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Ecotourism in the Context of Other Tourism Types 83

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Section 2

A Regional Survey by Continent

E. Cater

Department of Geography, University of Reading, Reading, UK

Scale and Circumstance ment in Southeast Asia, where countries
capitalize on their comparative advantage
A global overview of the state of the art of natural ecosystems in a markedly differ-
with regard to ecotourism in the world’s ent way from those of temperate latitudes
regions could not only result in over- to attract Western ecotourists.
generalization, but also prove to be a
counter-productive exercise. This is because Second, within individual continents,
the regions, as can be seen from the follow- significant differences exist between coun-
ing chapters, are both products of, and tries and regions. Witness the divide
produce, considerable difference and between the north and south of South
diversity. This is evident at varying spatial America, described by Weaver and
levels. Schlüter in Chapter 11; in insular
Southeast Asia compared with central Asia
First, there are marked differences in (Chapter 8); and the relative paucity of eco-
approaches to ecotourism between conti- tourism in North and West Africa in con-
nents. With relatively high population trast to the eastern and southern part of the
densities, a prevalence of humanized land- continent, as described by Dieke in Chapter
scapes and high tourist visitation levels in 6. This last scenario occurs despite the fact
Europe, described by Blangy and Vautier in that one of the first sustainable ventures
Chapter 10, the focus on sustainable on the African continent, the Lower
tourism rather than on ecotourism is Casamance ‘Tourism for Discovery’ project
understandable. In contrast, Dowling, in is in Senegal, West Africa (Eber, 1992).
Chapter 9, describes the solid emphasis on
ecotourism per se in Australia, where a Third, significant differences also occur
strong market demand, based on rich and within individual countries. In coastal
diverse natural landscapes, is coupled with locations and near international gateways,
considerable impetus from the Federal soft ecotourism frequently acts as an
Government. There is also a solid founda- adjunct to conventional mass tourism. At
tion of demand and supply for ecotourism the opposite end of the spectrum, interior
in North America, as described by Fennell mountains and other peripheral locations
in Chapter 7. Lew describes, in Chapter 8, a often give rise to a harder form of
strong emphasis on ecotourism develop- ecotourism product, as illustrated by
Dominica in Chapter 11.

© CAB International 2001. The Encyclopedia of Ecotourism 85
(ed. D.B. Weaver)

86 E. Cater

Thus, it is important to avoid general- authorities continue to attach a high prior-
ization, and to consider the specific attrib- ity to conventional tourism development.
utes of a locality. As Dowling suggests in As outlined in Chapter 11, Costa Rica per-
the case of Oceania, circumstances dictate sists in giving incentives to mass tourism
that not all natural sites lend themselves to despite its high profile as an ecotourism
ecotourism. The reasons for this can be destination. However, an emerging and
ascribed to contingencies of place contrasting tendency sees some 3S destina-
(Williams and Shaw, 1998). These contin- tions, such as Turkey, Spain and Cyprus,
gencies are shaped by economic, socio- attempting to devolve tourism away from
cultural, political, ecological, institutional, the coastal magnets to more remote, rural,
and technical forces that are exogenous locations.
and endogenous, as well as dynamic. A
consideration of the various macro-regions Ecotourism’s contribution to rural liveli-
covered in this section under these cate- hoods is an important consideration at the
gories provides a useful framework for local level. Dowling describes the integra-
highlighting similarities and differences tion of ecotourism and village-based com-
with regard to ecotourism experience munity tourism in Fiji, but stresses that
across the globe. ecotourism can only complement, not
replace, other forms of tourism. Equally, it
Economic Forces is imperative that it should be regarded as
a complementary and supplementary, not
It is vital that ecotourism is set into context alternative, activity to agriculture.
with regard to different levels, sectors and
interests that will condition sustainability. Sectoral conflicts may compromise the
With respect to the spatial hierarchy, it is success, if not the very existence of eco-
interesting to note how the international tourism. The impact of the oil and fishing
community has become increasingly industries on whale-watching in Patagonia
engaged with ecotourism, not only as a and destructive logging practices in
form of sustainable tourism, but also for its Indonesia, Haiti and the Dominican
role in contributing towards sustainable Republic are all illustrative examples. In
development in general. The International addition, the inclusion of various stake-
Resources Group, for example, prepared a holders’ interests is a much-vaunted prin-
report for USAID on the potential role of ciple of sustainable ecotourism, but
ecotourism as a viable alternative for the Fennell suggests that even this has prob-
sustainable management of natural lems, since interests frequently diverge. In
resources in Africa. They suggest that, Saskatchewan, for example, the inclusion
while it is probably not appropriate for of several stakeholder groups has created
overseas development assistance to sup- friction between economic and environ-
port tourism in general, ecotourism is dif- mental interests.
ferent (IRG, 1992). The UK Department for
International Development (DFID) also Socio-cultural Factors
adopts this train of thought, and developed
an agenda for action in 1999, Changing the The following Chapters point to socio-
Nature of Tourism (DFID, 1999). Similarly, cultural resources as an important com-
Chapter 10 describes how LEADER funds ponent of ecotourism. In many locations
for economic restructuring in Central and so-called natural landscapes are often cul-
Eastern Europe are targeted at rural tourism tural: the product of many generations of
development in a strategy to restore bal- traditional land management. Much of
ance between different levels of develop- Europe, the terraces of the Himalayan
ment among the regions of Europe. foothills and the rice terraces of Luzon,
Philippines all substantiate this fact. The
At the national level, most tourism indivisibility of nature and culture is also
illustrated by the principle of free access to

Regional Survey by Continent 87

nature enshrined in northern European conservation. Throughout the world’s
cultures. Blangy and Vautier describe how regions there is a diversity of natural and
the Danish government buys up land cultural resource conservation policies. In
expressly for that purpose. Asia, Lew describes how these range from
economic to environmental priorities. In
Ecotourism, by definition, should be China conservation efforts often have sig-
socio-culturally responsible, but there is a nificant economic goals, local governments
vexed issue of ethnocentricity. Not only do being involved in resource development as
views of the environment differ between much as resource protection. India, how-
hosts and guests (Dowling cites the Maori ever, has a long history of conservation for
of New Zealand), but also between domes- the sake of the environment. Where pro-
tic and foreign tourists. As the developing tected areas do exist, the chapters describe
world modernizes, intraregional and a considerable range first in their percent-
domestic tourism proliferates. The agenda age of a country’s surface area, and second,
of these tourists, as Lew describes in the in the level of protection afforded. Blangy
case of Southeast Asia, may be markedly and Vautier discuss this with regard to
different from those of visiting ecotourists. Europe. In the UK, for example, most pro-
Wherever these two groups converge in tected areas fall in IUCN Category V.
natural areas, the needs of one may preju-
dice those of the other. Another debate raised is that of con-
sumptive versus non-consumptive use.
Political Forces Fennell describes the inclusion of fishing
as a form of ecotourism in Canada as eco-
While stable political regimes, such as that opportunism, while Dieke suggests that,
of Belize, are undoubted assets for eco- although the licensed hunting of wildlife
tourism development, the corollary is that under the CAMPFIRE initiative in
instability militates against tourism in gen- Zimbabwe benefits local communities, it
eral, and ecotourism in particular. This is can only be partially related to ecotourism.
because attractions are often in remote, rel- The financing of conservation also continues
atively unpoliced locations where foreign to be of concern, particularly in countries
tourists become pawns in the power strug- with beleagered, developing economies.
gles of factional groups headquartered The need for enhanced environmental
away from the seat of government. stewardship, illustrated through under-
Examples of this ilk are the threats posed funding of conservation, is described in
by the Sendero Luminoso in Peru and, several of the chapters. Not only is eco-
more recently, by the massacre of foreign tourism an alternative to environmentally
tourists in 1999 at Bwindi Impenetrable destructive activities such as logging or
Forest gorilla reserve in western Uganda. mining in Southeast Asia, Fiji, and Central
Another important political criterion is and South America, but it can also provide
that of will. Unless protected areas receive revenue for conservation.
appropriate legislative backing, committed
enforcement, and adequate funding, they The relationship between ecotourism
remain little more than ‘paper parks’, as and the environment is two-way. Weaver
described by Weaver and Schlüter in the and Schlüter point to the impact of envi-
context of Latin America, and by Lew in ronmental disasters in the Caribbean, and
the context of Asia. Dowling describes their omnipresent threat
in the Pacific islands. The damage done to
Ecological Considerations Mozambique’s fledgling tourism industry
by the massive flooding during 2000,
although trivial compared with humanitar-
ian concerns, must be considerable.

The consideration of protected areas raises
the issue of environmental protection and

88 E. Cater

Institutional Factors ecolodge on Vanua Levu as one example of
elite or luxury ecotourism.
The myriad of institutions concerned with
ecotourism at different levels, representing Accessibility is another technical factor
varied interests, are described in the to consider. It is no accident that prime
chapters. A related factor of interest is ecotourism sites develop close to existing
expatriate involvement in ecotourism, par- urban nodes, such as Belém and Manaus in
ticularly in the developing countries. Brazil, and in countries readily accessible
Critics might point to eco-imperialism, but to the main tourist generating countries,
private capital fills a gap in capital-scarce such as Belize and Costa Rica relative to
situations. There are an increasing number the USA. Other popular ecotourism desti-
of private ecotourism initiatives, described nations are accessed from popular stopover
in Central America by Weaver and Schlüter points such as the natural areas of
and in southern and East Africa by Dieke. Thailand and Malaysia. Conversely, a chal-
Furthermore, it is not simply a Western lenge is posed by the remoteness of the
core versus under-developed periphery Pacific islands and the high cost of access-
scenario. The South African based ing these destinations.
Conservation Corporation, for example,
now has ecotourism partnerships through- Conclusion
out east and southern Africa (Christ, 1998).
It is evident from this discussion, more
Technical Forces amply illustrated in the following chapters,
that ecotourism must be set into context,
Eco-architecture and more environmentally and that the context is regional as well as
sound infrastructure, described in Chapters site-specific. As well as common interests,
20 and 23, should be a feature of eco- there are likely to be conflicts. A better
tourism. However, in many parts of the understanding of areas of discord, as well
world ecolodges are few and far between, as concord, is essential, so that negative
even in the much lauded ecotourism desti- links can be broken, and positive links
nation of Costa Rica. Ecotourism is the built upon (World Bank, 1992; Cater, 1995).
ideal candidate for appropriate technology. Only then will ecotourism across the globe
Unfortunately, this does not always come begin to live up to the reputation of sus-
cheap. Dowling describes the upmarket tainability that precedes it.

References

Cater, E. (1995) Environmental contradictions in sustainable tourism. The Geographical Journal
161(1), 21–28.

Christ, C. (1998) Taking ecotourism to the next level: a look at private sector involvement with local
communities. In: Lindberg, K., Epler-Wood, M. and Engeldrum, D. (eds) Ecotourism: a Guide for
Planners and Managers, Vol. 2. The Ecotourism Society, North Bennington, Vermont, pp. 183–195.

DFID (1999) Changing the Nature of Tourism. DFID, London.
Eber, S. (ed.) (1992) Beyond the Green Horizon: Principles for sustainable tourism. Godalming, WWF,

UK.
IRG (1992) Ecotourism: a Viable Alternative for Sustainable Management of Natural Resources in

Africa. Submitted to Agency for International Development Bureau for Africa, Washington, DC.
Williams, A. and Shaw, G. (1994) Critical Issues in Tourism: a Geographical Perspective. Blackwell,

Oxford.
Williams, A.M. and Shaw, G. (1998) Tourism and the environment: sustainability and economic

restructuring. In: Hall, C.M. and Lew, A.A. (eds) Sustainable Tourism. Addison Wesley
Longman, Harlow.
World Bank (1992) World Development Report. World Bank, Washington, DC.

Chapter 6

Kenya and South Africa

P.U.C. Dieke

University of Strathclyde, The Scottish Hotel School, Glasgow, UK

Introduction diversity. Perhaps part of the variation has
to do with differences in their colonial
The purpose of this chapter is to provide a experience, following the balkanization of
comparative analysis of ecotourism as a the continent into arbitrary nation-states to
form of sustainable development in the meet the needs of the European governing
context of Kenya and South Africa. These powers (see Afigbo et al., 1992).
two African countries exemplify character-
istics of well-established tourism destina- A recent study (Dieke, 2000) has shown
tions generally but they are also probably that there is clearly a wide variety of differ-
the highest profile ecotourism destination ent types of tourism available in the region:
countries in the region. The chapter first from safari tourism (e.g. wildlife, desert),
briefly reviews Africa’s place in the broader beach tourism and ‘roots’ tourism to
tourism perspective, then considers the sit- marine tourism. Some others include cul-
uation in the two main case studies. An tural/heritage and archaeological tourism,
insight into wider continental ecotourism ethnic tourism, ‘overland’ tourism (or
development experiences is then provided, desert, as noted) and, perhaps to a lesser
by examining, in less detail, other African degree, sex tourism. In terms of global con-
countries, and especially those in the same text, Africa received about 3.6% of all
sub-region as Kenya and South Africa. This international stayover arrivals in 1998
chapter also considers various management (WTO, 1999). Within Africa, the northern
and policy-related issues that affect the sta- sub-region had the highest share of traffic
tus of ecotourism in the region. (34.6%) and revenue (33%), followed in
descending order by southern Africa, east-
Africa and International Tourism ern Africa, western Africa, and middle
Africa (Table 6.1). Almost 40% of all visits
Africa comprises 53 countries categorized to Africa originate in the region, with
into five geographical sub-regions: central, Europe accounting for more than one-third
eastern, northern, southern and western. of total arrivals.
Like other developing regions, Africa is a
continent of considerable cultural, eco- Table 6.2a indicates the most visited
nomic, geographic, political and social destinations in Africa in 1998. Of the 20
countries profiled here, South Africa was
the most favoured destination, taking 24%
of total traffic, followed by two northern

© CAB International 2001. The Encyclopedia of Ecotourism 89
(ed. D.B. Weaver)

Table 6.1. Tourism trends by sub-regions, 1995–1998 (WTO, 1999, pp. 4–29).

Sub- Tourist arrivals % change- Market share of
regions (000s) 1998 over 1997 total Africa (%)

1995 199

Eastern 5,761 7.70 21.7 23.
Middle 483 7.81 1.4 1.
Northern 7.79
Southern 8,623 7.94 38.7 34.
Western 7,671 4.97 29.9 30.
2,365
Total Africa 7.50 8.3 9.
24,903
100.0 100.

