The Encyclopedia of Ecotourism

178 D.B. Weaver and R. Schlüter

Fig. 11.2. Central America.

activity for their maintenance and manage- parable figures for the European market
ment. With respect to the tourism sector, (excluding Germany) were 45% and 50%
ecolodge-type facilities, despite their high (TTI, 1996). As with the Caribbean, this
profile, actually account for only a minis- pattern of association can be interpreted as
cule proportion of all accommodations. either a threat or an opportunity. In either
Most ecotourism activity in reality involves case, it is clear that the government of
diversionary, daytime visits by soft eco- Costa Rica has always pursued mass
tourists to a small number of protected tourism at least as avidly as ecotourism. It
areas that are readily accessible to San Juan is toward the development of the former
or the beach resorts of the Pacific coast that most government policy and incen-
(Weaver, 1999). tives are oriented, while the impetus for
ecotourism-related development has for the
Visitor motivations reflect this multi- most part come from foreign and domestic
purpose profile. According to a 1995 sur- non-government organizations (NGOs),
vey, 44% of US visitors cited ‘sea and sun’ individuals, and local community associa-
as a major purpose for their visit, compared tions (Honey, 1999).
with 42% for ‘natural history’. The com-

Latin America and the Caribbean 179

Belize Incipient Central American ecotourism
destinations
Costa Rica’s status as the primary eco-
tourism destination of Central America is Of the remaining Central American coun-
being challenged increasingly by Belize, tries, Panama shows the greatest eco-
which was already recognized in the early tourism potential, with a high level of strict
1990s for its fledgling ecotourism sector land protection (about 19%) and a signifi-
(Boo, 1990). The development of eco- cant inventory of relatively undisturbed
tourism in Belize has been assisted by at forests and other natural environments.
least eight factors: Situational factors are also important.
Panama is already a well-known destina-
• the second longest barrier reef in the tion because of the presence of the Panama
world, extending 115 km; Canal, Panama City’s status as a regional
financial centre, and proximity to Costa
• a largely extant natural environment, Rica, with whom bilateral protected area
with forest cover accounting for about initiatives are being pursued. Ecotourism
85% of the country’s land area; opportunities are already being offered by
NGOs such as the Smithsonian Tropical
• a low population density of about 10 Research Institute, and by protected areas
persons per km; within or adjacent to the old Canal Zone
buffer zone. Furthermore, the government
• a well-established protected area system appears interested in including a high pro-
that in theory strictly protects almost file ecotourism and conservation compo-
21% of the country; nent in its planning as an adjunct to the
development of a rapidly expanding con-
• extensive complementary cultural assets; ventional tourism industry (Ayala, 1997,
• political and social stability; 1998).
• proximity to the North American market
Honduras, Guatemala and Nicaragua all
and to major 3S destinations such as have considerable ecotourism potential
Cancún; and that has not yet been realized to any great
• the status of English as the country’s extent due to a combination of environ-
official language. mental, image, infrastructural and political
problems. The situation in Honduras is
In terms of venue, ecotourism in Belize is illustrative. A limited amount of eco-
associated with high profile community- tourism already occurs in protected areas
based protected area initiatives such as the such as La Tigra, Pico Bonita and La
Community Baboon Sanctuary and Rio Muralla National Parks. However, the fur-
Bravo (see Chapter 19), and public sector ther evolution of this incipient sector has
protected areas such as the Hol Chan been hindered by the relative obscurity of
Marine Reserve and Cockscomb Basin these attractions, the devastation caused by
Wildlife Sanctuary (Lindberg et al., 1996). Hurricane Mitch in 1998, and the presence
Although the integrity of Belize as an eco- of stronger regional competitors. In particu-
tourism destination is assisted by the lar, the Moskitia region in the country’s
absence of widespread environmental north-east, along with adjacent parts of
destruction, the country does resemble Nicaragua, is well positioned to become a
Costa Rica in terms of the parallel growth major ecotourism destination. As for
of mass tourism in coastal regions such as Nicaragua, this country is estimated to con-
Ambergris Cay. As in Costa Rica, it is ques- tain four times as much forested land as
tionable whether much of this develop- Costa Rica, and, like Panama, is pursuing
ment, and the concomitant growth of bilateral protected area initiatives with that
visitor arrivals, is complementary to the country. Guatemala’s ecotourism sector
philosophy and practice of ecotourism
(Cater, 1992; Lindberg et al., 1996; Weaver,
1998).

180 D.B. Weaver and R. Schlüter

will potentially be assisted by the partici- the northern half of the continent.
pation of this country in the regional Regarding the former factor, South America
Mundo Maya programme (see below). El accounts for 5.9% of the world’s popula-
Salvador is the only Central American tions, but only 2.5% of all international
country that appears to have little eco- stayovers, most of whom are of intra-
tourism potential, given the extensive regional origin (Weaver and Oppermann,
deforestation of the country. 2000). In contrast to the previous material
on Central America, the following sections
Mundo Maya consider South American ecotourism from
the perspective of four dominant physical
The Mundo Maya initiative is worthy of environments that straddle international
mention because of its ecotourism connec- boundaries in the region: the Amazon
tions and multilateral character, but also basin, the Andes, the Pantanal and
because of the controversy that it has gen- Patagonia. Other physical regions, such as
erated. The concept was formalized in the the Gran Chaco of Paraguay and Argentina,
early 1990s by Guatemala, Belize, Brazil’s Atlantic rainforest (Fig. 11.4), the
Honduras, El Salvador and the neighbour- Venezuelan savannah, the temperate rain-
ing states of Mexico to develop a regional forests of southern Chile and the deserts of
tourism product around the theme of the the Pacific coast, are not included,
Mayan culture. Related projects that pur- although these areas do accommodate a
portedly emphasize ecotourism include the small amount of ecotourism activity. At a
formation of the Toledo Ecotourism country level, Guyana is perhaps the only
Association in Belize and the Rio Bec South American country so far that appears
Ecotourism Corridor in southern Mexico intent on developing a tourism industry
(Mundo Maya Organization, 1996). Yet, dominated by ecotourism. Brazil has also
despite the high profile status of eco- formulated an ecotourism master plan,
tourism, the Mundo Maya Organization though national tourism development over-
which manages the initiative has been crit- all is following a more conventional path
icized for giving preference to domestic or (see Chapter 29).
foreign-controlled mass tourism projects
(e.g. Costa Maya), while ignoring or The Amazon basin
neglecting small operations in its attempts
to maximize revenue earnings (Thomlinson The Amazon basin is by far the dominant
and Getz, 1996). Even if this problem is physical region of South America in terms
addressed, it seems clear that the Mundo of size (7–8 million km2), country presence
Maya will follow the model that dominates (Brazil, French Guiana, Suriname, Guyana,
ecotourism worldwide, that is, by provid- Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and
ing soft ecotourism opportunities as an Bolivia) and biodiversity (e.g > 2000
adjunct to mass tourism. species of fish and 2500 orchid varieties).
The last characteristic, and the fact that
South America most of the flora and fauna in this region is
still extant, suggests that the Amazon basin
South America dwarfs the Caribbean and should be an ecotourism powerhouse. Yet,
Central America in terms of land area and this is not the case. Brazil, as cited above,
available natural assets (see Fig. 11.3). Yet, has made progress toward the institutional-
the development of ecotourism to date has ization of ecotourism in the Amazon and
been seriously impeded by South elsewhere. Actual development, however,
America’s distance from major tourist-gen- has been curtailed by poor accessibility,
erating regions, and by the lack of a strong and by the presence of established but
domestic ecotourist market, especially in potentially incompatible industries such as
logging and mining.

Latin America and the Caribbean 181

Fig. 11.3. South America.

Tourism, ironically, is mostly confined to most parks in this region are ‘paper parks’
regional urban gateways such as Manaus that lack facilities or effective management
and Belem. Accordingly, most ecotourism practices (SUDAM/OEA, 1995), ecotourism
is found within a relatively short distance tends moreover to occur within privately
of these strategic urban locations. Because owned areas of secondary forest cover

182 D.B. Weaver and R. Schlüter

Fig. 11.4. Train ride through the Mata Âtlantica (tropical rainforest), southern Brazil.

(Wallace and Pierce, 1996). This conforms 1997). There is evidence that specialized
to a wider global trend wherein privately travel agencies were already capitalizing
owned protected areas are becoming on the presence of Amazonia’s nature-
increasingly important as ecotourism based attraction in the 1960s, although
venues (see Chapter 19). The implication is more significant growth did not occur until
that such experiences may not impart a true the late 1980s. An ethical code of conduct
appreciation for primary Amazonian for the practice of ecotourism was estab-
ecosystems, and are less likely to reflect the lished in 1996 (Pires, 1999), and research
ideals associated with ecotourism. Concerns has been conducted into the demographic
are thus raised as to whether these and behavioural profile of this market.
‘ecotourism’-labelled products deserve the According to this research (Ruschmann,
name. 1997), most ecotourists are between 26 and
55 years of age, and three-quarters have
This said, government and the private attained higher education qualifications.
sector are both pursuing ecotourism as a
development option for Brazil’s Amazonian Brazil is not the only Amazonian coun-
region, and are well aware of the area’s try that is engaged in ecotourism. Several
potential in this regard. According to a prominent ecolodges have been established
study undertaken by the Superintendency in the Peruvian Amazon, and especially in
for the Development of the Amazon the Madre de Dios region. For example,
(SUDAM), and the Organisation of Manu Lodge, in the Manu World Heritage
American States (OAS), 2204 distinct Site, was hosting 500 visitors per year by
attractions were identified in the region, 1990 (Roe et al., 1997). In the same year,
of which 1142 (64.4%) belong to the about 3000 visitors were accommodated by
nature/ecological category. Other categor- the Cuzco-Amazonico Lodge. However, the
ies that are potentially complementary viability of these operations has been
with ecotourism include history/culture threatened by encroachment from colonists,
(16.1%), folklore (14.4%), scientific research and by tenure problems that resulted in
and technical activity (2.3%) and pro- ecolodge land being turned over to local
grammed events (1.6%) (SUDAM/OEA, indigenous reserves. Of particular concern

Latin America and the Caribbean 183

to the ecotourism sector has been the the government and leftist insurgents in
apparent favouritism shown by the govern- Colombia. Further discussion of eco-
ment to the colonists for political reasons, tourism in the South American Andes is
even though that same government is provided in Chapter 13.
aware of ecotourism’s potential to differen-
tiate and diversify the Peruvian tourism The Pantanal
product (Yu et al., 1997). Similar dynamics
apply to other peripheral Amazonian coun- The Pantanal is a vast, flooded plain of
tries, such as Ecuador (the Galapagos approximately 140,000 km2 situated in the
Islands are covered in other chapters), south-west of the states of Mato Grosso and
Venezuela, Colombia and Bolivia. Specific Mato Grosso du Sul, and extending into
and generic information on rainforest Bolivia and Paraguay. Situated between the
tourism that is relevant to the Amazon Amazonian region and the Central High
basin is provided in Chapter 12. Plain of Brazil, the area exhibits character-
istics of both ecosystems. Hence, it is
The Andes regarded as one of the world’s great con-
centrations of fauna as well as one of its
The Andes are the second major physical most important natural nurseries. The
feature of South America and, like the attractiveness of the Pantanal is enhanced
Amazon, this alpine region is shared by the presence of an annual rainy season,
among a large number of South American which gives rise to completely different
countries (i.e. Venezuela, Colombia, conditions from those experienced during
Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, Argentina) the dry season (SUDAM/OEA, 1997).
and remains in a largely natural state.
However, no country dominates the Andes Although the region received sporadic
to the same extent as Brazil dominates the ecotourist visitations in the 1960s, it was
Amazon basin. Another major difference is not until the 1990s that concerns were
the adherence to a strong ecotourism/pro- voiced over an increasing visitor influx. On
tected area relationship in the Andes. This one hand, ecotourism was welcome by
is most evident in the border region farmers and ranchers as an opportunity to
between Chile and Argentina, where well- diversify their revenue sources. However,
established protected area systems have given the considerable fragility of the
combined with good infrastructure, politi- Pantanal wetland ecosystem, conservation
cal stability, and relatively strong domestic groups are concerned about the negative
ecotourist markets to foster significant eco- impacts that may result from excessive vis-
tourism activity. Notable as an ecotourism itation levels. According to a study under-
gateway is the city of San Carlos de taken by SUDAM/OEA (1994), the rapid
Bariloche, at the foot of the Andes moun- and disorganized growth of tourism has
tain range, which emerged in the 1930s fol- been associated with the inadequate treat-
lowing the creation of Argentina’s first ment of residues and drinking water, ani-
national park (Schlüter, 1999). In the mals killed by vehicles, and noise
remaining Andean countries, the develop- pollution caused by road traffic and motor
ment of ecotourism in alpine regions has boats. Adverse impacts have also been
been hindered by inadequate protected noted with respect to local customs and
area funding (i.e. the more typical ‘paper traditions. With the objective of minimiz-
park’ pattern that exists in the Amazon ing the negative impacts of tourism, a
basin and within the less-developed world series of programmes which aim to pre-
in general), as well as political and social serve the environment and train the local
instability. The well-publicized activities population have been implemented. The
of the Sendero Luminoso in Peru are illus- objective is to transform the Pantanal into
trative, as is the ongoing conflict between an important destination for international
ecotourism which facilitates sustainable
development for the entire region.

