Section 7
The Business of Ecotourism
B. McKercher
Department of Hotel and Tourism Management, Hong Kong Polytechnic University,
Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
Ecotourism and business? The two words Indeed, as you read this Encyclopedia,
seem to be an oxymoron. Many people consider that virtually everything dis-
view ecotourism as an ideologically or cussed is predicated on the usually
philosophically pure construct that should unstated assumption of a financially viable
not be sullied by sordid business consider- ecotourism sector. Yet, while being at the
ations. Tourism business is often regarded heart of ecotourism, business considera-
as being interested only in profit and of tions have been the subject of relatively lit-
showing no respect for host communities tle discussion in either the academic or
or environments. How can ecotourism and mainstream literature. These five chapters
business be linked? What many people do introduce the reader to some of the busi-
not realize is that net positive benefits from ness issues affecting ecotourism. The chap-
ecotourism can only accrue if it is a self- ters discuss generic business as well as
supporting activity, which means that it marketing topics, as well as discussing
must be commercially viable. Cultural, issues relating to specific subsectors of this
social and economic benefits will only activity.
occur when ecotourism generates sufficient
profit. Non-viable activities represent a net Three chapters (Chapters 33, 34 and 35)
drain on scarce resources and expose host examine ecotourism operations on the
communities to exploitation. Likewise, ground. In Chapter 33, John Gardner offers
ecotourism is most likely to achieve its a personal account of his experiences in
ecologically sustainable mandate when it is developing an ecotourism accommodation
also financially sustainable. It is only a facility in Bermuda. He argues effectively
powerful force for the conservation of nat- that ‘accommodation and facilities set the
ural areas when it provides an attractive tone for the guest’s experience’. Gardner
economic alternative to more resource- describes the range of accommodation
consumptive activities. Similarly, profitable types available, from the vernacular to con-
businesses can afford the costs associated verted historic buildings, contemporary
with being environmentally responsible, styles, and portable accommodation. He
when non-profitable businesses will strug- also reviews a number of practical develop-
gle, allocating their limited resources to ment issues including site use, facility
core activities needed to keep the business location so as not to hinder the quality of
afloat. the experience and the use of alternative
power, water and waste management. This
© CAB International 2001. The Encyclopedia of Ecotourism 521
(ed. D.B. Weaver)
522 B. McKercher
chapter concludes with a fascinating per- introduction to interpretation and suggest
sonal account of how he developed that it is different from teaching. Good
Daniel’s Head in Bermuda. Gardner dis- interpretation must be enjoyable, relevant,
cusses how he had to design the facility to well organized, must provide an opportu-
fit the ambience and character of the site, nity to learn and should also be themed,
how he has laid out the units and also how rather than topic based. The authors con-
he physically developed the superstructure. clude their chapter by looking at the role of
the guide and interpretation in providing a
In contrast, Bryan Higgins talks about quality experience.
non-facility dependent ecotourism in his
chapter on ecotourism operators (Chapter A number of generic business and mar-
34). The ecotourism operator, the organiza- keting issues are discussed by McKercher
tion that takes people on tours of eco- in Chapter 36. He reports that many busi-
tourism sites, represents the mainstream nesses are only marginally viable, which
activity of most ecotourism businesses. has led some people to question the true
However, while there are many different size of the commercial ecotourism market.
styles and types of ecotourism operations The chapter illustrates that ecotourism
available, Higgins points out that relatively operators face the same types of business
little information is available on this sector. challenges as all other small businesses: a
Apart from describing the diversity of lack of business planning, a lack of market-
products, he also focuses on two key areas ing expertise, a shortage of start up and
of ecotourism: ecotourism networks and working capital and unrealistic expecta-
types of ecotour operator organization. tions on entry. He also shows that the eco-
Ecotourism involves introducing people to tourism sector has been bedevilled by
natural or near natural areas. To do so, phantom demand, that is, participation
though, a complex set of relationships rates reported by state and national tourism
must exist to link the prospective tourist organizations do not translate into demand
with the operator. Inbound, outbound and for commercial products. Indeed, one of
local tour operators all have a role to play the hard lessons learned by ecotourism
in successful ecotourism. Likewise, there operators is that visiting a national park
are many different types of operators, rang- does not automatically make someone an
ing from conservation associations that run ecotourist. The chapter then proceeds to
ecotourism as a fundraising activity, to look at ecotourism from a marketing per-
community groups, universities and com- spective and argues that operators must
mercial tour operators. Each has a slightly consider their product from the perspective
different focus and slightly different opera- of how it satisfies the needs of potential
tional ethos. users and that to succeed, all those
involved in ecotourism must adopt a strate-
Betty Weiler and Sam Ham (Chapter 35) gic marketing focus.
look at the operation of ecotourism on the
ground in their chapter on tour guides and Issaverdis (Chapter 37) pulls this entire
interpretation. This chapter examines the section together with his chapter looking at
roles of tour guides, the principles of inter- the interrelated issues of benchmarking,
pretation and then looks at the combined accreditation, best practice and audits. As a
role of the two in the ecotourism experi- sign of a maturing sector, many operators
ence. The tourist often regards the guide’s are now realizing that they must set stan-
main role as that of an interpreter who can dards that will enhance the performance of
make a site come alive. From an opera- the industry as a whole. Any sector is only
tional perspective, though, the guide’s role as strong as its weakest member. Creating
is far more complex, also ensuring that any target standards should benefit all opera-
tour runs smoothly and considering the tors. Issaverdis illustrates how each of the
safety and comfort of clients. Interpretation four elements identified above is critical to
is the focus of this chapter, however. The the upskilling of this sector. Benchmarks
two authors provide a comprehensive set performance targets; importantly, though,
The Business of Ecotourism 523
they are dynamic and provide a foundation in showing operators how to improve their
for a continuous learning process. performance. Auditing is a confirmation
Accreditation recognizes those organiza- process that corroborates the above
tions that have achieved a certain standard processes. Cumulatively, these five chap-
of excellence. Further, the establishment of ters provide the ecotourism stakeholder
accreditation processes and the assumed with a comprehensive and well-articulated
marketing benefits that accrue from them exposure to the hard business aspects of
will motivate the industry to improve its the sector that are so vital to its success, yet
standards. Best practice, defined as the often overlooked or deliberately ignored.
optimal approach to management, is useful
Chapter 33
Accommodations
J. Gardner
Cooper and Gardner Architects, Hamilton, Bermuda
Introduction well as utilitarian. The activity of creating
shelter is one of the most ancient of the
Imagine that a certain holiday was one of human race’s activities. It is therefore with-
the top ten best experiences of your life. out any surprise that the built form of any
Many factors would have contributed to culture reflects its deepest roots as well as
this: the location, season, weather, service, its current direction. A tourism product
cost, value, accommodations, activities and that can sensitively recognize this, work
your state of mind; even who you travelled within it or complement it, will guarantee
with or met. Perhaps, also, it was your a unique product that is attractive to the
expectations and the extent to which they travelling customer. The resulting facilities
were met or even exceeded. If any one fac- will enhance the visitor experience and
tor fell short, your experience may still be have the potential to define its success.
memorable but it would not be the best
that it could have been. The accommodations and facilities of an
ecotourist operation set the tone for the
The recent surge in popularity of eco- guest experience. They are the structure
tourism has much to do with the search for that enables the business to prosper and
a richer holiday experience by the guest. It guests to enjoy themselves. They are an
also has much to do with the efforts of hos- integral part of the backdrop and stage set
pitality business people to differentiate for the total combined experience. It is
their product in a world market that is essential that the facilities are well consid-
awash with choices. By definition, eco- ered in all respects and that they inform,
tourism is connected directly to the natural and are informed by, the operations of the
and cultural environment of the destina- property, and are harmonious with the cul-
tion. It enables the traveller to better appre- ture and natural landscape of their envi-
ciate a new environment, to experience a ronment. The purpose of this chapter is to
sense of adventure, to relax and perhaps to outline general concepts in the area of
learn. This is life enrichment and some- ecotourism accommodations, such as the
times it is escapism. It is also good busi- practical issues associated with their
ness when done well. development, and to illustrate these con-
cepts with a case study from Daniel’s Head,
Every culture expresses itself and in Bermuda.
reveals its past through the creative actions
of its people, which may be recreational as
© CAB International 2001. The Encyclopedia of Ecotourism 525
(ed. D.B. Weaver)
526 J. Gardner
General Concepts on Ecotourism lower density, less visible and relatively
Accommodations isolated facilities. This is also exciting in
that the guest is able to have access, in
Building type opportunities comfort, to a lifestyle that would normally
be unattainable without discomfort, risk or
Ecotourism facilities are in a uniquely a time commitment they cannot afford.
advantageous position since they are inher- However, the ecotourism property is not
ently more diverse than traditional hospi- necessarily restricted to this type. The ‘eco’
tality products. A wide range of options is in ecotourism can be the ‘back to nature’,
available when folding cultural activities ‘get away from it all’ or ‘adventure’ style of
with contemporary, vernacular or historical experience. It can also have a greater affili-
building forms (or variations of them) and ation with the local culture and can be tied
applying them to the activities that are pro- to the educational aspects of environmen-
moted in each facility (see Table 33.1). The tally responsible living. There is no reason
design and construction of buildings, how- why an ecotourism property cannot exist
ever, is not and should not be a casual just as easily as a contemporary structure
decision. The need to decide how a new in a suburban or urban environment pro-
structure may be built for practical pur- vided it is carefully located in a site or
poses, or how an existing structure can be building of special affiliation to that cul-
renovated, is also an opportunity to com- ture through its vernacular architecture or
municate a message. This message can then iconographic status. It would, in addition,
be determined through the design and fin- need to be accompanied by an operations
ish of this structure to support the goals programme of appropriate educational, cul-
and objectives of the operations and finan- tural or environmentally focused activities.
cial plan.
An exciting and memorable facility also
A property that chooses to affix the label has the option of being sited in renovated
of being an ecotourism facility invariably or newly built facilities. The former may be
conjures up the image of an alternative, more challenging to adapt but could also
rustic, low density or low impact facility. be more economical. In any event, existing
This is understandable given the begin- buildings come with a history and a narra-
nings of ecotourism operations as tents, tive of their past. It enriches a visitor’s
platforms, vernacular huts and similar experience to be aware of and appreciate
Table 33.1. Potential ecotourism building types by category.
Vernacular Historical Contemporary Portable and low-
building types building types structures impact structures
Indigenous structures Developed vernacular Prefabricated structures Rigid tents, collapsible
Grass huts, mud structures, Colonial architecture, Masonry, glass fibre, tents, elevated huts,
caves, elevated halls, house residentially derived reinforced concrete, inflatable structures,
boats, reed platforms and styles, commercially rigid tents, inflatable vehicles, jungle
buildings, yurts, tree developed styles structures hammocks
platforms, ice houses,
teepees, cliff dwellings, Military architecture, Traditional tourism
stick houses colonial architecture, Cottage colonies, inns,
ecclesiastical guest houses, homes
architecture,
monuments, industrial
building, palaces and
great homes
Accommodations 527
the events, the people and the modifica- an operation to exist where land ownership
tions that have engaged their destination. It or long-term commitments are not avail-
can be argued that the ecotourist is invari- able.
ably an interested tourist. The facilities
have to be presented intelligently, and they A lightly furnished room can set the
need to be available to provide the layers of tone for a sustainable lifestyle. This may be
interest that can enhance the vacation in keeping with a message on the limited
experience. If these can be made available nature of resources. Furnishings do not
at the guests’ choosing then so much the need to be cheap because they can evoke
better, for they will be able to relax and be the quality of an austere oriental, simple
stimulated when they wish. living or high modern aesthetic but cast in
the culture of the place in which the prop-
In all instances it is critical to avoid erty is sited. Colour, as opposed to clutter,
being casual in the process of choosing can also enrich both the interior and exte-
spatial allocations, materials and furnish- rior. Architectural and design solutions
ings. These all have the ability to inform may also be eschewed in favour of land-
the guest on the culture and activities asso- scape options in which the materials and
ciated with the property. They can set a horticulture can define the atmosphere. In
standard for comfort, or not, that can then the appropriate climate this has the added
be coordinated with the rate structures and benefit of a constantly changing appear-
expectations of the guest. ance. Small furnishings and fixtures, for
example, can be something as simple as a
A traditional hotel invariably consists of mirror edged in sea glass. In this instance it
one building with racked rooms above a can evoke childhood memories, can be
ground floor assemblage of public spaces. made by local artisans, or on the property.
A variation on this theme is a central facili- It can demonstrate the recycling of materi-
ties structure with individual accommoda- als (especially those that are discarded)
tion units in the adjacent grounds. Motels and provides a unique accessory to a
and cottage colonies are polar opposites in room’s decor. It can also be made available
the quality of this type of accommodation. for sale, thus providing additional revenue.
The ecotourism product comes into its own The same could apply with wind chimes
most readily with this model of develop- that have the added benefit of offering an
ment. There is an inherent sense of an indi- additional (auditory) sensory experience.
vidual identity, and a small scale that
appeals to the message of a quality vaca- Development practicalities
tion experience.
The ideal of an ecotourism development
The field is, however, wide open in concept is to marry a vision of the experi-
terms of considering the possible accom- ence with environmental sustainability and
modation types. This is particularly applic- the constraints of a successful business
able when the accommodation is the venture, in such a way that the enterprise
passport to access new experiences. can function pragmatically. A traditional
Mountain huts for adventure tourists are hotel must equate the return on investment
without any central facilities and are way- of an initial development or renovation
points in a journey. A vehicle, like a boat with the cost of that investment. Land or
or bus, may become the base for high-end property acquisition and development
luxury or communal living. Each con- costs become the greatest initial expense
tributes in its own way to providing a com- against which future revenue must be
pletely unique experience. A low impact equated. Theory holds that the greater the
tent may permit building approvals where investment then the better the product
a permanent structure would not normally could be and the higher the fee that can be
be allowed. A mobile tent may permit a charged. This becomes a more marginal
facility to have limited life span and be
viable for a limited time measured in
weeks or just a few years. This could allow
528 J. Gardner
proposition in developed markets where difficult demands to meet. The former is
competition is greater and costs are higher. often restricted by location, capacity and
The ecotourism product can circumvent storage constraints. The latter is similarly
this by offering other advantages to the affected by environmental collection, stor-
developer and different standards to the age, purification and, sometimes, distribution
guest. Box 33.1 lists various development constraints. Communications is, interest-
strategies that need to be taken into ingly, most easily addressed given recent
account to maximize the probability of advances in technology. However, this is
product success. paralleled by increased expectations on the
part of guests.