Countries of the sub-regions:
Eastern: Burundi, The Comoros, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi,
Zambia, Zimbabwe.
Middle: Angola, Cameroon, Central Africa Republic, Chad, Congo (Brazzaville), Equator
(Kinshasa).
Northern: Algeria, Morocco, Sudan, Tunisia.
Southern: Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, South Africa, Swaziland.
Western: Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Côte d’Ivoire, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea,

f Market share of 90 P.U.C. Dieke
) Tourist receipts
(US$ million) % change- total Africa (%)

98 1998 over 1997 1995 1998

.1 2,426 5.75 23.4 25.4
.9 82 5.13 1.7 0.9
.6 3,176 9.90 38.1 33.3
.8 2,950 2.54 28.1 30.9
.5 917 4.23 8.5 9.6

.0 9,551 5.90 100.0 100.0

Mauritius, Mozambique, Réunion, Seychelles, Somalia, Uganda, Tanzania,
rial Guinea, Gabon, Sao Tomé and Principé, Democratic Republic of Congo

Guinea Bissau, Liberia, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Togo.

Table 6.2a. Top 20 tourism destinations in Africa, 1998 (International tourist arrivals, 00

1990 Rank 1998 Country Estimated figures
1995 up to 11 Jan 1999
1 South Africa
41 2 Tunisia 5,981
22 3 Morocco 4,700
13 4 Zimbabwe 3,241
64 5 Kenya 1,600
55 6 Botswana 1,062
77 7 Algeria
38 8 Nigeria 740
13 6 9 Mauritius 648
89 10 Namibia 640
— 10 11 Tanzania 570
15 15 12 Eritrea 510
— 11 13 Zambia 447
17 20 14 Réunion 414
11 12 15 Ghana 382
16 14 16 Swaziland 377
9 13 17 Senegal 335
10 16 18 Côte d’Ivoire 325
12 18 19 Uganda 309
30 18 20 Malawi 302
18 17 238
215
Total
23,036
Total Africa
24,903

00s) (WTO, 1999, p. 31). % change % of total Kenya and South Africa
1998/97 1998
Arrivals (000)
10.0 24.0
s Figures received 10.7 18.9
9 after 11 Jan 1999 13.0
5.6
5,981 7.0 6.4
4,471 Ϫ5.0 4.3
3,243 0.8 3.0
1,600 6.8 2.6
4.7 2.6
951 4.1 2.3
740 11.6 2.0
678 28.8 1.8
640 1.0 1.7
558 6.2 1.5
560 1.9 1.5
447 3.1 1.3
414 0.9 1.3
362 6.1 1.2
377 9.9 1.2
335 4.8 1.0
325 5.7 0.9
332
301 7.6 92.5
238
205 7.5 100.0

—

—

91

Table 6.2b. Top 20 tourism earners in Africa, 1998 (International tourist receipts, US$ m

1990 Rank 1998 Country Estimated figures
1995 up to 11 Jan 1999
1 South Africa
21 2 Morocco 2366
13 3 Tunisia 1600
32 4 Mauritius 1550
54 5 Tanzania
11 7 6 Kenya 502
45 7 Namibia 431
96 8 Ghana 400
10 8 9 Réunion 339
—9 10 Zimbabwe 274
13 11 11 Botswana 250
8 10 12 Senegal 246
6 12 13 Uganda 185
33 14 14 Nigeria 165
25 19 15 Seychelles 142
7 13 16 Côte d’Ivoire 124
16 15 17 Zambia 120
18 21 18 Eritrea
— 17 19 Madagascar 97
19 16 20 Sierra Leone 90
20 18 75
74
Total 57

Total Africa 9087

9551

million) (WTO, 1999, p. 33). 92 P.U.C. Dieke

Receipts (US$ million)

s Figures received % change % of total
9 after 11 Jan 1999 1998/97 1998

2366 3.0 24.8
1600 10.9 16.8
1550 16.2
8.9
503 3.7 5.3
431 9.9 4.5
358 Ϫ5.0 4.2
339 0.9 3.5
274 3.0 2.9
250 0.4 2.6
246 7.0 2.6
185 0.5 1.9
161 5.2 1.7
142 5.2 1.5
124 5.1 1.3
111 Ϫ9.0 1.3
10.2 1.0
97 0.0 0.9
75 0.0 0.8
75 1.4 0.8
74 0.0 0.6
57
5.9 95.1
—
5.9 100.1
—

Kenya and South Africa 93

countries, Tunisia (18%) and Morocco between 1996 and 1998, itself the result of
(13%), and two eastern countries, Zim- many factors including poor infrastructure,
babwe (6.4%) and Kenya (4.3%). The pat- depressed investments, labour unrest, etc.
tern of receipts is similar (as shown in (Kenya, 1999, p. 17). Given this context,
Table 6.2b), with South Africa the leading three broad conclusions may be drawn.
earner (24.8%), followed by Tunisia and First, there is a need to enhance and diver-
Morocco. However, although Zimbabwe sify export earnings. Second, there is a need
and Kenya attracted considerable numbers to increase contribution to government rev-
of tourists, Mauritius and Tanzania were enues and the balance of payments. Third,
able to gain and earn more from tourism. there is a need to increase employment
opportunity. Ecotourism can play a major
This brief background illustrates the role in all of these areas.
nature and scope of international tourism
in Africa and the significance of tourism in South Africa
some countries, which is clearly influenced
by the wider nature of economic develop- South Africa is the most complex country
ment. For the purposes of this chapter, this in sub-Saharan Africa. First, the country
profile provides a framework within which has the most diversified natural resource
to examine the ecotourism activity in the base, from oceans to snow-capped moun-
region. tains (in winter), from subtropical deserts
to montane forests. Its landscape is varied,
General Tourism in Kenya and mainly related not only to the great moun-
South Africa tains, as noted, but also to the plateaux of
the high veld, or low veld steppe lands.
The regional perspective on tourism has Although the plateaux extend from east to
been summarized above. In this section we west and from south to north, there are two
consider the case of Kenya and South distinct climatic features that can be dis-
Africa, as a prelude to the consideration of cerned. The country is wet and green on
ecotourism. This section begins by present- the east coast, in the eastern mountains,
ing a general background to the countries, and on the high plateaux, but dry and
and then examines the current situation highly desertified on the lower plateaux
with regard to their overall tourism sectors. and western dry lands. The country also
has the most diverse wildlife sanctuaries in
Kenya Africa. All these factors together indicate a
high potential for ecotourism development.
Kenya occupies a mainly arid to semiarid
area of 560,367 km2, and has an estimated The country of 44 million inhabitants has
population in excess of 29 million (ECA, also had a complex history of human rela-
1999; Kenya, 1999). Between 1979 and tions in the last 400 years. Its state of devel-
1989, Kenya experienced an annual net opment and real economic power has for
population increase of 4% (Kenya, 1995, p. historical reasons been deliberately
19). Although the indigenous people designed and implemented to favour white-
account for the vast majority of the popula- dominated areas. The black African reserva-
tion, other non-Africans, especially those tions are poor and over-populated and
from Asia, exercise a considerable influence dominated by poverty-related crimes. But
over the economy. The economy is based the elections of 1994 that ushered in the
on the export of agricultural products universal adult suffrage and democratic gov-
mainly related to coffee (7% of GDP) and ernment opened the door for revolutionary
tea (6%), with tourism (10%) also playing a changes since then. The economy is diversi-
leading role. GDP at factor cost in real terms fied; agriculture, industry, manufacturing or
declined at an annual average rate of 2% mining, and services (including tourism) are
the main sectors.

94 P.U.C. Dieke

As noted in the introduction, Kenya and the events of 1994. They need to be seen
South Africa are both considered well against a background where South Africa,
established and ‘successful’ as tourism des- as previously noted, was regarded as an
tinations. Table 6.2 shows their relative economic and a political pariah state as a
volume and value significance comparative consequence of its apartheid policy. Now
to selected main tourism players in the the country has been re-incorporated into
region. Both countries accord tourism a the international community. The policy
high priority in their national development now is for development of ‘responsible
plans. Their success in this field has tourism’ with its emphasis on:
demonstrated how other countries in the
region should be able to use tourism as part The right and appropriate vision, structure
of their economic development strategies. and texture of the industry to facilitate
The importance of tourism in the process sustainable tourism; the evolution of an
of national development is reflected in the economically active and integrated black
current national development plan of Kenya: majority into tourism; optimisation of the
socio-economic benefits to the widest
A sustained flow of tourists will contribute to possible spectrum of society in all provinces;
industrial development through generation of and evolution, therefore, of a long-term base
foreign exchange, creation of income for growth through vision, promotion and
earnings opportunities … The constraints to integration of environmental management
growth for the tourism industry include into the different phases of project
inadequate tourism promotion and marketing management.
efforts … weak institutional and regulatory
support framework. The strategies that will (SATOUR, 1996, p. 19)
be used to address the above issues with a
view to improving the tourism sector include Indeed, these are difficult objectives to
strengthening the Kenya Tourism Board achieve in a country where the apartheid
(KTB) to become fully operational … In this policy of the government had been the
regard, the National Tourism Master Plan focal point of police statism. But the coun-
will be implemented fully to establish a try is anxious to make up for lost opportu-
sustainable tourism base. nities of the apartheid era, researching and
planning for unique packages such as
(Kenya, 1997a, pp. 201–202) ecotourism, ‘afro-tourism’ and cultural
tourism.
In South Africa, the government recently
published a White Paper on Tourism Features of tourism in Kenya and South Africa
(SATOUR, 1996) that was later approved
by the Cabinet in June 1996. The main pur- Three characteristics define the current
pose was to set out the necessary develop- tourism sector: seasonality; concentration
ment parameters and how these might be of generating countries; and the tourism
realized. In particular, emphasis was given product. In relation to seasonality, in 1998
to the key changes required in the organi- 1,062,000 tourists arrived in Kenya,
zational structures to permit the manage- 5,981,000 in South Africa (Table 6.2a). In
ment of the tourism sector, including the the focus period, over 70% of the visitors
regulatory and legislative systems. arriving in Kenya (see Kenya, 1999) and
50% in South Africa (see South Africa,
One other important component of the 1999a) came during the months of
White Paper and related initiatives (see November 1998 to March 1999. These fig-
SATOUR, 1998, 1999a, b, c) was to stimu- ures indicate a very high concentration of
late the dialogue between the private and arrivals, a pattern that has consequent eco-
public sectors in a partnership arrange- nomic implications.
ment, thereby broadening participation in
the sector. These developments are part of Europe was the major ‘trigger’ market
the major economic and political reforms for Kenya in 1998, with Germany and the
in the country, catalysed and actuated by

Kenya and South Africa 95

UK between them accounting for over 60% ber of factors that shaped tourism develop-
of all bed-nights occupied by European vis- ment in Kenya and South Africa in 1998,
itors. The next most important source of and especially tourist product, transport,
tourists came from regional countries, e.g. and marketing and promotion activities
Tanzania and Uganda with 216,800 bed- (WTO, 1999, p. 100). Each area has both
nights in 1998. For South Africa 60% of positive and negative aspects. On Kenya’s
arrivals in 1998 were from neighbouring tourist product, there were positive devel-
countries. There was relative dependence opments in the liberalization of foreign
on charter markets from the UK, Germany, exchange regimes, divestiture of govern-
US and France during the period in focus. ment’s interests in the sector and diversifi-
cation of the product. Of course, whatever
Finally, the countries’ tourism product gains were made as a consequence of these
is defined here as all those facilities, measures, were off-set by adverse publicity
amenities, and services, including the nat- in the international media labelling Kenya
ural environment, which attract visitors. In as an unsafe and insecure destination.
particular the product has a number of dis- Similar observations could be made of
tinct features: game viewing, beach, confer- South Africa. On the positive side, the
ences and seminars, activity/adventure country upgraded its international airports,
pursuits, shopping, cultural events and, for awarded mega-casino licences, and estab-
South Africa especially, hotel-based gam- lished provincial tourism and marketing
bling and sports events (see Kenya, 1999; development agencies. However, there was
SATOUR, n.d., p. 11). In the context of this a lack of investment incentives and, in par-
chapter, prime emphasis will be on the nat- ticular, local banks were unwilling to pro-
ural endowments of the countries and, in vide loans for tourism development
particular, those that are based on wildlife projects.
and its natural habitat. These are mainly
available within the national parks and On the transport front, Kenya widened
reserves. As will be discussed below, Kenya its charter market networks to allow
has 60 such parks and reserves and South Hungary and France to increase their char-
Africa 212, out of which 17 are major ones, ters. Kenya Airways, the national carrier,
such as the 2 M ha Kruger National Park. struck strategic alliances with KLM and
North West Airlines that gave it more
But the key question is whether these routes for the benefit of international
features are in themselves unique to justify tourists. The down side was in the area of
the countries’ successes, given that the fea- higher fuel prices, which led to some air-
tures are also available in many destina- lines having to over-fly Kenya and to cut
tions in neighbouring countries in both down on frequencies. South Africa also
eastern and southern sub-regions. It should allowed more air charter operators to enter
be noted, as tourism marketers always do, the market. For instance, the airline Iberia
that no one activity is adequately attractive re-established links with South Africa,
to motivate visitors. However, taken even though South African Airways were
together, they provide a basket of options still running at a loss.
available to tourists (see Jefferson and
Lickorish, 1988; Richards, 1997). In In relation to the marketing and promo-
essence, the implication must be that very tion activities, the formation of the Kenya
few countries have attractions that consti- Tourist Board to handle these tasks, the
tute unique selling propositions (USP). In completion of a Tourism Master Plan and
the case of Kenya and South Africa one the relaunching of the East Africa Com-
would have to look therefore at other fac- munity were seen as positive developments.
tors, e.g. marketing, image and others, all Negative factors included a lack of diversi-
considerations that can be found in ‘suc- fication of the source markets, relying
cessful’ tourism destinations. heavily on the traditional markets; inade-
quate funding; and increasing competition
In specific terms, the World Tourism by rival destinations (e.g. Zimbabwe).
Organization (WTO) has identified a num-

96 P.U.C. Dieke

South Africa transformed the institutional voice in decisions regarding benefits-sharing
structures for tourism, e.g. SATOUR, but arising from, and therefore ownership of,
extensive media coverage of South Africa’s wildlife resources. Thus in essence it can
crime was unhelpful. be suggested that the consumptive activity
is a necessary precursor to understanding
Ecotourism in Kenya and ecotourism developments that were to
South Africa follow.