184 D.B. Weaver and R. Schlüter

Patagonia one of the dominant economic activities on
the coast of Patagonia (Fig. 11.7). However,
Unlike Amazonia, tourism in the southern because potentially conflicting fishing and
Argentine region of Patagonia was always oil exploration activity is also carried out
closely linked to the area’s protected area in the region, tourism stakeholders are
system, part of which was established to working with these co-existent sectors to
safeguard the fauna of the Atlantic Coast. manage the coast in such a way as to
Species such as whales, penguins, elephant accommodate all users in an environmen-
seals and sea lions suffered from vigorous tally appropriate manner.
commercial exploitation in the early 20th
century (Figs 11.5 and 11.6). Federal and Over-fishing and oil spills are two ways
provincial restrictions implemented in the in which these other activities have nega-
1960s did little to prevent the problem of tively affected the local fauna, and thus
poaching. In 1964, a government agency ecotourism. One consequence of all these
was established with the dual objectives of activities, including ecotourism, has been
introducing more effective protection the alteration of whale behaviour in such a
through an improved system of faunal way that fewer boats can make the trip for
reserves, and sustainably managing the sightings, and strict guidelines regarding
intake of tourists that was anticipated to be viewing distance thresholds have had to be
attracted by these reserves (Schlüter, 1999). implemented. The soft nature of eco-
tourism on the Patagonian coast is indi-
By the end of the 1990s, this protected cated by the fact that visitors tend on
area system extended from the 41st latitude average to spend between 1 and 1.5 h in a
to the extreme southern tip of mainland reserve. Ninety per cent of these visitors
Argentina. The rapid replenishment of consider that they are able to learn some-
many endangered species, and the fact that thing new and interesting about nature and
this has occurred despite the rapid growth conservation during this time (Tagliorette
of tourism, is evidence that both objectives and Lozano, 1996).
have been achieved. Tourism is presently

Fig. 11.5. Marine elephants on the Patagonian Atlantic coast, Argentina.

Latin America and the Caribbean 185

Fig. 11.6. Penguins at the Cape Dos Bahías Natural Reserve, Patagonia, Argentina.

Fig. 11.7. Lighthouse Punta Delgada Ecotourism Complex. Valdes peninsula, Patagonia, Argentina.

186 D.B. Weaver and R. Schlüter

Conclusion ecotourism, as well as extensive areas
where this activity is virtually non-existent.
For discussion and generalization pur- As evident in Chapters 6–10, this pattern is
poses, Latin America and the Caribbean consistent throughout the world. Struc-
can be divided into three distinct regions turally, the other pattern that is consistent
based on physical geography and the status with global trends is the emphasis on soft
of the ecotourism sector. Figure 11.8 sum- ecotourism, and its concentration in a
marizes the patterns that are presented in small number of protected areas that are
this chapter in terms of the general status accessible to international gateways, major
of ecotourism, and the strengths, opportu- transportation routes, and developed resort
nities, weaknesses and threats that are areas.
associated with this sector in each of the
three regions. Before commenting on these In Latin America and the Caribbean, the
general patterns, it is appropriate to reiter- general pattern involves moderate activity
ate that ecotourism activity is unequally in the 3S-dominated Caribbean and coastal
distributed in all three regions, each of Mexico, followed by a higher level of
which possesses nodes of well-developed engagement in Central America. It is ironic
that at least two specialized ecotourism

Strengths, Sub-region Weaknesses,
opportunities Caribbean threats

– Proximity to markets Central – Environmental problems
– Dominant 3S tourism America – Dominant 3S tourism
– Extensive littoral and – Natural disasters
South – Weak protected area
marine resources America
– Potential of Cuba systems
– Limited land area
– Extensive biodiversity
– Strong protected area – Natural disasters
– Environmental problems
systems – Emergence of
– Cultural tourism
– Political stability Caribbean ecotourism
– Multinational initiatives
– Political instability
– Enormous – Distance from markets
environmental – Intervening opportun-
resources
ities in the Caribbean
– Emerging domestic and Central America
markets, especially in – Environmental problems
Argentina and Chile – Poorly funded and
managed protected area
systems
– Small domestic
ecotourist market north
of Argentina and Chile

Shading indicates relative importance of ecotourism in sub-region
Fig. 11.8. Ecotourism patterns in Latin America and the Caribbean.

Latin America and the Caribbean 187

countries have emerged in the mass include environmental deterioration, episodic
tourism-dominated Caribbean, but this is natural disasters, poorly developed pro-
explained by the very small size of these tected area systems, and limited land areas.
particular countries. South America, in The presence of a dominant 3S-based
general, has a lower level of ecotourism tourism industry can be interpreted as both
than either of the preceding regions, due to an opportunity and a threat.
a variety of regional weaknesses and
threats that counter its formidable array of The art of prediction is always fraught
environmental assets and its emerging with uncertainty. However, it appears in
domestic and intra-regional tourist mar- the medium term as if the insular
kets. Central America benefits from a high Caribbean and Mexico will rival Central
level of biodiversity, a well-articulated pro- America as an ecotourism-providing
tected area system, significant multilateral region, especially as links between mass
and bilateral tourism and protected area tourism and soft ecotourism in that region
initiatives (e.g. Mundo Maya), growing are expanded in the effort to diversify the
political stability, and strong complemen- resort tourism product. South America will
tary products such as cultural tourism. On probably display two patterns of develop-
the weakness/threat side, Central America ment. In the more developed southern area
is experiencing major environmental prob- occupied by Argentina, Chile, Uruguay and
lems, is subject to natural disasters, and southern Brazil, growing domestic demand
will face competition in future from the and improving infrastructure will generate
larger Caribbean islands. In the Caribbean, a pattern similar to North America and
strengths and opportunities include access Europe. In contrast, the remainder of South
to the North American market, strong America is not likely to progress much
marine and littoral environmental resources, beyond incipient ecotourism, given its con-
and the potential of Cuba as a major eco- tinuing relative isolation, underdevelop-
tourism destination. Weaknesses and threats ment, and small domestic markets.

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Section 3

A Regional Survey
by Biome

D.B. Weaver

School of Tourism and Hotel Management, Griffith University Gold Coast Campus,
Queensland, Australia

If ecotourism attractions are primarily for providing learning opportunities. Frost,
nature-based, then it is useful to differenti- in Chapter 12, describes the impressive
ate this sector on the basis of the major bio- and even overwhelming level of biodiver-
mes that comprise the natural realm. The sity that is associated with lush, closed-
six chapters in this section examine eco- canopy rainforests. High levels of diversity
tourism in the context, respectively, of are also often associated, though for differ-
rainforests, alpine areas, polar regions, ent reasons, with alpine areas, savannahs,
islands and coasts, deserts as well as grass- coral reefs and islands. The opposite end of
lands and savannahs, and marine environ- the biodiversity continuum is occupied by
ments. Ecotourism has penetrated all of the polar ice caps, which, as described by
these ecosystems, but the extent and man- Stonehouse in Chapter 14, harbour a lim-
ner of this penetration, and the manage- ited amount and array of terrestrial life,
ment issues that result, depend on the and only on their periphery. Yet, the
characteristics of each ecosystem and the grandeur and pristine condition of such
way they are perceived by relevant stake- physical settings ensures a growing level of
holders. The treatment of the ecosystems as interest from determined ecotourists.
separate entities, however, is more a matter Compared with the above ‘poster’ settings,
of convenience than a reflection of reality, grasslands and deserts, as discussed by
since the divisions between them are often Weaver in Chapter 16, are ‘Cinderella’
fuzzy, and a single setting, such as a ecosystems whose charms are often more
thickly forested mountain slope in subtle.
Southeast Asia, can belong to more than
one category. In addition, ecotourism prod- Ecosystems also vary dramatically in
ucts often deliberately seek to diversify by terms of their survival in a more or less
establishing synergies among a variety of natural state. On one extreme, the ice caps
ecosystems. exist today in much the same form and
extent that they have for the past millen-
Biomes, in the first instance, differ in nium. Deserts may be even more extensive
terms of appearance and species composi- than they once were, though this owes
tion. This is critical to ecotourism, since more to the degradation of adjacent ecosys-
both characteristics help to define the aes- tems than to any enlightened attitude toward
thetic appeal of biomes and their potential such areas. In either case, preservation is a

© CAB International 2001. The Encyclopedia of Ecotourism 189
(ed. D.B. Weaver)

190 D.B. Weaver

matter of default rather than intent; these being used for farming, forestry, mining or
are settings, in other words, that have long other ‘useful’ activities. Despite the contin-
been perceived as having only marginal uing degradation of these environments, it
direct utility for human beings. For ecosys- is a positive sign that the remaining natural
tems that are seen as having the potential spaces are increasingly being perceived as
of such utility, the situation is grim. In our most precious assets, rather than
Chapter 13, Williams, Singh and Schlüter wastelands awaiting fitful exploitation.
describe how sensitive alpine environ-
ments are being heavily encroached upon As stated above, the characteristics and
by human settlement, resource extraction circumstances that attend each of these
and, in the more economically developed remaining ecosystems have a bearing on
regions, alpine sporting activity. Similarly, their management as ecotourism settings.
Halpenny indicates in Chapter 15 how In all cases, ecotourism can potentially
coastal and insular ecosystems are threat- function as an incentive to preserve and
ened by resort tourism and population even enhance what is left of the natural
migration in general. Just offshore of these component. However, if incorrectly man-
areas in the tropics, associated threats are aged, ecotourism can act as one of the
being posed to coral reefs, as discussed by forces that contributes to its demise, as
Cater and Cater in Chapter 17. many of these chapters show. Diving and
viewing pressures, for example, can
But rainforests, more than any of these quickly overwhelm coral reef and cetacean
areas, have come to symbolize the destruc- carrying capacities for tourism, while the
tion of the world’s ecosystems, whether it prevalence of ecotourism hybrids such as
is occurring in the Brazilian Amazon or in trekking in mountain regions can mean the
British Columbia. The amount of intact dilution of the sustainability imperative,
rainforest has declined by about one-half and overall poor quality of the tourism
just in the past century, leading to growing product. The fact that most rainforests,
concern about the future ability of rain- savannahs and coral reefs are located
forests to host ecotourism, and indeed, within less economically developed regions
about the role that ecotourism might means that sufficient resources are not
increasingly play in arresting this decline. always available to implement or enforce
Probably no other ecosystem receives the appropriate management strategies. More-
publicity and research that rainforests over, the dichotomy between wealthy,
receive, including that which is related to white ecotourists and poor, non-white local
ecotourism. In contrast, long- and medium- communities is often present in such situa-
grass prairies are among the most endan- tions, creating challenges for the realiza-
gered ecosystems in the world, as Weaver tion of socio-cultural sustainability. Such,
points out, yet have attracted little atten- however, is not a concern for uninhabited
tion by comparison. This may be due in Antarctica, which is also unique in being
part to the lack of drama involved in their subject to an international treaty structure
conversion to farmland, and to the relative that circumvents the normal hierarchy of
ease with which such lands can be rehabil- municipal, state and national governments.
itated.
Many other ecosystems-based manage-
The inequity in attention is of course ment issues can be cited. Frost, for exam-
partly a function of perception. Most ple, describes how visitors to the rainforest
tourists consider rainforests, savannahs usually arrive with preconceived notions
and coral reefs, and their associated as to how these ecosystems operate.
wildlife, to be far more attractive than Should managers try as much as possible
grasslands or deserts, a view that is rein- to satisfy visitors by confirming these pre-
forced by incessant publicity. Yet, until conceptions, or should they engage in mass
recently, all natural ecosystems in Western debunking? Rainforests, because of their
cultures were regarded in a negative light closed-in character, can also ‘hide’ large
to the extent that they were spaces not numbers of visitors, whereas even a small

Regional Survey by Biome 191

number of ecotourists in an open grassland coastal regions, Halpenny points out that it
or on an ice cap can give rise to an intru- is increasingly difficult to dissociate this
sive and crowded effect. In terms of experi- activity from 3S resort development,
ences, Weaver points out that the wherein visits to sand dunes and man-
interaction with nature on the African groves, and excursions to nearby rain-
savannah is primarily a visual experience forests, are important add-ons to the latter
in which the visitor is almost always guar- which can foster mutually beneficial rela-
anteed of seeing at least some interesting tionships. Cater and Cater make the same
wildlife. In contrast, the rainforest experi- observation with respect to offshore diving
ence is more one of feel and sound, and and whale-watching. In sum, the circum-
visually more focused on plants than ani- stances of each biome will in large part dic-
mals. In light of these contrasts, an ele- tate the mode of ecotourism product that is
vated viewing structure is appropriate for best able to effect sustainable outcomes for
the rainforest, but perhaps not for the that environment.
grassland. Where ecotourism occurs in



Chapter 12

Rainforests

Warwick Frost

Department of Management, Monash University, Berwick, Australia

Introduction roundings, such a tourist could easily
understand many of the special character-
For most tourists interested in nature, rain- istics and values of the rainforest and how
forests are about the most attractive biome it can be threatened. Massive coverage of
on Earth. Tourists often see rainforests as rainforest issues, especially through televi-
lush, luxuriant, vibrant, immense, mysteri- sion and educational institutions, has led
ous, spiritual and romantic. As most to most of us feeling we have some exper-
tourists are urban-dwellers from countries tise in understanding rainforests. In
without rainforests, a visit to a rainforest is contrast, the special features of other
an exotic and rare experience. Rainforests biomes, such as grasslands, are far harder
are also associated with other attractive for the ordinary tourist to understand and
experiences and images. Tropical beaches, appreciate.
islands and resorts are easily associated
with rainforests. Rainforests hold a special Increasingly, rainforests are where eco-
place for some as the landscapes of the tourism and mass tourism collide. This cre-
dinosaurs. Today, rainforests are the home ates many problems. Should tourism
of exotic, rare and threatened species, such operators and park managers cater for the
as the mountain gorillas of Africa and the niche or mass market? Can they satisfy
orang-utans of Sumatra. With increased both? If the average tourist already comes
interest over the last 20 years in preserva- armed with a great deal of general knowl-
tion of the environment, the fate of the edge and set expectations about rainforests,
rainforests, especially those of the Amazon how then do we approach the provision of
basin, has become symbolic of that strug- interpretation? Is it acceptable to manipu-
gle. For many tourists a visit to a rainforest late the natural environment to better fit
is an affirmation of their support for the preconceptions about rainforests? How do
environment. we manage visitors to rainforests to maxi-
mize their experience and minimize their
Rainforests seem easy to understand, impact?
certainly at the simple level. Even the most
urban-centred tourist can enjoy a short This chapter has two main aims. The
venture into a rainforest (especially if along first is to provide a general descriptive
a well-made path or walkway). In addition overview of rainforests and rainforest
to the enjoyment of such pleasant sur- tourism. That rainforests are seen as so
easy to understand is a trap. It is important

