The Encyclopedia of Ecotourism

The Business of Ecotourism 571

promotional activities, or tailor their trips example, have developed a product market
specifically to suit the demands of women segment matrix for Queensland ecotourists
(McKercher and Davidson, 1995). Women (see Chapter 2 by Orams).
and men respond differently to promo-
tional activities and read different media. Specialist or hard core ecotourists are
Moreover, women participate in nature- committed ecotourists who seek the experi-
based tourism trips for a variety of reasons ence because it provides them with an
that operators do not seem to appreciate intense, nature-based tourism activity.
fully. Research into the nature-based They are likely to participate in longer
tourism industry in the Australian state of trips, be knowledgeable about the experi-
Victoria showed that women purchased ence offered and be experienced travellers.
commercial nature-based tourism products The nature-based tourism experience is the
for the following reasons: ease and conve- main purpose of the trip for these people.
nience of participation, safety and security Specialist nature-based tourists are pre-
provided by a guided trip; and the opportu- pared to make sacrifices to participate in
nity to travel with others, especially if the their tourism experience. They are pre-
woman was travelling by herself. The pared to travel long distances to participate
industry, on the other hand, thought that in the activity and do not want nor do they
women purchased their products because expect luxurious accommodation, food and
of the trip attributes, such as route selec- night life (Lang et al., 1996). This market is
tion, equipment provision and the area quite small and is seeking exclusive activi-
being visited (McKercher and Davidson, ties.
1995). Dissonance between this market’s
real needs and the operator’s perception of ‘Generalist’ or ‘casual’ ecotourists, on
these needs may explain low participation the other hand, participate in ecotourism
rates in some businesses. as one of many activities they will do
while on holiday. Their decision to partici-
Different types of ecotourists with pate is convenience based. They are likely
different needs to take short duration trips, have limited
knowledge about the area being visited,
It is a mistake to assume that the nature- book at the last minute and may only have
based tourism market is a single, unified a casual interest in the activity. These peo-
market. Instead, different types of people ple are less likely to travel large distances
are attracted to different activities (ATC, explicitly for the nature-based tourism
nd; Pearce and Wilson, 1996; Weaver et al., experience, but may be prodigious con-
1996; Wight, 1996a, b; Meric and Hunt, sumers if an experience is easy to consume
1998). This overview chapter does not per- in close proximity to their current destina-
mit a detailed examination of each sub- tion. Depending on the activity, this market
market; however, it is important to is large, and in fact, more closely approxi-
appreciate that a continuum of ecotourists mates the mass tourism market, especially
exists that can be defined based on the for easy to consume discretionary eco-
traveller’s commitment to ecotourism and tourism experiences provided in main-
the centrality of an ecotourism experience stream destinations.
in their vacation choice (Wight, 1996a;
Acott et al., 1998; Meric and Hunt, 1998). Market moving to soft ecotourism
These different market segments have been
labelled alternatively as ‘specialist’ and As the popularity of ecotourism grows, the
‘generalist’ ecotourists, or have been placed market is shifting more toward the casual
on a continuum from ‘hard core’ to ‘casual’ or soft end. This shift presents a number of
ecotourists, or deep to shallow (Acott et al., opportunities and challenges for eco-
1998). Dowling and Charters (1999), for tourism providers, as soft ecotourists have
substantially different needs, wants and
desires from those of hard ecotourists.

572 B. McKercher

Anyone entering the ‘hard’ ecotourism Ecotourism ‘Products’ Provide
market must appreciate that the absolute Personal Needs Satisfaction
market for their activities is small. To suc-
ceed, operators must provide truly unique What is it that ecotourists buy when they
experiences that offer exceptional quality purchase a commercial product? What
experiences. These businesses will most does anyone buy when he or she buys a
likely be small scale, with high prices holiday? Do you buy airfare, accommoda-
being charged. Location is a critical factor tion and transfers or are you really buying
in their success, for the area must be recog- something else? You may pay for airfare,
nized as an important ecotourism destina- accommodation and transfers, but in real-
tion. It will be difficult to run a successful ity you are buying something that will pro-
ecotourism venture if the market considers vide you with an intrinsic or personal
the location as not having the necessary benefit. Far too many operators look at
qualities it wants in an eco-product. One of their product from the perspective of what
the factors mitigating against the success of they are selling to the tourist and not from
eco-resorts in Finland, for example, is that the perspective of what the tourist is buy-
it is not perceived to have high quality ing. As such, they tend to focus on the tan-
environmental assets needed to sustain gible elements that make up the product. In
such businesses (Bjork, 1997). fact, these features are simply elements that
facilitate consumption of an experience.
Conversely, recreation, fun, activity and
ease of access seem to drive demand for What the ecotourist, and indeed any
soft ecotourism experiences. In these cases, consumer purchases when he or she buys a
the thrill of the experience plays a stronger product is personal needs satisfaction.
role in attracting visitors than the skill or Products are defined as ‘anything that can
desired learning outcomes. Products that be offered to a market for attention, acqui-
provide an enjoyable, recreational and, sition, use or consumption that might sat-
dare I say, an escapist and commodified, isfy a need or a want.’ (Kotler and Turner,
outdoor-oriented tourism experience are 1989, p. 435). The key words are ‘satisfying
desired by this market. While this assertion a need or want’. It is difficult to do, but
may be an anathema to committed, hard- operators must always think of their prod-
core ecotourists, it none the less represents uct from the perspective of the person who
the reality of the desires of a market that is buying the good or service. When con-
consumes an eco-experience as one of sumers buy nature-based tourism products,
many experiences they might consume they are buying a range of personal benefits
during a holiday. Further, to be able to (Hawkins, 1994). Increasingly, tourists are
compete, such experiences must be seen as buying products that satisfy their lifestyle
being attractive alternatives to other recre- preferences, with the quest for adventure
ational experiences. Emanuel de Kadt or the desire to see nature becoming
(1979) said some 20 years ago ‘the normal increasingly important aspects of many
tourist is not to be confused with an people’s lifestyles (Donoho, 1996).
anthropologist or other researcher. Tourists
are pleasure seekers, temporarily unem- The key questions to consider when
ployed and above all, consumers; they are examining any ecotourism product are
taking their trip to get away from everyday ‘what needs are being satisfied by purchas-
cares’. To a large extent, this maxim still ing this product?’ and ‘why would anyone
holds true today for the vast majority of prefer my product over someone else’s?’
tourists who may be interested in an eco- These questions are so basic that many
experience. people fail to ask them, let alone answer
them effectively. Is the decision to estab-
lish an ecotourism business in a certain
location based on the ability to satisfy cus-
tomer needs effectively, or is made simply
because that is where the operator lives?

The Business of Ecotourism 573

Are tour schedules, itineraries and compo- product will provide. Is it learning, escape,
nents of a trip selected based on customer understanding, fun, status, a personal chal-
needs or on the idea of providing a ‘good lenge or something else? Once the benefit
package’? More importantly, do you know is decided, then and only then, can the
what it is that the consumer is really operator consider how to transform them
buying? into something tangible that the consumer
can purchase. Most operators focus on the
Conceptualization of a ‘product’ tangible products without really under-
standing what it is that they are selling, or
Products exist on three levels: core, tangi- more importantly, what it is that their
ble and augmented (Kotler and Turner, clients are buying. As a former operator,
1989). The core product represents the this is understandable, for good tour opera-
most fundamental level of any product and tors spend weeks and months developing
answers the question of what needs, wants their ‘product’ until they feel it is right.
or desires are being satisfied by buying the Tour operators must research routes,
product. Someone purchasing a hotel room accommodation houses, check added bene-
is buying the need satisfaction of sleep. fits, food, prices, reservation procedures
The bed, colour TV and decor are the tangi- and the like. This is a time consuming and
ble components that facilitate this need sat- all encompassing task. But, unless they
isfaction. Someone buying a computer may determine what benefit they are providing
be purchasing the need satisfaction of to the client, it may also be a futile task.
being able to communicate with the world
via the Internet and email. The compo- Belatedly, a number of operators have
nents that go into the computer, the RAM come to realize that success in the nature-
and ROM and the like, only serve to facili- based tourism business comes not from a
tate this need satisfaction. The same is true sales approach of pushing products on to
with any ecotourism product. clients, but from a marketing approach of
delivering products that satisfy the clients’
It is only once the core benefit has been needs, wants and desires. As a result, many
identified that the rest of the product can operators have had to modify their prod-
be tailored to deliver the need satisfaction. ucts substantially over the years. One oper-
The tangible aspect of a product represents ator related to me, for example, that his
the elements that are assembled to facili- clients were upper-middle-class residents,
tate need satisfaction. In the ecotourism and as such they were not happy being
industry, these are usually features like provided with a barbecue every night.
accommodation, transport, food, guides They would rough it but really appreciated
and the like. There is a challenge in devel- some attempt to lift catering standards. A
oping the tangible component of the prod- tag-along four-wheel drive operator (four-
uct when the good being sold is wheel drive tours where the clients bring
experiential or ethereal in nature, for the their own vehicles and ‘tag-along’ with the
consumer cannot inspect the product and guide) expected his clients to be satisfied
assess its value (Bharadwaj et al., 1993). with simple guiding and support services,
Augmented product elements are those but soon realized that they also wanted
additional features and services that make meals and equipment (McKercher and
the product complete. Augmented prod- Robbins, 1998).
ucts for the tourism industry might include
easy reservation services, credit or cancel- Many operators do not fully appreciate
lation policies, the provision of travel the core need that their product is satisfy-
insurance, the inclusion of wildlife manu- ing. Indeed, it may have less to do with the
als while on tour or the sale of film. eco-experience and may have more to do
with the ease with which the experience
First and foremost, the operator must can be consumed. The appeal of purchas-
define which core personal benefits the ing a commercial package lies not in the
provision of access to an area that everyone

574 B. McKercher

can access, nor is it necessarily the quality succeed by matching the benefits produced
of the interpretation, unless the product is by the product with the desires of target
targeted at hard ecotourists. Instead, the markets. The failure to do either is a recipe
appeal is that the consumer is offered a for failure. The logic is simple. What
one-stop shopping experience. With one would you rather do, provide a service
phone call, an extremely busy professional people want or try to push something peo-
woman can overcome all the problems ple do not want on to an unsupportive
associated with negotiating departure marketplace?
dates, researching the trip route, booking
all accommodation, food and services, Clearly, the former is preferred, but in
obtaining the equipment needed, overcom- far too many instances, the latter is what is
ing safety and security concerns and, in delivered. It is true that all great businesses
many cases, finding suitable travel part- begin with great ideas. It is equally true
ners. The opportunity/cost savings pro- that not all great ideas lead to viable busi-
vided by a relatively low-involvement ness prospects. The difference between a
purchasing decision enables clients to good idea and a business opportunity lies
overcome real or perceived time barriers in the ability to determine if a market is
that would have otherwise blocked their interested in a product, if sufficient num-
participation. bers of people are willing to pay for it,
whether or not the product can be deliv-
This is not to suggest for an instant that ered in a cost-effective manner and
the tangible product is not important in the whether or not alternative products satisfy-
successful delivery of tourism products. In ing the same needs of the same markets
fact the opposite is true. If the tangible already exist.
product is substandard or deficient in any
way, clients will not be satisfied because Four basic tenets
their core needs are not being met. The tan-
gible product becomes a reflection of the The product–market nexus is predicated
core product and, as such, should be devel- on four basic tenets that should drive all
oped to satisfy fully core needs. Further, businesses:
tangible products have a quality- or value-
adding level that makes the product as a 1. Any successful business delivers prod-
whole more valuable than the sum of the ucts that satisfy the needs, wants and
individual component parts. They have desires of its clients.
distinctive features that distinguish them 2. This objective can only be achieved if a
from other similar products. They have business knows who its clients are and
some styling that usually reflects the per- understands their motives.
sonality of the owner/operator. Further, as 3. Successful businesses must be able to
a separate entity, they can be branded. target their products at market segments
Finally, tangible products have some level that are large enough to be profitable, have
of packaging (such as a brochure) that can growth potential, are interested in the
be used to make the product attractive. products on offer, have unique characteris-
tics that identify them as discrete seg-
The Product–Market Nexus: the Most ments, are easy to access in a cost-effective
Important Business Consideration manner and are willing to pay the price
being asked.
The most important business factor influ- 4. The products must be seen as being pre-
encing the success or failure of ecotourism ferred products by the target market.
businesses is the ability of the operator to
match the needs of the consumer with the These four tenets need little elaboration.
product being offered (McKercher, 1998b). The first law is predicated on a basic
Alternatively, some astute operators can understanding of why products exist. The
second tenet recognizes the assumption of