A useful question is ‘How much does it
really take for someone to be happy?’ Less The greater the volume of people, the
is sometimes more and a richness of experi- more sensitive and sophisticated the man-
ence can be offered in preference to opu- agement of these issues needs to be.
lence. Comfort cannot be compromised, but Certain thresholds in the number of guests
optimal comfort does not have to be bought can require (under certain building codes
by offering all modern conveniences. A del- or even sensible adherence to moral stan-
icate balance between rates and standards dards) the importation of sophisticated and
can be attained in which costs and, thus, expensive systems. For example, sewage
rates can be lowered and the amenities treatment plants may be required for facili-
reduced, while taking maximum advantage ties of over, say, 100 beds. The good news
of the natural environment, providing a is that there is an array of exciting and
wide range of activities and taking the alternative methods of addressing infra-
moral high ground of operating a respon- structural issues. The bad news is that they
sible and environmentally sustainable are too often not as cost effective as tradi-
facility. tional systems, especially at a large scale.
There are also fundamental infrastruc- It can be presumed that the majority of
ture requirements that face all guest facili- guests are likely to come from Westernized
ties no matter what scale they happen to cultures. The daily services to which these
be. Guests need to eat and drink and they people are accustomed are currently man-
also require, almost always, the consump- aged within their own technologically
tion of packaged products. Support services sophisticated cultural/industrial economies.
include cleaning and maintenance and the Interestingly, this level of consumption is
management of all human, commercial not sustainable on a global basis if it were
and, sometimes, livestock waste. Power to be applied to the world population. It is
and potable water demands are quite often equally likely that this level of consump-
Box 33.1. Development strategies for ecotourism accommodations.
Siting to maximize natural amenities in lieu of newly built amenities
Maximum interfacing with the natural environment
Downsizing of central facilities offset by operational phasing and efficiencies
Facilities and activities that minimize the emphasis on individual accommodations
Communal living options
Services and facilities provided by local development partners
Self-sufficiency of the occupant to minimize operational overheads and central facilities
Use of low impact and lower cost structures
Use of indigenous building types that capture the local ‘sense of place’
Use of prefabricated building types
Operations to de-emphasize site requirements
An emphasis on landscaping
Accommodations 529
tion will not be sustainable in many areas nities and technological advances for the
that are candidates for ecotourism at least local population. If designed properly they
in the traditional, unspoiled, naturalistic can be installed so that they may be
and undeveloped environment. Properties removed in the future without damaging
in these locations therefore have the oppor- the environment. It is also possible that the
tunity to convert this constraint into a gen- finishes and furnishings can be procured
uine marketing tool by demonstrating to from locally sustainable sources or from
their visitors how comfortable they can be recycled products. These provide very
and, possibly, how much happier they can powerful marketing opportunities for the
be with a well-managed and more sustain- operator. They will be able to demonstrate
able, alternative lifestyle. In contrast to to their clients, to local authorities and the
this, there is also no inherent reason why hospitality industry that its product is an
an ecotourism operation cannot operate in asset to its community in all respects and
a highly developed culture where the use that it sets an example for its guests to
of alternative and more sustainable ser- demonstrate a better way of living.
vices and utilities is not required. In these
instances the property can act as an educa- A Case Study: Daniel’s Head,
tional tool for the visiting guest, and also as Bermuda
a prototype for adjacent communities.
Daniel’s Head is a new environmentally
Construction means and methods also focused tourism facility developed by
provide opportunities for utilizing environ- Destination Villages with an opening date in
mentally friendly systems, some of which the spring of 1999. Its conception originated
are listed in Table 33.2. Quite often, the in Stanley Selengut’s pioneering facilities on
indigenous building systems have devel- St John in the Virgin Islands (see below).
oped out of natural solutions using readily The development model is a village of indi-
available materials. The benefits of consid- vidual tent cottages that are customized to
ering building in the same manner as the suit the environment in which they are
existing culture are considerable: readily located. They are arranged on a 5 ha penin-
available first construction and mainte- sula, an abandoned Canadian Military Base,
nance skills, aesthetic consistency with the and operate in consort with the remaining
vernacular and culture, and the support built structures. The project is a paradigm of
and cooperation of the local community. It the factors and pressures that influence the
is also likely that in the very long term the development of an environmental facility.
materials used can be returned to the envi- The intriguing difference is that the site is in
ronment without generating pollution in a sophisticated tourism destination on an
the event that the facility is reinvented, affluent and densely populated suburban
relocated or abandoned. island. Bermuda is not a traditional eco-
tourism scenario.
If local materials are not used then other
factors can come into play. Prefabricated
components can offer educational opportu-
Table 33.2. Alternative infrastructure options for ecotourism accommodations.
Power Water Waste management
Passive and active solar, wind, Non-potable flushing, grey water Composting toilets, biological
water, geothermal, tidal, building collection, reverse osmosis supply, treatment, greenhouse filtration,
siting to take advantage of roof collection, sewage treatment recycling, glass and aluminium
prevailing climate benefits recycling and reduction in crushing, commercial links to waste
consumption as raw material (glass, aluminium,
paper and cardboard)
530 J. Gardner
Inception tually assumed control over the project and
made a proposal. This proposal was
In 1995 the Government of Bermuda had accepted, and the project proceeded.
four military bases returned to the island.
These represented almost 10% of the total The St John, Virgin Islands properties as
land area of the 54 km2 island. The popula- precedents
tion in this limited area is approximately
70,000 permanent residents. Bermuda also Destination Villages is a new company that
hosts about 550,000 visitors a year and was is building four hospitality facilities world-
voted the fourth most favourite tropical wide in scenic areas. Each facility consists
island destination in the world in a 1999 of central facilities and a ‘Village’ of private
Conde Nast traveller poll. The then govern- accommodation units. There is a minimum
ment of Bermuda applied a rigorous land of 75 and a maximum of 150 of these units
use analysis and zoning exercise through a in each development. The Daniel’s Head
base utilization committee and assigned development utilizes the existing buildings
the development to a quasi-autonomous for the central facilities and is constructing
non-governmental organization (QUANGO), 120 accommodation units all as new struc-
a purpose-formed company called The tures. These are 5 m × 5 m tent cottages
Bermuda Land Development Company and they are an evolutionary design from
(BLDC). the St John properties adapted to the
Bermuda climate, building regulations and
One of the four parcels of land is a economic circumstances.
peninsula of exceptional beauty known as
‘Daniel’s Head’. In the early 20th century ‘Maho Bay’ is Stanley Selengut’s origi-
this property had been part of a farm, as nal development and is located (as are all
was much of Bermuda. The British the St John properties) on a steep hill. The
Admiralty converted this into an electronic initial development consisted of low
listening station during the Second World impact wooden platforms on which tents
War and flattened half the site, a small hill, could be pitched and connecting walkways
into a circular promontory at about 5 m inspired by the US National Park Service
above sea level. After the War and when requirements in delicate natural areas. In
the British Admiralty reduced its opera- time the tents became simple frame struc-
tions significantly, this base was operated tures with suspended fabric for weather
by the Canadian military as a Cold War lis- protection. They continued to develop
tening post. Additional buildings and bar- until after 15 years, in the mid-1990s, they
racks were constructed during this tenure. were fairly sophisticated rigid frame tents.
These are characterized by having natural
The site was zoned for tourism use with ventilation through window screens and
a small beach segment held out as a perimeter shelves. The floor is constructed
national park to address local community from wood planks or a recycled plastic and
concerns. The BLDC sought proposals from wood board. The plan is 5 m × 5 m square
interested developers. Approximately six with one corner open as a terrace. They can
were received, all proposing housing, tradi- accommodate two people comfortably and
tional cottage colonies and a proposal for a another two, less comfortably, on a futon-
park. They were all found unsatisfactory, styled couch. The decor is spartan and
and an alternative tourism-related proposal reflects the wood structure and fabric fin-
was sought. After some research the BLDC ish. The advantage is the security of a fixed
decided to contact Stanley Selengut who structure with the amenity of a tent’s inti-
had recently received a number of awards mate relationship to the natural environ-
for his low impact and environmentally ment. An LPG camping stove and a
focused properties on the island of St John portable ice cooler allow the guests to have
in the US Virgin Islands: ‘Maho Bay’, a self-sufficient holiday if they wish. The
‘Harmony’ and ‘Concordia’. Selengut teamed
up with a development partner, who even-
Accommodations 531
central facilities do provide a self-serving the benefit of a central dining infrastruc-
open-air restaurant with stunning views to ture and the nearest village is not only too
the west and the bay below. There is also a far to walk but a long enough drive in a
small convenience store, laundry, activities rented car to be inconvenient as the only
desk, beach concession, maintenance area place to eat.
and offices. The facility is powered by
mains electricity and the guests use com- It had also been found at ‘Harmony’ and
munal bathhouses which are connected to at the original ‘Concordia’ that the guests
a central sewage treatment plant. preferred the experience of being in the
fabric-clad structures connected by the
‘Maho Bay’ has been exceptionally well raised wooden walkways. Generally the
marketed as an environmental resort. Its aesthetic is the same as the other facilities
primary strength is its low impact design and the interior remains undecorated as a
and secure camping atmosphere. The qual- direct expression of its construction. The
ity of sunlight and the shadows of leaves second phase of the tents has refined this
on the walls and roofs of the tents are a by presenting the wood structure as a more
welcome alternative to the traditional hotel rationalized system and exploring a gener-
room. The hillside location also offers the ally tidier level of detailing. There remains
effect of staying in a tree house. A variety a sense of adventure and tranquillity which
of environmental initiatives have been ini- is directly associated with the guests’ expe-
tiated and in the context of a traditional rience of occupying a different, but com-
hotel these are fairly significant: water fortable, building type. This is enhanced by
savers are installed in the bathhouses, low the requirements for a form of environmen-
flush urinals, composting and a limited tal self-sufficiency.
organic garden. Other initiatives have not
yet taken hold in a truly significant way. Daniel’s Head
Some of the glass is recycled and melted
into souvenirs but this is a small operation Daniel’s Head develops the approach taken
and some of the aluminum cans are simi- in St John by providing a facility that com-
larly melted into accessories. A solar oven bines the Central Facilities and scale of
and a solar icemaker were tried, but the ‘Maho’ with the increased sophistication of
large scale of the property and the damage the ‘Concordia’ Eco tents. Importantly,
by hurricanes prevented these from becom- Daniel’s Head provides the entire facility as
ing operational staples. a single development in time. The St John
facilities were built incrementally on a vir-
A second development, ‘Harmony’, has tual cash flow basis. Daniel’s Head has
been built on the hill above Maho Bay. A required a different level of planning par-
different approach has been taken since ticularly since it was placed under the con-
these are traditional solid frame buildings. straints of a firm budget which amounted
A variety of recycled building products to approximately 50% of the cost of a tradi-
and alternative energy systems are used. tional hotel development.
‘Concordia’, on the other side of the island,
started as a second condominium style Site design
‘Harmony’, but has evolved into a different
facility with ten independent ‘Ecotents’ The existing buildings are sited on a sloped
beside this structure. These have been built site on the south of the property. The tents
in two phases. The first phase is a series of are generally arrayed throughout the site.
six 5 m × 5 m tents with a variety of split- At first glance the density may be felt to be
levels and loft bunks. The individual tent rather too even and saturated throughout
facilities are improved over ‘Maho’ in that the property. Given more land, it is gener-
they have expanded kitchen facilities and ally preferable to concentrate development
private toilets and showers in different
configurations. This evolution is not arbi-
trary. The ‘Concordia’ site does not have
532 J. Gardner
in a focused area. The nature of this site as the water. The walls are a neutral tone to
a part of a suburban island meant that the reflect as much heat as possible without
site itself and the adjacent land were insuf- being white, which will show dirt easily.
ficient to do this. The siting strategy was The tents over the water are a light blue
therefore intended to place a premium on colour. In the existing trees they are clad in
site landscaping and reforestation to the green. The intent has been to gain a maxi-
maximum that the budget would allow. mum cost benefit from a repetitive building
The interstitial space between the tents form but to still provide variety of experi-
would become a dense green zone. This ence by varying the finish and the orienta-
would take time to grow so the tents are tion, and through site placement.
sited to the perimeter of the property wher-
ever possible. This reduces density gener- The tents are placed on a platform of six
ally by effectively expanding the usable or nine piles depending on their height and
site area. It also, and importantly, permits the ground condition. One important factor
the amenity of the tents to be derived from was the building code that required the
the best attributes of the site: the ocean and tents’ structure be able to withstand hurri-
shoreline. Some of the tents are directly cane force winds at 110 mph while the fab-
over the water. This is an environmentally ric has to withstand an 80-mph wind
risky move in that it appears to be at vari- loading. Important technical factors like
ance with normal requirements not to this can have a significant impact on the
intrude on natural areas. In this instance cost of a project. It is therefore useful to
this is mitigated by the overall plan to resolve these as early as possible in the
reforest the site, and by the ability to design/cost process.
remove the tents with minimal trace.
Furthermore, the economic viability of the The structure of the tents was originally
project requires an attractive product in the conceived as a wood frame built from lami-
early years. nated 2 × 4s. This then developed to a 10
cm × 10 cm wood structure. Faced with
This is an emerging form of ecotourism budget issues, a prefabricated tubular pipe
in which the concept leverages its viability structure was considered and this ulti-
by gently intruding into, and perhaps even mately developed to become a prefabri-
improving, a natural environment so that it cated aluminum frame. A result of the
may create an economic base for the local structure change was to add an interior
community. This in turn assists a desired liner of fabric attached with an industrial
industry to occur and grow, creates grade Velcro. This provides a superior fin-
employment and permits the site to be ish, assists with cleaning, provides an insu-
restored over time without being an added lating layer in the wall and conceals all the
burden on the tax base. It also permits the services. The ceiling is formed in an
developer to have sufficient security to upside-down tray, which is a traditional
make further investments. Bermuda architecture configuration. This
provides an extra sense of height. The flat
Tent design of the tray is formed out of mesh (which is
not a standard detail) and so the roof void
The tents are 5 m × 5 m squares with inter- is accessible to act as a cooling plenum in
nal bathrooms alternating on different the summer via vents in the gables. These
sides. They have a verandah on one side are closed in the winter, thereby enabling
and a covered entry opposite. They are the roof to act as a passive heat source. In
designed with white roofs in keeping with both instances a central ceiling fan can dis-
the Bermuda architectural vernacular. The tribute the air in an upward or downward
white roofs also keep the tents cool, and direction, as required.
look attractive as a neutral palette against
the vibrant colours of the landscape and The tents are connected to the mains
electrical supply. It was originally hoped to
have all the tents off the grid, but further
research indicated that this would have
Accommodations 533
required a major centralized solar plant. Central facilities
Since there was insufficient space or first
cost budget for this configuration, it was The Central Facilities at Daniel’s Head are
decided to limit the number of tents to five of a different aesthetic in that they are in a
for demonstration purposes as a practical conversion of a single existing structure.