© CAB International 2001. The Encyclopedia of Ecotourism 193
(ed. D.B. Weaver)

194 W. Frost

to fully understand the complexities of forests, so they defined rainforest in a Euro-
their definition, different typology and geo- centric way as evergreen broadleaf forest
graphical distribution. Similarly rainforest (i.e. not European). In Australia some
tourism needs some careful explanation, botanists defined rainforests as forests in
for it comes in different guises and there high rainfall areas which were not eucalypt
are quite marked geographical differences forests. Similarly on the west coast of the
across the world. USA it was decided that the redwood
(sequoia) forests were not rainforests.
The second aim is to provide a discus-
sion of the key issues affecting rainforests The problem worsened in the 1960s and
and rainforest tourism. These include the beyond as the use of the term expanded
difficulties of balancing mass and eco- beyond scientific circles and into common
tourism, providing meaningful interpreta- usage. Ordinary people began to use it gen-
tion and protecting rainforests from erally to describe any high rainfall forest
excessive visitor impact. Consideration is (nowadays a common dictionary defini-
also given to the increasing trend towards tion). Many botanists began to focus on
artificial rainforests as tourist attractions. definitions based on density of canopy and
other structural differences rather than
What are Rainforests? geography or climate. Some botanists were
disturbed by the existence of deciduous
Defining rainforests generally is simple, rainforest trees, forests that seemed to be
defining them exactly is very difficult and rainforests but lacked the diversity which
has generated much debate. The term rain- characterized tropical rainforests, and
forest was coined in 1898 by the German anomalies regarding conifers (araucarian
botanist Andreas Schimper in his Plant conifers were acceptable, but not others).
Geography upon a Physiological Basis In addition, there was increasing evidence
(posthumously translated into English in that species (such as eucalypts) which had
1903). He described dense lush tropical been excluded from rainforests had actu-
forests which he had visited on fieldwork ally evolved from rainforests.
in the Caribbean; South America, Sri Lanka
and Indonesia. These forests only occurred On the other hand, under increased
in areas of high rainfall. Thus he combined pressure not to log rainforests, foresters
rain and forest for the term Regenwald, and public land managers demanded nar-
which was quickly translated into English rower and narrower ‘scientific’ definitions
as Rainforest (the alternative Rain Forest of rainforests. This conflict was well illus-
is mainly used by northern hemisphere trated in the instance of Victoria (Australia)
writers). where much of the high-rainfall eucalypt
forests are intermingled with rainforest
Difficulties arose when other high rain- species as an understorey and along
fall forests around the globe were consid- moister gullies. In 1985 the State Depart-
ered. Some were structurally similar to ment of Conservation and Environment
Schimper’s tropical rainforest but occurred established a Rainforest Technical Com-
in subtropical, temperate and even cold mittee consisting of senior botanists. This
temperate climates. Other tall, dense committee’s brief was to finally provide a
forests occurred in high rainfall areas, but ‘scientific’ definition of rainforest. How-
seemed substantially different in structure. ever, when the committee agreed upon a
In the confusion rainforests were often definition which included the mixed euca-
defined in a negative way (Adam, 1992). lypt rainforest forests, the state government
Schimper and his fellow botanists were deleted these mixed rainforests from the
mainly Europeans and North Americans, final definition in order to appease forestry
they already knew about the high rainfall interests (Cameron, 1992).
conifer and deciduous forests of their home
countries, they were describing different What has developed is a continuum
scale of definitions. At one extreme we still
have writers who only accept tropical rain-

Rainforests 195

forests as rainforest (a common position in • A very wide diversity of tree and plant
many popular works). Moving along the species. Even though tropical rainforests
scale there are many who accept a number only cover 7% of the Earth’s landmass,
of different types of rainforest, but draw they provide about 50% of the world’s
the line if so-called non-rainforest species plant species (Whitmore, 1990).
are present. Next come a group (seemingly
growing) who accept various levels of mix- • A very dense canopy, often multi-lay-
ing. Finally we have the other extreme that ered, sometimes with a fairly open
all high-rainfall forests are rainforests (a understorey at ground level.
position increasingly adopted by some
tourist operators trying to attract as many • Most trees have very large leaves and
tourists as possible). often massive buttress roots.

Bearing all these difficulties in mind, it • Large numbers of thick, woody vines,
is possible to construct a generally accept- palms and epiphytes.
able definition of rainforest. A rainforest is
a high density grouping of tall trees and Tropical rainforest primarily requires
other vegetation, in which the tall trees warm temperatures (a minimum of 18°C)
form a dense canopy which significantly and secondarily high rainfall (a minimum
reduces light levels at the forest floor. of 100 mm each month). Half the world’s
Many of the trees in the rainforest will be tropical rainforests are in the Americas,
evergreens with relatively soft leaves and particularly Central America, the Carib-
these trees will have the ability to repro- bean and the northern third of South
duce under the undisturbed canopy. America. Tropical rainforests are also
However, the rainforest may also include found in West Africa, Madagascar, western
numbers of conifers and hard-leaved ever- India, Sri Lanka, southern China, Southeast
greens. As these species do not usually Asia, Papua New Guinea, the far north-
have the ability to reproduce under the eastern coast of Australia and many Pacific
canopy they may be relics from previous and Indian Ocean islands (Whitmore,
disturbances or be found mainly around 1990).
the edges of the rainforest.
Subtropical rainforest
Types of Rainforest
Subtropical rainforest occurs adjacent to
There are a number of different ways of tropical rainforest in areas that are slightly
classifying rainforests, the following is cooler due to difference in altitude or lati-
probably the most common. Though it uses tude. Subtropical rainforest looks very sim-
a nomenclature which suggests typology ilar to tropical rainforest, but is somewhat
based on climate, the differences are really less luxuriant and diverse. It is dominated
much more of a structural nature. by only a few tree species and it is less lay-
ered. Buttresses, figs, palms, large epi-
Tropical rainforest phytes and woody vines may be less
frequent and there may be more ferns.
This is the original rainforest as described
by Schimper, the most common type and An interesting and confusing variation
the stereotype of rainforest firmly lodged in occurs with rainforest on less fertile and
the mind of most tourists. Its chief charac- acidic soil. Even though it may be adjacent
teristics are: to subtropical rainforest, this depauperate
type is called warm temperate rainforest. It
is typically dominated by one or two
species, trees are shorter, leaves are smaller
and it has far less tropical rainforest char-
acteristics (for example buttresses, woody
vines).

196 W. Frost

Dry or monsoonal rainforest Cool temperate rainforests are geograph-
ically distant from the other rainforests.
Usually contiguous to tropical and subtrop- They are mainly found in the southern half
ical rainforests, these are rainforests of the southern hemisphere, namely Chile,
markedly affected by a pronounced dry Tasmania and New Zealand. However, very
season. They are characterized by species small patches can be found further north,
typically found in the other rainforests, but but only at high altitudes (though depend-
which have adapted to the more seasonal ing on one’s definitional stance, the west
conditions. This adaptation might include coast forests of USA and Canada could be
dwarfing or a limited growing season. Such included in this category).
rainforests are typically more open with far
less luxuriant foliage. They may be domi- The chief characteristics of cool temper-
nated by more drought-tolerant rainforest ate rainforests are:
species, such as araucarian conifers. In
some instances small patches of dry rain- • one dominant tree variety; usually
forest may be found along watercourses Nothofagus (southern beech);
and in gorges in regions that are normally
considered quite arid. • very small leaf size; sometimes decidu-
ous;
The subtropical, warm temperate and
dry or monsoonal rainforests extend signif- • buttresses, palms, figs, large epiphytes
icantly outwards from the tropical rainfor- and woody vines completely absent;
est cores of Central–South America, West
Africa and Southeast Asia. For example, • abundant ferns, mosses and lichens.
rainforest is found in northern Iran.
However, rainforests are usually not Some writers, mainly from the northern
regarded as extending into Europe, the hemisphere, refer to cool temperate rain-
USA or Canada. forests as montane rainforests and to tropi-
cal and subtropical rainforests as lowland
rainforests.

Evolution of the Rainforests

Cool temperate rainforest Schimper in 1898 only discovered rain-
forests in a Eurocentric sense, by naming
Cool temperate rainforests do not really them. The far longer history of rainforests
match the stereotypes of rainforests. They has really only been pieced together more
lack the diversity and luxuriance of tropi- recently. Their origins are in the great
cal rainforests. They are usually cold and southern supercontinent Gondwanaland
wet and therefore unattractive to some which existed between 160 and 100 mil-
tourists. They look far more like European lion years ago and consisted of modern day
forests. Yet, in the last few decades they South America, southern Africa, India,
have come to occupy a special niche for Australia and Antarctica. In a world much
rainforest lovers. In a way that tropical warmer and wetter than today,
rainforests are not, cool temperate rain- Gondwanaland developed as a rainforest
forests are seen as real wild places, a sort of continent. The Gondwanan dinosaurs
last frontier. Being cold and wet they are grazed in an extensive and lush environ-
usually not in close proximity to intensive ment of conifers, ferns, palms and cycads.
cultivation or large densities of humans. A striking example of how much more
Furthermore, they are viewed as having extensive the rainforest coverage was then
strong links to the Earth’s prehistoric past, is the recent uncovering of hundreds of
they are perhaps seen as living fossils. This rainforest fossil leaves from the desert at
link is best seen in how modern cool tem- Lake Eyre in South Australia (White, 1994).
perate rainforests were used as the back-
ground for the 1999 BBC TV series Walking About 125 to 100 million years ago flow-
with Dinosaurs. ering plants began to develop, probably as
opportunists filling newly created ecologi-

Rainforests 197

cal niches as sea levels varied (White, and taboo and certain rainforest animals
1994). At around the same time, had religious and totemic significance
Gondwanaland began to break apart, some (Flannery, 1998; Boomgaard, 1999). Rain-
parts drifting off to collide with the north- forests provided nearly all their economic
ern supercontinent Laurasia and other wants. Food came from hunting and gath-
parts remaining separate. Today’s rain- ering, often combined with simple slash
forests are either found on former parts of and burn agriculture. Tropical rainforest
Gondwanaland or in regions of close prox- was particularly diverse in the range of
imity. The break up of Gondwanaland was resources it provided, a diversity which
accompanied by (and probably caused) required indigenous peoples to develop
global cooling and drying, which was par- and pass on from generation to generation
ticularly manifested in the development of a massive range of local botanical and
polar ice caps and irregular Ice Ages. This zoological knowledge (Flannery, 1998).
caused rainforests to evolve their cool tem- Indeed, so abundant were the resources of
perate form and prevented their spread rainforests that they may have stifled agri-
into Europe and temperate North America. cultural development in many regions.
Indeed increased understanding of our
botanical history reverses traditional Euro- The close relationship between indige-
centric views. The supposedly ancient nous people and rainforests leads to a
forests of Europe are really post Ice Age common misunderstanding. Because the
youngsters. rainforests were not exotic and therefore (it
is sometimes argued) special to these peo-
Changing Attitudes to Rainforests ples, it has been quite easy for Eurocentric
commentators to conclude that indigenous
For tens of thousands of years the rain- people had nothing more than a utilitarian
forests of the Americas, Africa, Asia and relationship with the rainforests.
Australia have been the home of indige-
nous people. In the last 500 years the Initially, for Europeans, the rainforest
expansion of Europeans over the globe has was a mask they had to remove. It hid pre-
led to nearly all rainforests coming under cious minerals and sometimes hid the
some sort of colonial administration. In forces of resistance. Most importantly it
many cases the European colonies were hid agricultural opportunities. Removing
primarily extractive with indigenous peo- the rainforest allowed the rain and (some-
ple coerced into a colonial labour force. In times imagined) fertile soil to produce
some instances indigenous people were high-value export commodities. Rainforests
replaced or supplemented with labour were cleared for rubber, coffee, tea, sugar
drawn from other locations (such as and dairying (Aiken and Leigh, 1995; Dean,
African slaves or Chinese indentured 1995; Grove, 1995; Frost, 1997). Where
labourers). In Australia and New Zealand overcropping caused declining soil fertil-
the Europeans created settler societies. In ity, land was abandoned and more virgin
the 20th century European colonialism rainforest cleared and planted (Dean 1995;
declined dramatically, with most countries Grove 1995; Frost 1997). Until late in the
gaining independence. However, in place 20th century, timber-cutting fell far behind
of colonial powers, domination has passed mining and agriculture, for with the excep-
to a handful of key economic powers. All tion of some very high-value woods, it was
these different interests have led to a wide not economic to export timber. As a result
range of attitudes towards rainforests. cleared rainforest was usually burnt as a
waste product.
For many indigenous people the rain-
forests were their entire world. Certain Over time a variety of conservation sen-
parts of the rainforest, particularly certain timents developed. Declining stream flow
groups of trees, were regarded as sacred and soil fertility quickly became a major
problem on some West Indian and Indian
Ocean islands (Grove, 1995). In some
colonies Europeans formed conservation