The Business of Ecotourism 575

understanding the motives that drive the • the markets it chooses to target;
decision making process of the market. It is • the markets it chooses not to target;
only through a deep understanding of what • the competitors it chooses to compete
influences a market that anyone can deliver
products to satisfy their needs. The third with;
tenet identifies the features of attractive • the competitors it chooses to avoid.
markets. They must be sufficiently large to
support the business, yet at the same time The act of defining the products offered
share common characteristics that enable and the markets targeted dictates the types
the operator to identify potential con- of business the operator will compete
sumers, isolate them from the broader mar- against. To succeed, one must know
ketplace and reach them in a cost-effective exactly what products it is offering at what
manner. The fourth recognizes that compe- markets and who its competitors are. It is
tition is intense. Successful products must only in this manner that one can develop
somehow offer something to their target business and marketing strategies to posi-
audience that makes them preferred over tion the product as the preferred choice for
the noise in the marketplace. its target markets. By the same token, it is
equally important to know what the busi-
In essence, these rules argue that success- ness does not do, which markets it does
ful businesses in general, and successful not target and which businesses it does not
small businesses in particular, must develop choose to compete with. This is especially
specialized products targeted tightly at true for small businesses with limited bud-
defined markets. Most operators are faced gets that must allocate scant resources
with a number of challenges. They have wisely. Too many tourism businesses try to
limited resources that must be allocated do too many things. As a result, they lose
effectively and efficiently. Further, they are their focus, and in doing so forget what
forced to compete in a crowded marketplace their core product is and who their core
where, in some cases, operators have liter- markets are. Moreover, the features of the
ally dozens of potential competitors. product usually have to be compromised in
order to broaden the appeal of the product
Understanding the premise behind the to as wide a market as possible. As a result,
product–market nexus, also allows the the quality and uniqueness of the product
operator to understand the basic concept of is diminished. A true recipe for failure is to
strategic marketing management (Aaker, assume that any business must compete
1995). Strategic marketing argues that no against all other tourism businesses world-
organization, not even the largest global wide.
companies, can be all things to all con-
sumers. In order to survive, businesses Conclusion
must make a number of strategic decisions
about what they want to be, and who they The product–market nexus is the most crit-
want to target. They must further differenti- ical issue affecting the viability of the com-
ate their product offerings in a way that is mercial ecotourism sector. Without clearly
meaningful to the consumer in order to gain identifying markets and understanding
a preferred place in the consumer’s mind. them thoroughly, and without then devel-
oping products that will be regarded as the
Think strategically preferred choice for these markets, no eco-
tourism business can thrive. The product–
Strategic marketing is all about defining an market nexus forms the foundation from
organization’s product–market nexus by which a business plan evolves and is the
defining: central feature in the development of suc-
cessful marketing tactics. Ecotourism is
• the products it chooses to offer; like all other small businesses; the likelihood
• the products it chooses not to offer;

576 B. McKercher

of success is slim. However, the failure rate ness. It is not a lifestyle, nor is it a means
and under-performance of many existing of getting paid to play. The future develop-
businesses can be reduced dramatically if ment and, indeed, the future existence of
prospective operators see their venture for commercial ecotourism relies on the devel-
what it is. It is a business whose success opment of appropriate business skills
will depend on how well it is planned, within this sector.
financed, managed and marketed as a busi-

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Chapter 37

The Pursuit of Excellence: Benchmarking,
Accreditation, Best Practice and Auditing

J.-P. Issaverdis

Victoria University, Footscray Park Campus, Melbourne, Australia

Introduction appropriate return to the local community
and long-term conservation of the resource.
Benchmarking, accreditation, best practice
and auditing for the ecotourism sector need (Commonwealth Department of Tourism,
to be better understood. This chapter dis- 1994)
cusses each of these elements involved in
the delivery of quality ecotourism experi- The criterion of environmental sustainabil-
ences, explains the relationships between ity, in particular, requires the establishment
them and reveals how the use of quality of effective benchmarking, accreditation,
processes can enhance service delivery, best practice and auditing procedures.
business viability and environmental sus-
tainability. The chapter is written within In Australia, most ecotourism busi-
the framework of the Australian experience nesses are small, owner-operator or family-
of achieving measurable standards and run businesses. Such businesses have
identifying the common challenges facing limited resources and available time. Those
operators, administrators, researchers, pub- involved in ecotourism are primarily moti-
lic land managers and educators. Australia vated by their enthusiasm for being in the
is, arguably, the world leader in this area. natural environment and introducing others
The content however, is relevant to eco- to such settings. Ecotourism activities are
tourism destinations in other countries as usually based on relatively undisturbed
well. natural resources such as national parks,
natural reserves and wilderness areas, with
Ecotourism is defined broadly in few operating on privately owned land.
Australia as: Within the sector there are many that feel
the establishment of standards is impor-
nature-based tourism that involves tant, but are challenged by the question of
interpretation and education, and is managed how to improve standards. In general, true
to be ecologically sustainable [and] ecotourism operators are disturbed by the
recognises that the ‘natural environment’ increasing number of nature-based opera-
includes cultural components and that tors who are simply adopting the term eco-
‘ecologically sustainable’ involves an tourism as a marketing opportunity, and

© CAB International 2001. The Encyclopedia of Ecotourism 579
(ed. D.B. Weaver)

580 J.-P. Issaverdis

are not committed to the delivery of a high internal audits and has undergone an exter-
quality ecotourism product to the consumer. nal audit to verify its level of performance.
For this reason benchmarks, accreditation,
best practice and auditing programmes can Key Issues for Consideration
help ensure the long-term commercial and
environmental sustainability of the sector. Before discussing benchmarking, accredita-
tion, auditing and best practice in greater
The major benefit for operators who sub- detail, the reader must be made aware of a
ject themselves to the processes of bench- number of key issues affecting the sector
marking, best practice, auditing and and the successful implementation of any
accreditation is often not the outcome itself programme related to these four criteria.
but rather the value of closely scrutinizing These include:
the operation. The process can assist in the
identification of areas requiring improve- • The cost of delivering programmes. The
ment and the implementation of measures costs of delivering industry-led bench-
which will enhance the value of the experi- marking, accreditation, best practice and
ence for consumers, improve environmen- auditing programmes must be recog-
tally sustainable practices and increase nized. Documentation, staff, assessment,
yield for the business. database and marketing collateral must
be established to market and deliver
Figure 37.1 demonstrates the interrela- programmes effectively, in a way which
tionship between the four elements. offers value, integrity and validity for
Benchmarking, accreditation and best prac- the sector.
tice exist independently as well as being
interlinked. Auditing is the necessary com- • The need to offer tangible inducements.
ponent to ensure the other concepts are Many operators expect tangible benefits,
valid and that reliable measures of improv- which extend beyond the simple pursuit
ing performance are defined. The centre of of standards for the greater good of the
the model represents the ideal situation industry. Inducements (real or implied)
where an ecotourism business has estab- might include preferred or discounted
lished operational benchmarks, has access to government marketing pro-
become accredited, is performing at the
level of best practice, is conducting regular

Benchmarking Accreditation

Auditing
Best practice
Fig. 37.1. Benchmarking, accreditation, best practice and auditing systems model.

The Pursuit of Excellence 581

grammes, special access to restricted can only be approached within the con-
sections in national parks, licence or text of delivering a better product to the
permit extensions, branding and market- consumer. One approach to performance
ing benefits. improvement is simply asking customers
• The need to provide impartial stan- what they want and implementing rea-
dards. Auditing procedures must be sonable suggestions. Regular communi-
established which are low cost, consis- cation with the customer is essential and
tent, non-threatening and can be deliv- can be achieved through customer sur-
ered in remote areas. Issues to be veys, comment sheets, feedback forms
considered include the selection of audi- and face-to-face discussions.
tors, training and skilling, and ensuring
consistent application of assessment Benchmarking
values.
• The potential benefits of codes of con- There is a difference between benchmarking
duct. Codes can play a part in the over- and best practice. Codling (1998) suggests
all continuum of developing industry that ‘Benchmarking is often considered as a
professionalism and can be a useful tool to enable systematic comparison of the
means of introducing standards to sec- performance of an organization against that
tors of the tourism industry. A success- of others’. In a more traditional manufac-
ful example of an ecotourism code turing sense, Büyüközkan and Maire (1998)
currently in practice is the Guidance for define a benchmark as ‘a point of reference
Visitors to the Antarctic code of conduct from which measurements and compar-
established by the International Associa- isons of any sort may be made’.
tion of Antarctic Tour Operators. The
Code covers issues such as the protec- Confusion arises when the terms are
tion of Antarctic wildlife, respect for mixed in the literature. Pearce et al. (1998)
protected areas, respect for scientific suggest that companies can use the bench-
research, safety and the conservation of marking process to determine best prac-
Antarctica’s pristine environment. Because tices and standards of performance by
of the uniqueness of the destination, the comparing characteristics and business
close monitoring of visitor experiences practices of similar organizations. Voss et
and the limited numbers of visitors and al. (1997) suggest that ‘benchmarking can
tours to the Antarctic each year, the be defined as the search for industry best
Code has been perceived positively as practices that lead to superior perfor-
exerting a significant impact on operator mance’ and Povey (1998) states that
performance. ‘benchmarking is the art of gathering infor-
• The potential weaknesses of codes of mation about external best practice’. It is
conduct. Moworth and Munt (1998) sug- important therefore that a clear distinction
gest that industry-based codes of con- is made between benchmarking and best
duct ‘attempt to influence attitudes and practice.
modify behaviour’ and are mainly vol-
untary. Problems associated with codes Thomas and Neill, cited in Pigram
include difficulty of monitoring, and (1998), suggest that ‘Benchmarking is a
abuse for short-term marketing advan- continuous learning process designed to
tage. Some operators also object to the compare products, services, and practices
establishment of codes, for they see with reference to external competitors
them as a covert attempt to regulate the and then implement procedures to upgrade
industry. performance to match or surpass these’.
• The role of the consumer in improving This captures the essence of benchmark-
performance. Establishing benchmarks, ing, namely a continuous process of gath-
becoming accredited, achieving best ering information both internally and
practice and conducting regular audits externally and the use of this information
to improve the performance of the operation.

582 J.-P. Issaverdis

The benchmarking process the commercial benefit to be gained.
Economic benchmarks suggested by TCA
For tourism businesses to implement in their publications for the accommoda-
benchmarks effectively, the following tion and attraction sector include:
process needs to occur:
Energy
• there must be a proper selection of the • expenditure on energy/turnover;
target features and practices to be emu- • kWh per guest night (or per visitor);
lated; • MJ per guest night.

