in order to
nities to become involved in it. secure its natural attributes. Once this has
been completed then decisions can be
Hall (1994) suggests that the term eco- made on the potential to convert these
tourism is commonly used in the Pacific to attributes to assets, whereby ecotourism
refer to either ‘green’ or ‘nature-based’ can be harnessed to generate the funds nec-
tourism, that is, a distinct market segment, essary to conserve and protect natural
or any form of tourism development which areas.
is regarded as environmentally friendly. He
argues that these two approaches to eco- The inclusion of host communities in
tourism pose distinct management, policy ecotourism is a contentious issue as many
and development problems. Writing from definitions appear to be predicated on the
Fiji, Harrison (1997, p. 75) argues that concept that ecotourism occurs only in nat-
ural areas which are devoid of people.
in recent years ‘ecotourism’ has become However, more enlightened approaches to
ecotourism include host communities in
something of a buzz word in the tourism their characteristics. For example, Sofield
(1991, p. 56) argues that ‘while tourism has
industry. To put the matter crudely, but not been drawn into current debate about “eco-
logically sustainable development”, the
unfairly, promoters of tourism have tended to topic of “sustainable ethnic tourism” has
largely escaped attention’. He then illus-
label any nature-oriented tourism product an trates this through the Pentecost Land Dive
of Vanuatu (also ‘naghol’ – an annual cere-
example of ‘ecotourism’ while academics mony in which specially selected initiates
leap head first to the ground from a plat-
have so busied themselves in trying to define form approximately 70 ft high, with vines
tied to their ankles so that their foreheads
it that they have produced dozens of just touch the earth). Helu-Thaman (1992)
argues that the human elements of eco-
definitions and little else. tourism are better expounded by ‘ecocul-
tural’ tourism which is more culturally
He goes on to suggest that if sustainable sensitive and integrated and more sustain-
tourism development is to occur, trade-offs able in the long term.
are inevitable and often nature will be the
loser. He adds that ecotourism can not Other issues facing the development of
solve all the problems of mass tourism and ecotourism in the region include the need
may in fact generate problems of its own. for increased knowledge and research, the
reduction of economic leakage, the need
Harrison (1997) suggests that it should for an ethical approach, the problems of
not be considered a stepping stone to large- natural and man-made disturbances and
scale tourism, though it often proves to be the need for planning. Fagence (1997) con-
so. He concludes that ecotourism is an cludes his survey of ecotourism in the
ideal, but one worth working towards, Pacific by stating that many island eco-
because the goals of ecotourism are to fos- tourism strategies have been based on
ter environmental conservation and cul- unrealistic resource appraisal and incom-
tural understanding. plete knowledge of potential source mar-
kets. Niue’s heavy dependence on
As Ayala (1995, p. 40) has warned, ‘it is imported goods means that much of the
becoming increasingly obvious that the initial expenditure leaks away from the
small-volume definition of ecotourism is country before it can generate income,
incorrect; the small-scale restriction on employment and government revenue
accommodation size is not viable; and con- (Milne, 1992b). Dee Pigneguy, who oper-
trol of ecotourists’ direct contact with des- ates a marine-based ecotourism enterprise
tination landscapes and cultures is needed
urgently’. She suggests that resorts estab-
lished in protected areas could play a
major part in the advancement of eco-
tourism business in Pacific countries by
providing tourists with unique insights
into these places through education, inter-
pretation and experience. An immediate
planning concern for many of the South
Pacific nations is the need to establish a

150 R.K. Dowling

in the Hauraki Gulf Maritime Park suggests panacea in helping conservation pay its
that ecotourism operators should develop way. The reality in the Pacific is that very
conservation ethics. She states that ‘eco- few areas of conservation value also have
tourism is a high growth industry and it the potential to support economic local
must be recognised that there will always tourism enterprises’. She goes on to
be a point where economic benefits are out- describe the case of the Ubai Gubi region in
weighed by ecological costs’ (Coventry, the highlands of Papua New Guinea. Here
1993, p. 56). an international environment group keen
to facilitate the area’s protection suggested
The threat of natural disasters such as an upmarket ecolodge for the viewing of
cyclones, floods, landslips, avalanches and the indigenous birds of paradise. The lodge
fires will always be present and pose a sig- was built but ‘the project was a failure.
nificant problem for the development and Tourists have not arrived. The lodge
growth of tourism in natural areas (Craig- remains but the enterprise has folded,
Smith and Fagence, 1994). Fiji experienced yielding no benefits to the landowners or
slumps in tourism in 1983 and 1985 sound protection for the forest’ (Lees, 1992,
because of cyclones (Haywood and Walsh, p. 62). As a further example, of the 24 areas
1996). Tourism declined sharply in the suggested for conservation in the Solomon
aftermath of two successful coups in 1987 Islands, only three have been recom-
(Miller and Auyong, 1991). Cyclone Ofa in mended for ecotourism development
February 1990, one of the most destructive (TCSP, 1987).
in the past two centuries, destroyed Niue’s
hotel, dive operations and coastal walking Conclusions
trails, and severely damaged its guest
houses. Cyclones have also created chal- It has been argued that the traditional
lenges for the ecotourism industry in export of Western concepts of tourism
Samoa (McSweeney, 1992). In Papua New planning and development have limited
Guinea tourism has not realized its enor- application in the countries of Oceania.
mous potential due to its unstable law and Rather than create ‘enclave tourism’, as in
order situation, the impact of mining and the case of a number of Pacific island
internal conflicts. In the Solomon Islands, nations, there is merit in creating inte-
tourism development was halted for a grated small-scale developments (Craig-
number of years over land disputes Smith, 1994, p. 25). Further, it has been
between foreign investors and traditional suggested by Hall (1994, p. 154) that the
owners (Sofield, 1994). South Pacific region is ‘facing a form of
ecological imperialism in the region in
The need for adequate planning for which a new set of European cultural val-
national ecotourism development is com- ues is being impressed on indigenous cul-
mon throughout the region. In an early tures through ecotourism development’.
study of the impact of tourism on the Fagence (1997) argues that commitments to
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana low volume, low technology, special inter-
Islands, the need for adequate planning est tourism need to be based on a clear
was emphasized (University of Hawaii, awareness of both the demand and supply.
1987). Suggestions included the establish- There is considerable evidence that the
ment of proper land use controls such as implications of a commitment to strategies
the introduction of zoning; prescribed set- of ecotourism are not well understood in
backs, height restrictions and maximum the Pacific region.
site coverage ratios for buildings; and the
protection of natural and cultural sites. Carter and Davie (1996, p. 71) state that
‘like Australia, ecotourism in the Pacific is
A basic axiom when discussing eco- in a developing phase’. However, the
tourism potential is that not all natural authors suggest that in contrast with
sites lend themselves to ecotourism devel-
opment. Lees (1992, p. 61) states that
‘Ecotourism is frequently billed as the

Oceania 151

Australia, tourism development in the ing increased demand from travellers,
Pacific is viewed as embracing culture, emerging interest by local communities
benefiting local communities and fostering and the involvement of industry and gov-
environmental protection and manage- ernments. Based on its unspoilt natural ter-
ment. They conclude that Australian eco- restrial and marine environments, friendly
tourism will result in a markedly different people, and increased knowledge and
product focused on natural icons and infrastructure, the region will continue to
largely ignoring the cultural elements of foster ecotourism development at an
the landscape. unprecedented rate in the new millen-
nium.
Thus ecotourism in Oceania is undergo-

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Chapter 10

Europe

S. Blangy1 and S. Vautier2

1Department of Tourism and Sustainable Development, SECA (Société d’Eco-Amènagement),
Parc Scientifique Agropolis, Montpelier, France; 2WittelsbacheraIlee,
Frankfurt am Main, Germany

Introduction Cooperation and Development. However,
they are considered more as discussion
Political background forums than political organizations. The
Council of Europe was created in 1949 to
Europe is a vast continent, centred on one seal the reconciliation between nations
main political organization, the European after the Second World War. Located in
Union (EU). As of 2000, 15 countries were Strasbourg, France, it now has 41 member
members: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, states, including the Russian Federation.
France, Finland, Germany, Greece, Ireland, The oldest and largest political organiza-
Italy, Luxembourg, The Netherlands, tion in Europe, it became a structure for
Portugal, Spain, Sweden and the UK. receiving the new democracies of Central
Switzerland and Norway chose not to and Eastern Europe after 1990 (Council of
belong to the EU. Europe, 1997).