198 W. Frost

societies in order to protect particular ani- 1980s and 1990s rainforest clearing in
mals for their exclusive game hunting many countries has reached a rate which
(Boomgaard, 1999). However, in other cannot be sustained if these rainforests are
cases there was very little interest in con- to survive as significant biomes.
servation (Dean, 1995).
The scale and intensity of recent clear-
It was in Australia, the one area where ance has directly led to a tremendous
rainforests were successfully converted growth of interest and appreciation in rain-
into family farms by European settlers, that forests. Less than 20 years ago some com-
the strongest and most widespread regard mentators bemoaned that few tourists
for rainforests developed. While clearing understood rainforests (Valentine, 1991).
large areas, many farming communities However, by 1990 it was confidently pro-
took great care to preserve small patches claimed that ‘rainforests have crossed a
(especially waterfalls and gullies) as parks. threshold of perception’ (Whitmore, 1990).
Rainforest beauty spots were not only val- Writers on heritage argue that many things
ued by locals; between the 1870s and the only come to be seen as heritage when they
1930s rainforests were seen as especially are under threat (Davison, 1991). That is
attractive by urban-dwellers and became a exactly what occurred with rainforests.
major component of a successful nature- Publicity about clearing stimulated anger
based tourism sector in Australia (O’Reilly, and fascination. Rainforests became a
1945; Ritchie, 1989; Frost, 2000). cause célèbre of the 1980s and 1990s. Film,
television and popular music reinforced
After the Second World War the clearing images of rainforest as something worth
of tropical rainforests quickened due to the saving. And as interest in the conservation
massive economic expansion which char- of rainforests grew, so too did interest in
acterized this period, especially in the visiting and experiencing rainforests.
Asia-Pacific Region. The buoyant economies
of the USA and East Asia increasingly Rainforest Tourism Today
demanded timber, food and minerals.
These could be gained cheaply by clearing Rainforest tourism is very difficult to quan-
rainforests in poorer countries which were tify and package neatly. There are major
missing out on industrialization but were problems in defining rainforest tourists and
still keen to grab a piece of the global counting them. Do we define by interests,
action. The development and utilization of activities or attractions visited? Do we
modern machinery allowed clearing to count numbers or revenue yielded? Is it
occur far more quickly and cheaply than right (as is commonly done) to value inter-
before (Collins, 1990; Whitmore, 1990; national tourists as far more important than
Aiken and Leigh, 1995). domestic tourists? How do we deal with
comparisons between countries? As we are
The scale of modern clearance is diffi- a long way off quantifying rainforest
cult to quantify. Government statistical tourism and there has been very little
authorities rarely collect forest clearance research specifically on rainforest tourism,
data. Estimates may be done on different the approach taken here is descriptive and
criteria and for different time periods and somewhat speculative.
comparisons between countries may be
very difficult (for example see Salim and The most significant development in
Ullsten, 1999). If we are just counting area rainforest tourism in recent decades has
cleared, the greatest modern clearance has been the growth of high-value package
occurred in Brazil, followed by Indonesia tours. These have been particularly notice-
and Nigeria. On the other hand if we con- able in Latin America, most notably Costa
sider area cleared as a percentage of total Rica, but also Guatemala, Honduras,
rainforest, the highest rates of clearance are Belize, southern Mexico and Brazil
in Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Costa Rica and El (Thomlinson and Getz, 1996; Wallace and
Salvador (Whitmore, 1990). However we
view the statistics, it is clear that in the

Rainforests 199

Pierce, 1996; Lumsdon and Swift, 1998; around a strong theme. In addition there
Weaver, 1998; Honey, 1999; Minca and has been much development of accommo-
Linda, 2000). Tours also occur to a lesser dation properties as self-contained destina-
extent in most of the rainforested areas of tions. These often have distinctive themes
the world, although political instability or styles, for example they may be pro-
and warfare have severely limited their moted as eco-lodges or safari camps or as
development in some countries (Shackley, boutique or specialized (Moscardo et al.,
1995; Weaver, 1998). 1996; Wallace and Pierce, 1996). Some
even present themselves as scientific
The market for this type of rainforest research centres (Weaver, 1998; Honey,
tourism is typically relatively well-to-do 1999). As well as food and lodging they
tourists from well-developed countries, tend to offer exclusive access to local rain-
especially from the USA and northern forest, guided tours, animal feeding and
Europe. Such tourists fit the classic eco- interpretative talks. Many now have strong
tourism mould, they are generally well-edu- links to indigenous groups, utilizing them
cated, keen to incorporate learning as guides and interpreters and in some
experiences into their holiday and con- cases these facilities may be owned and
cerned about conservation. Whether or not operated by local communities (Wallace
the tours and experiences they engage in and Pierce, 1996; Weaver, 1998).
are truly ecotourism is the subject of a
lively ongoing debate (Thomlinson and Rainforests are not the sole attraction for
Getz, 1996; Wallace and Pierce, 1996; these tourists. They may be interested in a
Lumsdon and Swift, 1998). Nonetheless, range of attractions which are geographi-
many of these tourists would either see cally linked to the rainforest, or it may
themselves as real ecotourists or as far more even be that the rainforest is just the back-
serious than the usual sun and sand crowd. ground for a far stronger interest. Tours of
Central America are packaged and pro-
The cost of such tours averages moted around a number of features, includ-
US$100–200 per day per person for the ing Mayan ruins, beaches, adventure
land component only (Shackley, 1995; activities and indigenous culture as well as
Thomlinson and Getz, 1996). When airfares the rainforests (Thomlinson and Getz,
are added a rainforest holiday is an expen- 1996; Lumsdon and Swift, 1998; Weaver,
sive proposition. This tends to limit the 1998). Most tropical beach resorts have
market to older, high income, experienced, some linkages to rainforests, either having
highly motivated travellers. It also tends to adjoining stands or offering longer tours to
preclude domestic tourists (though Costa nearby forests. While their customers are
Rica and Australia do have strong domestic primarily interested in the beach and resort
visitor rates). However, it is important to activities, the rainforest offers variety and
distinguish between the current and poten- exotic glamour. Animal and birdwatching
tial markets. In recent years there has been tourism is a particularly significant high-
the growth of a younger backpacker mar- value niche market which often utilizes
ket. Their tendency is to be more indepen- rainforest environments (Shackley, 1995).
dent, accept cheaper accommodation,
meals and transport and splurge on short A different form of rainforest tourism
expensive rainforest tours and experiences has tended to develop in Australia, particu-
(in the same way as normally frugal back- larly in Queensland. It is chiefly distin-
packers still tend to be big spenders on div- guished by its markets. In Queensland they
ing experiences on the Great Barrier Reef). are chiefly domestic tourists, international
visitors from Asia and backpackers. Prices
Much of the high-value rainforest are lower and packages are built around
tourism is through traditional style group accommodation destinations rather than
tours. These are typically 7–14 days, all long tours. These accommodation destina-
inclusive of food, accommodation and tions (and there are hundreds) skilfully use
attractions, often cover a large area and a rainforest plantings and views as their
number of countries and are usually built

200 W. Frost

setting. Nonetheless, the rainforest is typi- down the road, an independent tour opera-
cally a background for the tourists’ chief tor may explain to their tourists that the
interests in beaches, water activities and same government agency is encouraging
adventure experiences. Ecotourism ven- logging and agricultural clearance.
tures do exist and have grown in recent
years, but they are only a small segment. It has been suggested that there are cer-
Another significant difference in Australia tain messages which should be included in
is that perhaps over half of rainforest visi- interpretation at all rainforests. These are
tors are from nearby areas and many the following (adapted from Frost, 1999).
tourists are taken to rainforests by friends
or relatives whom they are visiting 1. What makes a rainforest and the debate
(Parsonson et al., 1989; Valentine 1991). over what is and what is not a rainforest.
2. The different types of rainforest and, in
Rainforest Interpretation particular, the type that this rainforest
belongs to.
Interpretation aims at providing tourists 3. How indigenous people interacted with
with explanations about the places they this rainforest.
visit and is a very important component of 4. How European colonization or settle-
ecotourism (see Chapter 35). Interpretation ment affected this rainforest.
has two components: the message (or 5. The major threats today.
theme) and the method (or mode). 6. Plant and tree varieties.
Unfortunately, tourism managers often con- 7. Animals, birds and insects.
centrate more on the method than the mes- 8. Special growing conditions associated
sage and rainforest tourism is no different with this rainforest (such as the nutrient
in this respect. cycle or the presence of buttressed roots).
9. The fragility and resilience of rain-
Determining what are the key messages forests in general and of this particular
for tourists in rainforests is difficult for rainforest.
four reasons. First, most tourists come to 10. Any revegetation or scientific research
rainforests already loaded down with pre- projects in progress.
conceptions. Do tourism managers shape
the experience to fit and satisfy these pre- Each of these messages varies in terms
conceptions or do they risk challenging of complexity, controversy and vested
them? Second, as noted earlier in this interests. When the interpretative materials
chapter, there is considerable unresolved at six popular rainforest parks in Australia
debate about certain aspects of rainforests. were surveyed, some strong patterns
How should they be handled? Should the emerged (Frost, 1999). None of the parks
interpretation be kept simple or can it provided any information about current
include multiple conflicting explanations? threats to rainforests in Australia. However,
Third, at what level should the interpreta- some referred to rainforest clearing in
tion be aimed? Tourists range from chil- Brazil! The likely explanation for these
dren to highly educated adults, from the omissions is that the government agencies
mass tourist seeking a pleasant experience responsible for these parks were usually
to the dark green ecotourist. How do parts of larger agencies responsible for
tourism managers strike a balance? Fourth, timber-cutting in the area. In addition,
different tourism managers will have dif- none of the six attempted to provide a ‘sci-
ferent messages depending on their own entific’ definition of rainforest. Again this
circumstances and beliefs. For example a may have been due to the broader logging
government agency charged with managing interests of the park managers or it may
rainforests may give its highest priority to have been seen as just too complex to try to
promoting what a good job it is doing in explain to tourists. Curiously, three of the
conserving a particular patch. However, six had good information on indigenous
use of the rainforest and three had nothing
on this topic.

Rainforests 201

In contrast, all six parks provided exten- Elevated Viewing Structures
sive excellent quality interpretative mater-
ial regarding the special growing Rainforest tourists can choose from a wide
conditions to be found in that rainforest. range of modes of experiencing and under-
Five of the six provided information about standing the rainforests. Some of these,
the animals, birds and insects and labelled though used in other biomes, work very
the major tree varieties. Such emphases well in rainforests. These include small
can be explained in two ways. First, this guided walks, trails with signage and
interpretation focused on information night-time spotlight walks. However, there
which was incontestable and uncontrover- is one particular mode which has become
sial: the trees had buttresses, they were of a almost exclusively associated with rain-
particular species, there were epiphytes, forests, this is the elevated viewing struc-
nutrients were returned to the soil by ture.
rapidly rotting leaves, etc. Second, this
interpretation related to the internal The stated logic behind elevated struc-
dynamics of the rainforest; it did not go tures is that as the canopy is the most inter-
beyond the rainforest and consider how it esting feature of a rainforest, most tourists
interacted with the rest of the world. will wish to go there. As well as being the
distinguishing characteristic, the canopy is
The quality of interpretation is highly where tourists can see epiphytes, fruit,
dependent on the level of knowledge of its flowers and wildlife close up. Such experi-
creator, the writer of text for signs or a tour ences cannot be had at ground level. A sec-
guide. The level of knowledge has become ond attraction of the elevated structure
particularly important for rainforest (though rarely openly stated) is that it gives
tourism in Latin America. On the high- the tourist a thrill. For that reason many of
value tours which characterize this region them are suspension structures which
the tourists are typically well educated, move, swing and shake. They are essen-
knowledge-hungry and have high expecta- tially soft adventure tourism.
tions. They expect to interact with local
(perhaps indigenous) guides. However, Elevated viewing structures are a recent
they can often be dissatisfied by expecting phenomenon (though at least one dates to
Western standards from non-Western the 1930s). Their numbers and range have
guides. Examples of problem areas arising rapidly expanded in the last 10 years in
from cultural clashes include guides with response to the increase in tourist interest
low levels of scientific or technical knowl- in rainforests. A number of types can be
edge and guides seemingly indifferent to distinguished. The first are publicly built
Western ideals of preserving nature structures, usually located in national
(Wallace and Pierce, 1996). parks. Typically these are designed to cater
for large numbers of mass tourists (for only
Research into the quality of the mes- high attendance can justify their cost).
sages conveyed to tourists through inter- They are easily accessed by good roads and
pretation is a fairly new area. However, for may have visitor centres and catering
rainforest tourism it is becoming a vital attached. They provide a short, concentrated
ingredient in the long-term sustainability experience, generally no more than 1 h
of individual operators and regions. (Frost, 1999).
Rainforest visitors, especially those we
characterize as ecotourists, come to the A second type are privately constructed.
rainforests to enhance and increase their They are nearly always associated with
existing knowledge. To satisfy such accommodation. These structures provide
tourists, tourism managers need to be an exclusive experience for the paying
aware of this and prepared to meet these guests.
needs.
A third category consists of (usually pri-
vately owned and operated) mass viewing
structures. Their cost is met by admission
fees. The best examples of these are the

202 W. Frost

recently built cable cars running through (including cinemas and other museums).
rainforests in Costa Rica and Queensland Whether or not they are financially viable
(Chapman, 1996; Honey, 1999). in the long term (especially after the nov-
elty has worn off and costly revamping is
Elevated viewing structures may be seen required) remains to be seen. What is also
as examples of hardening (the use of tough uncertain is whether or not these urban
materials to protect the environment from alternatives affect demand for real rainfor-
tourist traffic), sacrificial sites (overdevel- est tourism. (See Chapter 20 for a more
opment of one site in order to protect other detailed discussion of ecotourism in modi-
sites) and concentration (providing a focal fied environments.)
point for tourists to visit, either for the pur-
poses of collecting revenue, managing visi- Environmental Impact
tors or providing services). Such structures
have also been criticized as possibly being The great increase in rainforest tourism has
a poor substitute for good quality interpre- tended to affect the environment in two
tation. It may be that having invested in the ways. The first is degradation through
capital works, tourism managers are either increased traffic. The world’s surviving
unwilling or feel it unnecessary to spend rainforests are typically in remote, sparsely
further on tour guides or signage (Frost, populated areas. What remain today are
1999). Such structures have also been criti- rainforests which lacked either accessibil-
cized as providing a sanitized and limited ity or fertility and so were not utilized for
experience for tourists (Evans, 2000). farming or logging. Increased tourism
requires the building of roads and other
The Artificial Rainforest services in relatively unspoilt areas. Unless
carefully managed, tourism may lead to
Another recent tourist development is the increased erosion, soil compaction, weeds,
artificial rainforest. As rainforests are diseases and pollution. Conversely, taking
highly attractive, but expensive to visit, positive steps to minimize negative
some developers have taken the approach impacts may become an attractive selling
of bringing the rainforest to the city rather point for the environmentally conscious
than vice versa. It is interesting to note that tourist. For example, much is made of how
one key tourism textbook only refers to the pylons of rainforest cable cars in
rainforest attractions in this sense, citing Queensland and Costa Rica were brought
the case of the indoor Lied Jungle in in by helicopters, so negating the need for
Nebraska, USA, which attracts 1.3 million clearing for permanent access roads
visitors annually (Goeldner et al., 2000). (Chapman, 1996; Honey, 1999).
Other examples include the massive tropi-
cal rainforest glasshouse opened in 1988 in The second negative effect arises from
the Botanic Gardens in Adelaide, Australia the strong preconceptions of how rain-
and the indoor forest (including living forests should look which tourists bring
trees 200 feet high) opened in 2000 at with them. It may be highly tempting to
the Museum of Victoria, Melbourne, reshape rainforests in a standardized for-
Australia. mat in order to satisfy those expectations.
As such at a resort on Lindeman Island off
Such developments are highly depen- the Queensland coast, exotic rainforest
dent on technology, either to create realis- species were introduced, ‘to assist in rein-
tic artificial copies or to keep real forcing the tropical island image desired
specimens alive. Their massive cost for the resort’ (Harris and Walshaw, 1995).
requires very large numbers of visitors pay- At Cable Beach Resort in Broome, Western
ing small entry fees. Generally they pro- Australia, the buildings and landscaping
vide an hour or two of interest and are were done in a Balinese style and the
directly competing with a wide range of developers were initially quite ignorant
similarly priced accessible attractions