• there must be careful selection of the Water
organizations chosen to compare perfor- • kilolitres supplied per guest night (or
mance; and
per visitor);
• there must be an effective monitoring • kilolitres supplied per meal cover;
and feedback system to ensure outcomes • kilolitres supplied per ha of grounds;
are improved (Pigram, 1998). • kilolitres supplied/turnover. (Tourism

Tourism operators often fail to recognize Council Australia, 1998.)
the value of spending the money and mak-
ing the time available to experience other It should be recognized that many of
tourism product as a means of benchmark- these ‘innovative practices’ are becoming
ing their own operation. Experiencing reasonably affordable and are being
other tours, accommodation or attractions accepted as standard practice across the
is often the simplest method of gaining ecotourism sector which, given the crite-
information in view of the time and dollar rion of sustainability, is expected to
constraints facing many small operators. demonstrate such innovations. Numerous
Another simple and effective means of sources of information now exist, includ-
comparing performance is the establish- ing publications and the Internet, which
ment of networks with other operators outline simple processes which can be
offering the same, or similar, product. implemented in the area of business man-
Discussing performance and possible agement, interpretation, water and energy
improvements with one’s peers does conservation, waste minimization, recy-
require a degree of openness and confi- cling, appropriate building materials and
dence. Some operators may find this threat- future directions. In addition to these
ening. Yet, the process may prove to be resources, it is important that the sector
invaluable as an inexpensive means of continues to seek improved performance
measuring and improving performance standards and establish ‘new’ benchmarks.
over time.
Accreditation
Publications produced by government
agencies or industry organizations are The concept of accreditation is gaining
another effective source of measuring and increased acceptance by tourism industry
improving performance. These publica- managers, as a means of enhancing stan-
tions are usually relatively inexpensive dards (McKercher, 1998; Fennell, 1999). A
and can be a valuable resource for assess- number of factors are providing impetus
ing the implementation of water and for the process. These include the increas-
energy conservation measures, waste mini- ing expectation of standards and awareness
mization, recycling, building materials and of service quality by consumers, the
future directions. The Tourism Council of increasing expectation by travel intermedi-
Australia (TCA), for example, has recently aries that the product will be safe and envi-
released two publications: Being Green is ronmentally responsible, an increased
your Business (1999) and Being Green industry awareness of sustainable business
Keeps You Out of the Red (1998), which practice and a growing interest in research.
offer guidelines to tourism operators on
improving environmental performance and

The Pursuit of Excellence 583

The term ‘accreditation’ has wide currency offers the prospect of providing nationally
across service and manufacturing indus- consistent standards and environmental
tries. Historically the tourism industry is management practices. This may assist the
familiar with accommodation rating sys- long-term protection of environmental
tems such as ‘star’ or ‘crown’ systems. I assets.
define tourism accreditation as ‘pro-
grammes that provide a means of establish- The inclusion of environmentally sus-
ing the extent to which a business offering tainable elements within the accreditation
tourism experiences meets industry nomi- process can serve alongside the more estab-
nated standards. The programme encour- lished licensing and permit systems oper-
ages the delivery of consistently high ated by many government environmental
quality products and promotes continuous conservation agencies. The Australian
improvement’. National Ecotourism Strategy identifies
that the diversity, and lack of standards in
Key considerations for accreditation environmental management and use by the
programmes include: tourism industry has:

• the establishment and continuous prompted some ecotourism operators and
improvement of industry standards; natural resource managers to call for
accreditation systems for accommodation,
• providing a focus on industry-nomi- tour guides, and field operations that would
nated standards, rather than govern- identify their products in the marketplace,
ment-nominated standards; enhance the desirability of products and
minimise the impact on the natural
• establishing a continuum of measures to environment.
improve professionalism, standards and
quality of product delivery; The strategy outlined accreditation systems
and environmental Codes of Practice oper-
• applying the term to individuals, indus- ating internationally and concluded that
try organizations, tourism businesses ‘Accreditation systems involve formal
and ecotourism products; acknowledgment of adherence to agreed
standards’ (Commonwealth Department of
• recognizing that accreditation should Tourism, 1994). An Australian accredita-
not be compulsory, but rather encourage tion programme is being implemented, as
participation through marketing oppor- discussed in the case study.
tunities and incentives (Issaverdis,
1998).

Accreditation and environmental Self-regulation
sustainability

The Australian Government report on eco- A key aim of self-regulation by industry is
logically sustainable development (1991) to avoid excessive government interfer-
suggests that properly managed tourism ence. For this strategy to be successful, the
can minimize negative environmental ecotourism sector must prove that it is
impacts and lead to long-term benefits for capable of handling its own affairs to the
the environment. The report recommends satisfaction of relevant stakeholders,
that ‘An important move to both assist the including consumers, entrepreneurs and
tourism industry and conserve Australia’s government. Accreditation systems can
biodiversity would be to establish a provide a basis for industry self-regulation
national representative system of protected and, if marketed successfully, provide con-
areas together with nationally consistent sumers with useful information to assist in
management standards and practices’ the selection of ecotourism products. It
(Commonwealth of Australia, 1991). Where appears that the more successful industry-
it is supported by the industry and prop- led accreditation schemes are self-funding.
erly administered, tourism accreditation Success will also depend on the degree to

584 J.-P. Issaverdis

which industry standards meet the expec- conservation and land management agen-
tations of both consumers and natural- cies to support accredited tourism busi-
resource managers and provide tangible nesses by providing them with tangible
benefits to operators, such as a marketing benefits. These may include extensions on
advantage over competitors. If the long- the tenure of commercial tour permits or
term objective is to ensure that all opera- licences, cooperative marketing ventures
tors are accredited, a challenge for between operators and land management
programme managers is to demonstrate agencies, and greater access by commercial
sustainable advantage. tour operators to restricted areas of national
parks. Such incentives may prompt tourism
Public land management: licensing, permits businesses to secure accreditation thereby
and tourism accreditation continuing the enhancement of professional
industry standards and environmental man-
It is widely acknowledged that because agement practices. Australian government
environmental tourism relies on natural agencies have acknowledged the role
and cultural resources in a fundamental tourism industry accreditation can play in
way, pressures and problems are created the achievement of sustainable tourism
for sustainable management. Effective envi- practices (Issaverdis, 1998).
ronmental management can lead to integra-
tion between protection and resource use. Accreditation case study: National
It is also important that land management Ecotourism Accreditation Program
agencies recognize the commercial needs
of tourism operators. Appropriately licensed The National Ecotourism Accreditation
and accredited nature-based or ecotourism Program (NEAP) was launched in Australia
operators may assist in bringing about both in 1996. Ecotourism operators had
sustainable use and long-term protection. expressed their desire to differentiate the
nature-based tourism and ecotourism prod-
Licensing and the issuing of permits lie uct. The programme focuses on the envi-
within a broader legislative framework. ronmental management philosophies and
They provide a means to control tourism practices of ecotourism businesses (Eco-
operator numbers and their activities. In tourism Association of Australia, 1996).
Australia, government appears to be taking
a more active role in setting standards, a Ecotourism accreditation aims to
trend that is perceived as a threat by cer- encourage businesses to benchmark their
tain operators. Examples include public product against nominated industry stan-
land permits, vehicle licences, driving dards, to provide a high standard of inter-
licences and workplace health and safety pretation, to encourage the provision of
permits. Proponents of accreditation pro- high quality ecotourism experiences and to
grammes argue that accredited tourism strive for best practice environmental man-
operators are better placed to control the agement. Designed as a self-assessment
behaviour and impact of tour groups. This programme, NEAP is co-managed by the
is regarded as preferable to leaving individ- Ecotourism Association of Australia (EAA)
uals and groups to their own devices and and the Australian Tourism Operators
unsupervised. Public land managers often Network (ATON). Operators complete the
acknowledge that accredited tourism oper- self-assessment programme and submit the
ators are an extension of the provision of application for independent assessment
government conservation and land man- and verification. The applications are then
agement services. In this context they may forwarded to an independent panel for
assist in the process of environmental man- approval and, if successful, the ecotourism
agement and the protection of natural her- product is accredited for a period of 3 years
itage areas. subject to an annual renewal (Issaverdis,
1998).
An opportunity exists for government

The Pursuit of Excellence 585

Ecotourism accreditation covers various tourism practices and environmental inter-
product sectors including accommodation, pretation. It should be noted that a third
attractions and tours. NEAP may be distin- level of accreditation focuses on nature-
guished from other business accreditation based tourism operators and is less rigor-
programmes by its focus on individual ous than ecotourism accreditation. The
products rather than accreditation of the intention of this level is to recognize
whole organization. This approach particu- nature-based operators that have a commit-
larly suits those organizations that provide ment to environmentally sustainable prac-
a range of tourism experiences and are able tices. This level forms part of the revised
to accredit specific ecotourism product. NEAP that was launched in 2000.
The concept is a close parallel of the pro-
gramme accreditation undertaken in the At the time of writing, a total of 184
outdoor recreation industry (Bassin et al., products have been accredited, represent-
1992; Gass and Williamson, 1995). ing the product of 79 ecotourism busi-
nesses at Ecotourism Accreditation or
The programme is designed as a stand- Ecotourism Advanced Accreditation level
alone programme. It is, however, compati- (see Table 37.1). Accredited products may
ble with the completion of business be further broken down into sectors, show-
management accreditation through other ing the number of accredited tours, attrac-
accreditation programmes such as the tions and accommodation (see Table 37.2).
ATON Tourism Accreditation Program Cotterill (1996) has suggested that the eco-
(1996). Completion of both programmes by tourism sector in Australia comprises
a business would ensure coverage of both approximately 600 operators, thereby pro-
environmental considerations for eco- viding a sizeable potential market for the
tourism products and the business manage- programme. Despite the lack of tangible
ment issues necessary to operate tourism benefits currently available for accredited
businesses effectively. operators nationally, including limited gov-
ernment marketing initiatives apart from
Two levels of accreditation are available, those offered by Tourism Queensland
namely Ecotourism Accreditation and (Dowling and Charters, 1999), the NEAP
Advanced Ecotourism Accreditation. The take-up rate by ecotourism businesses has
accreditation logo differentiates the prod- approximately doubled each year.
uct’s level of accreditation (see Fig. 37.2).
The difference between the two levels Consumer and industry benefits
reflects the commitment and operational NEAP provides industry and consumers
practices of the business to sustainable with an assurance that an accredited eco-
tourism product is backed by a commit-
ment to developing best practice
environmental management and the provi-
sion of quality ecotourism experiences.
Accreditation offers consumers and indus-
try a branding to identify ecotourism prod-
uct (EAA, 1996).

Fig. 37.2. NEAP logos. Operator benefits
NEAP provides existing ecotourism busi-
nesses with criteria to measure sustainable
practices and interpretation performance. It
also assists new operators to develop gen-
uine ecotourism product by providing
operational guidelines and information to

586 J.-P. Issaverdis

Table 37.1. NEAP accredited level product breakdown as at June 1999 (n = 79 accredited businesses)
(NEAP, Brisbane, 1999, personal communication).

Level of accreditation Total number of accredited products % of total accredited product

Advanced accredited products 123 66.8
Accredited products 61 33.2
Total 100
184

Table 37.2. NEAP accredited product sectors as at June 1999 (n = 184 accredited products) (NEAP,
Brisbane, 1999, personal communication).

Activity type Totals of activity type % of total accredited product

Tours 153 83.2
Attractions 6 3.2
Accommodation
Total 25 13.6
184 100

make nature-based businesses more sus- • business operations and management;
tainable (EAA, 1996). The branding allows • legal compliance;
operators to seize promotional opportuni- • marketing plans and practices;
ties available to recognized ecotourism • customer service;
product. The programme offers operators • human resource management;
the opportunity to improve performance on • risk management and emergency proce-
an ongoing basis and to establish best prac-
tice. dures;
• environmentally sustainable practices;
Ecotourism accreditation: what should it • interpretation and education;
include? • cultural and local community involve-

ment (Issaverdis, 1998).