The rest of Europe does not benefit from In examining patterns of ecotourism in
such a tight economic and political net- Europe, this chapter adopts the World
work. Several Eastern and Central Tourism Organization (WTO) regional divi-
European countries are applying to join the sions: Central/East Europe, Northern
EU. Some of them hope to join in the near Europe, Southern Europe, Western Europe
future, including Hungary, Estonia, Poland, and the East Mediterranean. However, gen-
Slovenia and the Czech Republic. Others eral issues will also be addressed for pro-
are working on accession. The European tected areas as well as rural, coastal and
Commission (EC) supports several eco- mountain areas.
nomic projects in Eastern and Central
European countries under the TACIS and Unity of nature and culture
PHARE programmes. PHARE covers all the
former Eastern European countries and More than any other continent, Europe is a
TACIS deals with the Newly Independent mosaic of relatively small countries. It
States (NIS) from the former Soviet Union comprises an important diversity of ecosys-
bloc. Two other organizations unify tems and landscapes, varying from dry
European countries, the Council of Europe land on the Mediterranean coast to humid
and the Organization for Economic

© CAB International 2001. The Encyclopedia of Ecotourism 155
(ed. D.B. Weaver)

156 S. Blangy and S. Vautier

and cold wetlands on the Atlantic coast, days. Competition means that demand will
alpine mountains, forests and rivers, and also be increasingly critical on quality,
boreal taiga. The culture of the European including environmental aspects.
countries is equally diverse, embracing dif-
ferent languages, traditions and gastron- Tourism in Europe is viewed as a very
omy. The peculiarity of the European important part of the economy and a tool
landscape is that it is mainly a product of for land management. It is therefore not
human activity. The high density of inhabi- just a concern of private businesses, but
tants on the European continent and the also of many other stakeholders including
development of human activities almost the European Council and EC, and the vari-
everywhere have led to the development of ous state and local governments and
specialized landscapes, such as terraces authorities. Since the Rio Earth Summit in
and open land, which have been important 1992, the priority at every level is to pro-
in the preservation or increase in biodiver- mote sustainable tourism development
sity. This variety makes Europe a very suc- in Europe. This includes ecotourism,
cessful but specialized destination for although it is more common in Europe to
ecotourism. In most European nature desti- speak about rural, nature or sustainable
nations, ecotourism activities link nature tourism (see Chapter 29). Many of these
interpretation with local traditions, archi- concepts involve nature interpretation
tecture and culture. together with enjoying the environment
and local culture.

Tourism success Ecotourism and Sustainable Tourism:
European Definitions and Markets
Tourism flows throughout Europe have
increased constantly over the past decade Definitions
because of the development of the leisure
society, reduction in working hours, The term ecotourism is not as widely used
increased mobility and incomes, and grow- in Europe as elsewhere in the world. The
ing numbers of retired people. Europe term sustainable tourism is preferred, and
leads the world in terms of tourism flows is applied by the EU as a concept,
(arrivals and receipts), spending and approach and form of organization. This
employees. In 1996, Europe accounted for concept is illustrated through the inte-
59% of international tourist arrivals and grated quality management (IQM) approach
51% of international tourism receipts described below (see Box 10.1). The WTO
(WTO, 1998). Within Europe, France ranks definition of sustainable tourism has been
first in terms of international tourism widely adopted by the European stakehold-
arrivals (62.4 million in 1996) and second ers, i.e. ‘A form of tourism which meets the
in terms of international tourism receipts needs of present tourists and host regions
(Italy is first with US$30 billion in 1996). while protecting and enhancing opportuni-
ties for the future’. It can be used in the
Europeans tend to travel within Europe, context of all kinds of tourism, including
the major trend being travel to the south, urban as well as rural. Although it implies
and especially around the Mediterranean catering for markets which respect, and are
coast. This is likely to continue in the interested in, host environments and cul-
future. However, because of the simultane- ture, and encouraging products which are
ous development of increased leisure time authentic, low impact, etc., the definition
and growing competition in the tourism is not explicit in this regard. In contrast,
industry, demand will become more criti- the term ecotourism is not taken just as
cal and specialized. Nature and cultural another word for sustainable tourism, but
tourism will increase their share of the as something quite specific. Rather than
market, especially for short holidays and as describing an approach or philosophy for
complementary activities to beach holi-

Europe 157

tourism, it is used more often to describe a ronmentally friendly products (Commission
type of tourism activity, essentially Européenne, 1995). Holidays are no excep-
wildlife/nature-based tourism that is sensi- tion to these findings. Demand is evolving
tive to environmental and social condi- dramatically, and changing rapidly towards
tions. It is perhaps more widely used by greater sustainability in all sectors, activi-
European outbound tour operators than by ties and regions, and on both the demand
destinations. This reflects the relatively and the supply side.
more limited amount of wildlife and
wilderness tourism in Europe compared An important part of rural tourism con-
with other continents as a proportion of all sists of visitors seeking peace and quiet in
tourism. a quality natural environment and wanting
participative holidays together with occa-
Markets sional interpretative activities. However,
over the last 10 years Europe has witnessed
European statistics do not provide clear the growth of a very specific market com-
data on the ecotourism market, because of posed of ‘nature aficionados’. Northern
important confusion between nature Europeans are the most important con-
tourism, rural tourism, adventure tourism sumers of holidays (German tourists had
and nature interpretation activities. This is the highest overall tourism expenditure in
intimately related to the characteristics of the world in 1996 with US$50.8 billion
the European natural environment. Very (WTO, 1998)). They also have the highest
few areas in Europe remain free of human travel intensity, followed by Switzerland
settlements to the extent that they can be and Denmark (Rein and Scharpf, 1997).
considered as wilderness; most of the con- These northern countries lead the market
tinent consists of humanized landscape. for sustainable tourism, and most environ-
However, European citizens are demanding mental management schemes and eco-
more environmentally friendly products. tourism tour operators are found here. In
Surveys conducted by the EU have shown Germany for instance, an association for
that 82% consider that environmental pro- alternative tourism (Forum Anders Reisen)
tection is an immediate and urgent prob- is a federation of more than 40 small and
lem. Nine out of ten declare that they are medium tour operators and travel agencies
quite, or very, anxious about various forms fulfilling ecologically sound tourism crite-
of pollution that are threatening their coun- ria. A German web site (www.eco-tour.org)
tries; 67% were ready to pay more for envi- provides all definitions, political declara-
tions, label schemes, criteria and projects
on sustainable tourism or ecotourism,

Box 10.1. Integrated quality management as a process to help define sustainable tourism.

IQM

Integrated quality management is a management process, not a form of tourism, which has been
considered by the EU–DG Enterprise in the context of tourism destinations. The definition adopted by
them is:

The management of a tourist destination in a way which should simultaneously take into account,
and have a favourable impact on, the activities of tourism professionals, tourists, the local population
and the environment (that is the natural, cultural and man-made assets of the destination). It must
have the requirements of tourists as one of its major considerations.

(European Commission, 1999)

It is true that ‘sustainability’ should be an objective of IQM in a destination, but the emphasis is on
processes to check and deliver beneficial impacts of tourism in terms of visitor satisfaction, business
performance, and social and community impacts, in an integrated way.