In considering ecotourism activity in The development of ecotourism in
Kenya and South Africa, there are three Kenya dates back to 1977 and 1978 when
areas that will be emphasized: its early the country’s government imposed a total
growth and magnitude; spatial distribution; ban on sport hunting and on the trade in
and a number of development issues, albeit game trophies. This apparent U-turn in
in a comparative setting. wildlife policy was prompted by several
considerations, not least being how to
Growth and magnitude ensure that best use was made of wildlife
resources (Dieke, 1991). This measure had
To consider the early growth and magni- an effect at three levels. First, it helped to
tude of ecotourism in Kenya and South concentrate people’s minds on alternative
Africa, it is helpful, even briefly, to distin- uses of wildlife; second, it had a disastrous
guish between ‘consumptive’ and ‘non-con- effect on earnings and employment in the
sumptive’ tourist attractions and holiday country; and third, it ensured the adapta-
opportunities (Gibson, 1999; Honey, 1999). tion of existing hunting structures (e.g.
This is because both concepts always recur lodges, game parks, national reserves, etc.)
in any discussion of wildlife-based tourism to the cause of non-consumptive eco-
development in these countries, given the tourism (Olindo, 1991). The response to
comparative use of the resource relative to the new dispensation was swift: shooting
other development sectors (see Olindo, wildlife with the camera took centre-stage;
1991; ECA, 1997). promotional activities highlighted the nat-
ural landscapes of the country, its biodiver-
Simply put, consumptive uses of sity, unique ecosystems, beautiful scenery
wildlife such as big game sport hunting (e.g. the Rift Valley) and volcanic moun-
expeditions, bird shooting, etc., mirror a tains (see The Ecotourism Society, 1998).
master–servant relationship situation in Tour organizers developed ornithological
which white settlers were the masters and trips and botanical study tours.
indigenous Africans the servants. Colonial
wildlife policy sought to advance the needs The extent of ecotourism in Kenya
of the settlers at the expense of the native raises definitional and motivational issues.
population relating to ownership, use and The first is a continuing example of the
even the conservation of resources that dearth of reliable tourism statistics in the
subsequently followed (Anderson and country and of the fact that those which are
Grove, 1987; Gibson, 1999; Honey, 1999). available need to be interpreted with cau-
This may be tantamount, in the words of tion. This is not an unusual situation in a
Akama (1996, p. 572), to ‘the taking away country where, as was observed some 10
of wildlife resource user rights from the years ago (Dieke, 1991), tourism statistics
rural peasants’. Post-colonial policy, with are generally under- or overestimated. The
its emphasis on non-consumptive or eco- problems stem from variations in collec-
tourism use of wildlife resources sought, tion methods, processing of data, and defi-
conversely, to redress the injustice seen nitions – problems which can be found in
during the consumptive era. It has sought other developing countries. As the role of
to empower the locals by giving them a ecotourism increases, so too does the need
for more reliable time series tourism data,
as a basis for policy formulation.

Table 6.2a indicates that there were

Kenya and South Africa 97

about 1 million international visitors arriv- while the proportion accounted for by East
ing in Kenya in 1998. However, on the African visitors increased from 9% of the
basis of provisional figures from govern- total to 17%. This decline mirrored trends
ment sources of park- and reserve- in other sectors of Kenyan tourism such as
visitations between 1995 and 1998 (Table Nairobi and the coast (Kenya, 1999).
6.3a, b), it seems that many of these visitors
were ecotourists, as they were engaged in In the field of ecotourism, South Africa
safaris within parks and reserves. In 1998, has been described as having ‘a reputation
1,079,400 protected area visitors were as one of the world’s leading countries,
reported (Table 6.3a), a figure that exceeds with its well-managed system of public
the 1 million tourists noted above. Not all protected areas, extensive private sector
of these visitors were international tourists, involvement and conservation-linked com-
as indicated in Table 6.3c with respect to munity development initiatives’ (‘t Sas-
lodge bed-occupancy rates. Rolfes, 1996). In this respect the country is
similar to Kenya, becoming well known
It should be stressed that the continued and ‘successful’ in this sector. But in con-
contraction in the number of visitors to trast to Kenya, ecotourism in South Africa
parks and game reserves contributed to low has a chequered history and has been con-
bed-occupancy rates in game lodges. The troversial. It is worth examining, albeit
number of bed-nights fell dramatically briefly, a short historical context within
from 351,200 in 1997 to 167,000 in 1998, which ecotourism activity exists in this

Table 6.3a. Number of visitors to parks and game reserves, 1995–1998 (000s) (Kenya, 1999, p. 164; Kenya,
1997b, p. 184).

Area 1995 1996 1997 1998

Nairobi 113.5 158.3 149.6 122.3
Animal Orphanage 212.1 210.6 193.7 164.8
Amboseli 114.8 109.1 117.2
Tsavo (West) 62.9
Tsavo (East) 93.1 93.6 88.6 54.9
Aberdare 228.8 137.5 123.2 66.9
Lake Nakuru 47.9
Maasai Mara 70.1 60.2 59.0 111.0
Bamburi Nature Park 166.8 156.9 132.1 100.4
Malindi Marine 133.2 130.3 118.3 77.9
Lake Bogoria 109.2 107.0 13.7
Meru 86.8 20.6
Shimba Hills 38.8 39.3 27.0
Mount Kenya 14.2 14.2 24.5 1.8
Samburu 16.8
Kisite/Mpunguti 7.3 7.8 4.1 10.2
Mombasa Marine 20.0 23.4 22.5
Watamu Marine 17.2 17.1 14.8 7.0
Hell’s Gate 29.2
Impala Sanctuary (Kisumu) 9.1 9.1 8.3 16.2
Othera 32.4 39.9 35.1 18.3
23.9 21.7 15.2 57.1
Total 16.1 20.2 19.4 65.6
50.1 52.1 47.2 13.9
65.6 62.4
3.5 14.8 15.5 1079.4
18.9
1488.7 1364.5
1493.1

a Other includes Mount Elgon, Ol-Donyo Sabuk, Marsabit, Saiwa Swamp, Sibiloi, Ruma National Park,
Mwea National Reserve, Central Island National Park, Nasolot National Reserve and Kakamega National
Reserve.

98 P.U.C. Dieke

Table 6.3b. Visitors to museums, snake park and sites, 1995–1998 (Kenya, 1999, p. 165; Kenya, 1997b,
p. 184).

1995 1996 1997 1998

National Museum (Main Gate) 215.4 218.0 184.5 173.4
National Museum (Snake Park) 181.6 170.6 148.6 75.9
Forth Jesus 245.3 180.2 124.4 88.9
Kisumu Museum 34.7
Kitale Museum 36.1 49.5 18.2 27.3
Gedi 27.5 29.0 16.1 14.8
Meru Museum 43.7 29.6 29.7 15.8
Lamu 21.0 12.4 6.2
Jumba la Mtwala 10.7 12.2 9.4 4.0
Ologesailie 11.3 8.6 1.9
Kariandusi — 8.5 4.9 4.5
Hyrax Hills — 2.2 2.8
Karen Blixen 3.0 2.3 0.7 41.1
Kilifi Mwarani — 1.9 1.5 2.9
46.1 43.7 38.6
Total 0.8 0.9 0.7 494.2

842.5 758.8 588.1

Table 6.3c. Game lodges occupancy, 1995–1998 (000s) (Kenya, 1999, p. 163; Kenya, 1997b, p. 184).

Bed-nights occupied

Foreign residents East African residents

Lodge locality/type 1995 1996 1997 1998 1995 1996 1997 1998

Game reserves 218.6 255.5 178.9 77.7 21.0 20.9 18.0 16.2
National parks 172.5 201.7 141.2 61.3 15.1 15.1 13.1 11.8

Total 391.1 457.2 320.1 139.0 36.1 36.0 31.1 28.0
Of which full catering 341.2 398.9 279.3 121.3 28.3 28.2 24.1 22.0
Self-service
49.9 58.3 40.8 17.7 7.8 7.8 7.0 6.0

country and considering current changes of hunters, mostly from wealthy landowners’
thinking in and extent of the sector. and urban dwellers’ backgrounds, saw no
need to gain commercially from wildlife.
Early utilization of wildlife centred on They justified hunting as a glamorous
hunting involving three different groups of recreational outlet and an indicator of
people: sport hunters (mostly English- social status, and regarded the killing of
speaking), commercial hunters (mostly wildlife for commercial and subsistence
Afrikaners) and subsistence hunters (native purposes as cruel and unnecessary. These
Africans). As wildlife became scarce, these contrasting positions between people who
groups started to compete for the rights to live off the land and a more wealthy elite
hunt. The first people to lose their rights persist today in this country, although in a
were the subsistence hunters. There was a somewhat different way, thanks to the
philosophical divide between the other evolution of new forms of international
two groups over the justification for hunt- tourism, and especially ecotourism. Thus,
ing. Commercial hunters earned a living given the revolutionary reforms within the
from wildlife, and could not understand national, political, philosophical, economic
the rationale for sport hunting, which they and social attitudes, relationships and par-
regarded as wasteful. Conversely, sport

Kenya and South Africa 99

ticipatory integration of the black majority, catering accommodation that may be better
the South African ecotourism is entering a suited to the low-income levels of most
phase of revolutionary growth. South Africans, and also the foreign budget
travellers.
The current South African tourism
development strategy, Tourism in Gear, for Of the 212 parks in this country, the 2
the period 1998–2000 identified eco- million ha Kruger National Park is an icon
tourism – including safari, game-watching in the South African ecotourism develop-
and birdwatching – as one of the seven ment experience. The Park is the largest in
core activities (SATOUR, 1998). Others the country and offers an unrivalled variety
include culture, adventure, sport, business, of game animals: amphibians, reptiles,
special interest and, finally, the MICE birds and 147 mammal species including
(meetings, incentives, conventions and the Big Five (buffalo, cheetah, elephant,
exhibitions) sector. Clearly, scenic interest giraffe and leopard). It also offers game or
and wildlife (in the widest sense of eco- nature reserve type accommodation, cover-
tourism) emerge as the prime focus of ing the full spectrum from camping to lux-
attention. The importance of ecotourism ury cottages. There are numerous camps to
and others is understandable considering: cater for every taste and budget ranging
from rest-camps and bush-camps to bush-
the slowly diminishing importance of South lodges. Latest estimates (TTI, 1999) put the
visitation level at about 1 million a year
Africa’s cities as tourist attractions … There (almost exactly half of the visitors stay at
least one night), despite mounting criticism
are signs that city dwellers are choosing rural over the standard of service in its camps.
Kruger is particularly popular with foreign
locations for holidays in preference to cities visitors who, it is claimed, now number
almost 200,000 a year, accounting for
… At the same time, locations in the interior almost 50% of all foreign overnights in
game/nature parks (SATOUR, 1999a).
which are attractive either for their scenery,
The other parks operated by South
wildlife, or just for their rustic setting, are African National Parks do not fare well in
visitation terms, probably because they
becoming popular among visitors, not only tend to lie off the foreigners’ beaten track,
and partly because they are not well
from South Africa but also from abroad. known. As a consequence of tax incentives
given in recent times, there is now a con-
(TTI, 1999, p. 89) siderable increase in private game lodges,
currently estimated at around 300, with
It could be argued that this shift away from total bed capacity of 18,000 (TTI, 1999).
cities has in large part been caused by the Some of them do not score well, perhaps
perceived deterioration in the condition of because they are considered expensive, but
many, if not most, of South Africa’s urban they reflect a trend of over-supply.
centres over the past decade. By implica-
tion, the ending of apartheid has inevitably Spatial distribution
brought about an invasion of places that
were in effect previously forbidden, with From a spatial framework, the wildlife
consequences for accommodation and resource and the activity associated with it
occupancy. are largely confined within parks and
reserves, although the activity is carried
The evidence shows that annual room out in adjacent areas as well. In the case of
occupancy in Johannesburg, for example, Kenya, the distinction between the parks
fell from around 45% in the mid-1990s to and reserves is important for two reasons.
41% in 1997 – and probably to below 40%
in 1998 – and the Durban area registered a
fall from 66% to well below 60% (TTI,
1999). Furthermore the estimates indicate
that in 1996 the 8500 registered properties
offered the equivalent of 600,000 beds, the
bulk of which were in campsites (or
‘ecolodge’ type accommodation outlets).
These figures may be underestimates
because precise statistics are unavailable,
particularly in relation to unregistered self-

100 P.U.C. Dieke

The first is to clarify the issue of their own- April 2000). This statement is significant in
ership, management and financial arrange- three respects. First, it underscores the new
ments, and the second to determine the opening-up of South Africa’s development
relationship of local people and the pro- landscape to accommodate all shades of
tected areas vis-à-vis benefits sharing opinion on enterprise culture. Second,
(Sindiga, 2000). In particular (see Yeager implicitly there are basic differences
and Miller, 1986; KWS, 1990), the ‘parks’ between government-owned and privately
refer to parcels of land belonging to, and owned parks in respect to their relative
fully administered and financed by, the roles in ecotourism. As noted above, it is
central government. ‘Reserves’, in contrast, not surprising that private parks, encour-
are areas set aside by local authorities aged by generous incentives, are numeri-
(counties) for conservation of wildlife but cally significant. For government parks,
which are managed and partly financed by they highlight the process that gives provin-
the central government. County councils cial governments responsibility for tourism
operate game reserves on trust lands for promotion and development, leaving the
which they are responsible, and also par- central government with a restricted
ticipate in safari lodges or self-catering responsibility (see SATOUR, 1999a). Third,
accommodations. whether the parks/game farms fall within
the jurisdiction of national or provincial
At present there are 60 such protected government, or whether they are owned
areas in Kenya. Estimates of the proportion and managed by the government or private
of the country’s land area occupied by the sector, it is pertinent that the parks are
parks and reserves are imprecise, but range attractive to both foreign and domestic
between 6 and 12% (Yeager and Miller, tourists. The Strategy document (SATOUR,
1986; Akama, 1996; Sindiga, 2000). The 1998) proves the point: R15 billion were
imprecision is understandable, especially as generated by domestic tourism, and R12
more areas are usually incorporated into the billion by inbound visitors.
‘protected’ network as and when the need
arises, given that there is no set numerical Development issues
limit. However, as evident in Table 6.3a, vis-
itation is spatially concentrated within or Various development issues, such as carry-
skewed towards small core ‘protected’ areas, ing capacity, marketing and image, pertain
partly because of easy access, and partly specifically to the ecotourism sector in
because of their proximity to international Kenya and South Africa. Articulating the
gateways. It may also be that these areas are carrying capacity problems in Kenya (see
popular with ecotourists. It is therefore not also Table 6.3a, b, c), Weaver has suc-
surprising that Nairobi is significant as both cinctly described the situation thus:
capital city and international gateway, as a
centre for incoming tours, and as a base for In Kenya, much attention has been focused
game viewing tours. In addition, its proxim- on Amboseli National Park and Maasai Mara
ity to the beach area provides the ancillary National Reserve. Visitor crowding and
opportunities to combine beach and safari mismanagement in the former has long been
holidays. associated with disruption of sensitive
species such as cheetahs. Commonly, large
In South Africa, as in Kenya, the extent numbers of safari vehicles would concentrate
of area occupied by the parks is unclear, but around a single predator group, as nearby
one source (Weaver, 1998), quoting World safari vehicles would be alerted to the
Resources Institute 1994, gives a figure of presence of their activity. Other problems
6.1%. However, one member of a South have included scavenging by local wildlife in
African NGO adds a perspective to the garbage dumps, and landscape degeneration
debate by declaring that ‘there are also as a result of extensive off-road vehicular
something like 17 million ha of privately traffic.
owned land that have been converted to
game farming’ (personal communication, (Weaver, 1999, p. 806)

Kenya and South Africa 101

Ecotourism in Other a stereotypical ‘safari’ image of the
African Countries Tanzanian tourism product.