Approval is needed from State and/or Consumer research
national industry and government organi-
zations for accreditation programmes. It is important to acknowledge that little
Programmes must be easily accessible to consumer research has been done in the
operators and the process of accreditation area of tourism accreditation. A study by
for the operator must be relatively simple. Nielsen et al. (1995) sampled nature-based
An independent assessment must be in tourist attitudes towards ecotourism and
place to ensure the integrity of the accredi- ecotourism accreditation. The results
tation process. Ideally, an on-site audit showed strong support for an ecotourism
should be conducted, but this may be too accreditation programme that accurately
costly depending on location (see Auditing identified operators committed to the prin-
section for further discussion). Upon ciples of ecotourism.
approval, the operator should receive
access to a nationally recognized brand A further consumer-focused study,
that clearly distinguishes it as an accred- which encompassed accreditation for the
ited product and is easily recognized by adventure tourism sector, addressed the
consumers and by the industry. issue of risk management and general busi-
ness practices, rather than environmental
Ecotourism accreditation programmes management (Bergin and Jago, 1999). The
should require businesses to include infor- study showed that consumers are support-
mation on: ive of accreditation, but would not neces-

The Pursuit of Excellence 587

sarily opt to purchase accredited product is the optimal approach to operations man-
over non-accredited product. This may be agement ‘relative to levels of performance
attributed to a lack of awareness on the in comparable firms and operations’.
part of consumers. It recommended the Australia’s NEAP defines best practice as ‘a
conduct of further research to consider condition, which is considered to be of the
accreditation awareness and the actual and highest quality, excellence, or standing. A
perceived need for accreditation by con- highly desirable and advantageous state
sumers. which has been created and managed in a
way for others to reflect on’ (EAA, 1996).
The future of ecotourism accreditation in
Australia Several principles are commonly associ-
ated with businesses that achieve best
For ecotourism accreditation to have a practice. These include a commitment to
long-term future, consumers must see a change and continuous improvement,
value in purchasing accredited product. retaining a highly skilled workforce, hav-
Ecotourism operators must see the flow-on ing a team-based management structure,
effect of improved yield and comprehen- adopting innovative technology, focusing
sive industry support by both government on customer needs, ensuring superior com-
marketing agencies and public land man- munication processes, using performance
agers. measurement systems, and benchmarking.
A key component for best practice eco-
Accreditation is steadily developing sup- tourism operators is the ‘integration of
port through national and state government environmental management into all opera-
marketing organizations such as the tions of the business’ (Pigram, 1998).
Australian Tourist Commission and Tourism Outstanding economic and environmen-
Queensland (Dowling and Charters, 1999). tally sustainable practices and highly effec-
Public land managers such as Parks Victoria tive interpretation of the environment
and the Department of Conservation and distinguish those best-practice organiza-
Land Management Western Australia (Field tions from the rest.
and Shea, 1995) are viewing accreditation
as an additional means to ensure effective Implementing best practice in ecotourism
management of tour operators on public
land. Parks Victoria is offering extended Many businesses focus on achieving best
tenure on public land permits to accredited practice in a single area of the organization.
operators. Operators are showing increased This may be the financial or business man-
willingness to participate in the programme agement aspect, the operational compo-
as awareness is raised of the potential nents or the environmental management
benefits. requirements. To be considered a ‘best
practice organization’ businesses must adopt
Best Practice a philosophy of continuous improvement
in all areas of the operation including busi-
Achieving best practice is a goal for most ness, operational, environmental, risk man-
industries, including tourism. Best practice agement, interpretation, marketing and
may be distinguished from benchmarking service standards. It is acknowledged that
in that it identifies those practices that are this can often be a complex and time-
considered the most effective and efficient consuming process for most ecotourism
at the time. Best practice is a management businesses.
approach to operations and customer ser-
vice, which demands the highest standard Management must seek out new and
of performance at all times. cleaner technologies and apply these to
ensure that resources such as water and
Pigram (1998) suggests that best practice energy are conserved and recycling prac-
tices implemented (including grey- and

588 J.-P. Issaverdis

blackwater reuse and recovery systems). fairly naive as it focuses purely on cash
Ecotourism businesses, by definition, flow and limited capital, again a reality for
should be seen to be leading the tourism most small businesses. The issues of ongo-
industry in adopting environmentally sus- ing operating cost, maintenance cost,
tainable practices. Other key areas of the replacement costs, servicing requirements
operation include environmental interpre- and possible environmental impacts are
tation provided to consumers, ongoing often not considered. This approach is
education of consumers and local commu- extremely risky and is not recommended.
nities, and training and up-skilling of staff 3. Payback Period Comparison. This
and active involvement with the local approach considers the time required to
community. repay the extra capital costs of the equip-
ment or installation. This approach focuses
What is the optimal method to achieve purely on the financial cost aspects and
best practice? Operators may choose to tends to ignore the savings generated and
invest in the services of consultants, refer broad, long-term benefits of investing in
to industry experts, read industry guides or positive environmental practices.
documents, or simply network with other 4. Life cycle cost comparison. This
operators. In seeking improved environ- approach considers all of the costs and
mental practices worldwide, there are a benefits for each option. Various levels of
greater number of options for operators to analysis may be used, from sophisticated
choose from that will enable environmen- computer modelling to actual case study
tal, operational, business and service objec- comparison. This approach is inclusive of
tives to be met. An example is the design of all factors affecting the long-term success
accommodation facilities with effective, of the investment and is recommended
passive solar building design, which will (Commonwealth Department of Tourism,
reduce energy costs, improve environmen- 1995).
tal performance and ensure guest comfort
(Commonwealth Department of Tourism, NEAP innovative best practice
1995).
Australia’s NEAP encourages operators, as
Cost-benefit analysis part of their application for accreditation,
to nominate innovative best practice in cat-
Ensuring that businesses conduct an effec- egories including impact assessment, inter-
tive cost-benefit analysis is a requirement pretation and education, land use and
for achieving best practice. It is important location, conservation initiatives, natural
that a long-term approach is taken and that area management and working with local
all costs are considered including the envi- communities. Examples of possible best
ronmental costs and time costs. Examples practice are provided in the programme as
of different cost-benefit approaches may a guide to encourage improvement (EAA,
include: 1996).

1. Is it a good idea and can I afford it? Analysis of ‘real-life’ examples of best
This is often an approach taken by small practice, as nominated by operators who
business. Decisions are usually based upon have completed the NEAP programme
little formal analysis, but rather personal between 1997 and 1999, suggests that
beliefs regarding the benefits and availabil- many ecotourism operators are still rela-
ity of funds. This approach may result in tively unsophisticated in their understand-
decisions that do not effectively reduce ing of industry best practice. The
costs and environmental impacts. nominations are reflective of what
2. Purchase cost comparison. A simple Australian ecotourism operators believe
cost comparison approach in which pur- best practice to be. The operators’ nomina-
chasing price is reviewed. This approach is

The Pursuit of Excellence 589

tion of best practice is based upon their The marketing benefits of achieving
knowledge and experience gained through best practice
research, training, networking, visitation
and experiencing other ecotourism prod- Businesses intentionally strive to achieve
uct. Many of the nominations for best prac- best practice because it brings opportunity
tice would be considered as minimum and value. Recognition of achieving best
expectations for ecotourism businesses. practice among peers and industry will
This presents the question as to whether lead to increased profile and greater mar-
the level of information and type of educa- keting opportunities. Government tourism
tion provided by the industry is appropri- organizations will seek to profile those
ate, or whether the expectations of the businesses with travel journalists, travel
world’s best practice are unrealistic for agent and wholesaler familiarizations and
most ecotourism businesses. It is suggested overseas trade missions. Operators will
that the answer lies somewhere in- gain greater exposure through industry
between. conferences, educational institutions and
other training and development pro-
What is needed to achieve ecotourism grammes. Provided this exposure is used
best practice? effectively in marketing opportunities to
consumers, it can result in making con-
Based on the personal experience of the sumer choices easier when selecting one
author, the following elements are likely to ecotourism product over another.
be found in businesses that are striving for
ecotourism best practice: In 1999, the Canadian Tourist Com-
mission published a Catalogue of Best
• flexible management structure encourag- Practices in Adventure Travel and
ing all staff to share the goal of and take Ecotourism that has useful, practical infor-
responsibility for achieving operational mation on business management, product
excellence; and delivery, customer service and rela-
tions, training and human resources
• business and operational management development, resource protection and sus-
systems or strategies, which encourage tainability, social and community aspects,
organizational excellence; packaging, marketing and promotion, and
product development. The catalogue pro-
• staff experienced and skilled in environ- vides a useful means to identify best prac-
mental management techniques, good tices by industry, and to profile operators
problem-solving abilities and willing to performing at this level. The intent is to
take responsibility for the day-to-day identify and market excellence in Canadian
performance of the organization; nature-based and ecotourism product, and
to distribute the information nationally and
• consumers are encouraged to participate internationally to media, travel industry,
in improving environmental sustainabil- government and industry tourism organiza-
ity and contribute to the ongoing tions (Wight, 1999).
improvement of the ecotourism opera-
tion; Auditing

• positive presentation in the market- Auditing is the process a business under-
place, confident of its marketing com- goes to identify and confirm benchmarks,
petitiveness; to provide accreditation with reliability
and validity, and measure and verify best
• regular review of performance, open to practice. Appropriate internal and/or exter-
outside scrutiny by making results avail- nal audits can provide ecotourism busi-
able to industry experts and through
external audits;

• a leader in its field actively contributing
to industry issues through conferences,
workshops, local tourism and environ-
mental organizations.

590 J.-P. Issaverdis

nesses with valuable information regarding Auditing considerations
performance levels and can offer tangible
means to improve standards across the Cost is a real factor in establishing viable
organization. The audit must be based external auditing programmes, from the per-
upon a sound set of guidelines and clear spective of both the operator and the manag-
measurement criteria must be established. ing organization such as NEAP. Ecotourism
The actual audit process is based on ques- businesses often have to bear the cost of an
tions about the various operational and external audit by paying for the service
business management practices of an orga- themselves. The expertise, time and trans-
nization. A constructive report based upon portation of the auditor and the additional
the audit, which can be used to improve cost of hosting the auditor during the audit
performance, should form part of the com- process may be costly given the remote loca-
plete process. tion of many ecotourism businesses. This
fact alone prevents many small businesses
Internal and external audits from seeking external audits.

Internal audits may be conducted by indi- From the programme manager’s perspec-
viduals within the organization, provided tive, the cost of building in auditing costs
those individuals objectively measure per- to programmes such as those discussed
formance levels against pre-determined cri- above, may make the programme too costly
teria. Ideally the person should have for operators to consider. In addition the
undergone some form of auditor training to cost of auditor training, ensuring consistent
ensure reliability, objectivity and accuracy delivery of assessment standards, selection
in the auditing process. External audits, of appropriate auditors and ensuring confi-
such as Green Globe, are considered to be dentiality are challenging factors. Auditors
preferable as they are less prone to bias, must have empathy with the operators.
tend to be more objective, and are often They must be familiar with the various
more constructive for the operator. External challenges facing ecotourism businesses,
audits may be conducted by trained audi- such as low yield, seasonality, the lack of
tors, industry experts, other operators (peer business management training and the high
review) or even consumer-based audits cost of recyclable materials. Auditors must
such as customer reviews, surveys and approach the audit with a positive attitude
group feedback sessions. to ensure that the operator accepts the out-
comes of the audit.
External audits are critical in ensuring
that development programmes such as Training providers as auditors
industry-led accreditation programmes do
in fact measure operational performance The Australian accreditation process has
and that operators are delivering the ser- considered linking auditing to traditional
vice that they promise. The long-term cred- training providers such as training colleges
ibility of such programmes is dependent on or universities. Strong views exist both
effective external auditing being part of the supporting and opposing this considera-
process. Ideally, the audit should be con- tion. In support of the concept is the fact
ducted as part of the initial application that training providers are often based
stage. This may not be feasible, however, regionally and therefore travel costs for the
given cost, time and geographic location. It auditor can be minimized. The fact that
is recommended that an external audit is professional trainers are skilled communi-
conducted within 12 months of accredita- cators, understand the process of develop-
tion and at various ongoing stages in the ing skills in others and should be objective
product’s lifetime, for example every 2–3 in their assessment lend credibility to the
years. concept. The use of training providers
would also fulfil the desirable outcome of