158 S. Blangy and S. Vautier

together with links to package offers and many pressures, including tourism. In
tour operators. ITB Berlin, the main com- Central and Eastern Europe, the recent
mercial trade show in Europe, is delivering political and economic changes could also
workshops and a forum for discussions on be the main threats to valuable ecosystems
sustainable tourism. Participants and orga- but, in the meantime, there is the opportu-
nizers have been paying more attention to nity to establish a well-managed protected
sustainable tourism over the recent years, areas network (IUCN, 1994).
through these seminars on the subject dur-
ing the fair. According to the IUCN (1994), the 1990s
offered an unprecedented opportunity for
Specialized and small travel fairs are protected areas because:
developing around Europe on green, nature
and sustainable tourism, for example the • human populations are relatively stable
Reise Pavillon in Hanover, Germany. In the and affluent;
UK, ecotourism has become a significant
part of the tourism economy, with more • there are declining pressures on land in
than 50 tour operators and travel agencies many areas because of agricultural sur-
operating in this market (Guicherd, 1994). pluses and reduced military activity;
Numerous associations for the protection
of the environment, such as the National • there is a high level of public support
Trust and Royal Society for the Protection for conservation; and
of Birds also offer ecotourism trips. In the
UK, birdwatching has proved to be very • there is a climate of international coop-
successful. Volunteering is also included in eration.
the ecotourism market. This is mainly
developed in Germany, the UK and The Parallel to this opportunity, and to encour-
Netherlands. The British Trust for age its member states to go further in
Conservation Volunteers now operates nature conservation, the EU established the
‘Natural Break’ holidays in most national Natura 2000 network. This is based on two
parks. The organization runs 400 separate European directives: Birds (1979) and
projects, each with an average of 12 people. Habitats (1992). Each member state is
Mixed packages include conservation responsible for the choice of sites and man-
work, recreation (rambling) and interpreta- agement tools, in accordance with the
tion activities (evening lectures). European requirements. In September
1999, the 15 member states had designated
Ecotourism in the Tourist 2492 sites occupying a total area of 169,823
Destinations km2. Natura 2000 will be a leading pro-
gramme for environmental protection in
Protected areas in Europe Europe. It will promote sustainable man-
agement in these areas, promoting activi-
ties, including special tourism activities,
which are compatible with the protection
of the sites.

Europe has developed a wide and complex Tourism in European protected areas
network of between 10,000 and 20,000 pro-
tected areas. Since 1982, an impressive European protected areas are becoming
extra 10 million ha – an area larger than increasingly popular tourism destinations.
Hungary – has acquired protected area sta- No international survey of visitors in parks
tus. The IUCN categories of protected area is available. However, some national data
most used in Europe are II, IV and V (see give an idea of the importance of this phe-
Chapter 18). These protected areas have nomenon. The UK recorded 103 million
many different labels: wilderness areas, visitor/days in its 11 national parks during
nature reserves, marine reserves, nature 1987. Figures being monitored by the Tatra
parks, regional parks, national parks and National Park in Slovakia show that visitor
protected landscapes. They suffer from numbers doubled over the last 20 years.

Europe 159

The approach towards tourism in protected officially presented in April 1999
areas varies strongly with the philosophy (Europarc Federation, 1999) and piloted in
of nature conservation. Two main ten European parks. Recommendations for
approaches can be identified: ecotourism development are made on the
basis of the overall needs of the area (envi-
• Strict natural reserves or national parks, ronmental, economic, social, and the needs
where the main issue is to control of local people and tourists). They are the
tourism impact and allow specific activ- results of partnerships between private
ities via specific zoning systems, facili- operators and local people. The charter
ties and direction. commits signatories to design strategies to:
improve the tourism product; raise visitor
• Inhabited protected areas, where the awareness; train parks’ and private
main issue is still conservation. employees; preserve and enhance the qual-
However, the difference is that they are ity of life for local people; conserve and
seeking to allow sustainable develop- enhance local heritage, including the nat-
ment, where appropriate, in parallel ural environment; contribute to social and
with this, as they are also concerned economic development; and manage
with socio-economic issues. Often the tourism flows. The aim of this scheme is to
issue in these areas is to maintain a bal- distinguish areas and enterprises for their
ance or mutual support between tourism excellence in the field of sustainable devel-
and specific traditional economic activi- opment. Simultaneously, the World Wide
ties that contribute to the quality of the Fund for Nature UK launched its Pan Park
landscape and biodiversity. scheme. This aims to create a quality
brand, which represents an expanding net-
Techniques for managing tourism in pro- work of well-managed protected areas,
tected areas have improved considerably ‘must-see’ sites for tourists and wildlife
over the last 20 years. These include effi- lovers.
cient planning, such as zoning; the man-
agement of tourism flows, equipment, These programmes are the result of a
facilities, interpretation trails and centres; new philosophy from the European parks,
GIS techniques; and the development of choosing to encourage a certain kind of
proactive tourism products. The publica- development, compatible with nature con-
tion of the report Loving them to death? servation, rather than to restrict all devel-
from the Federation of Nature and National opment. It is also the consequence of a new
Parks of Europe (Europarc Federation, approach to nature conservation in Europe,
1993) was a significant lever for a positive aimed at better involvement and considera-
partnership-based approach to tourism tion of the interests of the residents of the
management in protected areas. This report buffer zones. This new voluntary approach
recommended local community involve- from the parks has led to the development
ment; a strategic approach; the assessment of various nature products and labelling
of carrying capacity; survey and analysis of schemes. The French Natural Regional
visitors and the impact of tourism activi- Parks, for example, have developed spe-
ties; voluntary promotion of products, cific trademarks for environmentally
including educational tourism, targeted to friendly weekly holidays, a chain of envi-
the potential ecotourism market; and coop- ronmentally friendly hotels, Hôtel Nature,
eration with the private sector. This was and Gîtes Panda. These gîtes (self-catering
supported by the IUCN, which recom- accommodation) provide visitors with
mended the creation of a European Charter information about the local fauna and flora,
for Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas, direct access by foot to nature sites, and
and the establishment of a sustainable provide material for observing fauna and
tourism service to help implement and flora (binoculars, maps, books, etc.). The
monitor the Charter in its action plan for gîte owners commit themselves to raising
European Protected Areas, Parks for Life visitor awareness, helping them to better
(IUCN, 1994). The European Charter was

160 S. Blangy and S. Vautier

understand the environment. They are where agriculture, forestry and traditional
encouraged to accompany their guests activities are intimately related to tourism.
when they visit the park. Some definitions refer to the aim of the
destination, for example: ‘a wish to give
In the Abruzzo National Park, in Italy, visitors personalised contact, a taste of the
the tourism strategy is based on the obser- physical and human environment of the
vation of wild fauna such as wolves, bears countryside and opportunities to partici-
and lynx. Its eco-development strategy pate in activities, traditions and lifestyles
started in the early 1970s with the creation of local people’ (LEADER, 1997). The
of a museum of the wolf in a small village. delivery of this tourism experience
Today, the return on investment reaches involves many different players: natural
60%. The park directly employs 100 resources, cultural traditions, transport ser-
people, but the number of jobs created vices, a whole range of tourism enterprises
indirectly is easily ten times that amount. as well as public authorities such as parks
Its guiding principle is to preserve a bal- and local authorities.
ance between revenue linked to tourism
and that of other sectors. After a very sensi- With respect to rural tourism destina-
tive zoning of the park and a global strategy tions, the following products can be identi-
for the area, the park developed a network fied:
of museums of local fauna, and areas to ori-
ent visitors to nearby villages, thus increas- • traditional, popular destinations near
ing the impact on the local economy. sizeable urban areas receiving a high
Villages are surrounded by short interpreta- proportion of daily visitors;
tion trails, giving an introduction to nature
in the area. For the aficionados, the park • traditional, popular destinations with a
offers increasingly successful guided walks significant quantity of visitor accommo-
and volunteering programmes. Many parks dation and infrastructure;
are developing holiday packages, tourism
associations and supporting private initia- • rural areas where a major part of the
tives for ecotourism products. At present, product is characterized by small his-
approaches are not coordinated at the toric towns and villages and a rich his-
European level. However, schemes such as toric, architectural, cultural or industrial
the European Charter and Pan Park have heritage interspersed in the countryside;
this aim.
• rich agricultural areas where farming
Rural tourism: the raw material for provides much of the visitor appeal;
ecotourism
• areas close to the sea, wishing to
Changes in the European way of life have develop rural tourism in inland loca-
led to new forms of tourism, including tions away from the coast;
short-break holidays, which favour rural
tourism development. At the same time a • mountain or forest locations;
decrease in agriculture and forestry, • protected areas seeking to manage
together with a rural exodus, have encour-
aged many rural areas to view tourism as tourism as well as the environment and
an alternative boost to their economy, cre- local economy in an integrated way
ating jobs. Landscape characteristics mean (IUCN Category V protected areas);
that European rural tourism cannot be • remote areas with appeal based on
compared with the American concept of wildlife and wilderness (often situated
ecotourism. Rural tourism often includes in mountain areas, national parks or nat-
all forms of tourism taking place in natural ural reserves).
areas with a low density of population and
In the past decade, rural destinations have
made enormous efforts to increase the
quality of standards in services and accom-
modation, as well as to diversify and spe-
cialize their product. Many destinations
have started to develop specific products
for selected targets of clientele such as fam-
ilies, short-holiday takers, educational or