compromise. Almost one-third have a The final form and programme is the con-
remote integrated solar hot water heater to densing of various elements that were orig-
reduce electrical costs, which are excep- inally planned to be distributed through
tionally high in Bermuda. These are sited four buildings. This was reduced by budget
away from current shaded areas. constraints. This demonstrates that an
environmentally focused hospitality opera-
The interior of the tents is designed to tion can successfully compromise usual
be comfortable in a bright, casual, cottage standards in the interests of utilizing fewer
holiday style. Furnishings are simple, with resources and funds. In this instance the
a queen-size bed as standard, a pull out or compromises would be in a blending of
trundle sofa and various tables and chair lounge and bar functions, smaller offices
options. A hammock is provided as a stan- and a simplification of the food service
dard amenity and the verandah is struc- amenities.
tured so that the hammock can be hung
from it. At Daniel’s Head it is also intended Environmental overview
that this interior acts as the conceptual
starting point for the conversion of 16 At the initial planning stages the regulatory
rooms in an existing barracks. Fifteen of authorities were sceptical that Daniel’s
the tents over the water have a window in Head would be an ecotourism facility. It is
the floor to view the water and shoreline not located in an isolated area of profound
below. This has become an opportunity to environmental value such as a rainforest.
coordinate with the furnishings and so This scepticism was reasonable given the
these windows are aligned to match glass- classic perceptions about the appropriate
topped coffee tables above. The result is a location of ecotourist properties. Similarly,
visible amenity in a location where it can the accommodations were different from
be appreciated, where it will not be cov- the rustic structure, lodge or hut that might
ered by a carpet and where it is not unsafe be envisaged. This scepticism extended to
for guests to walk over if it becomes slip- the activities which would interest the
pery. This level of integration, between guests, since there were no wide-open
environment, structure and interior design, tracts of land to appreciate. The ultimate
results in a seamless product that con- realization of the government of Bermuda,
tributes to the guests’ satisfaction. and hence the approval, was that Daniel’s
Head had the potential to be a leadership
The Daniel’s Head tent is the result of an project in environmental restoration. It
extended development process that goes could also act as an incubator for environ-
back to an evolving prototype which has mental education as well as adding another
been adapted to suit another climate, mar- dimension to the traditional tourism prod-
ket, budget and construction method. The uct that was available.
result is a tent that is appropriate to its new
site yet still retains the original fundamen- The accommodations and facilities of
tals of its environmental considerations, Daniel’s Head enable a damaged site to be
size and use. In a different climate and cul- restored in a business environment. Its
ture it would evolve as a different form. open spaces are the incredible views over
This is occurring in Destination Villages’ the water even though its land plan is quite
Hawaii site where, for example, the climate dense. Its accommodations are comfortable
permits the windows to be left as screens enough to provide a reasonable alternative
only. to the traditional products that are available,
534 J. Gardner
yet simple enough to appeal to the luxury tourism product. They have the ability to
camper. Its design adheres to the culture of provide a different and wider range of
its location and this can be enhanced accommodations and will challenge the
through the direct integration of the local traditional properties to revisit their own
population in the facilities’ activities. requirements and standards. They will also
Finally, and perhaps most importantly, the provide an educational resource for their
alternative energy, composting, sustainable community to improve not only their visi-
design and sustainable operations pro- tors’ experience but also their own quality
grammes can provide an example to the of life. There is tremendous latitude in the
local community. Table 33.3 provides a developer’s ability to seek an appropriate
synopsis of the environmentally appropri- idiom for each facility. A good grounding
ate practices that characterize this facility. in the local culture and an emphasis on
sustainable design, construction and opera-
Summary tions will contribute immensely to the hon-
esty and success of the enterprise.
Ecotourism accommodations offer a new
dimension and invigoration to a local
Table 33.3. Daniel’s Head: environmental attributes.
Land use Eco-tents Services/ Flora Fauna
infrastructure
Rejuvenating a Efficient prefabricated Pedestrian site Site rejuvenation Bermuda tropic
Raised walkways
military base structures Mulch pathways through landscaping bird nesting
No air-conditioning
Reusing Low impact design Solar photovoltaic Transplanted trees programme
existing buildings Removable new system Endemic planting Endemic lizard
Solar hot-water
Minimize construction philosophy rejuvenation
heating
site works Windows on Composting toilets Composting programme
Minimized electrical
Environmental three sides Marine life
coverage
construction Natural ventilation Minimal site lighting custodial
Roof water collection
plan for cooling programme
and site cisterns
Adherence to
vernacular
architecture
Maximize site
environmental
appreciation
Recycled and
local materials
specification
Chapter 34
Tour Operators
B.R. Higgins
Department of Geography and Planning, State University of New York at Plattsburgh,
Plattsburgh, New York, USA
Tour operators occupy a critical role in the tour operators in their review of interna-
tourism industry, given their role as inter- tional tourism from an economic perspec-
mediaries that design, organize, package, tive. Their coverage of tour operators
market and operate vacation and other provides detailed information and an
tours (Morrison, 1996). The purpose of this excellent analysis of the rise and fall of the
chapter is to discuss the role and status of major operators in selected European coun-
tour operators within the ecotourism sec- tries, but almost nothing about tour opera-
tor. A preliminary step for understanding tors in other world regions. Ioannides’
ecotourism-related operators is to review (1998) important study takes a critical look
research about tour operators in general at tour operators as it sketches the evolu-
within the tourism literature. Remarkably, tion of the package tour industry, identifies
even though tour operators have become the contemporary activities of tour opera-
major actors within the global travel indus- tors and reports on a pilot survey of US
try, only a few studies have investigated specialist tour operators that includes eco-
their character and most of these are some- tours. Ioannides observes that tour opera-
what dated (Touche Ross, 1975; Britton, tors are key manipulators of tourist
1978; Ascher, 1985; Sheldon, 1986; origin–destination flows who have displayed
Delaney-Smith, 1987; Urry, 1990; Vellas little loyalty to specific destinations.
and Becherel, 1995; Ioannides, 1998). Overall, given the limited consideration of
Focusing on three of the more recent stud- tour operators within the tourism litera-
ies, Urry (1990) indirectly analysed tour ture, comparisons of ecotourism-related
operators and the expansion of the package operators with the tourism industry as a
tour industry, with special attention to whole will be limited.
Europe and the UK. He argued that special-
ization in the tourism industry, which Ecotour Operators in the Literature
would include the establishment of ecotour
operators, had changed tour production Surprisingly, a literature review on the
from a concentrated, mass-market complex more specialized topic of ecotourism-
into a more segmented, post-Fordist eco- related operators reveals more publications
nomic system. than on tour operators in general as well as
more attention to recent developments in
With a similar European focus, Vellas
and Becherel (1995) include a section on
© CAB International 2001. The Encyclopedia of Ecotourism 535
(ed. D.B. Weaver)
536 B.R. Higgins
this field. Currently, two rather distinct been growing significantly during the
types of publications are available in 1990s and that market share within the
regard to ecotourism-related operators. One USA was concentrated. In fact, the five
kind of publication offers a guide on how largest operators served a total of 50,000
to start and manage an ecotourism busi- travellers in 1994 and 35 of the 82 firms
ness. This practical genre addresses a vari- responding served more than 1000 clients,
ety of ‘nuts and bolts’ business issues thus capturing 90% of the market (Higgins,
including organization of the company, 1996). In addition, almost all of the US
product development, finance, marketing operators conducted their ecotours outside
and other essential business development the USA and, even though most had trips
topics. Currently, four ecotourism-related to more than one country or world region,
business guides of high quality are avail- very few had itineraries in all of the major
able: a guide for developing a business in world regions (Higgins, 1996; Lew, 1998).
adventure tourism with a Canadian focus
(Cloutier, 1998); two guides for establishing In the southern hemisphere, Weiler
nature-based tourism businesses from an (1993) critically examined the environmen-
Australian perspective (Beeton, 1998; tal commitment of 27 nature-based tour
McKercher, 1998); and a step-by-step man- operators in Australia, while McKercher
ual for developing nature and culture- and Robbins (1998) and McKercher (1998)
based tourism operations from a US profiled and analysed Australian nature-
publisher (Patterson, 1997). Together these based business. McKercher (1998), citing a
books identify and clarify the key business study by Cotteril, estimated that Australia
components that are essential for an eco- had 600 ecotourism operators, without
tourism-related business. mentioning their inbound or outbound ori-
entation, which are typically small busi-
Another set of publications has taken a nesses of four or fewer staff. He also noted
more detached approach to investigating that national surveys estimate that
the character of ecotour operations. Since Australian inbound operators serve about
relatively little is known about ecotour 70% of all inbound tourists and 90% of the
operators, the research design in these pub- visitors from Asia.
lications usually includes a survey of oper-
ators. They will now each be briefly Finally, Holden (1996) profiled UK out-
sketched according to the world region bound tour operators who were ‘environ-
they investigate. The earliest of these oper- mentally friendly’. He reported on the
ator surveys, and the only one focused on a limits of their environmental commitment
destination country, examined five busi- and noted that the orientation of their des-
nesses that specialized in nature travel and tinations was Europe with 65%, Southeast
their related development needs in Asia 51%, South America, Central America
Ecuador (Wilson, 1987). Next, five separate and Africa at 46% and Australasia 31%.
studies have explored the character of Together, these studies provide an impor-
North American-based ecotour operators. tant baseline profile of ecotour operators in
First, an early survey of 32 operators who Australia, Ecuador, the UK and North
specialized in nature tourism by Ingram America. At the same time, they implicitly
and Durst (1989) noted that just three firms demonstrate the strong national segmenta-
served over 1000 clients each during 1986. tion among ecotour operators and
In the 1990s, independent surveys of North researchers. However, since each of the
American-based ecotour operators by studies defined its tour operator population
Rymer (1992), Yee (1992), Higgins (1996) in a different manner, utilized a unique set
and Lew (1998) expanded this knowledge of survey questions and was primarily
base and demonstrated the dynamic char- exploratory in design, it is not a simple
acter of ecotour operators in this world matter to summarize their results. It is also
region. Together they indicated that the noteworthy that, for the most part,
number and size of ecotour operations had these studies gave limited attention to
each other’s surveys or the patterns of
Tour Operators 537
international organization among ecotour ally consider the relation of their products
operators. to this broader marketing context. (See
Middleton and Hawkins (1998) for a
Ecotour Product Development and detailed examination of the importance of
Evaluation market segmentation for sustainable tourism.)
Thus, operators consider not only specific
During the past two decades a diversity of activities, such as kayaking, whale-watch-
new tourism products has appeared in the ing or wine tasting, but also integrate their
global marketplace. In addition, specific product with broader themes. For ecotour
products have become associated with new operators this growth of new tourism prod-
tourism themes, some of which are shown ucts and themes has consequently pro-
in Box 34.1 (Zurick, 1995; Mowforth and vided both opportunities and challenges.
Munt, 1998). It should be noted that this The increasing diversity of specialized
list of new tourism themes is meant to interests, growing number of clients and
illustrate the trend in specialization and segmentation of the market offer substan-
not to serve as a definitive inventory. tial opportunities for savvy businesses. In
Ecotourism has become one of these new fact, most ecotours include a variety of
tourism themes, even though its definition activities and integrate more than one of
and character continue to generate substan- these tourism themes, thereby contributing
tial debate (Blamey, 1995; Finucane and to the sorts of tourism hybrids cited by
Dowling, 1995; Weaver, 1998b) (see Weaver in Chapter 5.
Chapters 1 and 2). Given the wide scope of
these new tourism themes as well as the At the same time, it has become a chal-
variable criteria used to identify eco- lenge to assure that the integration of
tourism, the relationship between ecotour diverse activities does not alienate a partic-
operators and new tourism products will ular market segment or muddle the overall
be examined in more detail. character of a trip. Unfortunately, with
small ecotour operators little time or
First, it is important to note the diver- money is available to consider such issues
sity, potential overlap and tension that may in preparing a trip (McKercher, 1998).
be found within these new tourism themes. Alternatively, large ecotour operators may
Since each of these tourism segments has expend considerable resources over the
its own set of stakeholders, interest groups course of a year to assess and plan a new
and marketing connections, operators usu- trip. In such cases their planning may
involve a preliminary assessment of market
Box 34.1. New tourism themes. demand, visiting potential venues, deter-
mining costs, and negotiating contracts for
Adventure tourism new ecotour experiences. However, sys-
Cultural tourism tematic research has not yet identified how
Ecotourism operators conduct this process.
Farm and rural tourism
Festival tourism Despite the lack of empirical research,
Food tourism all the ecotour business publications stress
Environmental tourism the importance of ecotour product develop-
Heritage tourism ment and offer suggestions for itinerary
Nature tourism planning, themes and pricing (Patterson,
Scientific tourism 1997; Beeton, 1998; Cloutier, 1998;
Soft tourism McKercher, 1998). According to Patterson
Sustainable tourism (1997), pricing analysis should include cal-
Wine tourism culating variable costs per person, fixed
costs per person, overhead and marketing
costs per person, commissions, profit, dis-
counts and refunds and credits. Cloutier
(1998) goes further to recommend plotting
538 B.R. Higgins
a product-positioning map that compares fusion of travel books for independent trav-
the price and quality of a new product with ellers create distinct but parallel routes to
the position of competitor’s products in the see non-Western countries. Thus, while
area. He also discusses how to calculate the independent travellers may scorn fully
break-even point for a tour as well as estab- packaged tours offered by outbound opera-
lish a tour’s price using a bottom-up tors, the routes, itineraries, and local tour
approach. operators they select from alternative travel
sources similarly embody a prearranged
As discussed by Weiler and Ham in and commercialized experience. Since this
Chapter 35 of this Encyclopedia, eco- selection of destinations, operators and
tourism research has only recently begun accommodations has a profound impact on
to appreciate and evaluate interpretation. operators in destination countries, more
Clearly this is likewise true about the research should examine this distinct
assessment of ecotours in general. Little is process for independent ecotourists.
known about how ecotour operators con-
ceptualize their tours or how this compares Even though the experience offered by
with the assessments of ecotourists. One ecotour operators is clearly a crucial aspect
innovative example of ecotour assessment of ecotourism, the production of ecotours
was the Green Evaluation project that was has received much less attention within
conducted by The Ecotourism Society and the literature than other topics such as pro-
the Ecuadorian Ecotourism Association tected areas, environmental impacts, biodi-
during 1996 and 1997 (Wood, 1998). In this versity or economic valuation (Higgins,
very original programme, ecotourists were 1996; Eagles and Higgins, 1998). An exami-
asked to critically evaluate their ecotour nation of ecotourism-related economic
experience based upon key criteria of eco- studies indicates the development of a sub-
tourism (Sirakaya, 1997). While reputable stantial literature, as demonstrated in the
consumer evaluation organizations have excellent review by Lindberg (1998). The
been established in numerous countries scope of economic studies has included a
(e.g. Consumer Reports in the USA) and number of public sector issues such as set-
engineering criteria are available for qual- ting fees for protected areas (Laarman and
ity control with industrial production (e.g. Gregersen, 1996) and estimating economic
ISO guidelines), the evaluation of ecotours impacts (Dixon and Sherman, 1990). It has
has not yet been developed in such a sys- also included more theoretical subjects,
tematic manner. Two important exceptions such as assessing demand curves (Crouch,
are the excellent work of Blake and Becher 1995) and the contingent evaluation of nat-
(1997) in designing and compiling sustain- ural resources (Navrud and Mungatana,
able tourism ratings for selected eco- 1994). Overall though, the economic
tourism operations in Costa Rica, and the studies have had little to say about the sup-
Ecotourism Association of Australia prod- ply side of the ecotourism industry or the
uct accreditation system (see Chapter 37). character, organization, strategies, or geo-
graphical distribution of ecotour operators.