The Pursuit of Excellence 591

removing the auditing responsibility from tive evaluation of the environmental per-
the programme’s managing organization. formance of the organization. It is impor-
tant that the process is systematic and
The opposing view is that training addresses all components of the operation
providers are often narrow in their base of (Goodall, 1995). Environmental audits have
expertise, often have little practical or similar objectives to environmental impact
operational experience and may see a com- assessments and should be seen as comple-
mercial advantage in conducting negative mentary processes in achieving sustainable
audits to pressure operators into seeking tourism practices among ecotourism busi-
formalized training. The matter is still nesses. The audit confirms compliance
unresolved. By utilizing carefully selected with environmental management planning
training providers who have operational regulations and ensures that the organiza-
experience and are already based in the tion is maintaining environmental standards
local area, then developing their auditor over time through relevant management
skills through training, an effective audit- and operational procedures.
ing programme may be developed. It could
be considered the ideal to establish an The importance of environmental audit-
independent audit organization although, ing programmes in establishing bench-
as previously discussed, the issue of cost marks and achieving best practice is well
becomes a major factor. Such organizations documented. Environmental auditing pro-
need to be commercially viable and there- grammes:
fore profit based.
increase the overall level of environmental
Environmental auditing awareness of the industry, assist tourism
management to improve environmental
Most ecotourism businesses are more standards through ‘benchmarking’ against
familiar with the concept of environmental proven performance, identify opportunities
audits, as opposed to business audits. to reinforce positive environmental
Environmental auditing is described by interactions and accelerate the achievement
Pigram (1998) as ‘a process whereby opera- of best practice environmental management
tions of an organization are monitored to in the industry.
determine whether they are in compliance
with regulatory requirements and environ- (Pigram, 1998)
mental policies and standards’. This
implies the need for businesses to be famil- Operators adopting environmental audits
iar with relevant environmental legislation may achieve the following tangible, com-
and the industry standards set in pro- mercial benefits:
grammes such as NEAP or Green Globe
(World Travel and Tourism Council, 1997). • more efficient use of resources and
The audits can be conducted through inter- waste minimization will result in cost
nal or external review. The person con- savings;
ducting the audit, the purpose of the audit
and for whom, as well as the broad opera- • environmental problems may be identi-
tional and business environment also need fied before they become liabilities;
to be considered (Moforth and Munt,
1998). • positive environmental practice bench-
marks may be established;
Environmental audits as management tools
• an organization’s corporate image may
Environmental audits are a management be improved;
tool that can provide a regular and objec-
• various marketing advantages may be
realized;

• investors, regulators, customers and the
community will have increased confi-
dence in the product;

• higher quality employees, who are bet-
ter motivated, may be recruited
(Goodall, 1995).

592 J.-P. Issaverdis

The value of audits is undisputed. They ing the process to be too hard, consumers
form an integral part of benchmarking, purchasing ecotourism product based on
accreditation and best-practice ecotourism price alone, and lack of tangible benefits for
management. The challenge is to establish operators from government and industry
effective audit programmes which are not organizations. It is vital that the benefits of
cost prohibitive, can be easily implemented, purchasing accredited and best practice
and deliver acceptable outcomes for opera- product are communicated to consumers.
tors, which can be continuously reviewed.
Audits must be perceived by the sector as Recognizing the ‘best’ ecotourism practice
an essential tool to improve performance,
not some form of ‘test’ or criticism. Perhaps it is time for the ecotourism sector
to make a positive move towards recogniz-
Conclusion ing outstanding environmental, business
and operational performance. Awards have
It has been argued that one can only be as not been discussed in the chapter but are
green as one can afford to be. Is it going to an area of growing interest. An award pro-
take an environmental or operational disas- vides recognition of the ‘best’ operators in
ter to ‘force’ ecotourism businesses to a category. There must be a tangible value
undergo business improvement processes? in encouraging operators to go through the
The ecotourism sector would be well rigorous process of award submission and
advised to demonstrate a greater commit- assessment such as a marketing advantage
ment to continuous raising of standards, if over competitors. The process must be
it wishes to maintain its marketing advan- inclusive, open to scrutiny and open to all
tage as a sector which achieves sustainabil- comers. The award process should also be
ity and offers high-quality products. linked to national or international pro-
grammes to further enhance credibility and
The pursuit of establishing benchmarks, increase the value to operators. The value
supporting industry-led accreditation pro- to operators as well as consumers, and ulti-
grammes, striving for best practice and mately to sustainable environmental prac-
implementing internal and external audit- tices is the fundamental purpose of all
ing processes must become an integral part improvement programmes.
of the ongoing business practices of all eco-
tourism operators. Wearing (1995) suggests Adopting improved ecotourism business
the ecotourism sector needs to prepare practices
effectively for a growth in professionalism,
with increased demand for ecotourism The growing awareness and understanding
product, an increasing number of eco- of the many challenges facing the sector in
tourism operators and more informed defining and improving benchmarks,
tourists. As discussed in the chapter, a implementing accreditation programmes,
commitment to the various processes establishing best practice and developing
intended to improve performance must operational audit programmes which have
come with a commitment to underpinning value to both consumers and the sector is
the integrity of these processes through clearly highlighted. The ultimate goal is
auditing. Consideration should also be that ecotourism businesses must perceive
given to linking with other types of busi- the advantage in achieving audited bench-
ness accreditation and award programmes, marks, accreditation and best practice, or at
education and staff development pro- least be convinced of the disadvantage of
grammes, such as formalized training for not pursuing this approach.
managers, guides and other employees.
The advantages must clearly relate to
Threats to the success of industry-led the economic benefits to the business. The
improvement programmes exist in the form
of industry complacency, operators perceiv-

The Pursuit of Excellence 593

goal of these programmes is not to have all Acknowledgement
ecotourism businesses adopting the same
approach to business management, but Gratitude is expressed to the National
rather to encourage all businesses to do Ecotourism Accreditation Program for sup-
better in all areas of their operation, partic- plying the NEAP Accreditation product fig-
ularly environmental practice (Pigram, ures and operator Best Practice material,
1998). Industry development programmes and Victoria University in Melbourne,
must allow for the diverse, dynamic nature Australia.
of the ecotourism sector and must allow
well-performing ecotourism operations
opportunities for further innovation.

References

Australian Tourism Operators Network (1996) ATON Tourism Accreditation Program – Tour
Operators and Attractions. Australian Tourism Operators Network, Melbourne.

Bassin, Z., Breault, M., Fleming, J., Foell, S., Neufield, J. and Priest, S. (1992) AEE organizational
membership preference for program accreditation. Journal of Experiential Education 15(2),
21–27.

Bergin, S. and Jago, L.K. (1999) Accreditation of adventure tour operators: the consumer perspective.
In: Molloy, J. and Davies, J. (eds) Delighting the Senses, Proceedings of the Ninth Australian
Tourism and Hospitality Research Conference, CAUTHE, Adelaide, pp. 305–316.

Büyüközkan, G. and Maire, J.L. (1998) Benchmarking process formalization and a case study.
Benchmarking for Quality Management and Technology 5(2), 101–125.

Codling, B. (1998) Benchmarking: a model for successful implementation of the conclusions of
benchmarking studies. Benchmarking for Quality Management and Technology 5(3), 158–164.

Commonwealth Department of Tourism (1994) National Ecotourism Strategy. CdoT, Canberra.
Commonwealth Department of Tourism (1995) Best Practice Ecotourism: a Guide to Energy and

Waste Minimisation. CdoT, Canberra.
Commonwealth of Australia (1991) Ecologically Sustainable Development Working Groups – Final

Report Tourism. CdoT, Canberra, pp. 14–36.
Cotterill, D. (1996) Developing and sustainable ecotourism business. In: Richins, H., Richardson, J.

and Crabtree, A. (eds) Ecotourism and Nature-Based Tourism: Taking the Next Steps.
Proceedings of the Ecotourism Association of Australia National Conference. EAA, Brisbane,
pp. 135–140.
Dowling, R. and Charters, T. (1999) Ecotourism in Queensland. In: Molloy, J. and Davies, J. (eds)
Delighting the Senses: Proceedings of the Ninth Australian Tourism and Hospitality Research
Conference. CAUTHE, Adelaide, pp. 262–275.
Ecotourism Association of Australia (EAA) (1996) National Ecotourism Accreditation Program.
EAA/ATON, Brisbane.
Fennell, D.A. (1999) Ecotourism: an Introduction. Routledge, New York.
Field, G. and Shea, S. (1995) Tour accreditation – beyond licences and workshops. In: Richins, H.,
Richardson, J. and Crabtree, A. (eds) Ecotourism and Nature-Based Tourism: Taking the Next
Steps. Proceedings of the Ecotourism Association of Australia National Conference. EAA,
Brisbane, pp. 211–213.
Gass, M. and Williamson, J. (1995) Accreditation for Adventure Programs. JOPERD January, 22–27.
Goodall, B. (1995) Environmental auditing: a tool for assessing the environmental performance of
tourism firms. Geographical Journal 161(1), 29–37.
Issaverdis, J. (1998) Tourism industry accreditation – a comparative critique of developments in
Australia. MBus thesis, Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia.
McKercher, B. (1998) The Business of Nature-based Tourism. Hospitality Press, Melbourne.
Moforth, M. and Munt, I. (1998) Tourism and Sustainability: New Tourism in the Third World.
Routledge, London.

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Nielsen, N., Birtles, A. and Sofield, T. (1995) Ecotourism accreditation: shouldn’t the tourists have a
say? In: Richins, H., Richardson, J. and Crabtree, A. (eds) Ecotourism and Nature-Based
Tourism: Taking the Next Steps. Proceedings of the Ecotourism Association of Australia
National Conference. EAA, Brisbane, pp. 235–242.

Pearce, P.L., Morrison, A.M. and Rutledge, J.L. (1998) Tourism: Bridges across Continents. McGraw-
Hill, Sydney.

Pigram, J.J. (1998) Best practice environmental management and the tourism industry. In: Cooper, C.
and Wanhill, S. (eds) Tourism Development: Environmental and Community Issues. John Wiley
& Sons, Chichester, UK, pp. 117–127.

Povey, B. (1998) The development of a best practice business process improvement methodology.
Benchmarking for Quality Management and Technology 5(1), 27–44.

Tourism Council Australia (1998) Being Green Keeps you Out of the Red. TCA, Sydney.
Tourism Council Australia (1999) Being Green is your Business. TCA, Sydney.
Voss, C., Ahlstrom, P. and Blackmon, K. (1997) Benchmarking and operational performance: some

empirical results. International Journal of Operations and Production Management 17(10),
1046–1059.
Wearing, S. (1995) Professionalism and accreditation of ecotourism. Leisure and Recreation 37(4),
31–36.
Wight, P. (1999) Catalogue of Exemplary Practices in Adventure Travel and Ecotourism. Canadian
Tourism Commission, Ottawa.
World Travel and Tourism Council (1997) Green Globe. World Travel and Tourism Council, London.

Section 8

Methodologies, Research and Resources

D.B. Weaver

School of Tourism and Hotel Management, Griffith University Gold Coast Campus,
Queensland, Australia

Ecotourism, as stated several times cles that employed qualitative research are
throughout this volume, is still in its frequently based on perfunctory methods
infancy as a focus of both research and providing no confidence that the results
practice. The purpose of this final collection can be extended beyond each particular
of chapters is to assess how far ecotourism case in point. In short, ecotourism (like
has evolved during the past 15 years with tourism in general, it should be added) has
respect to the means by which knowledge yet to demonstrate the same rigour in the
in this area is being generated and dissemi- application of methodology that character-
nated, and with regard to the knowledge izes some of the more mature social sci-
that is still required. Good research is the ences. Until it does so, the reliability of its
key to the development of a reliable knowl- underlying database will be a matter of
edge base upon which sound management concern.
decisions can be made, and therefore the
findings of Backman and Morais in Chapter In Chapter 39, Eagles pursues the theme
38 give cause for concern. In an analysis of of information needs and sources within
a major refereed journal that showcases the ecotourism sector, again pointing out
much of the leading edge ecotourism the need for a higher level of knowledge
research, they show that most articles use and expertise across an array of areas as the
some kind of quantitative approach to the sector becomes increasingly complex and
collection of data. However, the great competitive. Product managers, for exam-
majority of these articles do not progress ple, must provide quality interpretation in
beyond simple frequencies and distribu- order to ensure visitor satisfaction, and this
tions, or beyond ‘exploratory’ studies. means that the standard and knowledge of
Statistical techniques that demonstrate guides must be constantly improved. Yet,
cause-and-effect relationships or facilitate relatively little information is currently
categorization and analysis, such as cluster available, and that which is available may
and factor analysis, or analysis of variance, not be accessible to or known by the rele-
are notably inconspicuous. Furthermore, vant practitioners. The same can be said for
few attempts were evident to test or pro- market segmentation research, much of
pose general theories, or even to engage in which is controlled by private companies.
comparative case study analysis. The arti- The situation is improving in some areas.
For example, Eagles cites a recently pub-