Europe 161

school groups, senior citizens, people with in Europe have piloted ICZM. In December
special interests such as walking, cycling, 1999, the EC also published a study on the
local heritage interpretation, and people integrated quality management of coastal
with disabilities (European Commission, tourist destinations, including 15 case
1999). studies (Commission Européenne, 1999a).
In most of these, environmental manage-
Coastal tourism: a lesson for more ment was paralleled by the development of
environmentally friendly tourism nature activities, such as natural and cul-
tural interpretation trails or visits to neigh-
European coastal areas have always been bouring natural areas.
very attractive tourist destinations.
According to the WTO, the Mediterranean Mountain areas
coast receives 35% of international tourist
arrivals, with 90% concentrated in the Mountain areas represent a very important
coastal areas of France, Spain and Italy European landscape. The Alpine districts
(Rein and Scharpf, 1997). Many environ- of seven countries, with an area of 191,287
mental problems have arisen from this km2 and 13 million inhabitants, are very
tourism pressure, including over-construc- attractive mountain tourism destinations.
tion, site coverage, over-consumption of However, mountain tourism has also devel-
water, and stress on the environment and oped in other areas such as the Scottish
landscape. These negative impacts have Highlands, the Scandinavian fjords,
led to numerous reactions from political Spanish and French Pyrenees, the moun-
organizations. The French government, for tains of Macedonia and Bulgaria, etc.
instance, reacted by passing coastal legisla- However, it is the Alps, with now over 100
tion. In mid-1975, the Conservatoire de million visitors a year, which have suffered
l’Espace du Littoral was founded with the most from environmental pressures. Alpine
aim of buying endangered coastal areas and tourism began in the mid-18th century, but
dedicating them to nature conservation. skiing really escalated in the 1970s and
Today, considerable effort is focused on problems ensued, such as the construction
restoration of the coastal environment of ski lifts, increased urbanization and traf-
through international programmes. At a fic and landscape destruction. Socio-
multilateral level, the Mediterranean cultural impacts include the proliferation
Action Plan was founded in the early of holiday homes (used only a few weeks
1970s under the auspices of the United each year) and the abandonment of
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) traditional activities which played a key
and today results in active cooperation role in mountain landscape management
between countries. The blue flag campaign (Manesse, 1994). Consequently, sustainable
is a European award scheme encouraging development, including ecotourism, is
local authorities to maintain clean and safe being promoted to remedy this situation.
beaches for the local population and International cooperation for the protection
tourists (UNEP et al., 1996). In recent of the Alps exists through the International
years, it has become a criterion in selecting Commission of the Protection of the Alps
their destination for many European (CIPRA), an NGO created in 1952. CIPRA
citizens. aims to reduce environmental impacts on
the Alps and supports sustainable develop-
In 1996, the EC set up a demonstration ment projects. In 1991, the governments of
programme to remedy the alarming envi- the Alpine countries signed a convention
ronmental condition of European Coastal to protect the Alps, The Alpine
zones. It launched Integrated Coastal Zone Convention, which includes a tourism pro-
Management (ICZM), a proactive and adap- tocol. This intends to promote harmoniza-
tive process of coastal resource manage- tion of policies and programmes between
ment. Between 1997 and 1999, 35 projects

162 S. Blangy and S. Vautier

countries and different economic sectors to and organized, with quality trademarks,
ensure better environmental protection national strategies, eco-labelling schemes,
and land management. Euromontana, a etc.
Continental European association targeting
economic and social issues for the moun- The European Commission plays a key
tain areas, also promotes international role in rural tourism development through
cooperation and exchanges, including LEADER funds, in a cohesive strategy
research on sustainable tourism in moun- aimed at restoring a balance in the level of
tain areas. development between different regions of
Europe. In 1995, a report from the LEADER
In the past decade, because of a decline European Observatory, Marketing Rural
in the skiing industry, the private sector Tourism, identified 71 projects, out of a
has also launched many environmental total of 217, where tourism was a major
protection initiatives. These take the form objective in rural development (LEADER,
of ‘sustainable tourism resorts’ and devel- 1997). In 1995, the EC, in partnership with
opment of nature interpretation activities. 17 national authorities, established an
Several popular skiing resorts in Austria, award for tourism and environment pro-
Switzerland and France have recently jects. Many countries of Western Europe
developed sustainable tourism strategies support the development of high-quality
and action plans, based on quality, envi- nature tourism or ecotourism.
ronmental management of accommodation,
landscaping of ski lifts and interpretation Austria
of natural resources. Chamonix and In Austria, the self-regulated Holiday
Avoriaz, in France, for instance, are work- Villages in Austria Association was estab-
ing on a marketing policy based on the sus- lished in 1991 to encourage high environ-
tainability and preservation of mountain mental standards compatible with growing
ecosystems. demands from tourism. There are strict
membership criteria concerning village
Sustainable Tourism in the Regions character, minimum ecological standards
of Europe and minimum social and touristic stan-
dards coupled with load thresholds. The
In 1996, Europe received 349 million inter- Tyrolean Environmental Seal of Quality is
national tourist arrivals. The regional an eco-labelling scheme that monitors
shares are: Western Europe 34%, Southern tourist establishments on an annual basis
Europe 28%, Central and Eastern Europe according to their performance on a set of
23%, Northern Europe 11% and Eastern obligatory criteria (Williams and Shaw,
Mediterranean 3% (WTO, 1998). 1996).

Western Europe Portugal
Portugal recently passed a law setting crite-
Western Europe has a long tradition of ria for all kinds of activities, services and
tourism and offers a wide range of destina- accommodation in parks. The official text
tions from coastal, rural and mountain defines the type of services, but also the
areas to cities. High population density necessary commitment of owners towards
means that most rural areas of Western environmental management and raised vis-
Europe are inhabited. It is not surprising, itor awareness. Increased tourism pressure
therefore, that this area is the most suited on protected areas also led to the creation
for the development of tourism linking of a National Program for Nature Tourism,
nature interpretation with experience of a protocol of cooperation between the
local lifestyle and cultural heritage. The Minister for Tourism and the Minister of
tourism product is quite well developed Environment. Several levels of demand for
tourist use in protected areas have been
established, from areas in great demand to

Europe 163

those less popular. This programme has conducted by the EC, several pilot resorts
two strategic aims: first, to promote the cre- have been studied. Small islands (the
ation of an integrated product that fits the Spanish Canary and Balearic Islands, and
conservation objectives of each protected the Greek islands) have developed sustain-
area; second, to add potential to the tourist able tourism plans and actions and
activity (which promotes local develop- adopted guidelines though INSULA, a net-
ment and respects local economic and work of sustainable tourism islands.
social aspirations). Several measures and Popular destinations have hosted seminars
tools are planned towards that end. and conferences on sustainable tourism, for
Regulations already published include, for example Lanzarote and Calvia (EcoNETT,
nature tourism, a nature tourism kitemark, 1999). Several European programmes and
tourism guide, code of conduct, training networks, such as MEDPO and MEDWET,
plan and designation of pilot projects. are trying to act as catalysts for sustainable
tourism strategies and promotional material.