Rainforests 203

that indigenous dry rainforest existed on significantly Salim and Ullsten, 1999).
their property. Such an omission is indeed worrying.
Tourism already exists as an activity in
A Place for Tourism? rainforests and is growing. If efforts to pre-
serve rainforests are to be successful, plan-
In the last decade there has been a great ners, managers and governments need to
deal of discussion about the accelerated take account of tourism and its potential,
destruction of rainforest and measures for both as a force which could damage rain-
preserving and protecting what remains. forests and as a force for promoting interest
Unfortunately a great deal of this literature in and understanding of rainforests. In turn
ignores tourism, either as an influence or as tourism operators and managers need to be
a force for preservation (for examples see actively involved in preservation and edu-
Collins, 1990; Whitmore, 1990; and most cation.

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Chapter 13

Mountain Ecotourism: Creating a
Sustainable Future

P.W. Williams1, T.V. Singh2 and R. Schlüter3

1School for Resource and Environmental Management, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby,
British Columbia, Canada; 2Centre for Tourism Research and Development, Indira Nagar,
Lucknow, India; 3Centro de Investigaciones y Estudios Turisticos, Avenida del Libertador,

Buenos Aires, Argentina

Introduction and managing ecotourism on a sustained
basis. It places particular emphasis on
Tourism has become a primary source of describing these challenges from an indus-
revenue for many mountain areas, provid- try development perspective. It selects this
ing a rare opportunity for mountain people specific focus in order to underline the
to participate directly in the global econ- importance of supporting small and
omy. Indeed it is estimated that as much as medium-sized enterprises which tend to be
15–20% of the tourist industry, or the backbone of the fledgling ecotourism
US$70–90 billion per year, is accounted for sector (Thomlinson and Getz, 1996).
by mountain tourism activities (Mountain Throughout the discussion, examples from
Agenda, 1999). In contrast to the generally major alpine regions are used to highlight
small contribution of alpine environments innovative approaches to mountain eco-
to national economies, the value of moun- tourism development and management.
tain tourism to many regions is very signifi-
cant (Zimmerman, 1995; Price et al., 1997; Alpine Areas as Ecotourism
Ritchie, 1998). Ecotourism represents an Destinations
emerging and promising option for many
mountainous locations that are seeking The lure of tourists to mountain regions is
alternatives to the more traditional forms of based for the most part on natural features
tourism development that have character- that are attractive for travellers. These
ized alpine tourism in the past. include clean, cool air and water; varied
topography with unique blends of biotic
Given the growing demand for such and abiotic resources; and ever-changing
forms of development, this chapter scenic mountain viewscapes (Price et al.,
describes the fundamental attractiveness of 1997). In many ways, mountains are focal
alpine areas for ecotourism, the inherent points of global biodiversity, often retain-
natural and cultural sensitivities associated ing a greater number of species than adja-
with developing such areas for ecotourism, cent lowlands due to extreme variations in
and the fundamental strategies which
should be considered when developing

© CAB International 2001. The Encyclopedia of Ecotourism 205
(ed. D.B. Weaver)

206 P.W. Williams et al.

altitude and the presence of micro- Geographic Focus of Mountain
environments (Mountain Agenda, 1999). Ecotourism
All of these natural attributes are con-
ducive to activities and outcomes, includ- The spread of mountain ecotourism devel-
ing physical health, wellness, contemplation opment in response to market demand and
and meditation, that motivate mountain regional development priorities is concen-
travellers (Singh and Kaur, 1985; trated primarily in western North America,
COFREMCA, 1993). However, it is recog- Europe, the Himalayas and western South
nized that many of these pursuits also have America, each of which has varying levels
significant impacts on the natural resources of development and activity focus.
that they use. The management of moun- Although not focused upon in these dis-
tain areas must strive for a careful balance cussions, similar issues, albeit on a smaller
between the protection of these natural scale, are associated with other, relatively
resources, the needs of local people, and minor mountainous areas of the world.
the desires of tourists (McConnell, 1991; These include the Atlas Mountains of
Schlüter, 1993; Gill and Williams, 1994). North Africa, the Drakensberg range of
South Africa, the Australian and New
Mountains are also home to many Zealand Alps, the Urals, the Appalachian
diverse traditions and unique cultural Mountains, the Caucasus, and the high
landscapes that are linked to indigenous mountains of New Guinea.
mountain people. Indeed, many mountain
communities have rich cultural heritages North America
that are visually expressed in the form of
costume, buildings, and a wide range of Mountain ecotourism in a North American
lifestyle practices (UNEP, 1994). Such fea- context is focused primarily in the western
tures are attractive to travellers seeking cordillera region of the continent.
opportunities to experience and learn Extending from Alaska to Mexico, this
about the cultural and heritage dimensions Nearctic area is the largest single moun-
of more remote and exotic destinations. tainous region in the world (Thorsell and
Local communities and enterprises can sta- Harrison, 1992). Within this zone eco-
bilize their economies by recognizing the tourism development tends to be concen-
interest tourists have in understanding trated in specific geographic locations
mountain cultures. For instance, the citizen- especially noted for their high-quality
founded Hand Made in America organiza- wilderness and protected area attributes.
tion, which operates in the Appalachian These sites, in particular, are associated
Mountains of the eastern USA, has success- with areas of Alaska (e.g. Denali, Katmai,
fully capitalized on the tourism potential Alexander Archipelago), Yukon (Dawson
associated with cultural heritage. Through Range and Pelly Mountains), Northwest
initiatives such as its Craft Heritage Trails Territories (Mackenzie Mountains), British
programme, it has stimulated enterprise Columbia (Columbia Mountains, Pacific
development for craftspeople while con- Ranges, Vancouver Island Ranges), the
centrating the flow of tourists in areas that Pacific Northwest and mountain region of
do not compromise the area’s cultural the USA (Cascade Range, Rocky Moun-
integrity (Yates-McGill, 1999). Cultural her- tains, Olympic Mountains), and California
itage is a key element of the attractiveness (the Sierra Nevada).
of many mountain regions for tourism. It
can be a valuable attraction for tourists, but Europe
it should not be sacrificed for short-term
benefits (Muller and Thiem, 1995) (see
Chapter 25).

In Europe, the focus of mountain eco-
tourism development is centred in the

Mountain Ecotourism 207

Western Palaearctic zone. While the main populations, particularly Bhotias, Johars
alpine feature is the Alps, the lesser ranges and Marchchyas, have become engaged in
in the region (e.g. the Pyrenees, such options. This trend has received a fur-
Cantabrians, Taurus, Apennines, Balkans, ther boost from national and regional pol-
Carpathians, Jotunheim and the highlands icy goals favouring ecotourism. The
of Scandinavia) provide the primary foci Sherpas of Nepal, particularly in the
for the continent’s emerging mountain eco- Kumbu, Langtang, Rolwaling and Anna-
tourism industry. The focus of ecotourism purna regions, present good examples of
activity in these regions reflects the small- ecotourism. Semblances of ecotourism are
scale adventure and culturally oriented also evident in Himalayan pilgrimage
character of initiatives found in North tourism, with good examples found in the
America. Unlike the other major regions, Garhwal Himalayas, and particularly
European mountain regions are located in around the geopious pilgrim resorts of
close proximity to large population centres, Badrinath, Kedarnath, Gangotri and
creating added pressure in terms of other Yamunotri.
tourism activities (and especially winter
sports such as skiing) and other modes of By and large, the main ecotourism activ-
resource use. ities in this mountain region are trekking,
rambling, enjoying the scenery offered by
Asia mountain panoramas, birding, angling,
viewing wildlife, forest-recreation, boating
In Asia, mountain ecotourism is primarily in the lake waters, and photography. In
centred in the South/Central Palaearctic some parts, eco-trekking and conservation
zone which crosses seven countries. holidays have been initiated where hosts
Containing the greatest concentration of and guest have opportunities for interac-
high mountains in the world (Thorsell and tion. Some of the more appreciable forms
Harrison, 1992), the area comprises the of ecotourism are emerging in Bhutan and
ranges of the Himalaya, Hindu Kush, the Sikkim portion of the Himalayas. In
Karakoram and Pamir. Of these, the other areas, such as Kashmir and along the
Himalayas in particular have developed a Indo-Tibetan border, geopolitical instability
nature-based tourism industry that resem- hinders the development of ecotourism
bles and links with ecotourism in several and other forms of tourism.
ways. The Himalayan ranges commence at
Naga Parbat (8126 m) in the north-west, South America
and pass through Pakistan and India’s
Himachal Pradesh state, ending at Namche In South America, apart from the upland
Barwa (7828 m) in the east. The area massifs in Brazil and Venezuela, the major
embraces the watershed of the Indus and mountainous region used for ecotourism
Brahmaputra rivers. activity is the Andean Cordillera. The
Andes mountain range rises abruptly from
Most of the ecologically based tourist the Caribbean Sea and extends the whole
activities in this region are confined to length of South America to Tierra del
national parks and protected areas that are Fuego. It runs parallel to the west coast of
rich in bio-cultural diversity. Nature the continent and contains a considerable
tourism of a more ‘hard core’ variety is number of national parks: from the Henri
found in the higher ranges of the Pittier National Park in Venezuela to the
Karakoram and Hindu Kush. In contrast, Tierra del Fuego National Park where the
softer forms, based on ecological resources, mountain range descends into the
are emerging in Ladakh (Jammu-Kashmir), Antarctic sea. In addition, the Andes
Kulu and Kangara (Himachal), Har ki doon mountain range north of Argentina consists
(Uttarakashi), Valley of Flowers (Chamoli), of a number of plains that are generally
and Kunda (Almora), where indigenous known as the ‘Altiplano’, or the High Plain,

208 P.W. Williams et al.

located predominantly in Bolivia and Peru. to realize its potential and benefit from a
It is a discontinuous series of plains and healthy flow of ecotourists.
basins of variable dimensions and heights,
separated by mountain chains and deep This is not the case with Argentina and
canyons. Here is found Lake Titicaca, the Chile, where the Andean-Patagonian
highest navigable lake in the world, which national parks constitute one of the conti-
attracts ecotourists from different parts of nent’s principal ecotourism assets
the world. (Schlüter, 1993) for both hard and soft eco-
tourist markets. The Andean-Patagonian
As in much of the world (see Chapter Mountain Range in Argentina is the home
18), there is a marked tendency in Andean to seven national parks, or 80% of the
countries to consider ecotourism as a form country’s national park system. The Glacier
of tourism that is practised primarily in National Park, in the extreme continental
national parks. In Venezuela, for example, south of Argentina, started to gain in popu-
the national parks are defined officially as larity in the 1990s. Surveys of park visitors
tourist products. The first Andean national here show that almost all go to see the
park was gazetted in 1934 in Argentina Perito Moreno glacier. As is the case with
(Nahuwl Huapi National Park), with the the majority of the Andean National Parks,
Henri Pittier National Park in Venezuela most of the visitors to the Glacier National
created in 1937. In Colombia, the Purace Park are Argentinean, although foreign
National Park in the south of the country tourists compose more than 40% (Schlüter,
consists of volcanic landscapes and ther- 1997), with Europeans the dominant inter-
mal waters that allow for the observation of national market. The flow of tourists to
diverse wildlife, immersion in thermal Chilean Patagonia intensified from the
waters, and long walks. However, as Leitch beginning of the 1990s when the ‘Carretera
points out (1993, p. 203), social instability, Austral’, the Southern Motorway extending
political problems and the violence associ- from the South of Puerto Mont (Rivas-
ated with drugs have inhibited Colombia in Ortega and Martinez-Coronado, 1989) to
its development of tourism and, as a result, the south of the city of Coihaique, was
the Purace National Park has not been able created (Figs 13.1–13.4).

Fig. 13.1. Glacier at Lake Argentino, Glacier National Park, Patagonia, Argentina.

Mountain Ecotourism 209

Fig. 13.2. Los Alerces National Park, Patagonia, Argentina.

Fig. 13.3. Lake Puelo National Park, Patagonia, Argentina.