The development of routes, itineraries In fact, this blind spot within ecotourism is
and products for independent ecotourists part of a broader gap in our knowledge
is also an important issue. Since indepen- about the supply side of tourism in general.
dent travellers comprise the largest seg- As Ioannides and Debbage (1998) have
ment of the ecotourism market, it is noted, the tourist industry has not received
important to consider how they select the same attention that manufacturing and
operators and products. One of the few other economic sectors have been given in
studies to critically explore how indepen- the economics, tourism or geography litera-
dent tour routes, products and operators ture. Consequently, our knowledge of eco-
develop, and what impacts they have on tour production as well as mainstream tour
local communities, is Zurick’s (1995) production is still limited.
analysis of independent tourists and
adventure travel. He observed that the pro- Several features make it a challenge to
Tour Operators 539
conduct research about the production of critical assessments may alienate operators
ecotours. First, governments have pub- who are aligned with other speciality
lished little if any secondary information notions or embarrass operators who have
regarding ecotour operators, ecotourists, or used the term ecotour primarily as a mar-
ecotour products. An important exception keting ploy (Wight, 1993; Campbell, 1999),
is the Bureau of Tourism Research in developing a thoughtful research strategy
Australia where considerable high quality has become increasingly important. For a
research about nature and backpacker variety of reasons then, researchers have
tourists was conducted during the 1990s encountered new challenges when collect-
(Blamey, 1995; Haigh, 1995; Buchanan and ing primary data or requesting unpublished
Rossetto, 1997; Blamey and Hatch, 1998). documents through personal contacts.
Second, much of the relevant information Given the special challenges that may be
concerning ecotour operators and products encountered while attempting to collect
is either proprietary or confidential in evidence from tour operators, such as
nature. Since it is unusual for tour opera- refusals, non-response and evasiveness,
tors to disclose sales figures, costs, financ- researchers should carefully consider the
ing, profit margins, characteristics of methodology of studies to assure that the
clients, marketing strategies, business net- observations and conclusions do not
works or other crucial business informa- exceed the quality of the evidence that has
tion, it has been difficult for researchers to been collected.
analyse patterns within this sector or
among destination communities. In addi- Ecotour Operator Networks and
tion, the operation of tours is a largely Organization
unregulated activity that involves signifi-
cant risks and has recently resulted in International market and product distribution
numerous bankruptcies (Waters, 1998, networks
p. 149). Furthermore, these operations are
typically small businesses with very lim- The most common framework to conceptu-
ited time and energy. Thus, ecotour opera- alize ecotour operators and production is
tors simply may not have time for an to distinguish between outbound, inbound
interview or choose to be deliberately and local ecotourism operators. In this
vague when discussing their operations. rudimentary framework, outbound ecotour
operators are based primarily in the indus-
Finally, several definitions of eco- trialized countries, inbound operators are
tourism have been used in different con- found in international gateway cities of
texts, and a variety of related tourism destination countries and local operators
themes, as shown in Box 34.1, may also be are located in the rural service-centres of
used by ecotour operators (Blamey, 1995; destination countries (Ashton and Ashton,
Zurick, 1995; Weaver, 1998a, b). With the 1993; Higgins, 1996; Wood, 1998; Honey,
increasing specialization and importance 1999). In select cases, the supply of eco-
of market segmentation, tour operators tours has been conceptualized to also
have frequently aligned themselves within include travel agents/retailers, who play a
one or more of these broader notions and significant role in select world regions such
related market segments as they identify an as Australia (Ziffer, 1989; McKercher,
aesthetic for their tours (Mowforth and 1998). Even though this geographic scheme
Munt, 1998). Trekking and adventure tours, has frequently been used to distinguish
such as the type that are offered in the hill types of ecotour operators, the networks of
country of northern Thailand (Cohen, ecotour operators and organization of eco-
1989; Dearden, 1989), are examples of this tour production have seldom been explicit
alignment. In this multi-layered context, topics of discussion in the literature. To
the use and meaning of ‘ecotourism’ by address this oversight the chapter will map
either an operator or researcher becomes an
issue that requires critical analysis. Since
540 B.R. Higgins
some of the key networks among ecotour place, which the outbound operator can
operators and consider the significance of link with airfare to provide an easy to pur-
these organizational niches for ecotourism chase product for the tourist. Although
as a whole. empirical studies have seldom systemati-
cally mapped these production alliances,
A number of issues make it important to such ecotourism business connections are
go beyond a focus on individual eco- clearly pivotal for ecotour operators of all
tourism operators and their internal organi- kinds and sizes.
zation to also examine relations between
operators and related support organiza- Under this schema, a series of comple-
tions. First, as Tremblay (1998) has argued mentary yet separate tourism businesses
in detail, the transaction costs and organi- organize themselves to create an integrated
zational diversity of tourism have limited package. Such integrated networks usually
the ability of research that focuses primar- include air travel, ground transportation,
ily on firms and ownership to understand accommodations, food and guiding, as
the tourism industry. As an alternative he depicted in Fig. 34.1. They frequently
presented a network approach to the eco- involve ecotour operators from industrial-
nomic organization of tourism that he ized countries making connections with
believes offers more robust potential to national operators located in the interna-
address the importance of alliances, coop- tional gateway cities of destination coun-
erative ventures, and partnerships in tries. The national inbound operator then
tourism. Since the relations among distinct networks with operators in different areas
tour operator businesses and within dis- to provide a diversity of itineraries and
tinct market niches are clearly crucial for products. These networks are the basis of
ecotourism, this chapter will sketch some most outbound tourism (Ioannides, 1998;
of the distinct networks in this economic Tremblay, 1998). Establishing such a net-
environment. (For a detailed study of the work allows operators to negotiate price,
geography of tourism businesses and the availability, quality and other features that
natural environment in a particular region are crucial to their ability to market and
see Higgins and Holmes (1999).) manage their operations. Such networks
may be implemented in a variety of ways,
Vertical operator networks including annual contracts, exclusive offer-
ing agreements, block purchase or reserva-
To appreciate the role of connections and tion of services and minority investment
networks for ecotourism, consider a typical schemes.
outbound ecotour operation. Such busi-
nesses usually have purchasing agreements However, the growing accessibility of
with international airlines as well as one or fax, Internet access, and computer reserva-
more inbound tour operators which are tion systems has had a significant impact
usually responsible for the ground trans- on tourism product distribution (Mason
portation, food and accommodations in the and Milne, 1998; Milne, 1998; Milne and
destination country. The inbound operator Gill, 1998). Changing technology has modi-
may be an independent business, a sub- fied the character of ecotourist market
sidiary company that is wholly owned by demand, since it has become easier for eco-
the outbound ecotour operator or a joint tourists from industrialized countries to
venture involving a local business and the independently arrange their own ecotours
outbound operator. Its role is to provide a by contacting inbound and local ecotour
package of goods and services, usually operators in destination countries directly.
offered by smaller, independent operators As a result, a variety of new operator net-
who lack the necessary distribution works are emerging, enabling the local,
resources to enter the international market- destination operator to sell his or her prod-
uct directly to the international consumer.
Tour Operators 541
Fig. 34.1. Vertical operator network.
Ecotourism associations
Another popular form of operator collabo- Fig. 34.2. Speciality tourism organization.
ration is the formation of a trade or indus-
try association (discussed in more detail in In select cases these speciality groups
Chapter 30). Forming a speciality tourism have also formed at a sub-national level as
organization usually involves creating a with the various state ecotourism groups in
hybrid organization that has a strong focus the USA (e.g. Alaska, Florida and Hawaii)
on the needs and perspectives of tour oper- or at the world-regional level as with the
ators, but also includes other tourism Pacific Asia Travel Association. These
stakeholders and interests. These groups organizations usually provide client refer-
are frequently formed at the national level rals and marketing for members as well as
to organize and highlight the needs of this developing plans and projects to serve
special tourism segment. Examples include their broader interests. Also, since govern-
the Australian Ecotourism Association, Tour- ments have frequently been reticent to
ism Watch based in Germany, Indonesian evaluate or regulate tourism, these organi-
Ecotourism Network, the Brazilian Eco- zations have sometimes provided an alter-
tourism Society, E-Travel Canada, the native method to deal with the negative
International Ecotourism Society based in impacts of tourism as well as advocate sus-
the USA and the Ecuadorian Ecotourism tainable tourism guidelines.
Association. These groups typically include
not only ecotour operators but environmen-
tal non-government organizations (NGOs) as
well as professionals and academic
researchers (see Fig. 34.2). A key compo-
nent of these networks is to build a broad-
based organization that may share business
services, provide branding, improve mar-
keting and advocate policy alternatives for
sustainable tourism.
542 B.R. Higgins
Community-based operator ture and land through ecotourism. In addi-
tion, Honey’s (1999) critical review of eco-
Another type of organization that has been tourism directs substantial attention to
growing in both popularity and signifi- locally controlled development and com-
cance is the community-based ecotour munity-based operators both in her system-
operator, as illustrated in Fig. 34.3. A num- atic analysis and in the seven nations she
ber of features are special about this type of discusses in detail. Besides these interna-
network. First, they are usually based tionally focused works, many studies of
within indigenous communities. This particular community-based tourism opera-
introduces important cultural dimensions, tions are also available. During the 1990s
both in terms of ecotourist appreciation one of the hot spots for indigenous and
and impact as well as business manage- community-based tourism was clearly
ment and community development. In Ecuador. Insightful work on different
addition, they are typically established aspects of community tourism initiatives in
within and designed to serve a particular Ecuador include work by Rogers (1996),
village or group of communities. This dis- Schaller (1996), Smith (1996a, b), Wesche
tinguishes them from the majority of eco- (1996), Drumm (1998) and Wood (1998). In
tour operations that are usually established fact, Schaller’s work even included an
for control by an individual or family and interactive web site where visitors can plan
with less explicit connections to a particu- and manage a locally controlled eco-
lar place or community. Of course, the sys- tourism project in the Ecuadorian Amazon
tematic issues of indigenous development (http://www.eduweb.com/amazon.html).
and community-based enterprises are not Chapter 22 of this volume, by Hinch, also
unique to tourism and have been discussed refers to community control issues in the
in many other contexts. context of indigenous communities.
A wide variety of studies has addressed Other studies of community-based oper-
community-based ecotourism operators. In ators in South America include an analysis
fact, research in this sub-field has been of Lake Titicaca’s campesino-controlled
growing so rapidly that this section should tourism in Bolivia (Healy and Zorn, 1988,
only be considered prefatory in coverage. 1994). In Central America a guide to com-
First, Zeppel (1998) has written an excel- munity-based ecotourism in Belize (Belize
lent overview of sustainable tourism and Ministry of Tourism and Environment,
indigenous peoples with examples from 1994) and an analysis of select community
many world regions. Another insightful sites in Belize by Horwich et al. (1993) are
overview, with examples from around the good examples from this region. In North
world, is the special issue of Cultural America, tourism operations at Acoma
Survival (Wood, 1999). This impressive have been very effectively developed by
edition included 14 separate pieces with a Native Americans and serve as a model for
special focus on protecting indigenous cul- tribal tourism in this region (Smith, 1996).
In Africa, a detailed description and analy-
Fig. 34.3. Community-based operator. sis of four hypothetical approaches to com-
munity involvement in Namibia was
developed by Ashley and Garland (1994)
and the problems of integrating Maasai tra-
dition with tourism were analysed by
Berger (1996). Another region that has
become a hot spot of community-based
tourism alternatives is Australia–New
Zealand. The Northern Territory of Australia
alone had 52 Aboriginal tours listed with
its tourism office in 1996 (Zeppel, 1998).
For extensive references and more analysis
Tour Operators 543
of these initiatives see Zeppel’s (1998) University travel groups
detailed consideration of both Australia
and New Zealand. Overall then, the num- Another recent development in non-profit
ber of community-based ecotour operators travel organizations has been the growth of
is small. However, in comparison to the university travel programmes. Alumni and
total number of operators or their gross rev- educational travel programmes offer travel
enue, the high growth rate, wide interna- alternatives that usually include trips high-
tional distribution, and the abundance of lighting nature, conservation and local
research on community-based operators communities. It should be noted, though,
suggests that these organizations will be that while university travel programmes
increasingly important in the future. are extensive within the USA, at the pre-
sent time they are much less common in
Non-profit environmental organizations other parts of the world. Within the USA this
offering travel subsector has been developing for some
time. In 1985, for example, a for-profit busi-
As the ecotourism industry continued to ness named Travel Learning Conferences
grow during the 1990s one of its major was incorporated that organizes annual
sources of support was the growth of non- conferences to provide connections between
profit environmental organizations (see non-profit institutions and for-profit tour
Chapter 30). The tremendous growth in the operators. The institutional survey for their
number of organizations, their membership 1997 meeting indicated that the 200 insti-
and the amount of global funding for envi- tutions participating at this meeting sold
ronmental NGOs has influenced ecotour trips to more than 37,000 passengers in the
operators in numerous ways. First, the sig- previous year, primarily to foreign destina-
nificant funds that these organizations tions (TLC, 1998). It is also important that
receive and their collaboration with bilat- for-profit tour operators that are contracted
eral and multilateral development agencies by these non-profit institutions conduct
has had a significant impact on the scope almost all of this foreign travel. Together,
of international conservation initiatives the growing number of ecotourists from
(Princen and Finger, 1994; Honey, 1999). In environmental NGOs and university travel
addition, many of these organizations have programmes has created a distinctive and
developed travel programmes for their substantial ecotour operator niche as
members. In some cases the ecotours in the shown in Fig. 34.4.
travel programme are run exclusively by
the NGO but in most cases the travel pro- Ecoresort complex
grammes sign contracts for nature trips
with for-profit operators. Even though it is The recent construction of inclusive
difficult to estimate the size of this market, ecolodges on private nature reserves with
research in 1994 indicated that 11 of 83 or quality guides and eco-packaging has cre-
13% of the US-based ecotour operators ated alternative ecotourism products. A
studied were non-profit organizations who number of forces have been fuelling this
cumulatively served over 20,000 clients or changing environment, where upscale
17% of the total market (Higgins, 1996). lodges become more environmentally sen-
This sector is the focus of an increasingly sitive, at the same time as the appreciation
large body of literature (Weiler and of indigenous design and heritage are
Richins, 1995; Higgins, 1996; McLaren, incorporated more extensively. First, pro-
1998; Mowforth and Munt, 1998; Wood, gressive architects, landscape architects,
1998; Honey, 1999). land planners and developers have been
working to improve the sustainability of
lodges and parks for some time. In the
544 B.R. Higgins
Fig. 34.4. Non-profit travel organizations.