Southern Europe Central and Eastern Europe

The Mediterranean is the most attractive The Eastern European countries are catch-
destination in Europe, but the most ing up in terms of sustainable tourism and
adversely affected by tourism, suffering learning fast from the mistakes and suc-
from its popularity. The region is well cesses of Western countries. After the fall
known for its beautiful weather, its attrac- of the Berlin wall, CEE countries became
tive landscapes, its warm-hearted people attractive and fashionable destinations
and their characteristic, relaxed lifestyle because of their mystery, high biodiversity,
(Europarc Federation, 1993). As ‘the cradle rich wildlife and cultural heritage.
of western civilisation’, the region has an Charismatic species such as bison, wolves
exceptionally rich cultural heritage. The and bears that have disappeared in Western
scale of tourism in the region is enormous. European countries can still be seen in
This is the world’s leading area, accounting Eastern countries, for example in most of
for 35% of the international tourist trade. the natural reserves and national parks of
The economies of many Mediterranean Poland (Hall, 2000).
countries are highly dependent on tourism.
The Mediterranean Action Plan predicts However, lack of development, environ-
even greater increases; that between 380 mental pressures and consequent degrada-
and 760 million people will visit the tion, volatile political situations, and
Mediterranean in 2025. desire for fast profits have all hindered the
process. Flows of visitors from Western
Further tourism development will bring countries stagnated in some areas, but are
tremendous environmental pressures. now recovering following a trend towards
Countries such as Italy, Greece and France greater sustainability. In some places that
have already developed very popular holi- were chosen as pilot areas to develop
day resorts all along the Mediterranean wildlife tourism and boost hunting
coastal zone, but these have suffered from tourism, tour operators had to withdraw
over-visitation in the past, and are experi- because of lack of professionalism and mis-
encing a recent stagnation in tourism flows. calculation of the tour package prices
Environmental pressure and damage have (Blangy, 1996). This was the case in
resulted from badly designed resorts and Berezinski Reserve in Belarus, where
serious marine pollution. Today, many Western tour operators stopped visiting the
Mediterranean holiday resorts are falling reserve in 1997 after a 100% price rise and
out of fashion, leading to a corresponding a reduction in observation opportunities
fall in tourist arrivals. As a result, resorts attributable to increased hunting. Com-
and coastal municipalities are looking for petition can be high between Eastern
alternatives. Within the IQM programme

164 S. Blangy and S. Vautier

European countries with common borders enlarged, given their incipient nature. An
and similar attractions such as wildlife, aim is benchmarking to Western norms to
wilderness, attractive landscapes and cul- ensure adequate product quality and
tural tourism. Tour operators will not hesi- authenticity prior to marketing.
tate to transfer their operations from one
country to another, even if they run their Northern Europe
business with conservation and sustainable
development in mind. The UK
In 1989, the English Tourist Board and the
Before the changes, tourism in the coun- Countryside Commission published their
tries of the former USSR was centralized principles for tourism in the countryside.
and controlled from Moscow through the Shortly afterwards (in 1991), the govern-
multi-faceted organization called Intourist ment set up a taskforce on tourism and the
(Europarc Federation, 1993). Tourists were environment. The principles of rural sus-
mainly domestic, with school groups com- tainable tourism that emerged from this
ing from all over the Soviet Union. Foreign were tested by various pilot projects,
tourism was limited to specific places, described in a report Sustainable Rural
mostly cities. Nature tourism was in its Tourism, Opportunities for Local Action
infancy. Today, however, many Western (Countryside Commission, 1996). In the
European countries have been funding the UK, enjoyment of nature and rural land-
exchange of information and expertise. The scapes is an important part of the culture.
UK Know-How Fund, for example, is National agencies, local authorities and
assisting protected areas to consider how to individual projects have placed consider-
develop sustainable tourism. Both the EC able emphasis on planning for sustainable
and the Council of Europe are funding tourism and on visitor management. Many
pilot projects and encouraging cross-border initiatives for developing ecotourism take
cooperation to develop rural sustainable place in the UK national parks. The Peak
tourism, conservation and wildlife-watching District National Park is the most visited
projects. Environmental protection has park in Europe, and has a very dynamic
been an integral part of the EC TACIS and structure for sustainable development.
PHARE programmes to assist economic Initiatives include integrated visitor man-
reform. The use of such funds is being agement plans; mechanisms to raise money
reoriented to assist the development of sus- from visitors for environmental projects;
tainable tourism related to protected areas. and development of marketing and tourism
Three cross-border projects sound interest- associations. The Peak Park has a strategy
ing in terms of sustainable tourism: Karelia to promote public transport.
(Finland, Russia), Niemen Region (Poland,
Belarus) and Carpathia (Romania and Scandinavia
Ukraine). The essential tourism assets of Denmark
are on the North Sea coast, which accounts
Eastern and Central Europeans are keen for more than one-half of tourist nights
to learn, and many want to participate in (Ellul and Council of Europe, 1996). This
Western European seminars on conserva- coastal tourism is linked with a wide range
tion and sustainable tourism. Several dele- of outdoor activities including golf, cycling
gations, such as from Slovenia, Slovakia and fishing. Although coastal tourism has
and Poland, have been invited to visit not been as damaging to the North Sea as it
Western countries and learn from their has been to the Mediterranean, high con-
experience. Field trips are organized centrations in time and space generate
around the sustainability of tourism pro- problems such as demand for land, pollu-
jects in mountain and coastal resorts. The tion, use of resources and conflicts with
Ukraine and Slovenia assigned much local people. To cope with these problems,
importance to sustainable tourism and
environmental requirements. Protected
areas, however, need to be reinforced and

Europe 165

the government introduced planning pol- ently developed a sustainable tourism
icy at national, regional and local levels strategy at the national level (Parviainen
based on high local participation. In 1994, and Pöysti, 1995). In Swedish and
new legislation was introduced, prohibit- Norwegian Lapland, several Sami commu-
ing any new development within 3 km of nities are developing community-based
the coast. Denmark has, since 1917, had tourism linked to the reindeer economy
specific legislation allowing private and Sami traditional activities.
landowners compensation to protect land-
scapes and natural areas of national inter- East Mediterranean
est (Ellul and Council of Europe, 1996). At
the same time, the government promotes The East Mediterranean is a relatively new
free access to nature. Each year new land is tourist destination, mainly oriented on
purchased and made available to the pub- coastal tourism and receiving Western
lic, thus also ensuring nature conservation. European citizens (mostly Germans and
This strategy allows improved tourism flow British).
management and zoning. It is accompanied
by an information strategy aimed at raising The desire of governments to boost their
public awareness of the value of nature and economy through tourism has led to the
landscapes, and promoting better under- development of tourist resorts that are
standing and responsible behaviour from rarely accompanied by adequate infrastruc-
visitors. ture such as sewerage or waste water treat-
ment. The destinations remain highly
Tourism in Sweden is mainly based on dependent on coastal tourism and foreign
nature, mountains, culture, and leisure investment. However, some countries have
facilities such as zoological parks. As in recently started to implement better
other northern countries, free access to tourism development control and incen-
nature is a Swedish right. Sweden has one tives for product diversification. In 1990,
of the highest percentages of population the Cypriot government announced a mora-
(77%) going on holidays in Europe (Ellul torium on coastal tourism development.
and Council of Europe, 1996); Swedes have Planning policy, as well as a national
6 weeks holiday per year. This amount of tourism plan, permits new construction
leisure time, together with the develop- only under certain conditions, including
ment of short breaks, has led to many con- compulsory environmental impact assess-
flicts between private landowners and ment. The new strategy aims at promoting
tourists, as well as environmental impacts the development of new forms of tourism,
such as path erosion and disturbance of especially agro-tourism, mountain and
wildlife. As nature tourism is a very impor- nature tourism.
tant cultural characteristic, the national
government developed a positive strategy In Turkey, the development of tourism
based on development of the tourism prod- remains an economic priority. However,
uct and public information. The Swedish with the support of the World Bank, the
environmental agency is working in close government initiated a project to protect
partnership with the tourism industry, the south-west coast. Priorities are for
making codes of behaviour available for infrastructure development for waste treat-
specific destinations and activities. ment to stop marine pollution. Simul-
taneously, tourism is being promoted to
Finland has experienced a spectacular more remote areas of the country to
rise in the European tourism market in the encourage a better spread of tourism bene-
past decade, promoting Lapland, snow, ski- fits. These initiatives should soon lead to
ing, northern lights, reindeers and Father the development of new nature and cul-
Christmas. However, this is based on mass tural products, including ecotourism, in
tourism and is an inappropriate use of the these destinations.
Sami culture, although Finland has appar-

166 S. Blangy and S. Vautier

The Main European Organizations 1999. These 17 pilot projects have
Involved in Sustainable Tourism informed the 15 member states and some
have led to further national projects:
As discussed in Chapter 29, supra-national
organizations are becoming an increasingly • ECOTOE Biotope protection and eco-
important mechanism for implementing tourism. Coastal ecotourism case studies.
tourism policy in Europe. In this regard,
both the EC and the Council of Europe are • The ECOMOST project, EC models of
implicitly attaching a high priority to eco- sustainable tourism.
tourism by promoting environmentally
friendly tourism and sustainable tourism • GRECOTEL, a tourism and environment
practices. network of hotels in Greece.