In this section a small selection of some Zambia
countries in the sub-regions of Africa are
presented, in essence, to provide a broader Zambian ecotourism potential is based on
continental context. Perhaps these area largely intact wildlife resources and the
studies will also emphasize or demonstrate singular Victoria Falls. However, at the pre-
why there is relatively little ecotourism in sent time, this potential is not being real-
some countries and more in others. The ized due to the poor quality of its lodges,
countries selected are not only significant food, infrastructure, vehicles and guides
because they exhibit in relatively varying (Zambia, 1995a). This situation does not
degrees some of the features of ecotourism bode well for Zambia, which appears to
as discussed, but they also highlight prob- have no discernable competitive advantage
lems that can be found in much of the against emerging sub-regional ecotourism
region, considerations that might poten- destinations such as Tanzania, Zimbabwe
tially threaten or enhance ecotourism activ- and South Africa, despite the quality of its
ities. Emphasis is placed on other ‘Safari wildlife. Weaver also shares some of the
Corridor’ countries located between Kenya above concerns as well as offering some
and South Africa (see Chapter 16). perspectives, maintaining that:

Tanzania If the situation in Zimbabwe suggests
overdevelopment, its Zambian counterpart
Tanzania, once a tourism rival of Kenya, reveals underutilization, with visitation
has the potential to re-launch itself as an averaging only 50 visitors each day. A similar
ecotourism destination following the situation pertains to Zambia’s protected
repeal of socialist policies that were inau- areas, which accommodate modest tourist
gurated during the 1970s. Private enter- numbers, despite outstanding natural
prise in tourism is now encouraged and qualities. Without associated revenues, there
growing, leading to the rapid growth of is little justification for maintaining such
tourist arrivals and receipts since the mid- areas in a state conducive to the fulfilment of
1990s. In terms of its competitive eco- their conservation mandate. Because of
tourism advantage, Tanzania has a wide inadequate funding, infrastructure for
variety of environmental resources, and its reaching the parks is poor (thus discouraging
wildlife resources are unmatched in Africa tourist traffic) and the number of rangers (600
beyond South Africa. Included in this as of the late 1980s) has been far less than
inventory are ecotourism icons such as 4000–5000 required to address serious
Kilimanjaro, the Ngorongoro, and Serengeti, poaching-related wildlife depletion.
the last two located within the so-called
Northern Circuit wildlife area. Historically, (Weaver, 1998, p. 132)
ecotourism in Tanzania has focused on this
area, though considerable potential is In response, Zambia has taken a number
found along the coast and within the unde- of sustainable development measures.
veloped southern wildlife sanctuaries. Notable among these is the Administrative
Such extensions would be logical from Management Design for Game Management
both a managerial and marketing perspec- (ADMADE), introduced in the Lupande
tive, given that 80% of all tourist bed- Game Management Area of the South
nights are concentrated in the Northern Luangwa National Park, and including the
Circuit: a skewed pattern that has resulted Luangwa Integrated Rural Development
in local pressures on environmental Project (LIRDP) (Inskeep, 1991). Both ini-
resources during the peak season, and tiatives are intended to advance the cause
of ecotourism, as broadly defined, but may
be only superficial. More recently, the

102 P.U.C. Dieke

Medium-Term Strategy for Tourism (see have yet to experience intensive levels of
Zambia, 1995a) and the White Paper on visitation, an impact is being made on cer-
Tourism (see Zambia, 1995b) have tain areas, by what resembles a form of
attempted to address the problems of incipient mass tourism’ (Weaver, 1998,
tourism in the country, though neither con- p. 131). Part of the problem is that preferred
stitutes a comprehensive tourism develop- holiday areas outside Harare, the capital,
ment plan. Basically the strategy identifies are concentrated in the northern region of
the principal problems and constraints to the country, notably Lake Kariba, Hwange
further tourism development in Zambia National Park and the geographically proxi-
and prescribes the direction for future mate Victoria Falls.
development as well as identifiying the
necessary policy, legislative and develop- Given, therefore, the huge popularity of
ment issues that need to be attended to in the Victoria Falls (a World Heritage
the short-to-medium term. resource), with about 20% of total
overnight stays in 1995, it is not surprising
In terms of ecotourism, to implement that this poses an increasing threat to the
the strategies will require investment in environmental sustainability of the coun-
physical plant, facilities and associated ser- try’s most important tourist attractions
vices. The government has recently put (ECA, 1997). The second, and related,
accommodation facilities in the national problem concerns the actual wildlife, and
parks out to tender, and this should result the problem is twofold. First there is the
in an immediate inflow of both investment claim that over-crowding and over-utiliza-
and expertise to revitalize the existing tion of the Kariba and Zambezi have
facilities through upgrading and develop- changed some wildlife habits (ECA, 1997).
ment. This in turn should have a positive For example, the water-skinner, which nor-
effect on the inflow of tourists. Revenue mally nests on the riverbank, has been dis-
generated will benefit the National Parks turbed to the extent that it has had to
and Wildlife Service (NPWS) through con- change its nesting habits. There is a likeli-
tributions to its Wildlife and Conservation hood of other birds and animals being
Revolving Fund (WCRF) and to communi- affected in one way or another. The second
ties through the ADMADE programme. problem is the decimation of wildlife, e.g.
rhinoceros, by poaching, which was said to
Zimbabwe be serious before the introduction of the
Communal Areas Management Programme
Zimbabwe is endowed with considerable for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE) in
natural landscapes, having 29 wildlife pro- 1989. The latter movement integrates local
tected areas that account for between 8% communities in tourism development by
(Weaver, 1998) and 12% (ECA, 1997) of its providing these communities with tangible
territory. What is striking about this coun- benefits from the use of wildlife resources
try is the quality of its infrastructure and for hunting and other forms of tourism,
support services that, by any comparative hence the initiative is only partially related
African standards, might be considered to ecotourism. However, this does not
good. It has managed to maintain relative mean that it is unsustainable, since the
peace since independence in 1980, movement has brought about a fundamen-
although current social unrest in the coun- tal and positive change in community atti-
try might undermine future prospects. tudes towards wildlife management.

Zimbabwe suffers from two interrelated The Gambia
problems, one of which is an upsurge in
visitation levels, and the other a dramatic Some mention should be made of African
reduction in some key animal species on ecotourism beyond its East and South
which ecotourism depends. It has been sug- African strongholds. Ecotourism in The
gested that, although ‘most protected areas

Kenya and South Africa 103

Gambia is perhaps representative of the which derives significant economic bene-
general trend in West Africa. Here, the sec- fits from the symbiotic relationship. To
tor is embryonic and small scale. In addi- protect bird life, for which The Gambia
tion, the product is different due to, inter enjoys a good reputation, a number of areas
alia, limited land provision, harsh climatic have recently been reserved as ‘bird sanc-
conditions, desertification, destruction of tuaries’.
rainforest and savannahs and, arguably,
civil and military conflicts. The first major Future development of ecotourism in
effort to develop ecotourism in The Gambia The Gambia, in summary, will undoubt-
began in 1977 with the Banjul Declaration edly be hindered by the environmental
(The Gambia, n.d., p. 2), which was problems of the past. Furthermore, as in
spawned by government’s awareness of the many West African destinations, the mar-
loss of wildlife and biodiversity. The sole keting of this product will be hindered by
purpose of the Declaration, in the words of the absence of ‘dramatic’ attractions such
the government was to ‘ensure the survival as lions, giraffes and elephants. However,
of the wildlife still remaining with us’ by allying ecotourism with product
through taking ‘untiring efforts to conserve strengths such as cultural tourism or even
for now and posterity as wide a spectrum as sports tourism, and by intelligently and
possible of our remaining fauna and flora’. responsibly accessing its existing natural
In one sense ecotourism policy in this attractions, The Gambia can succeed as an
country can therefore be seen as an out- ecotourism destination. Another possibility
growth of the broad environmental master would be to establish a more diversified
plan with its focus on arresting the degrada- tourism product by engaging in multilat-
tion of vegetation, forest cover, biodiversity eral product development and marketing
and wildlife, much of it attributable to (The Gambia, n.d., p. 5).
other forms of tourism (see Dieke, 1993).
Conclusion
A 1967 study listed 67 species of mam-
mals known or expected to have existed in The importance of developing sustainable
The Gambia in the 20th century. Of this ecotourism in Africa cannot be over-
number, however, 13 are now locally emphasized because of its potential for
extinct, and the remaining species are diversifying the economy while protecting
under the growing threat of high popula- its still formidable environmental heritage.
tion growth and ever-increasing demands The case is made that its development can
on land resources. For example, the aquatic be based on using the many and varied
antelope or sitatunga and the African man- wildlife and environmental assets of the
atee are teetering on the edge of extinction. region sensitively to stimulate economic
Against this background, Gambian eco- development. This is particularly impor-
tourism is not to be sought in recent plans tant in eastern and southern regional coun-
to develop ecotourism sui generis. These tries where a strong ecotourism tradition is
were foreshadowed by a number of govern- already evident. Yet, despite this tradition
ment initiatives that followed in the wake and the richness and variety of the natural
of the Banjul Declaration or even preceded assets in Africa, these natural resources are
it. The initiatives have centred largely on very much under-utilized for ecotourism.
attempts to bring specific areas under pro- Areas that appear promising for the effec-
tection. There are already a number of tive and sustainable development of the
nature reserves and forest parks that are sector include the fostering of domestic
proving effective in terms of preserving markets, community initiatives along the
endangered animal species. For instance, lines of CAMPFIRE, the return of funds by
Kiang West National Park is something of a the industry into protected areas and
trailblazer in that it seeks to conserve plant wildlife management, and the formation of
and animal life through close and active diversified, multilateral tourism circuits.
collaboration with the resident population,

104 P.U.C. Dieke

Regarding the last point, ecotourism should cooperating countries will be able to benefit
not be isolated from regional African from economies of scale. Such moves could
trends, where there has been the move be facilitated through existing regional and
towards economic integration and coopera- sub-regional organizations such as the
tion, as advocated in the Abuja Treaty Southern African Development Community
(OAU, 1991; Dieke, 1998). Cooperation in (SADC), Common Market for Eastern and
developing ecotourism between those Southern Africa (COMESA), Regional
adjoining African countries where this Tourism Organisation of Southern Africa
activity is meaningful is advocated, as the (RETOSA) and others.

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Chapter 7

Anglo-America

D.A. Fennell

Department of Recreation and Leisure Studies, Faculty of Physical Education and Recreation,
Brock University, St Catharines, Ontario, Canada

Introduction world’s first large preserves and parks,
designed for the protection of habitat and
In looking over the accounts given of the the enjoyment of the public.
Ivory-billed Woodpecker by the naturalists of
Europe, I find it asserted, that it inhabits from Americans and Canadians continue to
New Jersey to Mexico. I believe, however, use their parks systems by the millions,
that few of them are ever seen to the north of and governments in turn have responded
Virginia, and very few of them even in that by creating more protected areas to accom-
state. modate increasing outdoor recreational
demands. In the USA, for example, 287
Alexander Wilson (1808), see Finch and million people visited the national parks
Elder, 1990, pp. 79–80 (natural and cultural) in 1997, representing
an increase of 4.2% from the previous year
In Anglo-America, particularly the US, the (US Department of the Interior, 1998).
natural history accounts of intrepid trav- International visitors too are drawn to the
ellers are well documented. Naturalists and parks and natural resources of the conti-
explorers the likes of William Bartram, nent. Based on research conducted by
Alexander Wilson, John James Audubon, Filion et al. (1992), 69–88% of Europeans
George Catlin, John Burroughs, Robert and Japanese reported that birds and
Service, Henry David Thoreau and John wildlife were important factors in travel-
Muir, contributed greatly to the under- ling to North America. Seventy per cent of
standing of a region’s nature and natural these travellers visited national parks and
resources. In an age of industrialization, 30–64% observed birds and other wildlife.
such accounts were instrumental in help-
ing to change the population’s perception One of the most interesting outdoor
that the forests of the land were more than recreational trends in Anglo-America is the
just, in the words of Michael Wigglesworth changing interest and emphasis away from
(1662), ‘A waste and howling wilderness, consumptive activities like hunting, to
where none inhabited but hellish fiends, those which are more non-consumptive in
and brutish men’ (quoted in Nash, 1982, their orientation. In projections of annual
p. 36). It was their words and actions that growth rates on various outdoor activities
paved the way for the development of the between 1996 and 2011, birding was
reported to be the fastest-growing of all at

© CAB International 2001. The Encyclopedia of Ecotourism 107
(ed. D.B. Weaver)