© CAB International 2001. The Encyclopedia of Ecotourism 595
(ed. D.B. Weaver)

596 D.B. Weaver

lished book (McKercher, 1998) that details value the analytical and theoretical skills
the practical business aspects of eco- that are obtained in a university environ-
tourism and compiles a great deal of useful ment. The promotion of a more formal dia-
generic information that hitherto had been logue between the education and private
scattered among hundreds of separate sector is, therefore, an imperative if each is
sources. It is to be hoped that similar works to benefit from exposure to the other.
will appear in such critical areas as inter-
pretation, marketing, impact management, The final chapter in this section reflects
and so on. Much good information is on the research needs that are required in
already available in these areas, though in the ecotourism sector. Like several of the
a highly fragmented form, and often in dis- other contributors to this section, Fennell
ciplines not directly related to ecotourism points out and laments the lack of rigour,
or tourism in general. sound empirical data, and theory-building
within the field of ecotourism, though
Eagles rightly states that good eco- acknowledges that this is largely explained
tourism management will require the kind by its infancy. According to Fennell, the
of broad and rigorous training that can only areas that should be recognized and pur-
be provided by the tertiary education sec- sued as priority research foci in ecotourism
tor. In Chapter 40, Lipscombe and are related to ethics, values, attitudes and
Thwaites take stock of the situation with impacts. This is because of the special
respect to ecotourism training and educa- onus that ecotourism places on issues such
tion, focusing on Australia because of the as learning, interaction with sensitive envi-
leadership demonstrated by that country in ronments, and the imperative of sustain-
this field. They report that the ecotourism- ability. Hence, even the more utilitarian
trained graduate must possess a variety of aspects of ecotourism, such as the business
skills, attitudes and knowledge in order to components described by Eagles, are
meet the needs of the sector, including underpinned by these deeper considera-
evaluative and analytical skills that require tions. Operators need to balance environ-
familiarity with various research tech- mental sustainability with their own
niques. An increasing number of pro- financial viability, while ecotourists need
grammes have been established in to balance the former with their desire for
Australian universities and community satisfying experiences. For example, eco-
colleges to produce such graduate out- tourism operators must be aware of ‘social
comes, and this is a very positive sign of traps’ wherein the environment is
the sector’s growing maturity. From virtu- degraded because of a tendency to consider
ally no relevant programmes in 1994, there the individual rather than collective wel-
were about 75 on offer in Australia by fare. Fennell also discusses values and
2000, only a small number of which, how- ethics as dimensions that underlie the
ever, actually include the word ecotourism types of experience that are sought by eco-
in the course name. Despite this progress, a tourists and offered by practitioners, codes
major outstanding issue is the lack of inter- of ethics being one example of a related
action between the tertiary sector and the practical outcome. In sum, all of these
industry that will eventually absorb most often neglected dimensions must be
of the ecotourism graduates. Industry tends engaged by all participants in the sector if
to favour ‘real life’ experience, while grad- ecotourism is to fulfil its mandate as a
uates complain that industry does not ‘responsible’ form of tourism.

Reference

McKercher, B. (1998) The Business of Nature-based Tourism. Hospitality Press, Elsternwick, Victoria,
Australia.

Chapter 38

Methodological Approaches
Used in the Literature

K.F. Backman1 and D.B. Morais2

1Department of Parks, Recreation and Tourism Management, Clemson University, Clemson,
South Carolina, USA; 2School of Hotel, Restaurant and Recreation Management,
Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA

The reviewing of past research efforts facil- the field of ecotourism. This was accom-
itates an improvement and understanding plished by reviewing the primary thrust of
of research and reveals the philosophical, articles published in the Journal of
conceptual, substantive and technical Sustainable Tourism (JST) between the
problems of research in a field as broadly years 1994 and1999, along with a review of
defined as ecotourism (Wells and Picou, some technical reports and a sample of
1981; Reid and Andereck, 1989; Malhotra articles from other journals such as the
et al., 1999). This process can be particu- Annals of Tourism Research (ATR) and the
larly beneficial to a developing field like Journal of Travel Research (JTR) during the
ecotourism, where there is a limited same 6-year time period. The chapter also
knowledge base regarding research prac- presents a brief review of a sample of the
tices and techniques employed. different academic fields as they applied
their methods to the study of ecotourism.
As research in areas such as tourism and Additionally, a cross-classification of vari-
marketing show (Dann et al., 1988; Reid and ous research techniques using ecotourism
Andereck, 1989; Malhotra et al., 1999), a research was done and observations on the
starting point to gain this knowledge is application of these research techniques to
through assessing academic journals. These address methodological issues in eco-
publications constitute an indicator of the tourism are reported. Finally, the chapter
direction a field has taken and provide an provides a discussion of the limitations of
index of the level of research proficiency this study and some direction ecotourism
achieved by the field. Thus, in the examina- research could take as we move further
tion of the research techniques used, it is into the 21st century.
possible to assess the methodological sophis-
tication of current ecotourism research Method
efforts and compile an inventory of the pop-
ularity of various techniques utilized. The main data analysed for this chapter
were the research methodologies used in
The purpose of this chapter is to sum- academic journals. The use of academic
marize the current state of research in eco-
tourism by reviewing the breadth and
popularity of research techniques used in

© CAB International 2001. The Encyclopedia of Ecotourism 597
(ed. D.B. Weaver)

598 K.F. Backman and D.B. Morais

journals as a sample source for this study As a consequence, there has been an abun-
was deemed appropriate because one of the dance of studies of the economic impact of
steps in the scientific process is the com- ecotourism development. The large major-
munication of research findings to a wider ity of those studies use an input–output
audience, and particularly to one’s acade- economic model (see Chapter 23). A prob-
mic peers. Also, academic journals, though lem that becomes apparent upon analysis
sometimes prolonging the delay in publica- of the economic impacts of ecotourism is
tion because of the peer-review and print- an evident increase in leakage due to con-
ing processes, are still generally considered trol of the industry by foreign investors.
the primary source for ‘cutting edge’ Two main factors limit the economic bene-
research in a field (Babbie, 1995; Witt, fits of the local community: (i) all-inclusive
1995). The major criticism against acade- lodging is centred on multinational chain
mic journals has been the limited accessi- hotels blocking local ownership from
bility and applicability of many of their direct profits; and (ii) high paying jobs are
ideas to practitioners in professional set- not offered to locals, which limits the
tings. However, for the purposes of this impact through employment. For example,
chapter, the important component to con- some studies of national parks in Kenya
sider is the identification of the ‘cutting revealed that national parks’ visitor rev-
edge’ methods being used in ecotourism enues were used to maintain the park
research, not their potential application by ranger system, and were not used to
professionals. The reason that the three improve the quality of life of the local resi-
journals listed above were selected over dents or preserve the natural environment
other journals publishing tourism research (Dieke, 1991).
was their major focus on tourism sustain-
ability, which is a core criterion of eco- Ecological studies
tourism. Although a large proportion of the
articles in JST, ATR and JTR therefore deal Many studies in the literature have focused
directly or indirectly with ecotourism, this on the impact of ecotourism in the environ-
is not the sole focus of these journals. The ment, and have used a more diverse array
total number of articles examined over this of methods than is evident in the econom-
6-year period was 147. The research meth- ics literature. In Kenya, studies revealed
ods were differentiated first between the that daily observation of the cheetah inhib-
quantitative and qualitative methods used, ited them from hunting and gave them
then evaluated for the type of statistical or undue difficulties to survive and mate.
analytical method employed. The third Other studies in Central America examined
evaluation used in this study was geo- the management policies necessary to con-
graphic, in terms of the location of the trol the negative impact on coral reef and
research studies as well as the institutions fish populations that has been registered in
with which the authors are affiliated. Belize and other popular marine scuba-div-
Because this is only a descriptive assess- ing destinations. For example, researchers
ment of what research methods have been have discovered that rays in a marine park
used in the ecotourism literature, no in- in Belize have been suffering from skin
depth analysis of the data was attempted. burns (from tourist handling), and changes
in behaviour and feeding habits (tourists
A Sample of Disciplinary Fields feeding them) (Lindberg et al., 1996). In
Studied in Ecotourism Antarctica, observation methods borrowed
from biological sciences were employed to
Economic studies examine the influence of the impact of ice-
cruises on the wildlife and flora of the most
Economic benefits of tourism are often the popular landing areas of the South
driving force for implementing ecotourism. Shetland Islands (Aeero and Aguirre, 1994).

Methodological Approaches Used in the Literature 599

Social-psychological studies measured with numbers and then analysed
with appropriate statistical procedures
A few studies in the ecotourism literature (Creswell, 1994). The results of these statis-
attempted to evaluate social-psychological tical procedures help to determine whether
aspects of ecotourist behaviour. Initial the predictive generalizations of the theory
studies of motives were carried out in areas hold true in the ecotourism context
as diverse as Australia, Canada and the USA (Creswell, 1994; Babbie, 1995).
(Eagles, 1992; Wight, 1996; Blamey and
Braithwaite, 1997). Another approach is to The question then comes to mind, why
segment the ecotourism market, as was select one paradigm over another? The rea-
done in South Carolina, USA, using psy- sons for selection relate to the researchers’
chographic characteristics of visitors. For views of the world, their training and expe-
example in one study in the south-eastern rience in research, the researchers’ psycho-
region of the USA, ecotourists were found logical attributes and the attitudes and
to be highly involved in their ecotourist nature of the problem being researched. In
behaviour and considered themselves to be the qualitative study method two
opinion leaders in the south-eastern region approaches to the unit of observation can
of the USA (Jamrozy et al., 1996). be used. The emic approach emphasizes
the importance of collecting data in the
Types of Methods Used in the form of verbatim texts from the informants
Ecotourism Literature in order to preserve the original meaning of
the information (Pelto and Pelto, 1978).
The quality of qualitative and quantitative The second approach is the etic which
methods studies human behaviour as the classifica-
tion of body motions in the terms of the
The research design of a study generally effect these emotions have on the environ-
begins with the selection of two things: ment (Pelto and Pelto, 1978). Thus, some
first a topic and second a paradigm emic-focused study methods are partici-
(Creswell, 1994). Paradigms are used in pant observation, key-informant interview-
social science to help understand phenom- ing, collection of life histories and
ena. They also advance assumptions about structured interviews and surveys. Some
the world being studied, how the science etic-focused study methods are measure-
should be conducted. As Creswell (1994) ment of social interaction, proxemics and
states, paradigms generally encompass videotape research, content analysis of
both theories and methods, and the two folktales and other literature, archives
most widely used in the literature are the records and technical equipment in field-
qualitative and quantitative paradigms. In work.
this chapter, a qualitative study is defined
as being consistent with the assumptions of The qualitative study approaches that
a qualitative paradigm. It includes an have been used in tourism research in gen-
enquiry process of understanding an eco- eral and to some lesser extent ecotourism
tourism problem by building a complex, research are methods focused around areas
holistic picture formed with words, report- such as managerial perspectives, national,
ing the detailed views of informants and regional and municipal perspectives,
conducting this research in a natural set- industry perspectives and impact assess-
ting (Creswell, 1994). ment. Particular data collection methods
used in tourism research include surveys
As opposed to the qualitative process, (pre-trip, en route and post-trip), delphi
the quantitative study is consistent with technique methods, model building, multi-
the quantitative paradigm, and is an dimensional scaling, marketing assessment
enquiry into ecotourism problems based on (of communication, advertising, conversion
testing a theory composed of variables, studies, etc.), forecasting tourist demand,
and industry structure (Ritchie and
Goeldner, 1994; Smith, 1995).