1990s this was highlighted for ecotourism significant planning, development and
with the publication of works on the topic management experience as well as large
of ecolodge design, environmental land- amounts of capital. As a result, bilateral
scape layout and park planning (NPS, and multilateral development agencies
1992; Andersen, 1993; Hawkins et al., have recently funded a variety of such
1995; Ceballos-Lascuráin, 1996). alternatives and large transnational corpo-
rations have initiated such products as a
Second, resort developers have been multi-layered approach to attract an
struggling to address the mounting envi- upscale clientele (Mowforth and Munt,
ronmental criticism of large-scale projects 1998; Honey, 1999). To understand these
and establish positive alternatives (Ayala, initiatives by tour operators and accommo-
1995, 1996). The hybrid alternative that dation enterprises see the examples and
has appeared is termed an ecoresort com- analysis of Middleton and Hawkins (1998)
plex as shown in Box 34.2. This is funda- as well as Hawkins et al., (1995).
mentally different from the other networks
since it seeks to integrate a wide variety of Box 34.2. Ecoresort complex.
tour components with corporate manage-
ment into one site or complex. While this Recreation activities
has been a well-known strategy of interna- Nature reserve
tional resorts for many years, only recently Accommodation
have developers attempted to integrate Food
mega-project elements with increased sen- Entertainment
sitivity to the environment and the experi- Interpretation
ence of place. Of course, designing and
building such elaborate systems requires
Tour Operators 545
Future Research, Planning and Policy topic. Yet, significant topics have yet to be
systematically addressed. For example,
Changing patterns in the global supply and what contributions have ecotourism opera-
demand of tourism have produced many tors made to environmental conservation
impacts during the past two decades. One and biodiversity preservation? How do the
of the more visible trends has been the community impacts of ecotourism-related
growth of ecotourism as a specialized form operators compare to mainstream tour
of global tourism. This development has operations? What strategic interventions
many dimensions, as discussed in the vari- would leverage the most benefit for a large
ous chapters of this Encyclopedia. One of number of small ecotour operators? What is
the key components in this transformation the best method to evaluate and maintain
has been the formation and growth of thou- the quality of ecotours? What are the key
sands of ecotourism-related tour operators gender and labour issues for ecotour opera-
functioning within every world region. tors? As ecotourism research, planning and
Even though our current knowledge of policy studies address these and other
these actors is often limited, a diverse and questions, the economic geography of eco-
vibrant group of researchers, consultants tourism-related operators will hopefully
and operators has made important contri- become clear and relations between the
butions to the growing literature on this human and natural environment improved.
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Chapter 35
Tour Guides and Interpretation
B. Weiler1 and S.H. Ham2
1Department of Management, Monash University, Berwick Campus, Narre Warren, Victoria,
Australia; 2College of Forestry, Wildlife and Range Sciences, Department of Resource
Recreation and Tourism, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho, USA
Introduction that outlines the principles of interpreta-
tion as they apply to guided ecotours, and
The role of the tour guide in ecotourism, illustrates their potential to deliver visitor
and in particular the guide’s use of inter- satisfaction while at the same time achiev-
pretation as an indispensable tool for ing the aims of ecotourism. The authors
achieving the goals of ecotourism, is the then examine the importance of quality
focus of this chapter. Many definitions of interpretive guiding in tourist decision
ecotourism found in the literature (see making and thus the importance of provid-
Chapter 1) acknowledge that education ing information about the interpretation to
and/or interpretation is a key element of be offered when marketing guided tours.
ecotourism. In other words, the ecotourism This is followed by an analysis of selected
experience is meant to engender an intel- research findings that link quality guiding,
lectual, emotional and even spiritual con- and in particular the use of interpretation
nection between people and places as by guides, to the quality of the ecotourist
much as it does a physical experience with experience. Finally, the chapter reviews
land and water. The key to establishing and critiques current practices and issues
these links between people and places is in tour guide recruitment, professional
interpretation. Originally defined by Tilden development (including training and quali-
(1957), interpretation is an educational fications), best practice standards, and
activity aimed at revealing meanings and recognition and reward schemes. While the
relationships to people about the places last two sections are based largely on
they visit and the things they see and do Australian experience and evidence, they
there. The premise of this chapter is that are illustrative of trends and issues that
interpretation lies at the heart and soul of have global relevance.
what ecotourism is, and what ecotour
guides can and should be doing. Special emphasis is placed on face-to-
face interpretation delivered by tour guides
The chapter begins with a discussion of in both developed and developing coun-
the multiple roles of the tour guide, and tries. This includes interpretation on land
provides an argument as to why interpreta- or on water, as part of guided walks,
tion should be regarded as a critical and guided tours using non-motorized forms of
indispensable element of what ecotour travel (e.g. canoe, raft, mountain bike or
guides do. This is followed by a section horseback), and vehicle-based tours (e.g.
© CAB International 2001. The Encyclopedia of Ecotourism 549
(ed. D.B. Weaver)
550 B. Weiler and S.H. Ham
bus, four-wheel drive, riverboat or sea- within the group (i.e. to facilitate learning
going vessels). It should be noted that and enjoyment of individual clients, and to
much of what is discussed applies to any nurture and manage interaction between
tour guide wishing to provide a quality vis- clients) and outside the group (i.e. to facili-
itor experience, whether as part of an eco- tate and mediate interaction between
tourism operation or as part of an clients and host communities). Weiler and
adventure, cultural or other nature-based Davis (1993) added a third dimension to
tour, attraction or resort programme. Tour the model for nature-based tour guides:
guides often have the freedom and thus the interaction with the natural environment
important opportunity to practise the prin- itself. However, there has been almost no
ciples of ecotourism and interpretation published research, with the exception of
regardless of where or for whom they work, Haig (1997), testing or applying these
and irrespective of whether the product is frameworks.
labelled and marketed as an ecotour or as
some other type of nature-based product. A number of studies have investigated
the roles and impacts of both mainstream
This chapter does not concern itself tour guides as well as specialist guides,
directly with non-personal or ‘static’ inter- including ecotour guides (Holloway, 1981;
pretation such as printed materials, signs, Weiler and Richins, 1990; Weiler et al.,
exhibits, self-guided walks, pre-recorded 1992). The overwhelming finding of these
tour commentaries on cassettes or videos, studies has been that the tour guide is
virtual tours, and other electronic media. expected to play a large number of differ-
Many of these interpretive media can be ent roles, in response to the expectations
effective in enhancing visitors’ understand- and demands of various stakeholders in the
ing and appreciation of the environments ecotourism experience.
being visited and the various natural and
cultural phenomena experienced. They are From a business perspective, it is useful
important elements of the ecotourism expe- to frame a discussion of the roles of the
rience, and many of the principles and tour guide in the context of the various
issues discussed in this chapter are applic- stakeholders to which guides are account-
able to these static interpretation media. able. Whether the tour is a brief, 20-min
Further discussion on the use of static guided walk in the rainforest, or an
interpretive media may be found in Zehr et extended four-wheel drive tour covering
al. (1990), Trapp et al. (1991), Ham (1992) thousands of kilometres and a range of
and Sorrell (1996). ecosystems, the guide has many masters.
Key among these are the tour operator, the
Interpretation: Just One of the Many client, the host community, land managers,
Roles of an Ecotour Guide? and the tourism industry itself, each of
which is discussed in turn in the subsec-
tions that follow.
The tour guide’s ‘role’ has been the subject The tour operator
of scholarly discussion and analysis for
just over a decade. Arguably the main con- Guides may be employed on a permanent,
ceptual framework used to dissect and casual or freelance basis. Regardless of
analyse the various roles and functions of employment status, the guide is presum-
the tour guide has been Cohen’s model ably accountable to deliver what is speci-
(1985). This model acknowledges both the fied in his or her job description.
traditional ‘pathfinding’ role and the more Traditionally, however, much of what the
recent ‘mentoring’ role of all tour guides, tour operator expects of the guide is deter-
and uses these to produce a 2 × 2 matrix of mined by informal understanding rather
tour guide roles. The authors feel that the than formal documentation. Increasingly,
main value of this model is the recognition operators are able and willing to articulate
that guides have accountabilities both
Tour Guides and Interpretation 551
what they perceive to be the duties and, to of every guide’s job, but the extent to
a lesser extent, the outcomes and perfor- which the guide is expected to practise
mance indicators of their guides. From the principles of effective interpretation varies
tour operator’s perspective, for example, a widely. Many operators have little or no
guide’s duties often include: idea what interpretation is (Weiler et al.,
1992; Weiler, 1993b), and no idea whether
• ensuring the safety, health and comfort their clients’ understanding and apprecia-
of clients; tion of nature and culture are enhanced as
a result of their guided tour experience.
• providing courteous and quality cus-
tomer service; The visitor
• responding to the needs and expecta- The terms ‘visitor’, ‘ecotourist’ and ‘client’
tions of visitors from other cultures and are used here to refer to tour participants,
those with special needs due to age, a regardless of whether they are local resi-
disability or special interests; dents, domestic tourists or international
visitors, and irrespective of who pays or
• managing interactions within client whether an overnight stay is involved.
groups;
Visitor satisfaction is, many would
• delivering the tour cost-effectively; argue, the ultimate measure of success in
• providing high quality, informative and any tourism business (Ryan, 1995). Visitor
satisfaction is a complex variable, influ-
entertaining commentary; enced to some extent but not entirely by
• meeting the legal and moral obligations expectations and on-site perceptions, for
which it is often very difficult to obtain
and expectations of protected area man- valid measures (Blamey and Hatch, 1996;
agers, host communities and clients. Childress and Crompton, 1997; Ryan,
1998). For example, a visitor may indicate
The development of industry-wide compe- that his/her expectations were met, but is
tency or occupational standards, with this satisfaction? Meeting visitor expecta-
input from operators and guides, has been tions is usually necessary, but may not be
a relatively recent (1990s) phenomenon sufficient, to producing satisfied clients
that has helped to formalize and standard- who will become repeat customers for the
ize employers’ expectations, at least in company and/or recommend the tour to
developed countries like Australia and others, both of which are extremely impor-
Canada (CTHRC, 1996; Tourism Training tant in the ecotourism industry (see
Australia, 1999). However, the conditions Mancini, 1990; Blamey and Hatch, 1996).
under which tour guides must work, the
remuneration associated with satisfactory Unfortunately, our understanding of
(or better) performance, and the extent to what contributes to visitor satisfaction or
which guides are held accountable for dissatisfaction, particularly with respect to
what they do on the job varies widely. the performance of the tour guide, is still
Indeed, for many small tour operators, the very poor. Some research, however, has
guide is also the owner/operator, so is indeed demonstrated a link between the
accountable only to him/herself. Given the quality of guiding and tourist satisfaction
immediacy of the financial, marketing and (see Lopez, 1981; Geva and Goldman,
administrative demands of operating a 1991). Hughes’ (1991) study of a boat tour
business (see Chapter 36), insufficient on Palm Island (Australia) found that the
attention is likely to be given to at least ability of the guide to effectively interact
some of the above duties. with the group, provide a commentary of
interest and ensure smooth running of
At the other extreme, companies orga- the tour, emerged as the most important
nizing tours to remote areas or in countries
other than where they are based may never
actually observe the tour guide’s perfor-
mance on the job, relying totally on the
guide’s own assessment of the tour and, to
some extent, client feedback. The delivery
of tour commentary is assumed to be part
552 B. Weiler and S.H. Ham
components of the guide’s role. Similarly, a highly participatory experience, and an
Geva and Goldman (1991) in a study of 15 environmentally responsible one; see
guided tours from Israel to Europe and the Chapter 2). However, in the absence of data
USA found that the guide’s conduct (rela- to support this notion, it is more likely that
tions with tour participants) and expertise a vast range of market segments exists,
were the most important of 15 tour attrib- each with its own unique set of motiva-
utes in determining client satisfaction. tions and expectations. In summary, while
Finally, another Australian study on there is some evidence that clients expect
guided tours in Tasmania (Forestry and appreciate quality interpretation, this
Tasmania, 1994) found that clients placed may vary depending on individual eco-
considerable value on the guide’s interpre- tourists, their motivations generally, and
tation of the environment and land man- their expectations of each particular tour.
agement. In addition, a growing body of Much more research is needed to deter-
qualitative evidence, based on the practical mine the relationship between tour guides’
experiences of businesses and organiza- competencies as interpreters, their on-the-
tions, suggests that providing quality inter- job performance, and client satisfaction
pretive services makes real business sense. (Blamey and Hatch, 1996).
According to Conservation International, a
Washington, DC-based environmental non- The host community
govenment organization, high quality inter-
pretation ‘can also improve business by In many situations, the tour guide acts as a
increasing the quality of guests’ experi- mediator between visitors and hosts
ence, increasing repeat visitation and occu- (Cohen, 1985). In the context of eco-
pancy rates, providing unique marketing tourism, this is most apparent on tours that
opportunities and allowing hotels to charge visit indigenous sites or communities and
higher rates’ (Sweeting et al., 1999, p. 27). tours to foreign countries. In some of these
cases, the operator is legally required to
In recent years, and as reflected in consult and gain approval from indigenous
Chapter 3, a number of authors (e.g. Weiler communities, and the guide may have con-
and Richins, 1995; Blamey and Hatch, tractual obligations spelled out verbally or
1996; Wight, 1996a, b) have argued that eco- in writing. Even where this is not a legal
tourists are not a homogeneous group. requirement, the ethics and essence of eco-
Some of these authors have suggested a tourism are that tours are conducted in
number of proposed dimensions or con- ways which minimize negative socio-
tinua along which ecotourists may vary. cultural impacts and contribute in a posi-
These have included, for example: tive way toward the host community (see,
for example, Nash, 1996). The tour guide’s
• preferred type of natural setting; role in doing so is to provide accurate and
• desire for physical challenge/degree of culturally appropriate interpretation of the
site or resource in a way that enhances vis-
self-reliance; itors’ understanding and appreciation of
• desire for intellectual challenge/motiva- indigenous culture, history, contemporary
lifestyles, values and issues (see for exam-
tion to learn something new; ple, Harvey and Hoare, 1995). According to
• desire to be directly and actively recent experiences in Ecuador and else-
where (see Sweeting et al., 1999), eco-
involved with the natural environment; tourists are willing to pay more for such
• desire to be environmentally responsi- ‘culturally sensitive’ tours, especially when
the community itself governs the format
ble (ranging from minimizing impacts to and density of use. The tour guide also
actively engaging in enhancing or restor- plays an important role in monitoring
ing visited environments).