Alpine Ecotourism Activities from adventure tourism by the significant
element of risk that prevails in the latter
For the most part, alpine ecotourism devel- (see Chapter 5). However, it can be argued
opment tends to be small scale (average of that alpine ecotourism commonly
12–15 per travel party) and primarily hybridizes with adventure tourism to the
focused on low-impact adventure activi- extent that virtually any direct contact with
ties. Ecotourism is usually differentiated nature in an alpine setting implies a certain

210 P.W. Williams et al.

Fig. 13.4. Hanging glacier near Puyuhuapi in marily nature and culture-based apprecia-
southern Chile. tive pursuits. The nature-based activities
are centred on various types of fauna view-
degree of risk in itself. This is the case in ing (e.g. bird, bear, mountain goat, elk,
Peru, for example, where the most impor- moose, etc.) and landscape appreciation
tant natural and cultural sites are found at (e.g. flora photography, caving and glacier
high altitudes where low oxygen levels explorations, and astronomical observation).
pose a physical risk for people of advanced Cultural pursuits are mainly focused on
age and for those who suffer from precari- guided visits to traditional aboriginal areas,
ous health. resource-based wellness sites, and/or vari-
ous trekking adventures along pioneer
Operators in such areas place emphasis travel routes. These core pursuits are often
on providing opportunities for nature complemented by a range of more clearly
observation, interpretation and photogra- adventure-oriented water (e.g. kayaking,
phy, while travelling through zones of pris- rafting, canoeing), land (e.g. mountaineer-
tine wilderness and solitude on foot, ing, trail riding, hut-to-hut skiing, snow-
horseback, or in canoes. Normally, facility shoeing, dog-sledding, and snowmobiling),
development associated with these opera- and air (e.g. aerial wildlife/nature viewing,
tions is limited to a few base camp lodges heli-hiking, paragliding, hot air ballooning)
which serve as supply and staging points experiences. A good example of product
for outward bound visitors. To varying but diversity occurs within the Peruvian
substantial degrees, these operations accen- Andes. There, the Huascaran National Park
tuate the use of environmentally sensitive and the Inca path to Macchu Picchu are the
hard and soft technologies to ensure low country’s two most important sites for both
impacts from their tourism-related activities. ecotourism and adventure tourism.

The core activities that are intricately Notwithstanding the small scale and
linked to mountain ecotourism are pri- environmentally sensitive character of
most of these operations, demand for eco-
tourism and other forms of ‘environmen-
tally friendly’ recreation opportunities are
creating rapidly growing stresses in many
mountain regions. These stresses are being
expressed in the form of negative effects on
wildlife, vegetation, soils, air and water
quality. They are derived primarily from
the construction, use and maintenance of
transportation corridors, accommodation,
trails and other recreation facilities
designed to cater to the needs of visitors.

While the effects of such physical devel-
opments can be significant in their own
right, they tend to be magnified when
introduced into the fragile ecosystems of
most mountain areas. A combination of
extreme and rapidly changing weather con-
ditions, unstable and steep slopes, rapid
and peaked water runoff, limited flora cov-
erage, slow-growing vegetation and limited
habitat all serve to make mountain areas
especially susceptible to destabilization
processes created by tourism and other
forms of human intervention. Furthermore,

Mountain Ecotourism 211

these interventions have only been exacer- • non-governmental organizations (NGOs),
bated by new technologies that have e.g. community groups and indigenous
increased the ability of tourists to penetrate populations concerned with resource
more remote, rugged and high mountain allocations and management strategies
regions. associated with tourism, economic devel-
opment, recreation and conservation
This is true not only in the alpine decisions (May, 1991, Walle, 1993; Price
regions of industrialized countries, but also et al., 1997); and
on the highest and most remote mountain
ranges of the less-developed world. The • individual tourism businesses, private
advent of larger and more frequent groups and public tour operators and tour
of tourists, each with specialized equip- wholesalers concerned with the day to
ment needs for lodging, personal hygiene, day challenges of developing and man-
cooked food and warmth has led to signifi- aging sustainable ecotourism ventures
cant environmental damage in the that attract a profitable flow of cus-
Himalaya, the Andes and elsewhere tomers (Sirakaya, 1995; Herremans and
(Banskota and Sahrma, 1995). In response, Welsh, 1999).
management agencies are beginning to cre-
ate the institutional frameworks and man- The remainder of this chapter focuses on
agement strategies needed to allow the the challenges that stakeholders concerned
industry to develop in a more systematic with developing and managing mountain
and environmentally friendly fashion ecotourism must address.
(Mallari and Enote, 1996; BCMELP, 1998;
Gerst, 1999). Such initiatives are best artic- Mountain Ecotourism Development
ulated at present in the European Alps, and Management Challenges
through multilateral organizations such as
CIPRA and Euromontan (see Chapter 10). There are many challenges associated with
the development and management of eco-
Mountain Ecotourism Stakeholders tourism in mountain regions, especially in
the less-developed world. While well
Careful use of environments, maintenance intended, the delivery of programmes in
of biodiversity, and safeguarding the needs many protected areas is less than optimal.
and heritage of local people must be bal- Leitch (1993, p. 161) affirms that ‘the sys-
anced carefully against the growing tem is better developed conceptually than
demand for ever-expanding forms of materially’. Only a few protected areas
mountain tourism development. Overall, have a suitable infrastructure that includes
the tourism industry has great responsibil- tourist centres, specialized personnel, a
ity in this regard, and forms of ecotourism system of paths and descriptive brochures,
suited to mountain environments offer etc. Some of the more critical issues that
growing opportunities for some regions. tend to be common to most alpine areas
Yet this type of development brings many include product development and enhance-
challenges for a variety of stakeholders. ment, packaging and resource protection.
These stakeholders and their constituents These issues are discussed in the following
include: sections.

• federal, state and community govern- Product development
ments responsible for representing the
public’s interest in tourism, regional It is difficult to establish the overall spatial
development, natural protected areas distribution of ecotourism products in
designations, natural resource allocations, mountain regions primarily due to the
cultural protection, environmental man- fledgling character of this industry and its
agement, and economic development tendency to hybridize with adventure and
(Howe et al., 1997; Kezi, 1998);

212 P.W. Williams et al.

cultural tourism. Indeed, the full extent of tives exists, including raising the number
such operations is continuing to unfold. of new products, promoting seasonal diver-
Generally, the distribution of ecotourism sification and upgrading product quality.
developments is primarily focused on
less-developed and remote mountainous Increasing the number of new products
areas with outstanding natural resources. While the demand for mountain ecotourism
Defined by their own cultural rhythms, the adventures is growing, appropriate and sus-
destinations of mountain ecotourists tend tainable infrastructure to support this
to have unique attributes which are often market expansion is lacking. Few well-
associated with formally or informally des- developed products and facilities exist to
ignated protected spaces. Some of these cater to the needs of domestic and foreign
places are nationally or internationally sig- travellers. Moreover, in many regions, the
nificant. For example, tourists can view a focus of most nature-based mountain
wide variety of birds of prey and over 40 tourism is still fixed on hunting and fishing
species of reptiles and amphibians in the activities which may not be compatible
Dadia Forest Reserve on the Rhodope with the interests of ecotourism travellers.
Mountains of north-eastern Greece. The More products are needed which comple-
development of tourism in this area has ment the principles of ecotourism, and are
helped to transform Dadia from an isolated of a quality that will attract domestic
and impoverished village into a lively com- and/or international tourists. For instance,
munity-based ecotourism centre (Valaoras, some tour operators are introducing small
1999). group, low-impact expeditions (1–10 people)
into the Coastal and Rocky Mountains of
Similarly, some mountain tour operators western Canada. Adhering to an environ-
have developed ecotourism hikes into the mentally friendly code of conduct referred
Rocky Mountains of northern British to as ‘Traveler’s Commandments’, these
Columbia and Yukon. Here, their cus- expeditions provide tourists with personal-
tomers gain a stronger first-hand apprecia- ized opportunities to learn about and
tion of the interconnectedness between respect the ecosystems they are passing
people and the unique wildlife (e.g. grizzly through. Furthermore, relatively unusual
bears, eagles and mountain sheep) that transportation methods (e.g. dogsledding,
inhabit the Tatshensheni and Alsek River goat trekking and hut-to-hut cross-country
valleys (http://mtsobek.com). This situa- skiing) are offered to provide a competitive
tion is mirrored in Asia and South America edge in attracting customers (http://
where visitors, for example, can enjoy the www.gorp.com/outeredge). A portion of
rare sight of high altitude Himalayan each trip’s fees is also used to support local
pheasants (monal) in protected areas of the research and conservation projects.
upper Beas basin in Himachal Pradesh and
Govind Wildlife sanctuary in Uttarkashi In Asia examples of innovative moun-
(Garhwal Himalaya). They can also witness tain ecotourism development include the
the spectacle of Himalayan musk-deer in introduction of electric ropeways in the
the Kedarnath sanctuary. Huang Shan scenic area of China’s famous
heritage site. These facilities have allowed
Despite the superb locations and prod- visitors to experience the scenery of the
uct development of the best mountain eco- local landscape without disturbing the
tourism ventures, many of them are less fragile habitat. In the Garhwal Himalaya,
impressive with regard to the latter. the upgrading of eco-pilgrimages along the
Measured against the dimensions of quality sacred Alaknanda and Bhagirathi rivers has
(hospitality, reliability, accessibility, vari- improved the overall quality of the eco-
ety, etc.) associated with other competitive tourism experience.
tourism destinations and businesses,
mountain ecotourism developments vary Despite these examples of good practice,
considerably in their quality. To remedy more must be done to create a better ‘fit’
these inconsistencies, a range of alterna- between ecotourism products offered by

Mountain Ecotourism 213

mountain tourism operators and the mar- opportunities for cultural tourism, and
kets that they are trying to attract. especially for visits to Buddhist festivals in
Mountain ecotourists seek products that the July–August period, when rains block
provide unique opportunities to experience access to other parts of the Himalayas. Soft
outstanding sites. At the same time, these adventure options are provided to visitors
travellers also base their destination deci- of the Himalayas during the winter as
sions on convenience, quality and value for another way of addressing the problem of
the money spent. Unfortunately, mountain seasonality. By diversifying the range of
ecotourism suppliers do not always meet experiences provided, ecotourism opera-
these criteria. tions can create stronger capacity utiliza-
tion and revenue generation levels needed
Seasonal diversification to stabilize many businesses.
Many mountain ecotourism businesses are
highly seasonal activities. Often they work Upgrading product quality
at close to overflow capacity during peak Ecotourists tend to be relatively knowl-
summer seasons when alpine climatic con- edgeable and ‘footloose’ in their choice of
ditions make access and activity conve- mountain destinations. Not bound to con-
nient. In many locations this ‘high’ season tinually return to any one place, they more
only lasts for a period of 3–4 months. typically seek high quality products and
These operations then become almost dor- places to experience on their trips. Product
mant during traditional ‘shoulder’ and quality in this context tends to be associ-
winter seasons. This leads to low annual ated with the following criteria:
facility utilization rates (often less than
40%), which in turn translates into limited • range of activities available;
financial sustainability for many opera- • professionalism and knowledge of those
tions.
providing guiding/interpretation services;
Given the willingness of many eco- • hygiene, cleanliness and comfort of
tourism markets to travel at non-peak traf-
fic periods, opportunities exist to develop accommodation available;
ecotourism adventures during lower uti- • diversity, healthfulness and indigenous
lized times. For instance, many traditional
mountain ecotourism activities could be attributes of foods provided; and
extended into the shoulder seasons and • the extent to which these elements are
augmented by activities surrounding the
observation of annual life cycle events brought together in the form of seamless
such as animal migrations, vegetation packages.
change, as well as localized spring and
autumn cultural festivities. For example, Unfortunately, as stated earlier, the quality
ecotourists in Switzerland can hike in the of mountain ecotourism products is
Engadine Valley and observe the changing uneven with respect to these criteria.
vegetation in nearby mountain meadows While there are some outstanding exam-
during the shoulder seasons. Similarly, ples, many others do not meet the stan-
during the autumn season, environmen- dards expected by today’s sophisticated
tally friendly travellers visit the mountain tourists.
streams of North America’s coastal moun-
tains to view the annual migrations of Steps are needed to publicize the best
Pacific salmon. examples and to advise operators on how
to improve their products (Economic
Local communities have capitalized on Planning Group of Canada, 1999; Williams
life cycle rituals by establishing festivals and Budke, 1999). For instance, the
designed to celebrate these events while Canadian Aboriginal Tourism Association
concomitantly extending their tourism sea- and British Columbia-based Native Indian
sons. Ladakh in Kashmir Himalaya offers Education Centre have developed training
resources designed to assist indigenous
groups in developing culturally appropri-
ate tourism businesses. Many of these
materials have been used to support the

214 P.W. Williams et al.

development of aboriginal ecotourism ini- transportation, accommodation, meals and
tiatives in the mountain regions of western other activities that are necessary for suc-
Canada (White et al., 1998). In Asia, the cess. A number of other problems related
upgrading of Kulu Dashera in the Indian to packaging include inadequate program-
Himalaya, by the government of Himachal ming, a limited number of activity options,
Pradesh, has enabled ecotourists to enjoy a and a lack of cultural interpretation pro-
unique experience when tribal gods and gramming. To help remedy this situation,
goddesses descend from over 360 some ecotourism operations are developed
Himalayan valleys for a colourful pageant in a collaborative effort with the host coun-
(Singh, 1989). The event attracts a large try’s conservation organizations (e.g.
number of domestic and foreign tourists, http://www.treadlightly.com).
though continued growth could threaten
the quality of the product if not appropri- Establishing effective connections with
ately managed. the marketplace is another area where local
mountain ecotourism operators often fall
Packaging short. In some cases, difficulties arise
because some products being offered are
Well-developed trip packages combine a poorly matched to the needs of the market-
core ‘experience’ with components such as place. Others are priced too low to allow
transportation, accommodation, meals, the margin necessary to encourage the
guides and/or interpreters. Many excellent involvement of tour operators in the mar-
ecotourism packages exist for travel to keting of available products and services.
mountain destinations. For example, In still other cases, due to a combination of
mountain ecotourism operators offer multi- limited resources, geographic inaccessibility
day ecotourism packages to such exotic and a lack of knowledge, mountain eco-
destinations as the mountain volcanoes of tourism operators are simply unable to
Ecuador, the glaciers of Argentina and establish links with suitable travel-trade
Chile, and the Inca heritage sites of Peru partners. Overall, there is a need to
(http://www.wildland.com). Typically, with improve the quality of existing packages
these packages, a portion of the trip’s cost and to increase their availability in the
is invested in projects supporting local marketplace.
environmental or cultural resource man-
agement initiatives (e.g. tree planting pro- Resource protection
grammes, conservation trusts, rainforest
purchases, etc.). Similar well-developed To remain viable, mountain ecotourism
packages exist for ecotourism adventures must be environmentally sustainable. This
into Asia, including the practice of is an especially challenging task in moun-
ecotrekking in Nepal’s Sagarmatha tain regions where climatic, topographic,
National Park. vegetation and wildlife factors create frag-
ile environments for most forms of land
For the most part, however, mountain use and economic activity. Ecotourism
ecotourism packages do not meet the stan- developments must be fully aware of the
dards of the best. Indeed, throughout most realities when planning for the long-term
mountain tourism regions, the packages protection and sustainability of these
available are quite uneven in terms of qual- alpine ecosystems.
ity, the value they represent and the stan-
dards to which they aspire. More Indeed, situations already exist where
significantly, many operators only package various forms of ecotourism development
their products in a minimal way, if at all. are being confronted with the challenges of
Some who advertise as ‘outfitters’ do little balancing development with conservation
more than run rental operations. Others and managed use (Price et al., 1997). In
offer only basic activities, devoid of the such areas, ecotourism operations are com-
ing into conflict not only with other forms