108 D.A. Fennell

6%, compared with 3% for golf and 4.5% – or activities that adhere to some of the
for fishing (Foot and Stoffman, 1996). In a principles of ecotourism – has been thriv-
recent study by Statistics Canada (1998) on ing for some time, and rests on a solid
the importance of nature to Canadians, foundation of supply and demand (see also
18% of Canadians in 1996 said that they Anderson, 1996). While this may be true
had fished for recreational purposes com- from a statistical standpoint, further analy-
pared with 26% 5 years earlier. The statis- sis points to the fact that the ecotourism
tics for hunting in the survey show a industry in Anglo-America is rather loosely
similar decline, with 5% of the population defined and encompasses a number of dif-
hunting in 1996 compared to 7% in 1991. ferent products that may or may not be
This survey also found that 85% of classified as ecotourism, including adven-
Canada’s population, aged 15 years and ture and outdoor pursuits, wilderness, abo-
over, participated in one or more nature- riginal culture and wildlife viewing. In this
related activities in 1996 (e.g. camping, chapter the ecotourism industries of the
canoeing, hunting), and about one-third of USA and Canada are discussed, in addition
these individuals (6.7 million) visited a to a number of key issues related to the
provincial park, national park, or other development of ecotourism in these
protected area. In addition, Canadians regions, including definitions of the term,
spent an estimated CDN$11 billion policy, and the physical characteristics of
(CDN$550 per person) on nature-related Anglo-American regions where ecotourism
activities, e.g. outdoor clothes, binoculars, is said to exist.
camera gear, hotels and transportation;
while 1.3 million, or just over 5% of the Ecotourism in the USA
population, joined or contributed to
nature-related organizations such as natu- In the USA, federal government involve-
ralist, conservation, or sportsman’s clubs. ment in ecotourism is virtually non-exis-
tent. Linda Harbaugh in the tourism policy
These results mirror many of the trends unit of the US Department of Commerce
in the USA. In the 1994–1995 US National (personal communication, June 22, 1999)
Survey on Recreation and the Environment acknowledges that while her department is
(US Federal Government, n.d.), birdwatch- concerned with the generation of tourism
ing experienced the greatest positive per- statistics, it has no direct concern for the
centage change from 1982–1983 to development of ecotourism programme
1994–1995, of 30 outdoor recreation activi- areas. The USA, therefore, has no federal
ties reported. Birding increased by 155% laws dictating protocol for regional eco-
over the time period, followed by hiking tourism development. This responsibility
(93.5%) and backpacking (72.7%). lies with the individual states which have
Conversely, fishing declined by 3.8% and their own mandates, budgets and products,
hunting declined by 12.3%. Foot and and who help those working in the field,
Stoffman (1996) illustrate that in the USA, e.g. operators, with marketing and promo-
65 million birders are spending US$5.2 bil- tion. In a review of governmental agencies
lion annually on bird-related products, charged with the responsibility of adminis-
with a total economic output of US$15.9 tering the ecotourism industry, Edwards et
billion. al. (1998) found little consistency among
states and provinces in Anglo-America.
In the latter part of the 1980s, eco- Tourism and ecotourism are administered
tourism emerged to cater to a rather small by a wide variety of agencies of govern-
market of travellers primarily interested in ment, including policy, marketing, economic
rainforests and exotic natural attractions. development, planning and environment.
Anglo-Americans felt they had to go abroad The implication is that tourism is not yet
to places like Costa Rica, the Galapagos
Islands and Africa in order to be eco-
tourists. However, as the discussion above
demonstrates, ecotourism in Anglo-America

Anglo-America 109

perceived as having enough importance to South Carolina, for example, uses the
stand alone as a distinct department. nature-based tourism label to act as an
umbrella for a variety of tourism activities,
The definitions of ecotourism that are including backpacking and hiking, birding,
currently used by the US states are just as boat tours, camping outfitters, canoe/kayak
variable as the governmental bodies that outfitters, cycling tours, environmental
administer tourism and ecotourism. The education, farms, fishing operators, gar-
principle difference lies in the usage of the dens, horseback riding, hunting, lodging
‘nature’, ‘nature-based’ and ‘ecotourism’ packages, retail outfitting businesses,
labels. The examples below serve to illus- scuba-diving, state parks, white-water raft-
trate this point. ing and zoos. Texas does the same, and
acknowledges that although hunting and
• In Alaska, ‘ecotourism’ is defined as fishing are the mainstays of nature tourism
‘Environmentally responsible travel to in the state, other non-consumptive activi-
experience the natural areas and culture ties are emerging with the most significant
of the region while promoting conserva- market growth. The activities classified as
tion and economically contributing to nature tourism above, however, are classi-
local communities’ (Alaska Wilderness fied as ecotourism in Alaska, Florida and
Recreation and Tourism Association, Hawaii. Although many states use terms
1999, p. 1). like ecotourism, nature tourism and nature-
based tourism interchangeably (South
• In South Carolina, ‘nature-based Carolina views ecotourism and nature-
tourism’ is defined as ‘responsible travel based as being synonymous), some theorists
to natural areas that conserves the envi- argue that ecotourism and nature tourism
ronment and improves the welfare of are quite different in meaning (see Chapter 5).
local people’ (South Carolina Nature-
Based Tourism Association, 1997, p. 9). In the USA a number of not-for-profit
organizations have been instrumental in
• In Texas, ‘nature tourism’ is defined as helping to support the industry from both
‘discretionary travel to natural areas that policy and programme perspectives.
conserves the environmental, social and Although they are centred in the USA and
cultural values while generating an eco- have been active in national ecotourism
nomic benefit to the local community’ issues, these organizations (The Ecotour-
(Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, ism Society, The Adventure Travel Society,
1995, p. 2). and Conservation International) also have
broader international mandates.
• In Hawaii, ‘ecotourism’ is defined as
‘nature-based travel to Hawaii’s natural The Ecotourism Society (TES)
attractions to experience and study
Hawaii’s unique flora, fauna, and cul- TES (founded in 1990) works with the mis-
ture in a manner which is ecologically sion of fostering a true sense of synergy
responsible, sustains the well-being of between tourism, research and conserva-
the local community, and is infused tion (The Ecotourism Society, 1999). This
with the spirit of aloha aina (love of the membership-based society sponsors events,
land) (Centre for Tourism Policy publishes ecotourism documents, under-
Studies, 1994, p. i). takes research, is involved in many inter-
national endeavours related to ecolodge
• In Florida, ‘ecotourism’ is defined as development, and has been a resource for
‘responsible travel to natural areas governments on a number of policy-related
which conserves the environment and issues.
sustains the well-being of local people
while providing a quality experience
that connects the visitor to nature’
(Florida Ecotourism/Heritage Tourism
Advisory Committee, 1997, p. C-3).

110 D.A. Fennell

The Adventure Travel Society ecotourism products. As of 1997, Canada
was ranked ninth in terms of international
This organization, which runs an adven- tourist arrivals, with 17.6 million interna-
ture tourism and ecotourism conference tional tourists visiting the country
every year, is strongly tied to the adventure (Canadian Tourism Commission, 1998).
industry. Its Adventure Travel Business Tourism spending by foreigners rose by
Trade Association (ATBTA) exclusively more than 8% per year during the last
serves the business and industry-related decade, reaching CDN$12.7 billion in 1997.
needs of adventure travel professionals and However, the domestic visitor is still the
businesses like guides, outfitters, tour oper- mainstay of the industry with Canadians
ators and adventure resorts. spending more than CDN$31 billion of the
CDN$44 billion injected into the economy
Conservation International (CI) (Canadian Tourism Commission, 1998).

CI approaches ecotourism less from a busi- While the CTC failed to make a distinc-
ness perspective, and more from a grass- tion between ecotourism and adventure
roots vantage point. Their mission is to tourism (the nature-based tourism label
‘conserve the earth’s living natural her- does not appear to be as strongly supported
itage, biodiversity, and to demonstrate that in Canada) in some of their publications up
human societies are able to live harmo- to 1995, by 1997 the two types of tourism
niously with nature’ (Sweeting et al., 1999). were deemed separate. However, in Canada
Accordingly, this Washington-based organ- the focus is still predominantly on the
ization is active in a number of develop- adventure tourism product, as evident in
ment issues in less developed countries the following organization of categories of
around the world. adventure tours across the country:

Ecotourism in Canada • air sport/activity (e.g. hang-gliding, heli-
tours);
The importance of Canada’s nature tourism
product is underscored in the Canadian • land sport/activity (e.g. hiking, moun-
Tourism Commission’s (CTC) vision state- tain biking);
ment, ‘Canada will be the premier four-sea-
son destination to connect with nature and • water sport/activity (e.g. fishing, water-
to experience diverse cultures and commu- skiing);
nities’ (Canadian Tourism Commission,
1998). The vision points to the fact that • winter sport/activity (e.g. dog sledding,
nature and culture are central to the devel- snowshoeing);
opment of tourism in the country. Not sur-
prisingly, the CTC, which is a crown • nature/wildlife (e.g. ecotourism, natural-
corporation of the federal government, has ist tours).
spent a great deal of time positioning the
adventure and ecotourism sector as a key Almost 60 distinct adventure activities are
component of the overall industry. The listed by the CTC in the the first four cate-
CTC operates on the basis of core funding gories above, compared with just six activi-
from the federal government, but also ties listed under the nature/wildlife
through unique public and private sector category.
partnerships. However, it also relies on ter-
ritorial, provincial and First Nations gov- The value placed on adventure and eco-
ernmental departments and community tourism in Canada is further emphasized in
groups as stakeholders to further develop a recently published report entitled
Adventure Travel and Ecotourism: the
Challenge Ahead, by the CTC (1997). The
document examines the adventure tourism
and ecotourism opportunities and con-
straints for each province and territory on
the basis of seven criteria: product devel-
opment, packaging, resource protection/
sustainability, business development/
management, marketing/promotion, training/

Anglo-America 111

human resources, and industry organiza- types of activities occurring in the wilder-
tion. The strategic priorities identified for ness, including canoeing, kayaking, river
Ontario are outlined in Table 7.1. rafting, snowmobiling, photographic
safaris, and First Nation cultural interpre-
Like the USA, Canadian provinces have tive tours. The definitions and policies
initiated their own policies and definitions developed for the wilderness tourism
of ecotourism based on their recognized industry in the Yukon are the result of a
needs. In the remote Yukon Territory, for series of meetings and interviews involving
example, ecotourism falls under the over 70 key members of the tourism com-
umbrella of wilderness tourism. According munity, including tourism and recreation
to the Wilderness Tourism Licensing Act associations, commercial outfitters (native
(Government of Yukon, 1997), ‘wilderness’ and non-native) and government person-
is any area of the Yukon in a largely natural nel. In an era of public accountability, open
condition in which ecosystem processes forum meetings and debates are needed to
are generally unaltered by human activity, satisfy the needs of industry stakeholders.
and may include areas of visible human
activity that do not detract from wilderness The inclusion of several stakeholder
tourism. Wilderness tourism includes all groups, however, may often create friction

Table 7.1. Ontario strategic priorities (CTC, 1997). Ontario offers a diverse range of adventure and
ecotourism activities, but competition from mass tourism has prevented it from fully developing its
potential. Ontario’s priorities should be product upgrading, resource protection/sustainability,
marketing/promotion, training/organization.

Strategic thrust Highest priority strategies

1 Product development Diversify off-season products
2 Packaging Upgrade product quality
3 Resource protection/sustainability Facilitate access to funding
4 Business development/management Establish programme to link operators with external partners
5 Marketing/promotion Provide ‘how-to’ advice
Improve access to distribution and markets
6 Training/human resources Coordinate resource access
Implement environmentally sensitive/sustainable practices
7 Industry organization Advocate and coordinate resource management
Improve local land use management
Facilitate access to development financing
Make management training accessible
Develop risk management and appropriate insurance
Establish business mentoring programmes
Select distribution channels and define tactics
Upgrade promotional materials
Develop the US market
Broker cooperative marketing/promotion initiatives
Provide ‘how-to’ advice
Identify training needs and priorities
Coordinate access to training opportunities
Facilitate the development of training programmes and

resources
Develop ‘how-to’ manuals
Facilitate access to opportunities
Communicate the benefits of organizing
Support organizational development
Enhance the development of provincial organizations

112 D.A. Fennell

in the development of ecotourism policy. ernments and industry (less consensus
Such is the case in Saskatchewan where among academics) that ecotourism should
recent deliberations over ecotourism be responsible, contribute to local liveli-
definition and policy have served to accent hoods and contribute to conservation.
the fundamental differences between Leadership in the development of state and
groups representing the environment and provincial definitions has no doubt come
those representing economic development. from TES which has defined ecotourism as
Environmentalists in Saskatchewan (gov- ‘Responsible travel to areas which con-
ernment and non-government organiza- serves the environment and improves the
tions) are in favour of firmly structured welfare of local people’ (Western, 1993).
principles defining and guiding the indus- Saskatchewan is no exception, and defines
try. Conversely, those in economic devel- ecotourism as: ‘an enlightened nature travel
opment are in favour of broadening experience that contributes to conservation
ecotourism to encompass many non- of ecosystems and the cultural and economic
consumptive (birding) and consumptive resources of the host communities’ (Tourism
activities (fishing). At present deliberations Saskatchewan, 1999). While the two defini-
are on hold in an attempt to reconcile the tions differ only marginally, Saskatchewan’s
disparate stances of those involved. One of interpretation of the term may or may not be
the key issues being discussed is the writ- consistent with the ideals of TES. Point 2
ing and interpretation of the proposed (using fishing as an example) of the
accreditation application document (Tourism Saskatchewan strategy, above, suffices to
Saskatchewan, 1999). Under the section argue this position:
entitled ‘Primary Activities’ are three stan-
dards-based questions (operators are asked 1. Fishing can be responsible/enlightened
to respond ‘yes’ or ‘no’) that deal with on- (e.g. the institution of regulations and catch
site activities. These read as follows: limits);
2. It can conserve the environment (e.g. in
1. Where wild plant materials are gathered much the same way that ‘Ducks Unlimited’
in a sustainable fashion from the local conserves habitat for duck hunting); and
ecosystem for on-site food preparation and 3. It can contribute to or improve the wel-
consumption, are they gathered under the fare of local people (e.g. soliciting the use
authority of a permit or license where of an aboriginal guide).
required?
2. Where wildlife is captured in a sustain- Using this rationale, a case may be made
able and culturally acceptable fashion from to argue that fishing (the catching and
the local ecosystem for on-site food prepa- killing of fish for consumption) is indeed
ration and consumption, is it taken under ecotourism. This is what the many
the authority of a permit or license where Saskatchewan operators are probably striv-
required? ing to emphasize in protecting, or rather
3. Where the sustainable local gathering of substantiating, their product under the
wild plants or animals, birds, or fish for on- current interpretation of the term.
site food preparation is part of a package, is Consequently, such middle-of-the-road def-
this component of the package specifically initions of ecotourism leave much to the
mentioned in advertising and promotional interpretation of the individual or agency,
material? and say nothing about how ecotourism
relates to the philosophy of ecocentrism,
The Saskatchewan case study is indica- specifically in regards to sustainability,
tive of what is felt to be the main problem ethics, learning about nature, low impact,
constraining the industry in Anglo- non-consumptiveness, and appropriate
America (and I suspect elsewhere): defini- management which, according to some, are
tion and policy. While it is important to hallmark principles of ecotourism (see
realize that no absolute definition exists for Wallace and Pierce, 1996; Fennell, 1999).
ecotourism, there is consensus among gov- The importance of definition, therefore,

Anglo-America 113

cannot be underestimated as a starting protection. Effective policy involves all
point in the development of a provincial or stakeholders who stand to be influenced by
state ecotourism industry. the development of the ecotourism indus-
try. Recently Edwards et al. (1998) under-
Issues in Anglo-American Ecotourism took a comprehensive overview of policy
in the Americas. Their work, as it relates to
Policy Anglo-America, has been adopted and pre-
sented here (Fig. 7.1). The map illustrates
Liu (1994) writes that policy is particularly Canadian provinces and US states: (i)
important for ecotourism as a means by which have developed policy; (ii) which
which to balance economics (the viability have not; and (iii) whose status is uncer-
of ecotour operators) and environmental tain. The map shows that 7 of the 11
Canadian political jurisdictions (including

Fig. 7.1. Anglo-American ecotourism: policy and operator comparisons (adapted from Edwards et al.,
1998).