Some authors (Weiler and Richins, 1995)
have assumed that hard-core ecotourists
are at the extreme end of each of these con-
tinua (i.e. that if they want physical chal-
lenge, they also want intellectual challenge,
Tour Guides and Interpretation 553
and modelling appropriate cross-cultural understanding of whether commercial
behaviour so that visitors impact in a posi- tours can and do meet the objectives of
tive way economically, culturally, socially land management agencies. For the visitor
and environmentally (see Chapters 23–28 whose experience within protected areas is
for elaboration of these issues). just one component of a guided tour, the
role of the tour guide is critical. According
There is some debate as to the whether a to many writers (e.g. MacKinnon et al.,
local guide (i.e. one who is native to the 1986; Sweeting et al., 1999), it is the appli-
destination country or region or even local cation of interpretive principles that will
community being visited) is ‘better’ than a ensure visitors gain an understanding and
foreign guide. Clearly, the training and appreciation of the parks they are visiting.
employment of local guides helps to ensure Land managers are also increasingly
that more of the economic benefits are felt dependent on tour guides and operators to
by the host community, an important con- monitor their own and their clients’
sideration particularly for tourism in devel- impacts on the natural environment, and to
oping countries and regions. Moreover, articulate and model minimal impact prac-
local guides are more likely to understand tices for their clients (DNRE, 1999).
the protocols and sensitivities associated
with visiting and experiencing cultural The tourism industry
sites and communities within the host
country. On the other hand, guides with Other players in the tourism industry may
cultural and/or socio-demographic back- have expectations of the operator and/or
grounds similar to their clients are more the tour guide and have little or no under-
likely to understand visitors’ expectations, standing of what ‘interpretation’ is or what
fears and likely faux pas. A guide who has benefits quality interpretive services might
never travelled or lived outside his/her engender for individual companies and the
home community may have little under- tourism industry as a whole. In Australia,
standing of appropriate customer relations this has become obvious in the develop-
and the Western values and attitudes about ment of some state tourism policies and
the environment that many ecotourists plans, and in the early developmental
hold. In reality, good training can over- stages of the National Ecotourism Accredi-
come the shortcomings of either. The goals tation Program (NEAP)1 (see Chapters 9
of ecotourism are probably best met by and 37), where some operators and other
having a local and foreign guide working industry representatives use the terms
together, a policy larger tour companies are ‘education’ and ‘interpretation’ interchange-
beginning to embrace in some countries. ably. In some situations, tour wholesalers
and travel agents with no understanding of
Land managers interpretation suggest and even dictate the
content, method and language in which the
Protected-area managers increasing rely on tour content should be communicated. In
commercial tour operators to deliver inter- some countries and specific destinations
pretation within parks and on other pro- such as the Galapagos, tour guiding is regu-
tected lands both in developed and lated and controlled by government or
developing countries. Policies that support industry bodies, and guides must complete
and promote privatization of guiding and specified training, obtain qualifications or
interpretation via commercial licences, demonstrate particular competencies in
concessions and outsourcing of guided order to be licensed as tour guides (Britton
activities within parks have been put in and Clarke, 1987). To date, these schemes
place in many countries without a clear
1 From January 2000 ‘education’ has been removed from the interpretation section of the accreditation
document.
554 B. Weiler and S.H. Ham
have revolved largely around legal, health 4. Interpretation must be well organized so
and safety issues, and have tended to that visitors can easily follow it.
underestimate the importance of interpre- 5. Interpretation should have a theme, not
tation in law enforcement, in client safety just a topic.
and satisfaction, and in the overall viability
of the guided tour sector of the tourism Interpretation is not teaching or ‘instruction’
industry (see Chapter 37). in the academic sense
From the perspective of all stakeholders, Although interpretation involves the trans-
it is apparent that tour guides play a piv- fer of information about places and cul-
otal role in ecotourism and are critical to tures from guides to tour clients, guides are
meeting the needs and expectations of not teachers in the sense that visitors must
operators, clients, host communities, land master or remember all the information.
managers, and the wider tourism industry Indeed, research shows (see Thorndyke,
in both developed and developing coun- 1977; Ham, 1983; Beck and Cable, 1998)
tries. The foregoing discussion provides a that visitors may forget much of the sup-
backdrop against which the guide’s current portive factual information obtained through
role as interpreter, facilitating understand- a commentary yet still internalize a deep
ing and appreciation of natural and cul- overriding notion of the importance of it
tural phenomena can be critically examined. all. But research also shows that tour
Clearly, interpretation is not just one of the clients will pay attention to a commentary
many roles that an ecotour guide plays; only if they choose to. Since they are not
when it is done well, it is the distinguish- accountable to master the information, the
ing feature of ‘best practice’ in guiding. The only motivation they have to pay attention
remainder of this chapter focuses on the is that it promises to be a rewarding expen-
interpretive role of tour guides. diture of their time. Ecotourists are there-
fore a voluntary audience. Ham (1992)
Principles of Interpretation as termed this type of audience a ‘non-
Applied to Ecotourism captive’ audience because, unlike students
in a classroom (the classic ‘captive’ audi-
The premise of this chapter is that the tour ence), tour clients are not held prisoner by
guide can and should play a key role in an external reward system involving grades
facilitating clients’ understanding and and qualifications. The best tour guides
appreciation of natural and cultural phe- know this, and they work hard to capture
nomena. It has also been argued that the and maintain their audiences’ attention.
use of interpretation, and more particularly Students in search of a grade will try to pay
the application of interpretive principles attention to boring teachers. But visitors in
by the tour guide, is an essential element of search only of a rewarding experience will
ecotour guiding. But what are these ‘princi- not make the same effort with a boring
ples’ of interpretation, and why are they guide. Unlike some classroom teachers,
integral to guided ecotourism experiences? guides never have the option of being bor-
Although this question has been addressed ing or pedantic. If they are, they will, quite
in detail elsewhere (see Ham, 1992), a brief simply, lose their audiences and ultimately
summary of these principles is needed here their jobs.
in order to critique current guiding activi-
ties and identify issues. There are at least Interpretation must be enjoyable for visitors
five such principles:
A simple yet under-appreciated idea
1. Interpretation is not teaching or ‘instruc- among some guides is that interpretation
tion’ in the academic sense. aimed at a non-captive audience like eco-
2. Interpretation must be enjoyable for vis-
itors.
3. Interpretation must be relevant for visitors.
Tour Guides and Interpretation 555
tourists must be enjoyable and fun for them to the things already known and familiar to
(Sweeting et al., 1999). Although entertain- the group (Ham, 1992; Sweeting et al.,
ment is not interpretation’s main goal, it 1999). Similarly, when commentaries focus
must certainly be considered one of its visitors’ attention on things they already
essential qualities. Visitors who join care about, an attentive audience is almost
guided tours are pleasure-seekers. Even guaranteed (see Moray, 1959; Cherry, 1966;
‘ecotourists’, who are sometimes (and prob- Ham, 1983). Ham (1992) terms this type of
ably inaccurately) cast as serious students communication ‘personal’ since it connects
of nature and culture, seek fun and enter- what is being described or displayed to
tainment from their tour experiences. Of something personally important or signifi-
course, what constitutes ‘fun’ will vary cant to visitors (their well-being, their
among different types of visitors, and suc- loved ones, their deepest values, strongest
cessful guides pay close attention to these principles or convictions, or things of pro-
differences and idiosyncrasies. Among found symbolic importance). According to
almost all groups, however, one aspect of Ham (1992), when a guide has made her or
fun is informality, for example, involving his commentary both meaningful and per-
visitors in a playful competition, a role sonal, she or he has made it highly rele-
play, or simply concentrating on using vant.
common, everyday language and a conver-
sational tone. Some studies have even Interpretation must be well organized so that
demonstrated that the more an interpretive visitors can easily follow it
medium reminds an audience of academia,
the less interesting and provocative it As pleasure-seekers, visitors on guided
becomes (Washburne and Wagar, 1972; tours (a non-captive audience) switch
Ham and Shew, 1979). Experiences in both attention at will whenever what they are
developed and developing countries hearing, seeing or doing, fails to gratify
throughout the world suggest that effective them. Often, attention switching has to do
interpretation may have many qualities, with how much effort a visitor thinks will
but a common one everywhere is that it is be required to follow a presentation. As
fun for its audiences (Ham and Sutherland, Ham (1992) and Beck and Cable (1998)
1992; Ham et al., 1993; Sweeting et al., have discussed, a well-organized presenta-
1999). tion will require less effort to follow than
the same presentation which lacks organi-
Interpretation must be relevant for visitors zational structure. As Miller (1956) demon-
strated nearly a half century ago, humans
Beyond the sheer entertainment value of a can manage more information with less
guide’s commentary, tour clients pay spe- effort if it is organized into no more than
cial attention to those things the guide can 5–9 categories or units. Within this 5–9
relate to their interests and personalities. range, Miller’s research found no relation-
Simply put, people pay attention to what ship between a person’s level of educa-
they can understand and what they care tional attainment or intelligence and how
about (Tilden, 1957; Ham, 1992). When a many categories of information he or she
guide makes what he or she is saying or could follow. Rather, it is the amount of
showing understandable to a group, visi- experience or prior interest we have with
tors pay attention, because the new infor- the subject at hand (irrespective of our IQ)
mation is meaningful to them. Experienced that determines how many categories of
guides make their commentaries meaning- information we can effectively manage and
ful by using common language and by keep sorted out (see Solso, 1979). Any
employing analogies, metaphors and other group of tour clients is likely to include a
methods of bridging the unfamiliar world cross-section of people who have more or
of the tour route, content and environment less experience with, and prior interest in,
556 B. Weiler and S.H. Ham
the subjects a guide will discuss. Accor- topic is merely the subject matter of pre-
dingly, Ham (1992) argues that a tour guide sentation (geology, religion, plants, wildlife,
is more likely to sustain the attention of the etc.) whereas a theme is a specific message
whole tour group by delivering the inter- about that topic. Drawing on research con-
pretive commentary organized around five ducted by Thorndyke (1977), Ham (1992)
or fewer main ideas, regardless of the type concluded that visitors will forget isolated
of tour. facts from a guided tour, even fascinating,
mind-boggling facts, but they will remem-
Interpretation should have a theme, not ber and possibly internalize the bigger
just a topic ideas, or themes, of the tour. These themes,
according to Ham and Krumpe (1996) are
A central defining principle of ecotourism tantamount to ‘beliefs’ which social psy-
is its focus on conservation and perpetua- chologists have demonstrated to be the
tion of the natural and cultural values building blocks of attitudes and related
inherent in the land and water. How eco- behaviours, including attitudes and behav-
tourism achieves this lofty goal is often iours about conservation. Thus, guides
debated, but widespread agreement seems who concentrate on imparting strong
to exist in the simple fact that what a guide themes in their tours do far more to further
says to his or her clients can influence how ecotourism’s aim of facilitating conserva-
they think and behave with respect to the tion than guides who concentrate on the
places they visit. In other words, the mes- relatively simple task of saying interesting
sages that a guide imparts to a group of vis- things about a topic in entertaining ways.
itors, relative to the protected values of a Guides who are armed with strong themes,
place, may in large part determine what and who then creatively package their pre-
they will think, feel and do both in the sentations in entertaining, relevant and
short term (on-site) and possibly even in organized tours, are the ones who make the
the long term, once they have returned real difference in helping ecotourism to
home. achieve its loftiest of goals, conservation.
According to Ham and Krumpe (1996) Tour Guides and Interpretation as
and others (see, for example, Orams, 1997; Factors in Tourist Decision-making
Knapp and Barrie, 1998), one of the most
important things guides can do is to facili- So far, this chapter has examined the mul-
tate a bonding between their clients and tiple roles of an ecotour guide, and the cen-
the places they lead them to, thus connect- trality of interpretation in what ecotour
ing people and places in powerful ways guides do. The chapter now turns to the
that nurture respect and caring about those business implications of quality tour guid-
places. Guides do this by communicating ing and interpretation from a number of
strong themes to their tour clients (Lewis, perspectives. One of these perspectives
1980; Ham, 1992; Ham and Krumpe, 1996; deals with how the quality of guiding and
Beck and Cable, 1998; Sweeting et al., interpretation affects the visitors’ decision-
1999, and others). Themes are messages, making behaviour and therefore tour prod-
factual but compelling statements about a uct marketing.
place or a thing. Skilful tour guides,
according to most contemporary writers, The tourist decision-making process is
practise thematic interpretation by impart- in fact not a single decision but a series of
ing compelling messages to their clients decisions, beginning with a decision to
about the places they visit. travel or not to travel. Other pre-trip deci-
sions can include choice of destination,
Themes are whole ideas, morals to the season and dates of travel, budget, choice
story, an overriding message that a visitor of travelling partner(s), mode(s) of trans-
takes home (Lewis, 1980; Ham, 1992). They port, accommodation, and selection of other
are contrasted to topics in the sense that a
Tour Guides and Interpretation 557
tourism products such as packaged tours its to the tour operator’s office front. At this
and guided ecotours. For each decision, decision making stage, there is some evi-
there are many factors internal and exter- dence that tourists, and ecotourists in
nal to the individual, the latter including particular, do examine carefully any infor-
destination and product attributes that can mation about the qualifications, knowl-
influence the tourist’s decision (Sonmez edge, skills and abilities of the guide. A
and Graefe, 1998). For example, school hol- study by Weiler et al. (1992) found that the
idays may be a major factor affecting sea- qualifications of the guide were promoted
son and dates of travel, with some having in 18% of brochures and promotional
to travel at these times and others avoiding materials for guided ecotour products.
them. Again, certain types of ecotourists may be
more likely to look for product differentia-
Most tourist decisions are made without tion with respect to the quality of the
consideration of tour products, let alone guide, and more research is needed to
the tour guide. Only if the consumer identify the needs and expectations of
decides to pre-select and pre-book a pack- these market segments.
age tour or a guided ecotour will he or she
consider the quality of the tour guide. In The Tour Guide and Interpretation as
such cases, most consumers are concerned Integral Elements of the Ecotourist
mainly with choosing a tour company they Experience
can count on to provide an experience that
is safe, reliable and convenient, and offers Compared to what we know about tourist
value for money (Fay, 1992). Such pre-trip decision making, the evidence of a rela-
decisions are often made on the advice of a tionship between quality tour guiding and
family member or friend; other influences interpretation and the visitor experience is
include travel agents, tour company more revealing. In a study of 295 eco-
brochures, and web sites. Any considera- tourists on 23 very diverse guided day
tion of the guide’s ability would probably tours, Weiler and Crabtree (1998) found
be limited to issues such as the guide’s that visitors were surprisingly perceptive
practical skills (driving, cooking, naviga- about the knowledge and skills of their
tion), language competency, and knowl- guides and able to provide detail on what
edge of the destination/area which might they liked and disliked about their guide.