600 K.F. Backman and D.B. Morais

Finally, the thrust of the debate between 1998). In the ecotourism literature,
which research study method (qualitative researchers frequently conduct participant
or quantitative) is most appropriate is observations consisting of only a few visits
moot, for what that decision should be of short duration to a destination. Many
guided by is the research problem identi- then fail to recognize the limitations of
fied. The researchers in ecotourism may be their data and assume to have captured the
guided by the concept that if the problem essence of the culture they are visiting.
is concentrated to a few subjects and you
need a great deal of information on them a Often in ecotourism research, authors
qualitative research method would be most become very attached to the destination
appropriate. If, on the other hand, the prob- they are researching, and tend to collect
lem relates to a large number of subjects, data and interpret them based on their sub-
but only requires information on a few jective beliefs. To compensate for this ten-
variables then probably a quantitative dency researchers may debrief their
method might be performed. findings with other experts, the authors
may go back to their original subjects and
There are several criteria that may be check if their interpretation was accurate,
used to assess the quality of the methodol- or the authors may obtain data from multi-
ogy used in a study. An important quality ple sources and compare the consistency of
of the data obtained is its neutrality. The the findings (i.e. triangulation) (Newman
concept of neutrality is related to the fact and Benz, 1998). The ecotourism literature
that both qualitative and quantitative meth- has been poor in reporting methods of
ods use some degree of subjectivity in the reducing researcher bias. Only a limited
process of data collection. To minimize sub- number of studies used the triangulation of
jectivity of data collection, and thereby qualitative and quantitative methods to
attain more valid findings, authors attempt gain a more accurate insight into the phe-
to document their judgements with evi- nomenon being studied.
dence. They might also use multiple
observers and seek consistency among their Qualitative methods
observations and interpretation of the data
obtained (Newman and Benz, 1998). In the A significant portion of the literature
ecotourism literature, few authors report employs qualitative methods to examine
explicit attempts to minimize the subjectiv- various ecotourism phenomena. The use of
ity of their data collection and interpreta- qualitative research methods can arguably
tion process. The problem of subjectivity, in be very useful in this field due to the lack
contrast, was prevalent in case studies of knowledge and need for understanding
where data was obtained from selected sec- the meaning of phenomena that do not nec-
ondary sources and their interpretation was essarily obey the theories developed under
based on the experience of the authors. the scope of mass tourism. However, many
of the qualitative studies encountered in
A challenge applicable mainly to stud- the ecotourism literature are characterized
ies adopting a qualitative methodology is by poor methodology. For example, many
that sometimes the data obtained may authors use personal notes from informal
accurately describe an occurrence, but not interviews as the main source of data for
capture the true essence of the phenome- their discussion. Others engage in partici-
non. Also the data may not detect if the pant observation during a reduced number
occurrence is frequent or sporadic, and of visits to a destination, and use the lim-
therefore atypical of the phenomenon. To ited insight from that data collection and
minimize these challenges, authors need to their personal experience to reach broad
conduct their study with prolonged conclusions and recommendations. Fre-
engagement on-site to detect trends and quently, regardless of the data collection
abnormal events, and they need to conduct methods used, authors do not give an
persistent observation to determine the fre-
quency of events (Newman and Benz,

Methodological Approaches Used in the Literature 601

explanation of how they conducted the studies are often undertaken by individuals
analysis of the information they collected. associated in some form with the governing
Finally, only a very limited number of agencies of the study area, which could
studies (e.g. Getz and Jamal, 1994) used potentially compromise the credibility of
some type of triangulation to improve their the document. Therefore it would be advis-
accuracy. able that researchers try to strengthen their
contribution to the ecotourism literature by
On the other hand, there are a small seeking collaborative efforts with acade-
number of studies that have used qualita- mics or other independent researchers that
tive methodologies to their best capability. are clearly removed from pressures of local
Very often, the qualitative methods were tourism agencies and community. An
used in parallel with quantitative ones, example of a study that incorporated the
which typically strengthened the study. A collaboration of independent researchers is
good example of a study incorporating both Palacio and McCool’s (1997) analysis of the
quantitative and qualitative methodologies ecotourist segments in Belize.
was the Banff-Bow Valley Study (Ritchie,
1998). This study used focus-groups and Interviews
on-site surveys to gather information about Other methods used frequently to collect
the impact of tourism in an ecologically data are structured and unstructured inter-
sensitive destination. Other studies have views (see Table 38.1). These interviews
incorporated structured interviews or par- are conducted either with tourists, with
ticipant observation to bring depth to more local residents, or with travel agents. In-
superficial but extensive findings obtained depth interviews are not used as frequently
through on-site surveys and analysis of sec- as either structured or informal interviews.
ondary demographic data (Wall, 1993; Burton (1998) used in-depth interviews of
Barron and Prideaux, 1998). ecotourism operators to assess their strate-
gies to cope with tourism growth in
Case studies Australia. Focus groups are a special form
The qualitative method most frequently of interviewing that benefit from the inter-
used in ecotourism literature has been the action of various subjects with the help of a
case study (see Table 38.1). This methodol- moderator and are useful to help identify
ogy is also used very frequently in the gen- specific research topics to concentrate on
eral tourism literature (Ryan, 1995). Case and to suggest questions and issues impor-
studies have been mainly used to describe tant to the subject population. For example
the evolution of several variables suppos- Hobson and Mak (1995) used focus groups
edly due to the implementation of specific to gain insight into the characteristics and
tourism developments. Many articles con- motivations of tourists who participated in
sist of the analysis of the environment a tour focused on the culture and commu-
under the perspective of the researcher. nity of Hong Kong.
The discussion is based on personal expe-
rience, or based on secondary data col- Observation methods
lected from local, regional or national Another method used frequently in qualita-
tourism-governing agencies. Despite the tive studies has been participant observa-
value of this type of report, they lack gener- tion. This method, however, has not been
alizability and therefore have limited used to its full potential. Participant obser-
importance to the development of the body vation involves prolonged contact with
of knowledge addressing ecotourism. the study subjects either informing them of
Furthermore, these idiosyncratic studies the study or hiding it from the subjects. As
seldom use knowledge from previous an example, Thomlison and Getz (1996)
empirical findings, and often do not con- participated in a number of prolonged
sider the results from similar case studies
conducted elsewhere. In addition, these

602 K.F. Backman and D.B. Morais

Table 38.1. Data collection methods used in the ecotourism literature.

Methodology Data collection Frequency Percentage

Qualitative Case study 21 14.3
Structured interviews 9 6.1
Quantitative Informal interviews 6 4.1
Participant observation 4 2.7
Qualitative and quantitative Content analysis 4 2.7
Conceptual Focus groups 2 1.4
Total In-depth interviews 2 1.4
Other forms of observation 2 1.4
Analysis of images 1 0.7
On-site surveys
Mail-out surveys 16 10.9
Secondary data 15 10.2
Phone surveys 15 10.2
Mechanical/systematic observation
5 3.4
3 2.0
3 2.0
39 26.5
147 100

Some articles used multiple methods of data collection.

ecotours in Central America to gain in- into two broad categories. First, there are
depth, first-hand knowledge of the working studies that examine essentially demo-
environment of ecotourism companies. graphic data through the use of descriptive
Other forms of observation methods used statistics, typically with the objective of
by ecotourism researchers have been characterizing the economic and social
mechanical forms of observation, and meth- environment of a host population or target
ods borrowed from the biological sciences market. Second, more comprehensive stud-
to measure impact on the environment. A ies examine complex relationships and
mechanical observation device (automatic cause-and-effect associations between vari-
person and bicycle counter unit) was used ables describing the hosts or markets and
by Cope et al. (1998) to assess the use level their behaviour. These latter studies often
of a long-distance cycle route. employ factor-cluster segmentation proce-
dures, or other simpler forms of clustering
Analysis of qualitative data procedures. They typically include differ-
Only rarely did studies report the specific ent statistical tests for examining the differ-
techniques used to analyse the data ences between the groups obtained. The
obtained from qualitative methods. Some tests observed were chi-squared, t-test, and
of the techniques reported in the eco- analysis of variance. In addition, some
tourism literature were coding (1.3%), sort- studies used multiple regression to model
ing (1.3%), imagery and semiotics (1.3%), the variables explaining certain behav-
looking for dominant themes (2.6%), and ioural patterns.
phenomenological interpretation (1.2%)
(see Table 38.2). There was an apparent difference
between authors that used more sophisti-
Quantitative methods cated statistical analysis, and those who
limited their data analysis to description.
Studies employing quantitative methods in That is, it seems that some authors tested
the field of ecotourism can be classified principles and relationships of mass
tourism in the ecotourism field, and for
that purpose they used more sophisticated
methods. On the other hand, other authors

Methodological Approaches Used in the Literature 603

Table 38.2. Data analysis techniques used in the ecotourism literature.

Methodology Data analysis Frequency Percentage

Quantitative Descriptive statistics 43 55.9
Chi-squared 4 5.2
Qualitative T-tests 4 5.2
Total ANOVA 3 3.9
MANOVA 1 1.3
Discriminant analysis 3 3.9
Regression 3 3.9
Factor analysis 4 5.2
Cluster analysis 5 6.5
Coding 1 1.3
Sorting 1 1.3
Imagery + semiotics 1 1.3
Triangulation 1 1.3
Dominant themes 2 2.6
Phenomenological interpretation 1 1.2

77 100

Conceptual articles and articles without specified methods of data analysis were not included in this table;
some articles used multiple types of techniques.

seemed to be analysing the ecotourism were conceptual articles at 26.5% and case
phenomenon as a completely new field of studies at 14.3% (see Table 38.1). These
research and therefore had to start by findings tend to support Ross and Wall’s
describing the context. (1999) argument that in the research and
practice of the ecotourism field, the one
Results of Examination of Ecotourism missing element has been the absence of
Literature ecotourism theory and the operationaliza-
tion of that theory. The articles reviewed
Method of data collection for this chapter suggest that some effort is
being made to move toward the develop-
The most common method of data collec- ment of more theoretical grounding in eco-
tion used in the sampled articles was the tourism research but that, at the point this
on-site survey, which represented 10.9% of body of research is today, the field has fur-
methods (see Table 38.1). This method has ther to go to get to the level Ross and Wall
been attributed with the advantage of pro- (1999) are suggesting the field should
viding a short turn-around on the data col- reach.
lection process. The next two most
commonly used methods were mail-out Ecotourism data analysis methods
surveys and secondary data analysis at
10.2%. The most commonly used quantita- The results of an evaluation of the types of
tive method used for data collection was data analysis used in the ecotourism litera-
structured interviews at 6.1%. The second ture suggested that for quantitative studies
most popular method used was informal the most frequently used method of ana-
interviews at 4.1%, followed by participant lysts was the reporting of descriptive statis-
observation and content analysis each at tics, at 55.8% of the total (see Table 38.2).
2.7%. However, this summary reporting, in most
instances, was all the analysis needed and
When including all types of articles was appropriate for the purposes of the
addressing ecotourism in the literature, the studies conducted and reported in the
two most frequently used methodologies