The European Commission • A common agenda for sustainable golf
development and management.
The EC has taken different measures to
promote sustainable tourism especially • A handbook of good practice for sustain-
ecotourism in sensitive areas. For example, able tourism in walled towns.
tourism and the environment has been one
of the main themes of the Community • Green suitcase, the Ökologisher Touris-
Action Plan to Assist Tourism since 1990 mus in Europa (ÖTE) seal of quality.
(Tzoanos, 1992). One of the Plan’s six crite-
ria for selecting measures for Community The European prize for tourism and the
support was contribution to conserving environment in 1995 was awarded to five
natural environmental quality and cultural exemplary destinations, out of 60 appli-
heritage, along with respecting the way of cants. Germany now organizes a similar
life of local populations. The Action Plan event each year to reward private operators
was adopted by the 12 member states in and initiatives aimed at promoting sustain-
1993. The argument for intervention was able tourism. The ReisePavillon trade show
that the sheer size and diversity of the was one of projects awarded in 1999.
tourism sector necessitates a close collabo-
ration between the Commission, member Various important sustainable tourism
states, and different sectors of the industry. networks initiated and supported at the
European level within the Community
The Community Action Plan to Assist Action Plan to Assist Tourism are still run-
Tourism includes support for: ning in 2000:

• initiatives aimed at making tourists and • EcoNett, hosted by the World Tourism
operators more aware of the interdepen- and Travel Council (WTTC), is a web
dence of tourism and the environment; site recognized as a focal point for envi-
ronmental information, good practice,
• innovative pilot projects aimed at main- new techniques and technologies.
taining a balance between tourism and
the protection of natural environments, • Ecotrans, a network of experts working
in particular coastal zones, upland in the field of sustainable tourism.
areas, national parks and nature
reserves; and The Commission has also produced and
widely disseminated several booklets
• initiatives aimed at developing different which present the most helpful findings
forms of sustainable tourism. and experiences gained from the pilot pro-
jects (Alpenforschungsinstitut, 1995). A
Within this first Plan, several projects were second programme, Xylophénia, submitted
funded in 1993 and 1995 under the super- in 1997 was more ambitious, but not
vision of the General Directorate DG XXIII adopted by the member states. However,
(Tourism Unit), renamed DG Enterprise in several other pioneering works and
research were conducted at the European
level:

• The Integrated Quality Management of
coastal, urban and rural tourist destina-
tions (see above).

Europe 167

• The visitor payback process. Support for message which the Commission has been
various innovative, transferable, research trying to put across, and which the indus-
and pilot projects, such as into the ‘visi- try is now beginning to understand, is that
tor payback’ process of raising money environmental integrity makes good busi-
from visitors to support conservation ness sense, and is a necessary response to
(The Tourism Company, 1998). consumer demands and the market, rather
than a strictly altruistic gesture.
From the environmental perspective as
well, sustainable tourism has become a The Council of Europe
major issue. In the Fifth Community
Programme for Environment and Sustain- In 1995, a pan-European Biological and
able Development (Commission Européenne, Landscape Diversity Strategy was adopted
1993) tourism became one of the five prior- by the Council of Europe, and within the
ity areas. The specific priorities for tourism strategy implementation a committee of
are: experts was created which deals with
tourism and the environment. The group’s
• integration of environmental considera- work resulted in the elaboration of several
tions into tourism policy at the most recommendations relating to general poli-
appropriate level, and in land-use plan- cies for tourism development and the envi-
ning; ronment, and the development of
environmental management training for
• a framework for the protection of sensi- professionals in the tourism sector. Two
tive areas; recommendations concerning tourism
development in protected areas (Council of
• information for environmentally friendly Europe, 1995) and in coastal zones
behaviour of tourists; (Council of Europe, 1997) are specifically
relevant to this study. These recommenda-
• management of tourist flows to respect tions have been adopted by the Committee
the carrying capacity of tourist sites. of Ministers of the Council of Europe and
are being widely disseminated.
The DG Environment (previously DGXI)
Nature Conservation Unit, in charge of EC In addition, the Council of Europe has
environmental policy, is playing a major developed a specific programme focused
role in this field. DG Environment runs a on promoting sustainable tourism in two
fund, LIFE (Nature and Environment) sup- ways:
porting conservation-based pilot projects
around Europe and coordinating a new net- • Intergovernmental cooperation and
work of protected areas, Natura 2000. LIFE technical assistance to pilot projects on
Environment has supported several conser- sustainable tourism development located
vation projects aimed at developing in critical regions of Albania, Slovakia,
specific models of sustainable tourism in Belarus, Romania, Ukraine and Latvia.
natural environments. Among them two
major initiatives have been essential for • Conferences and workshops which were
protected areas in Europe: held in several Council of Europe mem-
ber states, i.e. Hungary, Poland, Slovenia,
• the European Charter for sustainable Cyprus, Romania, Bulgaria and Latvia.
tourism in protected areas; An international conference on Tourism,
Environment and Employment was
• the guidelines for sustainable tourism in organized for the end of 2000 in Berlin
protected areas and Natura 2000 sites. (Germany).

In 2000, LIFE Environment will focus on The Council of Europe has also drawn up
pilot projects aiming at implementing gen- two important documents which will have
eral principles of sustainable tourism in an impact on coastal tourism development:
protected areas and conservation areas.
Guidelines will be submitted to the differ-
ent member states for approval, and to the
Convention on Biological Diversity. The

168 S. Blangy and S. Vautier

a Model Law on sustainable management proud of; (iii) ‘must see’ sites for tourists
of coastal areas and a European Code of and wildlife lovers; (iv) wider public
Conduct for coastal zones. and political support for protected
areas; and (v) new income for parks and
The different measures taken by the EC new jobs for rural residents. Concrete
and the Council of Europe have played a actions include management organiza-
major role in the evolution of European tion and logo establishment; draft Pan
tourism, influencing the national policies Parks Principles and Criteria; collabora-
of different member states as well as the tion with protected areas as pilot areas;
private sector. Some of the states lead in Pan Parks workshops; and the informa-
terms of national strategy, regulations, tion newsletter Pan Courier. Pan Parks
labelling, incentives and funding for sus- aims to strengthen and diversify finan-
tainable tourism. None, however, has cial support for protected areas from
reached the level of sophistication of both public and private sectors, in par-
the Australian Ecotourism Strategy (see ticular through logo attribution (logo
Chapters 9 and 29). However, the different holders will pay a proportion of their
national initiatives combine together to revenue to the protected area).
form an interesting blend of experimental • WTTC with Eco-Nett, as described
tools and policies. above.
• UNESCO, UNEP IE. Based in Paris,
Other European organizations involved in UNEP IE has produced several publica-
sustainable tourism tions widely used in Europe as references
such as Ecolabel and Environmental
In Europe several different organizations Guidelines for the Tourism Industry
(NGOs and not-for-profit) have been instru- (UNEP/IIPT, 1995).
mental in promoting sustainable tourism • IUCN ‘Parks for life’ coordination unit is
and helping support the industry to based in Slovenia. IUCN is actively par-
develop policies and adopt principles. ticipating in international cooperation
Some of them have an international man- in sustainable development. It con-
date. However, as they have European tributed to the development of the
headquarters they significantly influence European Charter for Sustainable Tourism
national policies. This is the case for WTO in Protected Areas in partnership with
in Madrid and UNESCO and UNEP IE in Europarc Federation and promotes the
Paris. Others are specific to Europe. development of sustainable tourism.
• Tourism Concern is a UK-based charity
The main organizations acting for sus- with a global membership network,
tainable tourism are the following: started in 1989. Tourism Concern aims
to promote awareness of tourism
• Europarc: The pan-European protected impacts on people and their environ-
areas organization, whose aim is to ment. It produced ten principles for sus-
improve conservation and quality and tainable tourism to achieve the aims of
effectiveness of protected areas, devel- the Rio Earth Summit and influence
oped the European Charter for policies and programmes adopted by the
Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas travel and tourism industry worldwide
discussed earlier. (WWF, 1992).
• WTO has its headquarters in Madrid,
• WWF Pan Parks aims to provide a Spain and strongly influences European
nature conservation-based response to policies.
the growing market for nature-oriented
tourism. This is to be achieved by creat- In Europe, membership networks similar to
ing a quality brand which stands for: (i) The Ecotourism Society and the Ecotourism
an expanding network of well-managed Association of Australia do not exist.
protected areas; (ii) areas which are Networks that do exist are spread out and
widely known by Europeans as natural
capitals, which they know and are