be perceived to affect the safety and well- The study revealed that although clients
being of the customer. It is likely that only were largely complimentary about most
hard-core ecotourists would make the aspects of the guides’ performance, their
effort to examine the qualifications, knowl- most common criticisms focused on the
edge or skills of the guide for such pre-trip lack of or incorrectness of conservation
bookings, and in many cases, there may be themes imparted by the guide. Given that
no way of determining who the actual indi- these were all tours at the ‘soft’ end of the
vidual guide is going to be. ecotourism spectrum (i.e. short tours of 1
day or less, with limited or no physical
Once en route or at the destination, the challenge and limited active involvement
tourist then makes a series of decisions, by the visitor), it is intriguing to note the
and it is usually only at this stage that visi- respondents’ interest in, and desire for, inter-
tors may give greater attention to the pretation and minimal impact messages.
guide’s competencies. For example, the vis-
itor may or may not choose to join a guided Additionally, Weiler and Crabtree’s
tour. If the choice is to join a tour, then a study found that despite the guides’ strong
particular company as well as a particular performance on most evaluative criteria
tour product may be important considera- dealing with site knowledge, tour
tions that determine choice, usually based management and interpersonal communica-
on one or a combination of the following: tion skills, they performed the poorest on
word-of-mouth (especially other travellers),
tour brochures, and telephone calls or vis-
558 B. Weiler and S.H. Ham
indicators pertaining to interpretation underscored by high-quality interpretation
methods and conservation themes. These would be appropriate. However, more often
include: (i) delivering organized and the- than not there are wide variations within a
matic interpretation (e.g. evidence of a single tour group and certainly there are
theme, sequencing, introduction and con- variations on different tours, requiring sig-
clusion); and (ii) providing messages on nificant adaptability and resourcefulness
ecologically sustainable practices and between one tour and the next. Guides who
behaviours (e.g. monitoring group behav- are versatile and able to apply the princi-
iour and communicating minimal impact ples of interpretation outlined earlier are
themes, both on-site and post-tour). clearly at an advantage in being able to pro-
vide all members of their tour group with a
These results suggest that guided eco- quality experience. This is the third and
tours may be falling short of their potential perhaps most significant reason why
to deliver a quality visitor experience while guided tours often fall short of delivering a
imparting strong conservation themes. There quality visitor experience. Guides fre-
may be a number of reasons for this. quently lack the knowledge and/or skills to
Firstly, the operator and guide often have apply interpretive principles to the design
very limited information about clients, par- and delivery of their guided tours.
ticularly for day tours, where there may be
little more than a name on a list prior to In summary, improving the tour guide’s
departure. Research on the interpretive potential to provide a quality visitor expe-
needs and expectations of clients of partic- rience hinges on three factors. First, better
ular ecotour products is virtually non- target market research is needed in order to
existent, as individual operators usually deliver an interpretive experience that
lack the time, money and expertise to con- meets the expectations and ‘needs’ of tour
duct such research. clients and effectively apply the principle
of product–market match (see Chapter 36).
Secondly, there is often a mix of clien- Second, the guide must harness the princi-
tele on any particular tour, particularly day ples of interpretation as a way of meeting
tours. As mentioned earlier, ecotourists the needs and expectations of all tour
vary widely in their interests, motivations group members, and in most cases this
and expectations, some of which directly means better guide training in interpreta-
impact on the way interpretive services tion. As we have argued elsewhere (Ham
might be offered on a tour. Visitors may and Weiler, 1999), more research is needed
range from wanting to be passive listeners in countries other than Australia to ascer-
and observers to highly active and tain what may be a range of other training
involved tour participants. Some may want needs, but the need for interpretation and
only to take away a basic message (theme) minimal impact training is clear. Accord-
from the tour, while others may want to be ing to research and conventional thinking,
able to recall facts and acquire conserva- guides who succeed in bringing these qual-
tion knowledge and skills that they can ities to their approach will produce more
apply back home. satisfied clients and contribute in signifi-
cant ways to the expressed goals of eco-
If tour products are highly targeted, the tourism. Third, operators and protected
guide can make some assumptions and area managers must ensure that the tour
develop the content and style of the tour to itinerary and operating conditions are con-
match the targeted market. For example, if ducive to excellent interpretation, and this
the tour product is targeting hard-core eco- means protected area manager and tour
tourists looking for physical and intellec- operator education about interpretation
tual challenge and willing to become and product development.
actively involved, a product along the lines
of the experiences offered by Earthwatch
International (Weiler et al., 1993) but
Tour Guides and Interpretation 559
Current Practices and Issues in dramatic change in how much time or
Ecotour Guiding financial resources they allocate to improv-
ing the interpretive competence of their
In Australia, one of the most ecotourism- guides. It then falls to the wider tourism
advanced countries, the tour operations industry, educational institutions, pro-
industry currently has no industrial tected area managers and other government
awards, i.e. there are no industry-wide bodies to find ways to, first, raise the
legal specifications regarding the rights and awareness of what is ‘good practice’ in eco-
obligations, qualifications, working condi- tour guiding, and second, provide incen-
tions and rates of pay, for either tour opera- tives to improve the standard of guiding
tors or guides. Some of the larger tour practice throughout the industry. As dis-
companies have enterprise agreements cussed in Chapter 37, the pursuit of excel-
which specify such conditions, but gener- lence in the tourism industry has led to a
ally speaking, the criteria by which opera- number of ways of measuring and reward-
tors recruit, select, retain and remunerate ing quality. The usefulness and relevance
guides are largely undocumented. Equally of these strategies for improving tour guide
important is the fact that there is no gov- performance is discussed in this section.
ernment or regulatory body requiring an
individual to be qualified or licensed in The earliest and perhaps weakest forms
order to work as a guide. of quality control are professional associa-
tions and codes of conduct. There are
Operators appear to place a heavy many professional tour guide associations,
emphasis on hiring guides who have prac- including at least four in Australia alone,
tical skills and experience, who are willing but most are focused on city guides or
to work in difficult working conditions guides working for inbound tour operators.
(e.g. unsociable days and hours in remote The Ecotourism Association of Australia
locations), and who are multi-skilled, e.g. (EAA) now has a membership category
fluency in a second language. Since most specifically for ecotour guides, and a regu-
tour operators in Australia and elsewhere lar column in its newsletter devoted to
have only a rudimentary understanding of guide news and issues, which is helping to
interpretation, it is unlikely that they are raise the level of awareness of guides and
recruiting guides for their expertise as guiding. As for codes of conduct, numer-
interpreters and/or increasing their pay if ous behavioural guidelines have been
they upgrade their interpretive skills or developed for nature-based tourism, but
qualifications. And generally speaking, they tend to be targeted at either the opera-
tour operators are unlikely to see any rea- tor or the visitor. The EAA has both, but
son to change what they already consider neither has any influence beyond raising
to be an acceptable level of tour guide per- awareness as to what is sound environmen-
formance, based on what they perceive to tal practice when operating tours in natural
be satisfied tour clients and sustained areas.
demand for their products.
Competency standards or occupational
For practising tour guides, there is also standards are another form of benchmark-
little incentive for individuals to actively ing, and can be very useful if linked to
upgrade their interpretive skills or qualifi- employee recruitment and selection
cations or improve the quality of their processes, rates of pay, the development of
tours. To date there has been no evidence training curricula, and qualification
that interpretive qualifications or skills schemes. In Australia, this was not the case
lead to preferential treatment either in for ecotour guides or tour guides of any
gaining employment or in career advance- kind as of early 2000. Although consider-
ment. Thus, despite the evidence that able work including industry consultation
interpretation is key to delivering a quality has gone into the development and subse-
guided ecotourism experience, neither tour quent revision of the tour guide standards,
operators nor guides are likely to initiate the vast majority of tour operators and
560 B. Weiler and S.H. Ham
guides are unfamiliar with the tour guide Parks Victoria, which grants extended
competency standards. Almost any training licences and permission to operate in
provider can offer a tour guide training wilderness areas not accessible by non-
programme, and while a number of train- accredited operators. If access to these pro-
ing providers have worked hard to align tected areas were limited to NEAP-
their guide training programmes to these accredited operators using only NEGCP-
standards, few incentives exist for guides certified guides or others who can demon-
to select competency-based courses over strate that they meet the agency’s criteria
those not aligned with the standards. The through some other means, then both oper-
vast majority of the tourism industry, and ators and guides would be more likely to
certainly the travelling public, have no see the value of meeting the standards set
understanding of tour guide qualifications by the guide certification programme,
and competencies. This is unfortunate, as including interpretive competency.
many aspects of the tour guide’s job are
well-articulated in the tour guide compe- Another important step in encouraging
tency standards, including those address- professionalism in ecotour guiding is to
ing interpretation (see Tourism Training link certification to existing education and
Australia’s web site: www.tourismtraining training programmes. In the USA, inter-
.com.au). preters are certified via the National
Association for Interpretation (NAI), which
In Australia, this situation is poised for specifies a university undergraduate degree
change, largely due to industry-based ac- as a minimum educational requirement or,
creditation and certification schemes such alternatively, a 2-year technical degree and
as the NEAP, which has been in operation 5000 h of documented experience (NAI
since 1997, and the National Ecotour Guide web site, 1999). In Australia, there appears
Certification Program (NEGCP), which was to be a preference for recognizing educa-
officially launched in late 2000. To be an tional qualifications in such a way that stu-
accredited tour product under NEAP, for dents graduating from such programmes
example, a tour operator must demonstrate are neither privileged, nor excluded from
that the product meets the education and certification. Relevant issues that still need
interpretation criteria spelled out in the to be resolved include the stipulation of a
accreditation document. Once the NEGCP minimum threshold of industry experi-
is fully implemented, it is proposed that a ence, the requirement for at least some
minimum percentage of a tour operator’s assessment of competency in the work-
guides will need to be NEGCP-certified in place rather than entirely in the classroom,
order to gain and/or maintain NEAP the need for regular re-certification and the
accreditation. The certification criteria are requirements associated with renewal, and
closely aligned with the tour guide com- the appropriateness of levels of certifica-
petency standards mentioned earlier. tion to reflect levels of competence (either
through study or through work experience)
The most powerful and controversial (see Chapter 40).
aspect of the ecotour guide certification
scheme is its potential links to the licens- Finally, there are some very successful
ing and/or issuing of permits to tour opera- tourism award schemes that recognize
tors by protected area managers. In excellence in both ecotour guiding (e.g. the
Australia, protected areas are managed Golden Guide Award in Western Australia)
largely by state land management agencies and interpretation (e.g. the Interpretation
such as Western Australia’s Department of Australia Association and NAI in the
Conservation and Land Management, USA). These are truly ‘best practice’
Queensland’s National Parks and Wildlife awards that complement the minimum
Service, and Parks Victoria. Currently, tour standards approach of the other initiatives,
operators who are NEAP-accredited have while simultaneously serving to motivate
special privileges with some of these pro- and educate guides as well as to regulate
tected area management agencies such as the practice of guiding.
Tour Guides and Interpretation 561
Conclusion conservation goals of ecotourism. Sven
Olof Lindblad, owner of Lindblad Expedi-
Best-practice ecotour guiding need not be tions, a New York-based ecotourism cruise
confined to the ecotourism industry. Many company, proclaimed in a recent fundrais-
freelance guides move between operators ing campaign for the Galapagos Islands that
who vary widely in their management ‘it will be the passion and insistence of the
philosophies and target markets. These traveler that will ultimately save the
guides have the opportunity to apply eco- world’s special places’ (see Ham and
tourism and interpretation principles to O’Brien, 1998). Lindblad’s prophecy strikes
tours ranging widely in group size, tour at the heart and soul of interpretation’s
length, subject matter and location, and to central role in quality ecotour guiding.
reach clients who vary greatly in their Saving the world’s ‘special places’ remains
understanding of and commitment to the both the premise and promise of eco-
principles of ecotourism. There is wide- tourism. Interpretation, creatively pack-
spread agreement that guides play a pivotal aged and powerfully delivered, lies at the
role not only in the quality of the eco- heart of both.
tourist’s experience, but in facilitating the
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Chapter 36
The Business of Ecotourism
B. McKercher
Department of Hotel and Tourism Management, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung
Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
Introduction: Ecotourism the some ecotourism businesses with mass
Growth Industry? market appeal, most ecotourism enterprises
are finding it difficult to identify and reach
For years, we have been reading that eco- viable market segments. The failure to
tourism is one of the fastest growing translate apparent demand into profitable
tourism segments. Annual growth rate esti- business ventures is driven by two flawed
mates have varied from 10 to 30% (Wight, assumptions made by government agen-
1990; Lindberg, 1991), or about two to five cies, academics and many potential opera-
times the background growth rate for tors. The first is the misinterpretation of
tourism in general. The World Tourism statistics that confuse visitation to natural
Organization (WTO) has even gone as far as areas with demand for commercial eco-
suggesting that ecotourism accounts for tourism products (Blamey, 1996a, b). Most
20% of world travel (WTO, 1998). At the people can consume an ecotourism experi-
same time, a number of articles have been ence without the need to purchase a prod-
written in the academic and public media uct from a commercial operator. The real
espousing the great potential of eco- market demand for ecotourism activities is,
tourism. It is so appealing that a number of therefore, only a small fraction of the
countries have developed formal policies apparent market interest (McKercher,
to capitalize on the apparent demand 1998a). The second reason is based more
(Dowling, 1998). Articles such as ‘Ecotourism: on ideological hope than commercial real-
the rising star of Australian tourism’ ity. Ecotourism is recognized widely as an
(Dowling, 1996), ‘Eco-profitable’ (Oliver, ecologically, morally and ethically pre-
1994) and papers presenting regional ferred form of tourism that, if done cor-
overviews (Dowling, 1998; Edmonds and rectly, optimizes social, cultural and
Leposky, 1998) imply that the commer- ecological benefits, while providing the
cial potential of ecotourism is almost tourist with an uplifting experience (Wight,
unlimited. 1993; Dowling, 1998; Malloy and Fennell,
1998). Further, it is recognized that eco-
At an operational level, though, the tourism can only be sustainable if it is
interest in ecotourism does not appear to profitable for ecotourism operators
have translated into the emergence of a (McKercher, 1998a; Tisdell, 1998). Thus, it
vibrant, profitable business sector. With the is felt that because this activity is so
exception of the accommodation sector and
© CAB International 2001. The Encyclopedia of Ecotourism 565
(ed. D.B. Weaver)
566 B. McKercher
morally, ecologically and ethically sound, a cern, do not appear to have considered
mass market must exist for such activities. their lack of skills as a problem. Most will
bring strong operational skills, based on
What little empirical research that has their many years of participation in their
been conducted examining the profitability respected activity. Many people choose to
of this sector (Tourism Canada, 1988; enter the field for lifestyle reasons, think-
McKercher and Davidson, 1995; Tisdell, ing that they can get paid to play. Few have
1995; Cotterill, 1996; Wild, 1996) suggests ever run a business before and few seem
that many businesses are under-perform- concerned about business issues. But
ing. Indeed, the challenges of running a unless they learn about running a business,
nature-based tourism business are similar the lifestyle dream can turn into a night-
to the generic types of challenges faced by mare; poverty is not an attractive lifestyle
all small businesses which, typically, have for an aspiring ecotourism operator. The
a 90% plus failure rate (McKercher and following discussion summarizes the key
Robbins, 1998). These issues include: the findings of a study conducted of the busi-
failure to identify real market opportuni- ness planning and marketing needs of the
ties, lack of business planning, under-capi- ecotourism sector as identified by success-
talization, little or no marketing skills and ful Australian ecotourism businesses
poor financial management skills. Much of (McKercher and Robbins, 1998).
this is explained by the fact that many peo-
ple apparently enter this sector out of their Few prepare business plans
love for certain non-commercial recreation
activities (Bransgrove, 1992). Their motives Entering business with a clear business
are driven by a desire to play, rather than plan, is or should be one of the first tasks
to develop a quality tourism product. Many completed by prospective operators.
new operators often find it difficult to Business plans serve two main purposes.
adjust from the low pressure situation of The first is that they force prospective
leading friends on tour to the greater operators to work through the fine detail of
expectations and demands of fee-paying their proposed venture prior to its estab-
clients. lishment. By following a logical and rigor-
ous process, operators can test their idea to
This chapter examines some of the busi- see if a real business opportunity exists.
ness issues affecting the delivery of eco- The goal of the exercise prior to operation
tourism products. It begins with a brief becomes one of demonstrating that a true
overview of the common business planning market opportunity exists or aborting a
and business management issues affecting non-viable idea prior to start-up. While a
eco-businesses, as identified by Australian business plan will not guarantee success, it
ecotourism operators. It is acknowledged has been shown to reduce failure by 60%
that it is impossible to examine all the or more. The second key role played by
business issues in depth in an overview business plans begins once the business
chapter such as this. Instead, the bulk of starts. Business plans outline a desired
the chapter will focus on the three most growth path for the enterprise and, impor-
important issues affecting the viability of tantly, establish benchmarks by which to
the commercial ecotourism sector: the mar- monitor the performance of the business.
ket, the product and the nexus between the Operators can then adjust their business
two. plans, or alter their operations if the busi-
ness does not seem to match the projec-
Overview of Business Planning and tions.