114 D.A. Fennell

the newly established Nunavut Territory) Canada, with British Columbia and Alberta
have developed ecotourism policy, whereas having the highest number of ecotours as
this applies to only 10 of the 50 US states, listed in the STI.
most of which are located in the US south
(Arizona, Texas, Louisiana and Florida). Ecotourism operators

Figure 7.1 also contains data on num- The overlap that exists between adventure
bers of ecotours that occur in each of these and ecotourism products in Canada is well
political jurisdictions, as listed in the STI summarized in a recent magazine article
or Specialty Travel Index (1999). The STI is entitled: ‘Risky business: Canada’s eco-
widely used as an advertisement medium tourism outfitters will give you anything
by special interest tour operators. Although you want – from paddling wild rivers to
this list is certainly not representative of hiking in the arctic’ (Rapsey, 1995). In the
the numbers of ecotour operators that cur- article the author states that ‘While differ-
rently exist in states and provinces, it does ent operators take different approaches to
provide an objective overview of numbers packaging and pitching their brand of
of ecotour operators from the perspective wilderness experience – one man’s adven-
of one publication. Moreover, the STI was ture is another man’s eco-tour – they gener-
used because it lists tour operators by ally agree on one thing: what they provide
region and not just by type of tour, thereby begins and ends with wilderness’ (Rapsey,
allowing the researcher to determine the 1995, p. 30). Rapsey provides a diary of a
types of tours found within each state and trip down the Dumoine River in Quebec,
province. (In gathering information on which is easily representative of the types
operators it became obvious that many of adventure/ecotour trips outlined in the
states and provinces have only recently article and in certain parts of Canada as a
endeavoured to piece together lists of eco- whole. His description of the trip made ref-
tour operators in their respective regions.) erence to little other than rocks, white-
The methodology for identifying an eco- water and instruction in canoeing. Based
tour operator in the STI involved simply on descriptions like this, it appears as
scanning the special interest tours under though it is ‘open season’ on ecotourism in
each state and province, and identifying Canada, especially in the north. Is it really
those that were ecotourism-oriented. The ecotourism? To the uninitiated and those
following STI listings were identified as whose job it is to market ecotourism prod-
ecotourism: birding, botany, butterfly tours, ucts, yes. Call it what you want, if it pays
conservation, ecology, ecotourism, environ- the bills it works. These days ecotourism is
mental education, marine biology, national paying the bills.
parks, natural history, nature reserve,
nature trips, rainforest, safari/game, whale- The apparent confusion over adventure
watching, wildflower viewing, wildlife and ecotourism is alluded to in the article
viewing and zoology. As some tours could by Carolyn Wilde (cited in Rapsey), an
be found listed under six or seven of these Ottawa-based ecotourism consultant. She
names, the researcher had to record and feels that Canada is not doing a good
control for any duplication of tours. enough job of selling itself, and that no one
really knows who is offering what to
Figure 7.1 shows that there are very few whom, or how reliable the outfitters are.
ecotours listed in the STI in states east of Even more striking are Anderson’s (1996)
the Rocky Mountains, with the biggest conclusions on the ecotourism industries
shortfall in the Midwest. Almost all of the in Canada and Alaska. Based on his discus-
western states have some degree of eco- sions with a number of key industry stake-
tourism, and Alaska, by far, has the greatest holders, Anderson found that there was a
number of ecotours (38) in the STI, fol- significant difference between the mar-
lowed by Wyoming (12), Montana (11) and keted experience and the actual product
Hawaii and Arizona with 10 apiece. This
western representation also holds true for

Anglo-America 115

delivered. Operators had concerns about Ecotourism Cultural
the overuse of the term ecotourism, and tourism
that they may not be able to live up to the
strict definition of the concept. Anderson ACE tourism
concluded by suggesting that, although (adventure, cultural,
there is considerable potential for the
development of ecotourism in Canada and ecotourism)
Alaska, the industry is negating this poten-
tial through a strong consumptive philoso- Adventure
phy, anti-regulatory ideals, a lack of tourism
consistent standards, poorly developed
ecological management standards, declin- Fig. 7.2. The changing face of ecotourism (adapted
ing emphasis of private sector interpreta- from Fennell, 1999).
tion, and operator seasonality (a narrow
window of opportunity). exists for those travellers looking for
unique, hard path nature or adventure or
In many respects the commercial enter- cultural experiences in their travels.
prises in Alaska and Canada’s north, often
with government encouragement and sup- The problem of ecotourism in name, but
port, have been left to re-package and re- not necessarily content, also ventures fur-
tool their product from one initially based ther into the realm of environmental ethics.
on consumptive activities (e.g. bear hunt- In conducting a content analysis of outdoor
ing), to one that is more non-consumptive recreation magazines, Lenton (1993) found
(catch-and-release fishing or bear viewing, a vast number of Canadian tripping outfit-
with some in-season hunting). Although ters using terms like ‘environmentally
many have not successfully made the tran- aware’, ‘minimum impact travel’ and ‘eco-
sition, they see no reason not to use the tourism’ in their advertising. In fact, he
conceptually elusive ecotourism label. found that there were enough tour opera-
tors waving environmentally friendly flags
The same reasoning can be used by to sink the ecotourism boat. In a world that
cultural tourism and adventure pursuits is hungry for ecotourism products, the
operators who specialize in, for example, competitiveness of the industry has tested
week-long cycling or canoeing excursions. the values of operators who are trying to
These operators encourage people to view stay afloat. This eco-opportunism is not
wildlife on such trips in an effort to offer solely an Anglo-American phenomenon
their clients as much of an on-site experi- but has been reported in destinations
ence as possible, despite their lack of skills around the world. In some cases the prob-
in natural history and environmental edu- lem has become so bad that many legiti-
cation. The interpretation, therefore, is mate ecotour operators are refusing to use
often the responsibility of the client. The the label because of its poor image (Preece
merging of adventure tourism, ecotourism et al., 1995).
and culture tourism that is increasingly
apparent in Anglo-America and elsewhere While it has been necessary to highlight
is described by Fennell (1999) as ACE some of the dysfunctions of the ecotourism
tourism. He suggests that this phenome- industry in Anglo-America, there are a
non, which has had a dilution effect on number of operators who practise environ-
ecotourism, has grown stronger in recent mentally and culturally sound ecotourism.
years (Fig. 7.2). Depending on the In his paper, Lenton (1993) identifies ten
activity(ies) and setting or region in which such Canadian ecotour operators, one of
it occurs, ACE expands or contracts to rep-
resent the different focus of the product.
While many tourists are in fact looking for
combined nature, adventure and/or cul-
tural experiences, the potential problem

116 D.A. Fennell

which is the Mingan Island Cetacean sions on the basis of ecosystems (or eco-
Study, and Lenton’s description of this regions at various scales) instead of dis-
operator is as follows: crete sectors, and assisting in the setting of
priorities and standards for resource man-
The Mingan Island Cetacean Study (MICS) agement (Wilken and Gauthier, 1998).
offers marine mammal educational
programs to the public ‘to help finance Macroclimatic data have been especially
their research and enhance the public valuable in the design of ecoregion maps,
awareness of marine mammals’. This is a on the basis of the fact that climate is one
direct example of how ecotourism dollars are of the most significant factors affecting soil
invested in conservation efforts. People pay composition, surface topography, vegeta-
to go out and spend anywhere from one to tion and the distribution of life (Bailey,
ten days on the ocean to observe the whales, 1998). Figure 7.3 illustrates the main
dolphins, seals, and seabirds of the Mingan macroclimatic ecodivisions of Anglo-
Island area in the Gulf of St. Lawrence … America, as developed by Bailey (the level
MICS is a quintessential stop for the of detail of the map represents the second
environmentally minded tourist travelling of three ecoregion levels). In addition, a
east of Quebec City. This group offers proof number of ecotour destinations/attractions
that conservation and ecotourism can be are identified on the map as examples of
blended to yield many benefits. These the types of ecotourism activities that
include: boosting the local economy, occur in these ecodivisions. Each of these
initiating research, and educating the public regions is explained in greater detail below
about the plight of marine mammals – (climate descriptions are taken primarily
probably one of the best indicators of the from Bailey, 1998).
quality of our environment.
Tundra
(Lenton, 1993, p. 13) Lying beyond the alpine tree line, this
region is marked by slow-growing, low-for-
Ecotourism and ecoregions mation, and mainly closed vegetation of
dwarf-shrubs, moss and lichens. Normal
In the 1980s, a paradigm shift occurred in January temperatures range from about
the planning and management of parks and Ϫ20 to Ϫ30°C, while normal July tempera-
protected areas. Ecosystem management – tures range from 10 to 15°C. In Churchill,
the integrated management of human activ- Manitoba, a thriving tourist industry has
ities and the broad environments in which developed around polar bears, which are
these take place – took the place of older forced to spend 3 or 4 months ashore due
models which viewed parks as discrete to the sea-ice melts. In Canada, there are 13
geopolitical entities. This new approach populations totalling some 15,000 bears
was based on the realization that in safe- (Churchill Northern Studies Centre, 1999),
guarding natural areas, one must scientifi- which feed typically on seals, walruses,
cally understand the human and beluga whales and narwhals. Late October
biophysical processes that exist within is an excellent time to view polar bears in
these dynamic settings. Geology, land- Churchill, as the bears congregate along the
forms, soils, vegetation, climate, wildlife shores of Hudson Bay in anticipation of the
and water were all elements that had to be formation of ice. Tundra buggies are used
considered in park planning and manage- to help tourists view the bears, in addition
ment (Bailey, 1998). Map makers too were to arctic foxes, ptarmigan and caribou. In
challenged with the task of trying to repre- the USA, Katmai National Park, 300 miles
sent these dynamic systems at various from Anchorage, Alaska, is one of world’s
scales. The results of the amalgamation of most accessible locations from which to
these elements, however, were important view brown bears. In July the Brook’s River
in enabling policy makers to make deci- in the heart of the park attracts an abun-
dance of bears which feed on sockeye

Anglo-America 117

Fig. 7.3. Ecoregion divisions in Anglo-America (adapted from Bailey, 1998).

salmon. Although bears are the principal (approximately 300 mm) of precipitation
attraction, the surrounding lakes, forests, throughout the year. This vast region is
mountains and marshland, and marine dominated by boreal forests and the
environments are habitat to a diversity of Canadian Shield (dominated by granite
birds, flowering plants and whales (USA rocks with sedimentary and volcanic
National Parks Net, 1999d). rocks), and contains a myriad of lakes and
rivers which are ideal settings for those
Subarctic interested in water-based recreation (e.g.
Temperatures in the Subarctic typically canoeing and white-water rafting).
range from Ϫ25°C in the winter to +18°C Consequently a number of adventure-
in the summer, with moderate amounts ecotourism operations have developed in

118 D.A. Fennell

the region, and these tend to emphasize significant amounts of rain (about 1300 mm
outdoor pursuits over wildlife viewing and per year) and mean temperatures that typi-
environmental education (see above). cally range from 8°C to 26°C. The eastern
leg of the recently developed Great Texas
Warm continental Coastal Birding Trail is located in the
Temperatures in the Warm Continental south-western corner of the Subtropical
zone typically average Ϫ5 to Ϫ10°C in the region. This trail is an excellent example of
winter and +20 to 25°C in the summer, how organizations and agencies in Texas
with moderate amounts of precipitation (private citizens and landholders, conser-
(600–1000 mm). Point Pelee National Park, vation groups, businesses, government and
despite its small size (20 km2), is well communities) have come together with the
noted for its diverse marsh, beaches, fields common goal of enabling birders to gain
and forest habitats. As Canada’s most access to the great diversity of avian
southerly land mass, Point Pelee lies at the resources found in the state. Over 450 of
northern end of the broad belt that extends the state’s 600 bird species are found along
from the coastal zone of the Carolinas the coast, and the trail contains three sec-
known as the eastern deciduous forest. tions spanning over 600 miles of coastline.
Temperatures, which are moderated by the In addition, the trail maintains 300 bird
Great Lakes, are a major factor in limiting viewing areas in nine wildlife refuges, 11
the northern expansion of this region. The state parks, one national seashore, and
park contains an amazing variety of plant numerous city and county preserves
and animal species, including 70 tree (DiStefano and Raimi, n.d.).
species, 47 species of reptiles and amphib-
ians, and 50 species of spiders and insects Marine
found nowhere else in Canada (Parks Average annual temperatures in the Marine
Canada, 1999). However, the main attrac- region typically range from 0°C to 18°C
tion is the abundance of birds which fre- over the course of the year, with an abun-
quent the park, especially in May, as a dance of precipitation (1000–2000 mm).
stopover on their annual migrations. This ecologically rich ecodivision is char-
acterized by mixed forest, coniferous
Hot continental forests and meadow. Tour companies from
This region of broadleaved forests (mixed Alaska down to Oregon offer a variety of
forest and meadow at higher elevations) ecotourism packages, including trips to
contains Great Smoky Mountains National view ice formations and glaciers, sea otters,
Park, which is located on the border of Dall’s porpoise, harbour seals, killer
Tennessee and North Carolina. It is both a whales, grey whales, blue whales, moun-
World Heritage Site and an International tain goats, Steller’s sea lions, horned
Biosphere Reserve, and hosts over 9 million puffins, cormorants, black-legged kitti-
visits per year. Five different forest types wakes, common murres, bald eagles, arctic
dominate the Great Smoky Mountains, and terns and black oystercatchers (Wildlife
together they support 130 species of trees Quest, 1999).
and 4000 other plant species (US National
Parks Net, 1999c). Wildlife is also abundant Prairie
in the park, including black bear, the rein- The Prairies are characterized by tall
troduced red wolf, coyote, bobcat, bats, grasses, most exceeding 1 m in height, and
European boar, the river otter, timber rattle- other broad-leaved herbs. Given the range
snake, copperhead, juncos, cardinals, blue of this region throughout Canada and the
jays, pileated woodpecker and wild turkeys. USA, temperatures vary significantly from
the coastal areas of Texas to the interior of
Subtropical Saskatchewan. One of the cornerstones of a
The Subtropical realm is defined by emerging ecotourism industry in Texas and
broadleaved coniferous evergreen forests, Saskatchewan is birding. In fact many