Europe 169

do not have the same audience. For run charity programmes to support conser-
instance, ECOTRANS, a European network vation work where they operate (Allibert,
for sustainable development, consists of 30 France).
experts and is supporting Eco-tip, a
European information service on the inter- Conclusions
net which provides information on eco-
label and on good practices in sustainable Sustainable tourism is a growing trend at
tourism (www.eco-tip.org). different levels in Europe, under which
many implicitly ecotourism-related initia-
The Private Sector tives are subsumed. The tourism industry
is expected to increase its involvement and
Several initiatives are worth mentioning in evolve towards greater sustainability. Many
the private sector. For hotels (independent, pilot projects and good practices have been
resorts and hotel chains) and self-catering identified all over Europe and are being
accommodation, the International Hotels funded and supported by the various orga-
Environment Initiative (IHEI) (UNEP et al., nizations mentioned above. Eco-tip has
1995), the Youth Hostels Association selected the Top 100 best sustainable
(IYHA, 1994), and Farm Holidays network tourism practices in its web site. These best
(European Centre for Eco-Agro Tourism or practices cover the following fields:
ECEAT) lead in terms of environmental
management. The European Federation of • guidelines, charters, recommendations,
Camping Sites Organisations awards an codes of ethics for developing sustain-
environmental prize, the David Bellamy able tourism;
Award, and has developed an environmen-
tal charter. • planning, sustainable tourism strategies;
• charters;
The European Federation of Youth • certification and accreditation scheme;
Hostels Association has developed an envi- • visitor payback;
ronmental charter and manages several • product development;
training and pilot programmes for youth • visitor management;
hostel managers. Mirrow 21 is the most • soft mobility and transport options.
advanced example of sustainable youth
hostels combining specific design, alterna- These trial projects provide the input for
tive energy, environmental management further policies, incentives and tools.
and education activities. Further national policies and pilot projects
are to be expected in the near future from
The Gîtes de France (self-catering EU member states and, in particular, from
accommodation) have developed Gîtes the Eastern European countries.
Panda, environmentally sound properties,
together with information on fauna and At the EC, the Tourism and Environment
flora and observation opportunities in nat- Directorates both aim towards greater inte-
ural parks. The label is given by WWF fol- gration of sustainable tourism practices in
lowing the visit of an expert. Tour community policies that affect tourism.
operators are also getting the point. The Synergy between the different departments
European Tour Operators Association concerned with quality (employment, enter-
developed environmental guidelines in prise and agriculture) is also being aimed
1992. Tour operators have also taken many for. Different seminars and workshops point
individual initiatives such as the Ethics towards a strong need for more formal net-
Charter of a French tour operator, Atalante. works of experts, site managers, ground
This Charter has been adopted by tourism- operators, and actors in the field to
related private enterprises such as Lonely exchange information and develop policies.
Planet, Swissair, Aigle (sports retailer), and A sustainable tourism network and European
Trek Magazine. Some tour operators also association is needed as well as further
research and publications in this field.

170 S. Blangy and S. Vautier

References

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Chapter 11

Latin America and the Caribbean

D.B. Weaver1 and R. Schlüter2

1School of Tourism and Hotel Management, Griffith University Gold Coast Campus,
Queensland, Australia; 2Centro de Investigaciones y Estudios Turisticos,
Avenida del Libertador, Buenos Aires, Argentina

Introduction The Caribbean and Mexico

Among the world’s ‘macro-regions’, Latin At first perusal, the Caribbean, and to a
America and the Caribbean stands out for lesser extent Mexico, may not appear to be
the high profile of its ecotourism sector, a likely venue for ecotourism activity,
even though most progress in this respect given the presence of a 3S-based mass
has been achieved only since the early tourism industry that dominates most of
1980s. The purpose of this chapter is to the states and dependencies in the region
survey the status of ecotourism in Latin (see Fig. 11.1). The insular Caribbean, for
America and the Caribbean as of 2000. In example, accounts for just 0.7% of the
order to contextualize this theme, the envi- world’s population, but 2.4% of all interna-
ronmental characteristics of the region will tional stayovers (Weaver and Oppermann,
also be considered where appropriate, as 2000). In addition, the Caribbean is the
will the general tourism industry. For dis- most important area in the world for cruise
cussion purposes, the study area is divided ship tourism (Wood, 2000). The depen-
into three regions: the Caribbean and dence of the region on tourism is evi-
Mexico, Central America, and South denced by the observation that this sector
America. This division adheres to geo- accounts for at least 10% of GNP in 19 of
graphical convention except for the inclu- 24 insular Caribbean states or dependen-
sion of Mexico with the Caribbean, which cies (including Bermuda and the Bahamas).
is based upon commonalities of proximity A hyper-dependent relationship, moreover,
to the Anglo-American market and the is apparent in the 11 or 12 entities that rely
dominance of 3S (sea, sand, sun) tourism. on tourism to generate at least 30% of GNP.
However, as will be seen, the dissimilar The situation in Mexico is very different in
geographical characteristics of these relative terms, since tourism accounts for
regions give rise to distinctive patterns of only 2% of the diverse national economy.
ecotourism activity. However, in absolute terms, Mexico is the
world’s seventh largest destination for
international stayovers, receiving over 21
million in 1996 (Weaver and Oppermann,
2000).

© CAB International 2001. The Encyclopedia of Ecotourism 173
(ed. D.B. Weaver)

Fig. 11.1. The Caribbean.

174 D.B. Weaver and R. Schlüter

Latin America and the Caribbean 175

Despite this situation, the actual and canic eruption in 1994 (Weaver, 1995,
potential status of ecotourism in the 1998).
Caribbean and Mexico is considerable.
This is in part due to the inherent suitabil- The second type of specialized eco-
ity of island settings for ecotourism-related tourism destination in the Caribbean
activity (see Chapter 15). In addition, mass involves peripheral islands of archipelagic
tourism tends to be confined to just a small states. Examples include Tobago (relative
portion of the littoral in even the most to Trinidad), Nevis (relative to St Kitts), St
tourism-intensive countries, leaving the John (relative to St Thomas), Barbuda (rela-
remaining terrestrial areas free to accom- tive to Antigua), and Little Cayman Island
modate activities associated with alterna- and Cayman Brac (relative to Grand
tive tourism, including ecotourism. The Cayman Island). None of these entities,
following discussion will therefore empha- however, is as comprehensively and delib-
size the actual and potential status of eco- erately ecotourism-oriented as Dominica.
tourism within this 90–95% of the At a broader scale, the tourism policy of
Caribbean land area that is not oriented the Bahamas advocates large-scale 3S
toward mass tourism. tourism for Grand Bahama and New
Providence islands, but small-scale, nature-
Specialized ecotourism destinations based tourism for the remaining ‘Family
Islands’.