Marketing Issues in Ecotourism
Most new entrants do not prepare busi-
It is surprising that many people entering ness plans. As a result, they fail to identify
the ecotourism sector have a remarkable clear goals and objectives for their business
lack of business skills and, of more con-
The Business of Ecotourism 567
or, alternatively, identify unrealistic goals. entrants. A request for marketing help
Many do not know if a viable market often belies a deeper problem in the busi-
opportunity exists for their idea and do not ness, namely the failure to identify a com-
have a realistic assessment of the costs mercially viable business opportunity right
involved in starting and incubating a busi- from the start. Regardless, many eco-
ness. Typically, they assume unrealistically tourism operators do not understand what
high sales and profit figures and budget marketing is or how marketing works.
unrealistically low cost figures. The result Given that most have limited resources,
is that many businesses are under-capital- one would think that they would adopt a
ized and because revenue is not what was targeted marketing approach, allocating
hoped for, cannot thrive. Successful opera- those scarce resources in such a way that
tors appreciate that it takes many years for they optimize the chance to reach their
a business to establish itself. To succeed, desired markets. Instead, many adopt what
businesses must have both a plan to pursue is known in the trade as a ‘shotgun’ market-
and the resources required to survive dur- ing approach, squandering their resources
ing those fragile early years. and hoping that by chance they will find a
desired client. This occurs usually as a
Financial management skills lacking function of not knowing who the target
market is, not understanding its habits and
Financial management is a significant issue buying power and not having a clear idea
for most new operators. It is not surprising of how to reach that market.
considering that many come from an opera-
tional background and have never had to Many operators are also quite ignorant
manage an organization’s finances before. of how the tourism distribution system
Slower than expected growth, coupled works and also appear wary of having to
with higher than anticipated costs cause pay between a 10 and 35% commission to
many operators to face financial crises in someone else to sell their product. A com-
the formative years of the business. A lack plex system of retail travel agents, whole-
of resources will affect all areas of a busi- sale tour operators and inbound tour
ness, from marketing and advertising to operators has evolved over the past 150
equipment purchases and the ability to years to act as the conduit between the
hire staff. A serious miscalculation of the provider of the product and the market-
real costs of running a business can effec- place. This system works on a commission
tively strangle growth for many years. In basis. If anyone is interested in gaining
addition, many operators do not under- international distribution for their product,
stand the concept of cashflow. Businesses or of even gaining broad national distribu-
run on cash, just as a car runs on petrol. No tion, they must work through the travel
matter how expensive a car is, if it does not trade. Failure to cost products so that they
have any petrol in the tank, it won’t work. are attractive to the travel trade, coupled
The same applies to a business. Once a with a failure to take advantage of these
business runs out of cash, it ceases to func- networks, constrains the ability of most
tion. Few new operators seem to appreciate businesses to achieve wide market penetra-
the importance of cash, believing that the tion of their products.
annual budgeting exercise is all the finan-
cial planning that is required. Price is an interesting issue for this sec-
tor, for many operators do not understand
Lack of marketing knowledge what they are really selling and, therefore,
are reluctant to charge what the product is
In a similar manner, there is a general lack worth. At one level, price is an accounting
of marketing knowledge among many new concept: you must charge enough to cover
your costs and to provide you with an
acceptable profit. At another level, though,
price is an important marketing concept,
for the price charged reflects the value of
568 B. McKercher
the product. Many operators adopt a cost- faced with long hours and often low
plus approach to pricing by adding up the rewards. In most cases, the business will
component costs of the trip (food, guide, become all consuming, becoming an exten-
vehicle, accommodation, etc.) and then sion of the operator and not just his or her
adding a profit component. These operators job. To survive, operators must, therefore,
invariably under-price their product. In ensure that they have a healthy balance
reality, the true worth of a product and, between their work and non-work lives.
therefore, the price that can be charged
comes not from the component costs, but Are viable business opportunities identified?
from the value-adding made by the opera-
tor, often brought about by the ease of The lessons identified above are valuable
access provided by the product and the for anyone planning on entering the sector
quality of the personalized service offered. commercially as a tour operator, accommo-
The more unique the product being dation provider or attraction owner. They
offered, the higher the price that can be highlight that most ecotourism businesses
charged. Ironically, charging a low price, fail to identify a viable business opportu-
especially if all around you are charging a nity. Should they be lucky enough to do so,
higher price for the same product, may be many operators do not know how to capi-
counter-productive. Consumers may com- talize on that opportunity, either because of
pare your product with the competition a failure to plan or for a lack of marketing
and wonder what it is you are leaving out, skills. In this author’s opinion, the single
not what un-needed extras they are adding. greatest problem facing this sector is the
After all, a US$14,000 car cannot compare failure of prospective operators to identify
with a US$45,000 car, even if both will a commercially viable market and to
take you from point A to point B. deliver products that satisfy the needs,
wants and desires of that market. Instead,
Ecotourism is all about selling experi- they try to push inappropriate products on
ences. Good operators have come to realize to an undifferentiated market that is really
that good ecotourism practices begin with not very interested in what they are trying
good customer service. Staff must be both to sell. The key to any successful eco-
professional and approachable. Further, tourism business is predicated on develop-
staff must engender a sense of confidence, ing a deep knowledge of who the market is
especially if the experience involves, or is and why it wants to purchase an operator’s
perceived to involve some risk. Effective product (see Chapter 3 by Wight). It is only
communication skills are a vital ingredient from this knowledge that an operator can
of good customer satisfaction. develop products that meet the needs of
the market and can plan to position them
Do you have the right personal skills? attractively for the right markets. The rest
of this chapter examines the product mar-
Finally, not everyone is cut out to be in the ket nexus.
ecotourism game. Operators must possess a
number of personal attributes. Prospective The Illusory Commercial Ecotourism
operators must have patience, determina- Market
tion, drive, enthusiasm, a love of hard
work, be willing to work long hours, gen- How large is the market for commercial
uinely enjoy meeting and being with new ecotourism products? No one knows for
people, have a friendly disposition and be sure, but it is fair to say it is only a small
able to act in a clear, concise and profes- fraction of the total number of people who
sional manner. Moreover, stress and the have been labelled as ‘ecotourists’. Indeed,
risk of personal burn-out in this sector are phantom demand seems to be driving
high, especially during those critical early
years of the business. New operators are
The Business of Ecotourism 569
much of the unrealistic expectations of the principles can be labelled an ecotourist,
sector. On the surface, ecotourism seems to regardless of the activity the person pur-
be a booming activity, which would imply sued. In addition, a lack of clarity over the
the existence of substantial business oppor- use of the term in a tourism context has
tunities. The Australian Bureau of Tourism further confused the issue. There is no
Research, for example, suggests that up to doubt that the term ‘ecotourism’ has been
50% of the more than 4 million interna- misused by tourism marketers and tourism
tional tourists to that country engaged in promotion agencies alike, to the extent that
what could loosely be described as an eco- almost any form of non-urban tourism can
tourism experience during their visit be labelled as ecotourism (Wight, 1993;
(Blamey, 1996b). Similarly, the aforemen- Wheeler, 1995; Lindberg and McKercher,
tioned comment by WTO suggests that eco- 1997). But even when used legitimately,
tourists now account for 20% of world ecotourism can describe simultaneously
travel. destinations, experiences and products
(parks, attractions, accommodation and
But these figures are misleading, for tours). Many ecotourism destinations and
most of these ‘ecotourists’ are labelled thus experiences can be consumed at little or no
based on a visit they made to a protected cost, especially when one remembers that
area sometime during their trip. But, as most land use management agencies have a
Acott et al. (1998) argue, visiting an eco- legislative obligation to provide recre-
tourism site does not make one an eco- ational opportunities at minimal cost to the
tourist. Whether or not you agree with their public. Further ecotourism destinations
assertion, it is true that visiting an eco- may not provide business opportunities for
tourism site certainly does not make one a commercial ecotourism operators, espe-
prospective commercial ecotourism client. cially if the ecotourism attraction is a pro-
A deeper examination of Australian tected area. Many national parks, for
tourism statistics reveals that only 5% of example, preclude the provision of com-
international visitors indicated that experi- mercial activities inside park boundaries.
encing outdoor or nature-based activities
particularly influenced their decision to The result is a disparity between the
travel to Australia (Blamey, 1996a). It is number of people who visit ecotourism
likely that an even smaller percentage pur- areas and the actual number of ‘real’ eco-
chased ecotourism goods and services. In tourists. At an operational level, the com-
reality, the commercial ecotourism market mercial realities of running ecotourism
is a true niche market; small, specialized businesses further limit the number of peo-
and discrete. Successful Australian nature- ple who are willing or able to pay for ser-
based tourism operators contacted in rela- vices. Why would anyone purchase a
tion to another study used the terms ‘tiny’, commercial product if they could partici-
‘micro’ or ‘minute’ to describe the market pate in exactly the same experience at little
(McKercher and Robbins, 1998). or no cost? The answer is few would,
unless the ecotourism product offered
Why few people are commercial ecotourists something of added value that the con-
sumer could not otherwise get. Many recre-
One factor leading to over-estimation of the ational ecotourists are philosophically
size of the market is the unclear context in opposed to what they see as the commer-
which the term ‘ecotourism’ is used. To a cial exploitation of protected areas and
large extent, the legitimacy of ecotourism eschew commercial operators. Many for-
rests primarily in its ability to achieve sus- mer operators have made the fatal mistake
tainable land uses rather than as a product of looking at participation rates in conser-
category (Lawrence et al., 1997). Using this vation/recreational clubs and associations
supply-side definition, any visitor to land (birdwatching, bushwalking, etc.) and
managed along sustainable ecotourism assumed that a ready market was available
to them. What they failed to appreciate is
570 B. McKercher
that one of the reasons why people join Profiling the Commercial Ecotourism
these organizations is to gain inexpensive Market
access to high quality experiences. Many of
these people are exactly the wrong market As discussed in Chapter 3, commercial
for the commercial ecotourism sector for ecotourists are affluent, well travelled, well
they have substitute products that provide educated, independent, have a high dispos-
an experience of equal or greater quality at able income, eschew normal packaged
a fraction of the cost. tours aimed at the mass market and seek an
alternative vacation experience (Eagles,
The most successful ecotourism busi- 1992; Sorensen, 1993; Weiler et al., 1993;
nesses fill the need-satisfaction gap that the Pearce and Wilson, 1996; Wight, 1996;
traveller would otherwise not have. For Meric and Hunt, 1998). Their age can vary,
example, ecotourism operators that visit with two dominant age groups evident:
the Great Barrier Reef in far north Queens- older experienced travellers who are pre-
land, Australia, provide their clients with pared to purchase up-market products and
access that most would not be able to pro- younger travellers who are seeking innova-
vide themselves. In a similar manner, fly-in tive experiences (Pearce and Wilson, 1996).
wilderness fishing lodges in the Canadian Most are women and many travel on their
Shield area of North America provide own (McKercher and Davidson, 1995;
access that would otherwise not be avail- Meric and Hunt, 1998). They are very
able to all but the hardiest wilderness trav- active and belong to environmental organi-
eller. Many marginally viable businesses zations more than the general population
feel their unique selling point is the quality as a whole. Their involvement in environ-
of the information they impart to the con- mental and public interest group organiza-
sumer, when the consumer clearly feels tions means that not only do they have a
this is not essential to their being able to keen interest in environmental issues, they
enjoy the experience. also tend to have a greater knowledge of
environmental issues. They choose eco-
Finally, it is expensive to operate an tourism experiences because they want to
ecotourism business, and these expenses be active, meet people with similar inter-
must be passed on to the clients in the ests, learn new skills and optimize their
form of relatively high prices. This finan- time use.
cial reality further limits the market by
pricing ecotourism as an exclusive activity. Women are the dominant client group
Ecotourism businesses rarely enjoy the
economies of scale of mass-tourism ven- That fact that most ecotourists are women
tures, and as such, have relatively high is something that many in the industry
fixed costs per client. In addition, these seem to recognize, but at the same time
ventures often must overcome small group seem to overlook in their product design
sizes, seasonality issues, higher per capita and promotional activities. It has been esti-
marketing costs, in-built volatility in the mated that women constitute up to 75% of
marketplace and a whole host of other fac- the nature-based and cultural tourism mar-
tors that drive up their costs and conse- ket (Bond, 1997; Meric and Hunt, 1998).
quently their prices. Space precludes a This market is affluent: women adventure
detailed discussion of this issue. Readers travellers in the USA, for example, represent
requiring more information on costing and a US$55 billion retail sales market (Bond,
pricing issues of commercial operators are 1997). Most of these women do not want to
advised to refer to The Business of Nature- travel in women-only travel parties. While,
Based Tourism written by McKercher in private conversation, operators acknowl-
(1998a). edge that women constitute their dominant
market, few operators appear to target their