Anglo-America 119

birds have Texas and Saskatchewan as American settlements. The ecotours offered
their southern and northern ranges. In by the Indians of the region combine myth,
other areas through the Midwest, however, archaeology and natural history. The desert
ecotourism is not well developed, as illus- is home to a tremendous diversity of life,
trated in Fig. 7.1. including wild burros, roadrunners, turkey
vultures, sidewinders, black-collared lizards,
Mediterranean black widow spiders, scorpions, tarantulas,
The Mediterranean region includes a com- desert tortoises and desert iguanas (US
bination of dry steppe, hard-leaved ever- National Parks Net, 1999a). Death Valley
green forests, open woodlands and scrub, attracts scientists and nature enthusiasts
and redwood forests. Yosemite National from around the world and the increased
Park (mixed forest, coniferous forest and demands placed upon this environment are
alpine meadows), in the mountainous part of concern for organizations like The Death
of this region is one of the most frequently Valley Natural History Association, which
visited parks in the USA, hosting upwards is involved in preservation and interpreta-
of 4 million visits per year. The popularity tion of the natural and cultural history of
of the park is one of its chief concerns, the area.
however, as increasing numbers of vehicles
in the summer months clog its roadways Temperate steppe and desert
(Lovejoy, 1992). The park is home to 80 These two divisions, Temperate steppe and
mammal species (e.g. coyote, mule deer, Temperate desert, have moderate tempera-
California bighorn sheep), 247 bird species tures, collectively ranging from 0°C to
(e.g. peregrine falcon, golden eagle, great 20°C, with precipitation ranging from
grey owl), 40 reptile species, and hundreds about 200 to 400 mm per year. The
of tree and wildflowers species, including Temperate steppe is marked by steppes and
the ponderosa pine and giant sequoias, dry steppes at lower elevations, and conif-
which are the largest and oldest trees on erous forests, open woodland and alpine
earth (Delaware North Companies, 1999). meadows at higher elevations. The Tem-
perate desert region consists of semideserts
Tropical/subtropical steppe and deserts. The famed geothermal activity
This ecodivision is marked by steppes, and fossil forests of Yellowstone National
shortgrass steppes and shrubs, and conifer- Park (the world’s first national park, which
ous open woodland and semideserts. Mean contains open woodland, coniferous forest
temperatures range from approximately and alpine meadows), make this a princi-
10°C in the winter months to about 30°C in pal attraction in the ecodivision. Yellow-
the summer, with ample precipitation stone supports one of the continent’s
throughout the year (600–700 mm). One of largest mammal populations, including
the main attractions in the north-west of grizzly bears, wolves, bison, elk, bighorn
this region is Grand Canyon National Park, sheep, moose, pronghorn antelope and
and in the south-east the Great Texas mule deer. Other animals include the mar-
Coastal Birding Trail (shortgrass steppes), mot, bald eagles, osprey, sandhill cranes
which is home to a tremendous variety of and trumpeter swans (US National Parks
birds (see Subtropical ecodivision, above). Net, 1999d).

Tropical/subtropical desert Savannah
Characterized by semideserts and deserts The Savannah ecodivision comprises open
on sand, temperatures in this region typi- woodlands, and shrubs and savannahs
cally range from about 12°C to 33°C, with (herbaceous vegetation with scattered
very little rainfall (about 50 mm per year). woody plants, including low trees), with
The ecodivision contains Death Valley uniform temperatures averaging about 22°C
National Park, the Mojave Desert, Joshua throughout the year. In Everglades National
Tree National Park, and a number of Native Park, freshwater meets saltwater and the

120 D.A. Fennell

associated edge effect creates an area rich of operators, it soon became clear that
in biodiversity. Wildlife viewing (alligators, much more work needs to be done in these
manatees, a variety of reptile species, two areas. The link between ecotourism
roseate spoonbills, herons, egrets, eagles and ecoregions was found to be a natural
and osprey) is one of the principal activi- one. However, although ecotourism is
ties of visitors. Other activities include bik- reported to be an ecologically conscious
ing, camping, diving, fishing, hiking, form of tourism, there is little information
photography, ranger-led activities, snorkel- available which documents its successes in
ling and swimming (US National Parks preserving habitat and biodiversity in the
Net, 1999b). There is an abundance of ecoregions of Anglo-America (e.g. how can
trails, visitor centres and accommodation ecotourism in the prairie ecodivision be
both inside and outside the park. In recent developed as an effective mechanism to
years a number of private ecotour operators preserve species like the black-footed fer-
have emerged to accommodate the needs of ret, whooping crane or burrowing owl?). As
the area’s growing tourist industry. such, the union of ecoregions and eco-
tourism may prove to be a fruitful means
Conclusion by which to identify ‘hot’ and ‘cold’ spots
of ecotourism development across the con-
This chapter has examined the ecotourism tinent.
industry in Anglo-America chiefly from
definitional, policy, operator and ecore- Anglo-America is often characterized as
gional perspectives. Although it appears as being economically and socially well
though the industry will continue to grow developed. Although not a central theme in
into the 21st century, at least some of the chapter, there are often core–periphery
this potential will be compromised by relationships that exist between urban and
the strong consumptive philosophy, anti- remote communities in both Canada and
regulatory ideals, and a lack of focus and the USA. To what extent ecotourism is able
consistent standards (Anderson, 1996) sup- to help alleviate some of the economic and
ported by those working in the field. The social disparities that exist in these remote
lack of consensus in defining ecotourism is regions is open to debate. Accordingly,
partly to blame, especially in relation to future research should endeavour to exam-
what qualifies as ecotourism along the con- ine if ecotourism contributes to local com-
sumptive/non-consumptive continuum. As munities, and how such benefits are
such, Anglo-America would benefit from distributed. This information has not been
future research which examines the region adequately addressed in the research on
as one spatial unit, rather than 63 individ- ecotourism in Anglo-America, or else-
ual political jurisdictions. where. Finally, a related concern surrounds
the notion of estimating the economic
The policy, operator and ecoregion data worth of ecotourism in Anglo-America. If
used in the maps of this chapter proved ecotourism is to subsume adventure and
effective, as a starting point, in examining cultural tourism, in their various forms,
Anglo-American ecotourism from a broader economic impact studies will understand-
continental and ecological perspective. ably be optimistic. Studies should be spe-
While an attempt was made to compare cific and cautious in how they define
regions on the basis of policy and numbers ecotourism, therefore, and the implications
of over-visitation.

Anglo-America 121

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Chapter 8

Asia

A.A. Lew

Department of Geography and Public Planning, Northern Arizona University,
Flagstaff, Arizona, USA

Introduction third of an estimated world total of 6703
language (Grimes, 1999). However, this can
Asia is, by far, the world’s largest conti- be an unfair comparison, as Asia really
nent. It ranges in elevation from Mount consists of five subcontinents (listed in
Everest (8848 m; 29,028 ft) and the Tibetan Table 8.1), in addition to Europe – the sixth
Plateau (average 4500 m; 15,000 ft), to the subcontinent on the Eurasian landmass.
earth’s lowest point on the surface of the Each of these subcontinents has its own
Dead Sea (over 400 m or 1312 ft below sea internal wealth of environmental and cul-
level). Not far away is the world’s largest tural diversity and uniqueness. For exam-
sand desert, the Rub’ al Khali, on the ple, some 500 languages and local dialects
Arabian Peninsula. In the south-east of the have been identified in Indonesia in
continent lies a large tropical archipelago Southeast Asia, and 300 different lan-
spanning the Equator over an area larger guages are spoken daily in India on the
than the USA, while in Siberia the largest South Asian subcontinent, along with more
forest in the world (the taiga) gives way than 1000 local dialects. Today, even the
northward to a landscape of desolate tun- most remote of these cultures has been
dra and permafrost. Not surprisingly, each touched by organized groups of ecotourists
of these environments has its own poten- and adventure tourists.
tial for ecotourism development, and most
have been used for this purpose as the According to the World Tourism
tourism industry seeks ever more remote Organization (WTO), tourism in the Asia
and different destinations. (East and Southeast Asia) and Pacific region
grew in 1996 by 9.3% (arrivals) and 9.8%
Asia is also the world’s most populous (receipts) over 1995 (WTO, 1997). These
continent, with some 3.64 billion people rates of growth were nearly twice that for
(Table 8.1). East Asia, South Asia and the world overall (4.5% arrivals, 7.6%
Southeast Asia together are home to over receipts in 1996). Arrival growth rates for
half of the world’s human inhabitants. South Asia (4.3%) and Southwest Asia
With such a large population, Asia’s ethnic (10.5%) were also significant in 1996,
diversity, often associated with ecotourism, though South Asia was affected by internal
is also great. Using language as a simple political problems that year. Unfortunately,
and conservative measure of ethnicity, Asia the 1997–1998 Asian economic crisis
is home to 2165 living languages, about a resulted in a 1.2% decline in international

© CAB International 2001. The Encyclopedia of Ecotourism 123
(ed. D.B. Weaver)

124 A.A. Lew

Table 8.1. World regional populations, mid-1999 estimate and World Heritage Sites (PRB, 1999; UNESCO,
1999).

Population World Heritage Sites
(1,000,000)
Region % Total Endangered

World 5981 100.0 582 23
Asia total 3637 60.8 125 4
East Asia 1481 24.8
South Asia 1301 21.8 35 0
Southeast Asia 8.7 41 1
Southwest Asia 520 4.2 16 1
Central Asia 252 1.5 31 2
Africa 12.9
Europe 87 12.2 20
Central and South America 771 8.6 79 10
North America (US and Canada) 728 5.1 241 3
Pacific 512 0.5 76 4
303 31 2
18 0
30

Notes: Figures are adjusted from PRB (1999), which originally combined Central Asia with South Asia.
Other differences in this table from the original data are: Central Asia includes Afghanistan and excludes
Mongolia and Siberian Russia, both of which are in East Asia in the table above, and Iran and the Caucasus
are included in Southwest Asia above.

arrivals for East and Southeast Asia ural resource managers as their major diffi-
(including the Pacific) for the second year culties. The issue of exploitation versus the
in a row in 1998, and a 3.8% decline in conservation of tourism resources has been
receipts (WTO, 1999b) (Table 8.2). Some a major concern throughout the Asia-
countries were hurt far more than others, Pacific region since the 1980s, when eco-
with Indonesia down 5.5% while Thailand tourism (which as ‘nature tourism’ has
was up 6.9%. Furthermore, South and been an important part of Asian tourism for
Southwest Asia both continued the strong decades) emerged as a visible and poten-
percentage growth that they experienced tially major segment of the region’s tourism
through most of the late 1990s. industry.

Once the East and Southeast Asian A survey of mostly North American tour
economies recover, however, tourism companies that offered ecotours to the
growth will probably rebound, bringing Asia-Pacific region found that, as an eco-
with it both good and bad impacts. While nomic activity, ecotourism to Asia has been
welcome economic news to many, Asia’s growing at about 20% a year through most
robust growth in tourism has not been of the 1990s, at least prior to the Asian eco-
without its social and environmental costs. nomic crisis (Lew, 1998). In this study,
A survey of member countries of the Asia- Indonesia was the most cited destination,
Pacific Economic Cooperation group found followed by South Asian countries border-
that environmental pollution, air traffic ing the Himalayas (Table 8.3). Many sec-
congestion, and overcrowding at major ondary ecotour destinations are also shown
attractions were the three leading con- in Table 8.3. Some of these, like China and
straints to the expansion of tourism in the Thailand are already major tourist destina-
region (Muqbil, 1996). Private sector tions, although their role as ecotourist des-
respondents to the same survey, however, tinations may still be developing (Studley,
identified excessive governmental controls 1999). Other countries, such as those in
over the use of sensitive natural areas and Indochina and Central Asia, are emerging
conflicts between tour operators and nat- destinations where all forms of tourism,

Asia 125

Table 8.2. 1998 tourist arrivals (estimates) (WTO, 1999b).