Not all Caribbean islands have a tourism Other ecotourism venues
sector that adheres to the stereotype of the
beach resort. The most notable of these at On islands oriented toward other types of
the national level is Dominica, which has tourism, numerous opportunities are still
been consciously marketing itself as a available to pursue ecotourism. Three
nature-based destination since the 1970s. types of venue are especially important.
Prior to this time, the government had First, many islands contain mountainous
aspired to develop in the 3S mode, but areas, usually in the interior, that retain
these aspirations were thwarted by the extensive forest cover and sometimes har-
island’s lack of white-sand beaches, moun- bour endemic flora and fauna. Among the
tainous terrain that hindered the develop- larger Caribbean islands, such areas
ment of the necessary infrastructure, include the Sierra Muestra of south-eastern
political uncertainties, and high levels of Cuba, the Cordillera Central of the
rainfall. Accordingly, these perceived dis- Dominican Republic, Trinidad’s Northern
advantages were re-marketed as assets, and Range, the El Yunque region of Puerto Rico
Dominica was promoted as the ‘nature and the Blue Mountains of Jamaica. On a
island of the Caribbean’. Subsequent pro- smaller scale, mountainous interiors are
motional references to 365 waterfalls, characteristic of Saint Lucia, St Kitts,
though probably apocryphal, offer an inter- Grenada and Martinique. Large areas of the
esting counterpoint to Antigua’s emphasis Mexican interior are similarly endowed,
on its own purported 365 beaches. But giving rise to ecotourism icons such as the
more tangibly, the island has encouraged Monarch Butterfly Reserves, which
various policies, such as the establishment attracted approximately 100,000 tourists in
of small, locally controlled nature lodges in 1989 (Hawkins and Khan, 1998).
the interior, that attest to its status as a
comprehensive ecotourism destination Second, most Caribbean islands, and
(Weaver, 2001). Arguably, the only other portions of the Mexican coastline, are
country-level destinations that can make a fringed by coral reef formations that offer
legitimate claim to this status are St opportunities for scuba-diving and
Vincent and the Grenadines, and snorkelling. If such activities in the main
Montserrat prior to its devastation by a vol- are conceded to constitute a form of eco-
tourism, then the latter activity assumes

176 D.B. Weaver and R. Schlüter

great importance as an adjunct to the mass Cuba represents a promising opportu-
tourism of Grand Cayman Island, Barbados, nity for the regional ecotourism sector as a
Cancún and several other destinations. In whole, but a possible threat to established
addition, peripheral islands such as ecotourism destinations in the Caribbean
Bonaire and Saba (Dixon et al., 1993) are and Mexico because of its high potential.
even more solidly positioned as special- This potential is based on its post-1959
ized marine ecotourism destinations. legacy of small-scale ‘socialist’ tourism, its
Third, and least prevalent of the three, are extensive natural assets, advanced pro-
littoral wetlands. Prominent examples that tected area systems (which cover 17% of
already accommodate nature-oriented the island’s land area) and strong political
tourist activity include the Caroni wetlands support for the ecotourism sector. The need
near Port-of-Spain in Trinidad, the to cope with the US embargo has also con-
Peninsula de Zapata in Cuba, the man- tributed in a bizarre way to ecotourism by
groves of Bonaire and the mouth of the fostering the use of low energy, ‘soft’ tech-
Black River in Jamaica. nologies. Finally, prototypes such as the
Moka Ecolodge have already been estab-
Strengths and opportunities lished (Honey, 1999).

The insular nature of the Caribbean sug- Weaknesses and threats
gests formidable potential in the area of
marine and littoral ecotourism, while the Widespread environmental degradation,
potential of mountainous interiors remains both marine and terrestrial, is a significant
relatively untapped. A second major weakness and threat to the regional eco-
strength is proximity to the North American tourism product. Extreme levels of deterio-
market, which rivals Western Europe as the ration are evident in Haiti, which retains
world’s major ecotourist source region. less than 1% of its original forest cover, but
More controversial is whether the existence the situation is also serious in the
of a dominant 3S-based mass tourism Dominican Republic (25% retention), Cuba
industry should be perceived as a strength (29%) and Jamaica (35%), among the larger
or liability. The argument for the former is countries. In Mexico, 77% of original ‘fron-
that mutually beneficial relationships, in tier’ forests are considered threatened
theory, can be formed between ecotourism (World Resources Institute, 1998). With
and mass tourism. As discussed in Chapter respect to offshore resources, the coral
5, these involve the provision of mainly soft reefs of the Caribbean rank among the most
ecotourism diversions for the mass tourist endangered in the world due to mass
market, which thereby supplies a critical tourism, industrialization, shipping, fish-
mass of clientele, and an incentive to ing and sedimentation. The rapidly grow-
develop and enhance such nature-based ing tourism industry is itself regarded as a
products. In return, the overall holiday major contributor to the area’s environmen-
package is enhanced through diversifica- tal problems, despite its recent embrace of
tion, and a ‘greener’ product is encouraged the rhetoric of sustainability (Holder,
throughout the tourism system. To a large 1996). It is for this reason that the link
extent, the ecotourism product of the between mass tourism and ecotourism can
Caribbean and Mexico is already structured also be perceived as a threat. One example
in such a way, with diversionary, soft eco- is the Costa Maya project in Mexico’s
tourism being dominant except in special- Quintana Roo Province, which purports to
ized destinations such as Dominica. be an ‘ecotourism’ development, yet
Ecotourism-type accommodations have includes 18-hole golf courses and at least
even been established in such unlikely des- one full-service marina (Ceballos-Lascuráin,
tinations as Bermuda, as described in 1996). In addition, there is a risk that eco-
Chapter 33. tourism will be used as a marketing ploy

Latin America and the Caribbean 177

by unscrupulous operators who are not Costa Rica
genuinely committed to the principles of
sustainability. A related weakness is the Costa Rica is arguably the best-known eco-
low proportion of land occupied by pro- tourism destination in the world at a
tected area systems in most islands, national level (Schluter, 1998; Honey,
although Cuba and the Dominican 1999). This status, as with most high-
Republic (31.5% protected) constitute sig- profile destinations (see Chapter 18), is
nificant exceptions, at least on paper. closely associated with Costa Rica’s well-
developed national protected area system,
Because of their geographical location, which covers approximately one-quarter of
the Caribbean and Mexico are highly sus- the country (about one half of which is
ceptible to natural disasters such as hurri- strictly protected). Included in this system
canes, volcanic eruptions and earthquakes. are well-known public entities such as
Small islands are especially vulnerable, Poas, Irazu, Carara and Manual Antonio,
given that a single seismic or climatic and private reserves such as Monteverde,
event can devastate an entire state or Rara Avis and La Selva. These protected
dependency. The destruction of Montserrat areas capitalize on an impressive level of
by a volcanic eruption in 1994 is the best biodiversity that results from Costa Rica’s
illustration so far of this devastation sce- mainly tropical climate, its variability of
nario. Hurricanes may wreak a greater altitude, and its location astride the North
ubiquity of destruction, but the effects are and South American biological provinces.
temporary. Finally, ecotourism suffers from The growing popularity of these protected
a lack of institutional articulation. Among areas is reflected in the finding that one-
countries and dependencies in the region, half of all international visitors in 1991
any common understanding of ecotourism spent at least some time in such an area,
is absent, with some islands proffering def- compared with 20% in 1983 (Epler Wood,
initions that can only be described as 1993). By the mid-1990s, two-thirds of all
bizarre. Martinique, for example, includes arrivals had visited at least one protected
golfing as a component of ecotourism area. Recent reconfigurations of this system
(Weaver, 2001). have fostered a greater potential for com-
munity-led ecotourism development (see
Central America Chapter 18). Other innovations include
restoration-oriented units such as Guana-
In terms of ecotourism activities, Central caste National Park, in the exhausted pas-
America is notable for the differences turelands of the north-east. In respect to
among its constituent countries (see Fig. factors external to tourism, the country has
11.2). On one hand, Costa Rica has experienced a prolonged period of political
achieved, rightly or wrongly, iconic status stability, and was thrust into a positive
as an ecotourism exemplar. In contrast, El spotlight in 1987 when then-president
Salvador and Nicaragua demonstrate little Arias was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.
evidence of any such activity. Between
these two extremes, Belize and Panama are Yet, there are grounds for contesting
moving toward the Costa Rica model, Costa Rica’s reputation as an ecotourism
while Honduras and Guatemala are incipi- exemplar. Beyond its protected area sys-
ent. This section will begin with an outline tem, environmental degradation (and forest
of Costa Rica, then progress to Belize as an clearance in particular) continued unabated
emerging competitor to Costa Rica. The throughout the latter half of the 20th cen-
remaining countries of Central America tury, to a point where the non-deforested
will then be discussed as members of the portion of the country’s land area is essen-
incipient group. tially co-extensive with that system. The
protected areas themselves have been
chronically underfunded, relying to a large
extent on foreign donations and volunteer