Mountain Ecotourism 215

of alpine tourism (e.g. mountain biking, ple land-use methods of resource manage-
hunting, fishing and adventure tourism), ment which combined environmental pro-
but also with other resource sectors (e.g. tection and community development
forestry and mining) (Williams et al., (Gurung and Coursey, 1994).
1998). In many cases this has led to signifi-
cant increases in the stresses placed on nat- Conclusions
ural and cultural environments. However,
in some instances, ecotourism has been This chapter has focused on the four main
used in coordination with other economic alpine regions of the world to illustrate
sectors to help stabilize local economies trends and issues that pertain to the emerg-
and secure more integrated land uses. For ing area of mountain-based ecotourism. As
instance, in the southern Mexican State of in most other parts of the world, mountain
Oaxaca, Zapotec communities have initi- ecotourism is closely associated with pro-
ated a community-managed ecotourism tected area systems. However, to a greater
strategy. In their approach, revenues from extent than many other physical environ-
ecotourism are combined with income ments, mountain ecotourism may be con-
from a neighbouring community forestry ceived as a form of tourism that hybridizes
project to provide social security for the readily with allied products such as cul-
families working in the enterprise. tural and adventure tourism. This con-
Ecotourism has also proved to be profitable tributes to a product base of uneven
enough to pay for a land survey, a first step quality, which is problematic not only from
towards resolving long-standing problems a business standpoint, but also from the
associated with land tenure in the area perspective of a physical environment that
(Suarez Bonilla, 1999). Similarly, in Peru, is particularly vulnerable due to extremes
NGOs are playing an important role in sup- of seasonality, slope, temperature, etc.
port of governmental agencies in protected
areas management. Through their efforts For those concerned with the sustain-
they have attracted support from interna- able development of mountain regions,
tional conservation organizations and there are many challenges and opportuni-
involve private and government organiza- ties in balancing the local conditions of
tions in efforts to manage protected areas individual mountain regions and their
more effectively. Emphasis has shifted communities with the demands of tourism.
from strict preservation to sustainable use In this regard, mountain ecotourism devel-
including ecotourism in appropriate areas opment provides a useful option for help-
(Suarez de Freitas, 1998). ing to diversify mountain economies while
sustaining the resiliency of local communi-
More internally focused concerns have ties and their citizens. However, there are
also been raised about the field practices of many constraints and barriers that must be
many mountain ecotourism operators addressed before this form of development
(waste and garbage disposal), the intensity can be considered a truly effective contrib-
of their resource use and the impact of utor to alpine regions. This chapter has
their operations on wildlife and plant life outlined many of the more fundamental
(Herremans and Welsh, 1999). Lessons con- and common challenges confronting
cerning best environmental practices and tourism operators interested in orchestrat-
codes of conduct in other mountain envi- ing the delivery of mountain ecotourism
ronments would serve to alleviate this con- experiences.
cern (Hawkes and Williams, 1993; Wight,
1999). For instance, in Asia, the To strengthen the viability and longer-
Annapurna Conservation Area Project in term sustainability of mountain eco-
Nepal presents a successful story in achiev- tourism, a variety of strategic activities
ing sustainable ecotourism through com- must occur. While generally applicable to
munity consultation and empowerment. most forms of small-scale tourism
The key elements in its success were multi- development, these proposed strategies are

216 P.W. Williams et al.

especially pertinent in a mountain eco- • developing relevant training pro-
tourism context. They are as follows: grammes, resources and ‘how to’
manuals;
1. Enhancing product development by:
• encouraging the exchange of experi- • coordinating and providing access to
ences and know-how regarding the relevant training opportunities.
development of ‘market ready’ moun-
tain ecotourism products; Every mountain region includes a great
• developing consistent standards and diversity of stakeholders with specific
certification for ‘market ready’ moun- interests in the local economy and the
tain products. resources on which it depends. Some of
these interest groups are interested in
2. Strengthening resource protection ini- tourism while others are not. From a
tiatives by: mountain ecotourism perspective, the long-
term sustainability of many operations
• developing local inventories of depends on the support of those groups
unique and/or significant natural and that make decisions affecting their activi-
cultural resources to be protected; ties. As a corollary, these stakeholders can-
not make informed decisions about
• encouraging operators and local com- ecotourism developments without under-
munities to conserve and protect standing the diversity of multiple and
local natural and cultural resources changing demands confronting these oper-
through developing community- ators. To address this situation, ongoing
based codes of conduct; dialogue and collaboration between indus-
try and community groups should occur.
• establishing community-based tech- This chapter has presented some of the key
niques for addressing priorities for industry priorities that should be central to
resource use, resolving conflicts that dialogue.
among users and improving the man-
agement of natural and cultural
resources.

3. Encouraging human capacity building by:
• identifying mountain ecotourism busi-
ness training needs and priorities;

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Chapter 14

Polar Environments

B. Stonehouse

Scott-Polar Research Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK

Introduction ports indigenous people who traditionally
live on its natural resources, hunting and
Formerly renowned for their remoteness gathering, fishing and herding reindeer.
and cold, the two polar regions were for Arctic fringe lands have been hunted com-
centuries avoided by all but the hardiest mercially for furs, and mined for metallic
indigenous people, explorers and exploiters. ores and hydrocarbons. Arctic seas have
Now both are becoming popular tourist been hunted for walrus ivory, seal skins
venues. Though fundamentally similar, and oil, whales and fish. The Antarctic
they differ in interesting ways. Central to region has neither indigenous humans,
the Arctic region lies the deep Arctic land mammals nor readily exploitable min-
Ocean basin, ringed by the northern shores erals, but its coasts have been hunted for
of Alaska, Canada, Greenland, Europe and seals, its seas for whales and fish. Both
Asia. A visitor to the North Geographic regions have proved resistant to civiliza-
Pole stands on slowly shifting pack ice tion. Modern humans, children of the trop-
close to sea level. Central to the Antarctic ics, still find polar regions something of an
region lies the high plateau of continental adventure, and until the early 20th century
Antarctica. A visitor to the South Geo- both remained free of industrial artefacts
graphic Pole stands on a plateau 2800 m and pollutants. Tourism represents the
above the sea, on ice that is itself almost most recent attempt by an industry to
2800 m thick. Tourists may currently visit exploit these regions. What is polar
either pole, travelling north by atomic ice- tourism? What resources does it exploit,
breaker or south in especially arranged and what are the chances of those
flights from South America. However, most resources being exploited sustainably?
polar tourism occurs in peripheral areas of
the regions that are more readily accessible Defining Polar Tourism
and perhaps more interesting.
As Hall and Johnston (1995a) point out in
Both regions are cold and intensely sea- the opening chapter of their keynote sym-
sonal, with long winter nights and long posium volume (1995b), the concept of
summer days. Both have dry, anticyclonic ‘polar tourism’ is subject to a conflicting
climates, frequently invaded by warm, range of definitions, leading to confusion
moist air masses that bring snow, sleet or
rain to their peripheries. The Arctic sup-

© CAB International 2001. The Encyclopedia of Ecotourism 219
(ed. D.B. Weaver)

220 B. Stonehouse

when numerical comparisons are attempted. Boundaries, Geography and Ecology
The two polar regions are defined in differ-
ent ways for different purposes, and there The polar circles (66°33Ј north and south),
is no agreed use of the term ‘tourism’ that though boundaries of little ecological or
generates comparable sets of statistics, political significance, enclose equal areas
either within or between the regions. and allow useful geographic comparisons.
The Arctic Circle surrounds deep and shal-
While Pearce’s (1992) general-purpose low oceans, lowland plains, forests, tundra,
definition of tourism as ‘journeys and tem- farmland, and towns and cities that sup-
porary stays of people travelling primarily port a human population currently num-
for leisure or recreational purposes’ serves bering over 2 million. The Antarctic Circle
superficially for both the Arctic and the surrounds an almost entirely glaciated
Antarctic, in neither is it rigorously desert continent ringed by coastal seas. The
applied in segregating visitors with purely land is without trees, shrubs or continuous
recreational motives. For the Antarctic, ground cover, and populated only by a few
where since the Second World War govern- hundred transient scientists and support
ment-sponsored research at scientific sta- staff.
tions has been the paramount activity, Hall
(1992) defines tourism as ‘all existing Latitude for latitude, the southern hemi-
human activities other than those directly sphere is uniformly colder than the north-
involved in scientific research and the nor- ern, due mainly to the influence of the high
mal operation of government bases’. This continent (by far the world’s highest), of
satisfactorily includes both commercial which the ice cap rises almost to 4000 m.
tourism operations and recreational activi- Winter and summer alike, surface air tem-
ties of government personnel, and includes peratures at the South Pole are 25–30°C
as ‘tourists’ the small but growing numbers colder than at the North Pole. Year-round
of sky divers, parties ski-marching to and the lowest Antarctic temperatures occur
from the Pole, and others whose activities not at the pole itself but at the highest
are neither scientific nor government- point of the polar plateau. The inland
sponsored. Russian station at Vostok each year records
the world’s lowest surface temperatures.
The Arctic presents a more complex pic- Lowest Arctic summer temperatures occur
ture of indigenous populations mingling high on the Greenland icecap, lowest win-
with government servants, business visi- ter temperatures in central Siberia, both of
tors, and travellers with a variety of moti- which are remote from the North Pole and
vations. Incomers may be counted and indeed from the polar basin.
assigned to statistical categories when they
cross a political border, but residents who In lower latitudes the southern hemi-
travel for pleasure or recreation within sphere is more stable in temperature
their own state or province generally throughout the year, reflecting its higher
escape the statistics. Hall and Johnston’s proportion of ocean. Southern summers are
(1995a) definition of polar tourism as ‘all slightly cooler, and winters slightly
travel for pleasure or adventure within warmer, than in equivalent latitudes of the
polar regions, exclusive of travel for pri- northern hemisphere. In the far north the
marily governmental commercial, subsis- zonal pattern is disturbed by warm ocean
tence military or scientific purposes’ currents that carry heat into high latitudes,
addresses some but not all of these prob- indeed well into the polar basin, providing
lems. a range of radically different climates. The
mean temperature of the coldest winter
month in Bergen, Norway, strongly influ-
enced by the North Atlantic Drift, is 29°C
higher than at Okhotsk, Russian Federa-
tion, in the same latitude, a difference
greater than the winter difference between

Polar Environments 221

Bergen and Acapulco, Mexico (Stonehouse, include wilderness, scenic beauty and
1989). wildlife. Human-based resources include
native human communities, scientific sta-
Biologists define polar regions not by tions, and artefacts associated with the his-
the polar circles, but by boundaries that tory of exploration or exploitation, from
more clearly relate to flora and fauna. The explorers’ graves to abandoned mines, mil-
Arctic is defined by the tree-line, separat- itary installations and whaling stations.
ing boreal forest from forest tundra, the
Antarctic by the Polar Front or Antarctic Wilderness and scenery
Convergence, a line in the ocean where
cold waters of polar origin disappear below Wilderness – loosely defined as landscape
warmer subtropical waters, separating dis- from which human artefacts and influences
tinctive polar and sub-polar suites of are absent – is highly valued by tourists
planktonic plants and animals. As one is a jaded by civilization. While both regions
land boundary and the other oceanic, it is include expanses of featureless marine or
difficult to effect direct comparisons land ice, of little aesthetic appeal, Svalbard
between them. An alternative is the 10°C in the north and Antarctic Peninsula in the
isotherm for the warmest summer month, south especially are valued for their spec-
which effectively separates areas of warm tacular ice-capped mountains, tumbling
and cool summers, on land or at sea. glaciers, fjords, rocky headlands and islets.
Defined by either of these boundaries, the Volcanic action is rare in either region, but
Arctic region covers almost twice the area where it occurs, for example in central
contained within the polar circles; the Iceland and Kamchatka in the north,
Antarctic region is almost twice as large Deception Island (South Shetland Islands)
again (Fig. 14.1). and Ross Island (McMurdo Sound) in the
south, it emphasizes wilderness and
Manned stations operate in or near the diminishes further the role of humans. At
coldest areas of both polar regions. More one point on a well-trodden route in sub-
tolerable living conditions occur mainly in Arctic Iceland, visitors may have the
coastal and low-altitude areas. While travel unusual experience of straddling one of the
to either end of the Earth is possible all the world’s major geotectonic features, the
year round, nearly all scheduled tours are Mid-Atlantic Rift.
restricted to three or four summer months
when weather is most congenial, and
wildlife – a major attraction in both regions
– is most accessible.