Total arrivals % Change Arrivals as
(1,000,000) 1997–1998 % of world

World 625.2 2.4 100.0
East Asia/Pacific 86.9 Ϫ1.2 13.9
Middle East 15.6 2.5
South Asia 5.1 5.3 0.8
5.0
Europe 372.5 59.6
Americas 120.2 3.0 19.2
Africa 1.4
24.9 7.5 4.0

not just ecotourism, are as yet poorly vides opportunities for scientific explo-
developed. (Note that for the study cited in ration and mineral bathing from the ‘Valley
Table 8.3, Southwest Asia was excluded of the Geysers’ on the Kamchatka
and the Pacific was included.) Peninsula, through the islands of Japan and
Taiwan and into Southeast Asia. Further
A 1992 study by the Pacific Asia Travel inland the East Asian landscape gradually
Association (PATA), also of North rises to the Tibetan Plateau and Himalayan
American ecotour providers, reported that mountain range.
clients were primarily interested in rainfor-
est destinations (62%), followed by islands East Asia is the most populated region
(17%) and mountains (17%) (Yee, 1992). of Asia and the most culturally homoge-
These are all features with which Asia is neous. The most heavily inhabited areas
strongly endowed. In Lew’s 1998 study, are in eastern China, on the Korean
ecotour providers to the Asia-Pacific simi- Peninsula and in Japan, where humanity
larly focused on nature, although culture has often overwhelmed the natural envi-
and educational activities were also signifi- ronment. The opposite is true of Siberia,
cant elements (Table 8.4). Mongolia and western China (including
Chinese occupied Tibet) which have very
Ecotourism opportunities clearly abound low population densities and expanses of
in every corner of the Asian continent relatively unexploited deserts, plains and
(About.com, 1999). The range of natural forests.
and cultural attractions in each of the
major subregions (East Asia, Southeast Mountain peaks have been among the
Asia, South Asia, and Southwest and most cherished natural environments for
Central Asia) of this continent are dis- the cultures of East Asia; monasteries are
cussed below. one of the few proper forms of develop-
ment allowed. Pristine wilderness, how-
East Asia ever, is rare, though backcountry trekking
areas do exist in Taiwan’s high mountains.
East Asia consists of Japan, North and Following the Second World War, growing
South Korea, China, Taiwan, Mongolia and populations and an expanding middle
the Siberia region of Russia. Along the east- class made the high mountain areas of
ern edge of the continent the Pacific Ocean coastal East Asia more accessible to the
floor is colliding with the Eurasian plate to masses and starting in the 1950s national
create a string of mostly offshore islands, and local park systems were introduced to
from Japan to the Philippines. The protect these resources. Management and
Kamchatka Peninsula is also part of this enforcement, however, have been lax
‘Pacific Ring of Fire’. Volcanic activity in across the region and the excessive tram-
many of these coastal mountain areas pro- pling of mountain soil and vegetation is a
widespread problem.

126 A.A. Lew

Table 8.3. Asia-Pacific countries and regions in which North American
ecotours operated (Lew, 1998).

Country No. tour % of all tour
or region companies companies

Indonesia 16 40.0
India 13 32.5
Australia 12 30.0
Nepal 12 30.0
Bhutan 10 25.0
New Zealand 20.0
Tibet (region of China) 8 20.0
China 8 17.5
Thailand 7 17.5
Myanmar (Burma) 7 12.5
Cambodia 5 12.5
Laos 5 12.5
Pakistan 5 12.5
Malaysia 5 10.0
Papua New Guinea 4 10.0
Russian Far East 4 10.0
Vietnam 4 10.0
Central Asiaa 4
Japan 3 7.5
Mongolia 3 7.5
Sikkim (State of India) 3 7.5
Philippines 3 7.5
2 5.0

a Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan.

Lowland areas, on the other hand, have region’s ecotourism, due both to its wildlife
been intensely settled, cultivated, and and accessible location near the Trans-
industrialized. The close relationship Siberia railway. Wilderness (hiking and
between human agricultural activity and wildlife viewing), sporting activities (fish-
the land has created distinctive ecosystems ing and hunting) and arctic activities (dog
that have been of interest to alternative and reindeer sledding and skiing) are the
tour groups since the 1970s. Rice paddies mainstay of the fledgling tourism industry
that combine the growing of wet rice with in interior Siberia. Whale and other sea
the cultivation of bottom-feeding fish, mammals, birds, and volcanoes are attrac-
mostly carp, are an example. tions along coastal and island areas, and
especially on the Kamchatka Peninsula.
Away from the more densely settled Inuit and other nomadic peoples of the
portions of East Asia are areas that contain north compose the cultural attraction of the
some of the greatest potential for eco- area. Unfortunately, it is estimated that
tourism on the continent. Starting in the 10% of the wildlife in northern Eurasia
north, Siberia holds considerable opportu- (including Central Asia) is seriously in
nity for ecotourism development, although danger of extinction (SEN, 1997). Similar
the costs of these experiences tend to be to Central Asia (see below), Siberia is in
high due to the region’s remoteness and need of more concerted conservation
limited infrastructure. Lake Baikal, efforts, which ecotourism might be able to
Eurasia’s largest freshwater lake and the facilitate.
world’s deepest lake, is located in southern
Siberia, and serves as a focus for the Moving further south, the steppes of

Asia 127

Table 8.4. Ecotour types and activities in the Asia-Pacific region (Lew, 1998).

Tour type % Tour descriptors
Nature
71 Wildlife, natural history, jungles/rainforests, science-based nature
Culture tours, fossil expeditions, national parks, nature reserves, orang-utans,
ornithology, village wildlife conservation, zoos
Adventure
45 Ethnic culture, agriculture, anthropology, countryside tours, culture
exchanges, ethnic area lodge, food, local guides, sustainable
technology

13 Soft adventure, adventure, hard adventure, outdoor adventure

Tour activities 48 Trekking, walking, cycling/mountain biking, backpacking,
Land bushwalking, day hiking, physical activity
Education
35 Educational, guest scholar/teachers/experts, animal riding safaris,
Water birdwatching, local educational programmes, photo-taking safaris,
study tours

19 Boat rides, diving, rafting, sailing, sea kayaking, white-water

N = 31 respondents.

Mongolia and north-west China became an Himalayan mountain range. Tibetan cul-
increasingly recognized ecotour destina- ture is largely pastoral and deeply reli-
tion in the late 1990s. Ecotours have gious, following the Lamaism branch of
emphasized visiting and living among the Buddhism. China forcibly reasserted its
country’s traditionally nomadic ethnic domination over Tibet in 1950, after which
groups. Activities include camel treks, Tibetan Lamaism was severely suppressed.
horse and yak riding, trekking, fishing, and Many of the harsher measures were lifted
wildlife viewing. This was also the path of in the 1980s and 1990s, but the political
the Silk Route from China to Europe, situation remains tense. Travel to Tibet has
which has become a major theme for pro- been expensive, mostly limited to groups,
moting tourism in north-west China. Many and rarely extended beyond the capital
of north-west China’s deserts are sur- Lhasa and nearby mountains that have
rounded by high mountains, which are also restored monasteries and mountain
emerging ecotour destinations, in addition trekking opportunities. However, as part of
to the cultural and archaeological history China’s officially designated ‘Year of
of oasis settlements. The Muslim Uyghur Ecotourism’ in 1999, several new areas of
people in China’s Xinjiang Autonomous Tibet have been opened to international
Region are a major cultural attraction, tourism for the first time (Studley, 1999).
although Buddhist archaeological sites
(often found in caves) are more frequented To the north-east and east of the Tibetan
by tour groups. Most tours are organized Plateau are areas of China that hold consid-
due to the political sensitivity of this erable opportunity for ecotourism develop-
region, where terrorist attacks by Uyghur ment, both for nature and culture. As yet,
separatists occasionally occur. these areas are not developed and many are
environmentally quite sensitive, such as
Even more politically sensitive for the the panda regions below the Plateau’s east-
Chinese government is Tibet (Xizang ern slopes. South-east of the Tibetan
Autonomous Region). The Tibetan Plateau Plateau, however, is the location of what is
is a largely arid region with a base eleva- possibly China’s premier ecotourism
tion of 3000 to over 4500 m (10,000 to region. Yunnan Province, with an average
15,000 ft), bordered on the south by the elevation of about 2000 m (6500 ft), is

128 A.A. Lew

famous for its year-round temperate-tropi- ences may be possible in Myanmar once
cal climate, its biological diversity and for the political situation in that country
the cultural diversity of its many ethnic becomes more stable, and in Laos as that
groups, which are related to the hill people country gradually becomes more open to
of northern Southeast Asia. With the foreigners. Further south, cultural and
Tibetan Plateau on its western border, archaeological treasures, such as
Yunnan has a wide variety of ecosystems Cambodia’s Angkor Wat, become more
giving it over half of China’s plant diver- important. Much of Vietnam’s environmen-
sity, 64% of its bird species, 42% of the tal beauty lies in the rich diversity along its
country’s reptiles, and many rare and long coastline, although remote rainforests
endangered animals. The Nature and hill villages are also of potential inter-
Conservancy is working with the Chinese est. Still further south, the tropical beaches
government to create the Yunnan Great of this region offer a wide variety of eco-
Rivers National Parks System, which tour opportunities, including sea kayaking
would encompass a region of 3000 m through limestone caves, underwater coral
(10,000 ft)-deep gorges through which diving and coastal wildlife viewing. Most
three of the world’s great rivers pass. The of the people of Peninsular Southeast Asia
goals of this project include biodiversity follow Theravadin Buddhism, with strong
and cultural heritage protection, and sus- undercurrents of Hinduism and local ani-
tainable economic development. mist beliefs that make for a very colourful
ethnic landscape.
Ecotourism is an important part of the
tourism industry in many parts of East Thailand has had a well-developed tour
Asia. However, the areas where ecotourism industry for many years and Bangkok is
has the greatest potential tend to be very one of the most internationally accessible
remote, making the cost and experience of cities in Southeast Asia. A larger propor-
getting there difficult. Because of this, eco- tion of the country’s land area is under
tourism plays a smaller part in the overall national park and conservation area status
tourism industry of East Asia than it does than any other country in Asia, outside of
in most of the other parts of the Asian con- Bhutan, though management resources are
tinent. In most people’s minds, travel to a continuing problem (Weaver, 1998). The
East Asia remains an urban experience. other countries of Peninsular Southeast
Asia have only been opening to tourism
Southeast Asia since the 1990s and none has a well-devel-
oped travel sector, let alone an ecotourism
In contrast to East Asia, ecotourism is a industry. National parks are being created,
pervasive aspect of the rapidly growing but are not adequately financed, and major
tourism industry in Southeast Asia. cultural heritage sites continue to be
Geographically, Southeast Asia can be looted. Vietnam and Cambodia experi-
divided into two parts: Peninsular, consist- enced rapid increases in tourist arrivals at
ing of Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, Laos, the end of the 1990s, and the more insu-
Cambodia and Vietnam; and Insular, con- lated Laos and Myanmar are hoping to do
sisting of Malaysia (including its mainland the same. Their longer period of isolation,
component), Singapore, Brunei, Indonesia great environmental and cultural richness,
and the Philippines. Peninsular Southeast and international accessibility via Bangkok,
Asia comprises a series of mountain ranges give these emerging countries the potential
and rivers extending out of the Tibetan to be among the great ecotourism destina-
Plateau and south-west China. Trekking to tions in the next century, rivalling
visit the hill tribe people of northern Indonesia before its economic and social
Thailand is the most popular eco-adventure turmoil (Lilley, 1998).
experience in the northernmost portion of
Southeast Asia. Similar rainforest experi- Insular Southeast Asia is rich in its vari-
ety of landscapes and biology due to its
tropical location (astride the Equator), the

Asia 129

diverse size and shape of its many thou- ecotour attraction of the Philippines is the
sands of islands (many of which are vol- rice-terraced mountain slopes of northern
canic in origin), and the region’s ethnic Luzon Island.
diversity. Malaysia is one of the more eco-
nomically developed of the Southeast Asian Indonesia has benefited from its close
countries and has many well-developed proximity to Australia, for which it serves
and protected nature areas. Mountain as an inexpensive and exotic vacation des-
peaks, including traditional ‘hill station’ tination. In addition to significant tourist
resorts and the highest peak in Southeast arrivals from their former colonial rulers –
Asia, Mount Kinabalu (4101 m; 13,455 ft) for example the Dutch are frequent trav-
on Malaysia’s portion of Borneo, offer dis- ellers in Indonesia and the British in
tinctive ecological transition zones. Taman Malaysia – there has been a rapid increase
Negara National Park, a highland rainforest in intra-regional and domestic ecotourism
in West Malaysia, has been a case study in throughout Southeast Asia, especially in
efforts to balance ecosystem conservation Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia. For
with ecotourism development. example, before the Asian economic crisis
of 1997, increasing numbers of ecotourists
More than anything else, orang-utans from Jakarta and other major cities on Java
have come to symbolize ecotourism in were trekking into interior Sumatra and
Malaysia and Indonesia. The natural habi- Borneo to see the wildlife and traditional
tat of these highly endangered animals is cultures. Similarly, Thai nationals comprise
the dwindling rainforests of Sumatra and the great majority of visitors to Thailand’s
Borneo, both of which are popular ecotour national parks (Weaver, 1998).
trekking destinations, but they are most
often seen at centres that specialize in rein- The population densities of Southeast
troducing former pet orang-utans to the Asia have historically been well below
wild. While hiking the rainforest interiors those of East and South Asia, allowing for a
of Borneo, ecotrekkers also come into con- greater expression of the region’s natural
tact with the culture of the traditional environment. As such, Southeast Asia has
Dayak headhunters of the island and some become the Asian continent’s premier eco-
of the 450 species of birds found there. The tourism destination. With its tropical cli-
West Papua (formerly Irian Jaya) province mate, rainforests, coastal coral reefs,
of Indonesia, located on the island of New mountain trekking, great variety of flora,
Guinea, also offers contact with pre- fauna and ethnic cultures, developed and
modern tribal groups in dense rainforests, emerging destinations, and easy interna-
while rare animals such as the Sumatran tional access through the major interna-
tiger, Javan rhinoceros and the sun bear, tional air hubs of Bangkok and Singapore,
the world’s smallest bear, are also found in Southeast Asia has all the ingredients to
the Indonesian archipelago. Komodo keep it at the forefront of world ecotourism
Island, in south-eastern Indonesia is home destinations.
to the Komodo dragon, the world’s largest
land lizard, the protection of which has South Asia
been described as another model of eco-
tourism development (Hitchcock, 1993). South Asia, often referred to as the ‘Indian
Subcontinent’, is separated from the rest of
The 17,000-plus islands of Indonesia Asia by an arc of mountains, including the
have coastlines that stretch over 80,000 km Himalayas. Most of these mountain ranges
(50,000 miles) and contain 15% of the are active earthquake areas, although vol-
world’s coral reefs, making the country one canic activity is rare. The land within con-
of the greatest scuba-diving destinations on sists of a less mountainous peninsula
Earth (DTPT, 1997). The Philippines does dominated by India, with Pakistan to the
not have as many volcanic attractions as west and Bangladesh to the east. India is
Indonesia, but does have similar coastal large and diverse, with 14 official languages,
coral diving opportunities. Another major