Exploitable Resources Terrestrial wildlife

Polar regions contain many natural Though neither polar area shows the vari-
resources, both renewable and non-renew- ety and density of plants and animals to be
able, that occur elsewhere in the world. seen in most non-desert temperate or tropi-
Despite difficulties arising from distance cal regions, Arctic visitors welcome the
and inhospitable climates, many of these colour and variety of summer and autumn
have already been exploited. Both polar vegetation, and both areas are rich in sum-
regions have been subjected to whaling, mer wildlife. Arctic vegetation ranges from
sealing and fishing, generally to the serious forest-tundra, characteristic of the tree line,
detriment of stocks. North America and to tundra and polar desert, three biomes
Siberia are important industrial sources of clearly derived by selective spreading from
metal ores, petroleum and gas. contiguous temperate lands, and represent-
ing stages of impoverishment due to
Tourism exploits both natural and increasing cold and aridity. Tundra, domi-
human-based resources. Natural resources nated by knee-high small shrubs, grasses
of particular interest to tour operators and other flowering plants, with an

222 B. Stonehouse

(a)

Fig. 14.1. Arctic (a) (above) and Antarctic (b) (opposite) regions, showing boundaries: the polar circles,
10°C summer isotherms, northern treeline, Antarctic convergence.

understorey of mosses, liverworts and duces flushes of plant growth, soon fol-
lichens, is protected in winter by blanket- lowed by late-summer crops of berries and
ing snow. Polar desert, in the far north, is seeds that support browsing and grazing
impoverished by the loss of upstanding birds and mammals. Abundant insects
plants due to cold, aridity, lack of winter including butterflies, moths, bees, beetles,
snow, and strong winds, which only the and several species of mosquitoes and bit-
hardiest, low-lying species can survive ing flies, provide food for insectivorous
(Chernov, 1985). birds. Prominent among grazing birds are
migrant ducks, geese, swans and waders.
As the winter snow melts, Arctic tundra Voles, mice, lemmings, hares and musk
becomes predominantly green, then more oxen are year-round tundra residents.
colourful with an outburst of spring flow- Summer migrants include reindeer, caribou
ers. Poor drainage, due to underlying per- and moose that winter in the forests, and
mafrost (permanent ice in the subsoil), polar bears which move into coastal lands
results in ponds, streams and bogs with from the sea ice (Sage, 1986).
emergent vegetation. Spring warming pro-

Polar Environments 223

(b)

Neither forest-tundra nor tundra occur One reason for tourists to visit the
in the Antarctic region. There is virtually Arctic is to see the colourful spring array of
no land to support them in the appropriate tundra flowers, including gentians, dwarf
latitudinal zone. Such peripheral islands as lupins and saxifrages. A relatively poor
South Georgia and Iles Kerguelen support area of Arctic tundra may support 50–60
treeless floras of coastal tussock grass and species of flowering plants, and polar
upland fell-field, restricted in species due desert at least a dozen species. By contrast
mainly to their isolation. The high the whole Antarctic continent supports
Antarctic in summer remains icy (over only two species of flowering plants, both
95% of the coastline is ice cliff) or, in ice- small and insignificant. South Georgia and
free areas, predominantly brown, covered other relatively mild islands of the
by bare rock and scree, with thin polar Southern Ocean, still within the 10°C sum-
desert vegetation. Not surprisingly, the mer isotherm, have richer floras, though of
Antarctic region has very few indigenous curiously restricted composition, with few
land birds, no indigenous land mammals, flowering plants, and none of them colour-
and no summer influx of terrestrial ful or striking.
migrants.

224 B. Stonehouse

Marine and coastal wildlife with other oceans, continuously stirred by
winds and currents. The Weddell and Ross
The Arctic Ocean basin supports little life. Seas, and some other near-continental
Even in summer, primary productivity of its waters have almost permanent coverings of
sun-starved waters is low, and seabirds, pack ice, and are biologically poor, though
seals and whales are scarce. Much richer are again polynyas (see above) provide anom-
the marginal areas around it, where sea ice alous patches of local enrichment. Other
melts in spring and winds and currents stir seas, with seasonal pack ice, are richer in
nutrients up from the depths. Polynyas – summer. Away from land between 35°S
areas of sea kept free of sea ice in winter and and 55°S, where the ocean is relatively ice-
spring by wind or currents – are especially free, surface waters are driven constantly
rich. Surface waters support planktonic eastward by westerly winds. Where their
(floating) plants and invertebrates, notably flow is diverted or interrupted, for example
copepods and euphausiid shrimps that east of the tip of Antarctic Peninsula and
become the main food of fish, inshore seals downstream from the islands of the Scotia
and seabirds. Sub-arctic seas off Iceland and Arc, nutrients well up to the surface from
south-west Greenland, toward Svalbard, deeper layers, creating enormous eddies
around North Cape, off Alaska, and east of and patches of rich water where plankton
Siberia and Kamchatka, have long been proliferates. Squid, fish, birds, seals and
known as good hunting grounds for whales whales are attracted to these areas. The
and seals. Their waters include some of the birds breed on nearby cliffs and strands,
world’s richest fishing and shrimping the seals breed on local beaches and sea
grounds, today supporting huge commercial ice. The Southern Ocean supports some of
fisheries. Seabirds, notably auks, guillemots, the world’s largest flocks of seabirds,
kittiwakes and other cliff-nesting species, mostly petrels and penguins (Fig. 14.2).
return in their thousands every spring for Both the 19th century sealing industry and
their share of marine abundance. 20th century whaling drew their wealth
from the same source.
The Southern Ocean is generally more
dynamic, constantly exchanging waters

Fig. 14.2. Emperor penguins with chicks under the ice cliffs of the Weddell Sea, Antarctica. Tourists visit this
colony by icebreaker and helicopter (photograph: B. Stonehouse).

Polar Environments 225

Human resources Sovereignty and Responsibility

The Arctic is home to a variety of human Politically, Arctic lands and neighbouring
populations, predominantly coastal or seas are claimed by seven states: Canada,
riverine, mostly nomadic hunters and gath- Denmark (Greenland), Finland, Norway,
erers dependent on the meagre natural Russia, Sweden and the USA. Each owns,
resource base. Few of their modern repre- exercises sovereignty over, and takes
sentatives adhere strictly to traditional responsibility for lands and adjacent
ways of life, but villages and camps of oceans within its sector. There are few dis-
Alaskan Indian trappers, Canadian Inuit putes over sovereignty, and none currently
fishermen and Scandinavian Saami rein- affecting tourism or its regulation. Through
deer herders are of considerable interest to the mid-20th century, strategic implica-
tourists. Participation in hunting, herding, tions of the Cold War imposed severe
kayaking and other traditional activities strains on relationships between the Arctic
(including shooting (under licence) of nations. Most of these, however, have now
bears and other game), are the focus of disappeared, allowing for cooperation and
many organized tours throughout the consultation, notably in areas of social,
Arctic. industrial and scientific development.

Of equal interest are historic artefacts, Each Arctic state exercises direct control
include the Viking settlements of over polar tourism within its bounds, gen-
Greenland and eastern North America, the erally favouring and encouraging the devel-
huts, anchorages, graves and other evi- opment of the industry, deploying some
dence of early maritime explorers, the responsibilities to local legislation and
camps, trails and settlements of 19th and communities, and employing the kinds of
early 20th century prospectors and miners, administrative instruments that it uses in
and villages and townships that serviced its non-polar areas. Remoteness of polar
the early 20th century herring industry. tourist areas from seats of government may
More recent remnants of military, scientific place them at a competitive disadvantage:
and industrial installations, regarded by non-polar areas are likely to be more acces-
some as rubbish to be cleared, by others as sible and more popular, to yield higher rev-
potentially valuable industrial archaeology, enues and be better served and protected
are gradually acquiring historic interest. by rangers and wardens.

Antarctica’s lack of indigenous popula- Continental Antarctica too is claimed by
tion and short history of human occupation seven states: Argentina, Australia, Chile,
restrict its human artefacts to a few 19th France, New Zealand, Norway and the UK.
century sealing camps, late 19th and early Claims of Argentina, Chile and the UK
20th century explorers’ huts, and the moor- overlap geographically: ownership of these
ings, debris, hulks and derelict stations of and other sectors is disputed by other
early 20th century whaling. Of more gen- nations, for example the USA and Russia,
eral interest are the two to three dozen sci- with interests in Antarctica. Governance is
entific stations currently in operation. A effected through the Antarctic Treaty
few of these welcome tourist visits and System, based on a treaty to which 12
provide additional interest in the form of nations agreed in 1961, and in which 26
nature trails and information. Most protect nations currently exercise ruling interests.
their research programmes by strictly The Treaty System operates within latitude
rationing visits, and diverting visitors away 60°S, but extends for certain purposes to
from areas where research is in progress. the Antarctic Convergence, the ecological
boundary of Antarctica. Some peripheral
islands within the Convergence remain
under national ownership and governance.
Iles Crozet and Kerguelen are administered
by France, Macquarie and Heard islands by

226 B. Stonehouse

Australia, and South Georgia and the South ing, agriculture and mining. Tours are
Sandwich Islands are governed by the UK, operated both by indigenous groups, usu-
but claimed also by Argentina. ally small and locally based, and by major
operators based far from the Arctic.
The prime concern of the Antarctic Collectively they offer a wide and diverse
Treaty was to preserve the continent for menu of recreational experience, from
peace and science, objectives in which it backpacking, skiing, dog-sledging and
has so far succeeded admirably. The Treaty canoeing to luxury cruising.
contained no references to tourism, but
subsequent instruments (collectively called In contrast, Antarctic tourism began
the Antarctic Treaty System), notably the only in the late 1950s. In the absence of
Protocol on Environmental Protection to indigenous people and settlements, its
the Antarctic Treaty (HMSO, 1992), operators are based entirely outside the
address a broad spectrum of environmental area, and its development has so far been
issues, including those raised by tourism. more limited in scope and variety.
Those most directly involved in adminis- Currently over 97% of tourists that land in
tering the Antarctic Treaty System regard Antarctica are shipborne, using their ships
all problems arising from tourism as solu- as mobile hotels and leaving them only for
ble within the terms of the System. Others brief visits ashore. The rest are airborne,
can only hope that a Treaty System with no landing for spells of camping, climbing or
direct capacity for wilderness management skiing from field camps. Recent develop-
or law enforcement may eventually suc- ments include overflights by aircraft from
ceed in its self-appointed task of managing Chile and Australia, and cruises by liners
Antarctica, under the onslaught of a lively, capable of carrying over 1000 passengers,
expanding and diversifying tourist indus- neither of which release tourists ashore.
try (Stonehouse, 1994a).
Forms of tourism
Hall and Johnston (1995a) assert that, at
both ends of the world, tourism is cur- In its simplest forms, Arctic tourism pre-
rently being used to support territorial sents natural resources raw and unadorned.
claims. They cite as examples the creation Outfitting and guiding small parties of
of national parks and other protected areas backpackers, for example, are relatively
along the Northwest Passage by the govern- simple, low-cost operations, requiring little
ment of Canada (procedures that are cur- capital investment and yielding concomi-
rently mirrored by Siberian authorities tantly low returns. More complex forms of
along the Northeast Passage), and the spe- tourism enhance the resources through
cial interest shown by Australia, Argentina capital investment, for example in roads
and Chile in developing Antarctic tourism. and airstrips that provide access, coaches
Other ways in which these political issues and cruise liners that bring in more clients,
affect management of polar tourism are dis- and hotels that provide sophisticated
cussed more fully below. accommodation and amenities of civiliza-
tion on the wilderness fringe. Enhance-
The Industry at Work ments add value to the operations and
provide higher returns, but usually result
Tourism has a relatively short history in in greater impacts on the amenities
either polar region. In the Arctic, summer exploited.
cruises to Svalbard, Alaska and the
Canadian north became popular during the Antarctica’s remoteness and difficulties
mid-to-late 19th century, for trophy hunt- of access prohibit such simple forms of
ing and wilderness appreciation. Modern tourism as independent backpacking.
tourism has only recently developed to a There is no infrastructure of roads and
point where it begins to overtake more hotels: visitors must first be brought in by
traditional uses of natural resources: hunt- cruise ship, yacht or aircraft, all expensive

Polar Environments 227

forms of logistic support, involving sub- becoming increasingly popular in the
stantial capital investment and the possi- Arctic: the same ships and cruise operators
bility (as yet fortunately unrealized) of work three to four summer months alter-
substantial negative impacts. nately at either end of the world.
Adventure cruising involves small, ice-
Shipborne tourism, common to both strengthened ships carrying 50–150 pas-
regions, includes both scenic cruising by sengers (rarely up to 500), cruising for 8–15
ocean-going liners, which to increasing days and landing passengers once, twice or
extents include polar regions in their thrice daily, usually by inflatable boats
worldwide itineraries, but do not normally (Stonehouse, 1994b). At each landing the
land passengers, and adventure cruising by passengers spend 1–3 h ashore, then re-
smaller ships, which operate coastally and embark and move on to the next venue.
make a point of frequent passenger land- Landings may alternate with sightseeing by
ings. Scenic cruising brings cruise liners boat and, in certain ships, with helicopter
with passenger capacity of 1000 and more flights. Between cruises the ship returns to
to the fjords and waterways of Alaska, east- a gateway port to re-fuel, restock and take
ern Canada and Svalbard, and has recently on new passengers.
(2000) brought the first liner of this size to
the Antarctic Peninsula. Built for speed Both scenic cruising and adventure
and comfort, few of these ships are ice- cruising offer opportunities for influencing
strengthened, and their scope for polar travel passenger activities and behaviour. Lindblad
is limited to a relatively few safe routes. ensured, through lectures and other on-
board presentations, that passengers on his
Adventure cruising was devised by the cruises were well-briefed on environmental
travel entrepreneur Lars-Eric Lindblad to protection. This ethic particularly suited
lead clients away from the well-trodden the prosperous, conservation-minded pas-
tourist paths. Particularly appropriate sengers who made up his clientele, and
where there is no infrastructure of hotels or still characterizes adventure cruising in
other amenities ashore, it is the main form both polar regions.
of tourism practised in Antarctica, and is

Fig. 14.3. Ship-borne tourists enjoy calm seas and summer sunshine along the fjord coast of the Antarctic
Peninsula (photograph: B. Stonehouse).