604 K.F. Backman and D.B. Morais

journal. Other types of statistical methods followed by Canada at 11.7%, Australia at
used besides descriptives were cluster 10.6%, and New Zealand, UK, Indonesia
analysis 6.5%, and factor analysis, chi- and Antarctica at 5.2% each. These coun-
squared analysis, and t-tests at 5.2% each. tries were followed by many other coun-
As for qualitative data analysis methods tries on every continent. This shows that
used in the literature, these were used ecotourism research is a global concern
much less often, but are certainly of no less and the likelihood is that ecotourism will
importance. Identification of dominant continue to grow in importance as we
themes in the data collected were used in move further into this century.
2.6% of the studies, while coding, sorting,
imagery and semiotics, triangulation and Location of ecotourism researchers
phenomenological interpretation were all
used at an equal frequency of 1.3% (see The study characteristic analysed with
Table 38.2). regard to the ecotourism literature is not so
much a true methodology component but
In summary, the previous discussion rather relates to the origin of who is doing
suggests that the vast majority of the stud- ecotourism research. Thus, we assessed the
ies using a quantitative methodology in the literature in search of the country of origin
ecotourism field used descriptive statistics of the authors of the papers on ecotourism,
to present their findings. This does not that is, the location of the author’s acade-
mean quantitative research methodology is mic or employer affiliation as reported in
superior to qualitative but more likely the published articles. It was found that
means that quantitative methods are authors from the UK, at 22.7%, were most
quicker to complete and easier to interpret, represented (see Table 38.4). This group
especially if conducted at such a rudimen- was followed by authors from Australia
tary level. In fact there is a lot to gain by 20.3%, the USA at 18.8% and Canada at
incorporating both methodologies in one 17.9% of all authors publishing in this
study. Only three (2.0%) of the studies journal. Again, many other countries from
examined incorporated both methodologi- around the globe were represented but at a
cal approaches (see Table 38.1), but it was much lower frequency of publication than
evident that these studies presented the first four mentioned. Finally, as Figs
strengths and provided in depth and rigor- 38.1 and 38.2 reveal, the number one geo-
ous analysis and discussion of the findings graphic region in which ecotourism has
(Hobson and Mak, 1995; Barron and been researched is the Americas, and this
Prideaux, 1998; Ritchie, 1998). is the number one geographic region of ori-
gin for ecotourism researchers as well.
Geographic Distribution of Research However, the figures from Oceania, though
and Authors significantly lower, are remarkable in their
own right given the relatively small popu-
Location of destinations lation of this region. This shows that
despite the global nature of the ecotourism
The third aspect of research methodology field much of the current research is con-
in the ecotourism literature considered in centrated in the more developed countries.
this analysis includes the destination
where the data was collected. This aspect Conclusions
of the research process is important to the
assessment of which regions of the world With regard to the development of a
are taking the lead in adopting ecotourism research agenda, a field such as ecotourism
as a viable industry and where most new that is in its relative infancy requires
knowledge regarding the field is originat- assessment of its research agenda and
ing. In this study, the USA was the most
popular location at 13.8% (see Table 38.3),

Methodological Approaches Used in the Literature 605

Table 38.3. Destinations studied in the ecotourism literature. Percentage

Destination 13.8
11.7
Continent Country Frequency
3.1
America USA 13 2.1
Sub-total Canada 11 2.1
Costa Rica 1.1
Belize 3 1.1
Honduras 2 1.1
Ecuador 2 1.1
Jamaica 1 1.1
Dominica 1 38.3
Cayman Islands 1
Brazil 1 10.6
1 5.2
Oceania Australia 36
Sub-total New Zealand 15.8
10
Europe UK 5 5.2
Sub-total Ireland 2.1
Austria 15 2.1
Spain 2.1
Poland 5 1.1
Sweden 2 1.1
Greece 2 1.1
Switzerland 2 1.1
Romania 1 1.1
Germany 1 1.1
1 18.1
Asia Indonesia 1
Sub-total Thailand 1 5.2
Pacific islands (Fiji, Tahiti, 1 3.1
17
Hawaii, Tonga) 2.1
Malaysia 5 1.1
Hong Kong 3 1.1
Maldives 1.1
India 2 1.1
China 1 1.1
1 15.9
Antarctica 1
1 5.3
Africa Zambia 1
Tanzania 15 1.1
Sub-total Uganda 1.1
Grand total Rwanda 5 1.1
Ghana 1.1
Kenya 1 1.1
1 1.1
1 6.6
1 100
1
1
6
94

Conceptual articles were not considered in this table.

606 K.F. Backman and D.B. Morais

Antarctica Asia
5.3% 2.3%

Asia Oceania
16.0% 15.9%

Oceania
27.3%

Africa Europe
6.4% 30.5%

Europe America
18.1% 38.3%

America Africa
39.1% 0.8%

Fig. 38.1. Percentage of continents included as Fig. 38.2. Percentage of authors publishing
ecotourism research sites. ecotourism research origin.

methods in current use to see in which Only generalizable findings from sound
direction it needs to go. In the evaluation research can provide a clearer understand-
conducted for this chapter, ecotourism ing of what ecotourism is, who ecotourists
research has shown little common direc- are, and how they differ from other tourists
tion and has appeared scattered across the (if they do). So, where does ecotourism
spectrum of research methodologies. This research go from here?
is not necessarily a negative situation for
ecotourism research but rather reflects the The findings in this chapter need to be
field’s stage of development. In reviewing qualified by identifying certain limitations
the research being carried out currently in in the assessment process. Specifically, the
ecotourism, the quality level of research findings presented are based primarily on
was found to be excellent in most cases. the research published in just one tourism
The selection of research methodology journal, and second, the evaluation is not
appropriateness was also found to be excel- without a certain amount of subjective
lent in the current body of literature avail- bias. Therefore, to truly understand the
able in ecotourism. As was presented extent of the body of literature published
previously, there has been some over-repre- in ecotourism today, it would be necessary
sentation of certain research methods in to compile and analyse a database that
the literature compared with others, such reviewed all the refereed journal material
as the use of case studies. While case stud- published globally, which is beyond the
ies can be a viable way for approaching scope of this chapter.
certain problems or research questions,
they tend not to provide a great contribu- In assessing the state of ecotourism
tion to the knowledge in the ecotourism research methods over the past 6 years, two
field beyond describing yet another loca- trends become apparent. First is that the
tion and its local population. These case number of research studies being con-
analyses are needed. However, for the field ducted and published is growing at an
and its knowledge base to evolve, more rig- extremely high rate, whereas in the early
orous research efforts are required as well. 1990s only two or three articles a year were
published on ecotourism. Currently, six or
eight articles a year are being published in

Methodological Approaches Used in the Literature 607

Table 38.4. Location of ecotourism authors.

Continent Origin of authors Frequency Percentage
Country

America USA 24 18.8
Sub-total Canada 23 17.9
Belize
Argentina 2 1.5
1 0.8
50 39.0

Oceania Australia 26 20.3
Sub-total New Zealand 9 7.0

35 27.3

Europe UK 29 22.7
Sub-total Switzerland 2 1.5
Austria 2 1.5
Ireland 1 0.8
Spain 1 0.8
France 1 0.8
Sweden 1 0.8
Greece 1 0.8
Denmark 1 0.8

39 30.5

Asia Indonesia 1 0.8
Sub-total Hong Kong 1 0.8
Israel 1 0.8
3 2.4

Africa Uganda 1 0.8
Grand total 128 100

Articles with authors from multiple nationalities were considered as one observation for each of the different
nationalities; articles with multiple authors from one nationality were considered as only one observation
for the respective country of origin.

each of the major journals. The second ecotourism researchers and may provide
trend is the move from articles being direction for their research:
exploratory, case study-oriented and con-
ceptual in nature to more of a focus on 1. The lack of credible measurements for
application of traditional tourism princi- describing the size and impact of tourism.
ples applied or tested in the context of the 2. Great diversity in the industry, with
ecotourism field. But, as for a clear move- some analysts questioning whether tourism
ment from a particular research approach is a single industry or group of related
or statistical approach to another, there are industries (see, e.g. Leiper, 1993).
no trends that are currently apparent. 3. Spatial and regional complexities.
4. A high degree of fragmentation (Smith,
One process that may prove useful in 1995, p. 14).
helping to guide ecotourism researchers in
the future is presented by Smith (1995) in To briefly address these challenges from an
which he states tourism researchers face a ecotourism perspective it would be appro-
number of challenges in trying to under- priate to say that ecotourism still lacks
stand the industry called tourism. These credibility in the eyes of many decision
challenges seem equally appropriate for makers (with a few exceptions as presented

608 K.F. Backman and D.B. Morais

in earlier chapters). In addition, ecotourism problem or issue. Rather than trying to
researchers have far to go in estimating the understand the causal process of these
scope and breadth of the field. The second problems over an extended period, conclu-
challenge as to whether ecotourism is a sions are drawn and recommendations
single industry or a group of related indus- made on the basis of observations made
tries needs researching due to the fact that from one point in time. Studies are needed
the field still has difficulty accepting or which use each of these three longitudinal
supporting any unified definition of what types of research especially if researchers
ecotourism is (Sirakaya et al., 1999). are going to truly understand and be able to
Moreover, the field has difficulty in decid- explain a phenomenon such as ecotourism.
ing what activities and services constitute These methods are: (i) trend studies that
an ecotourism experience. Certainly, when examine changes within the host popula-
you look at research published on eco- tions and visitor populations over time
tourism a point that immediately becomes (years); (ii) cohort studies which examine
apparent is spatial and regional complexi- subpopulations such as visitor segments as
ties in this research. As presented previ- they change over time; and (iii) panel stud-
ously, studies were completed on every ies which examine a set of travellers to eco-
continent, with the majority being con- tourism destinations over a period of years.
ducted in the Americas and Australia. Still, Then, through the coordination of the cur-
more fundamentally, researchers need to rent and longitudinal studies, ecotourism
decide at what level ecotourism should be researchers will begin to more fully under-
studied; i.e. nationally, state/province or stand this complex industry and its market
locally, or all of the above. Finally, frag- segments.
mentation not only exists in the current
body of research methods used but also Thus, it would appear to be most appro-
among the sectors involved in ecotourism. priate to focus future research around an
Whether from the perspective of natural agenda such as this rather than around
resources, economic impacts, social or cul- whether it is preferable to use qualitative
tural implications, planning and policy, or as opposed to quantitative research meth-
administration, all have tended to mini- ods. The only certainty the future has with
mize coordination and cooperation related regard to ecotourism research is that to bet-
to product development and marketing. ter understand this phenomenon the field
should take advantage of new technology
In the investigation of research in eco- such as geographical information systems,
tourism in the published literature, one global positioning units, and sophisticated
great void that can be identified is the lack and path analytical modelling. Their use as
of longitudinal research studies. Most or at research tools will become more important
least 95% of research published, regardless to help understand what is the most effec-
of study method used, was a cross- tive and efficient development of eco-
sectional study of a one-time analysis of a tourism.

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Chapter 39

Information Sources for Planning and
Management

P.F.J. Eagles

Department of Recreation and Leisure Studies, University of Waterloo,
Waterloo, Ontario, Canada

Introduction in ecotourist information and interpreta-
tion programmes. Ecotourism planning and
All decisions are dependent upon informa- management require information from a
tion. The better the information available wide variety of fields: ecology, park man-
to the planner and manager, the better the agement, marketing, social impacts, cul-
chance for a good decision. Ecotourism, tural management, finance, law, guide
like the broader field of tourism, is a chal- training and personnel management.
lenging activity to plan and manage. Ecotourism is built upon the notion that
Ecotourism functions in an information- individuals are travelling, and spending
rich environment. The markets are often their hard-earned money and time, to learn
global, with worldwide information needs and experience nature. These travellers are
and sources. The destinations are sensitive looking for experiences, knowledge, per-
and use of these sites requires special sonal satisfaction and social contact. Those
knowledge sets. The private operators are that service such needs must provide a rich
often small with few efficiencies of scale ecological, social and cultural environment
for a global market. Some of the main ele- around the tourist experience. So, both the
ments of the ecotourism activity are large, tourist experience and the management of
such as national parks and national the production system that provides this
tourism agencies, but are frequently naive experience are based upon a strong, infor-
about ecotourism management. The social mation-rich environment.
and cultural implications of tourism in
remote areas are large and important. This This chapter proposes a model to
complexity requires decision makers to be describe the planning and management of
cognizant of the requirement for careful the ecotourism experience (Fig. 39.1). This
consideration of the many facets of the model provides a synthetic pattern for a
activity. discussion of the components of eco-
tourism, and is a framework for the
Ecotourists demand high levels of accu- description of the information sources that
rate and competently communicated infor- are necessary for effective planning and
mation. Much of the information required management. The central component of
by planners and managers can also be used ecotourism is the ecotourist experience by

© CAB International 2001. The Encyclopedia of Ecotourism 611
(ed. D.B. Weaver)

612 P.F.J. Eagles

a traveller. This experience is influenced material in the field and the publications
by four important managerial activities. can be reviewed through a web site and
The quality and presentation of the natural purchased from the Society (The Ecotour-
environment is critical to the experience, ism Society, 1999).
and therefore environmental management
of that environment is key. The travel expe- Higgins (1996) found that the eco-
rience is heavily influenced by the busi- tourism industry in the USA grew dramati-
ness management elements of all those cally over the previous two decades. This
involved in producing the experience. Poor growth, which was almost certainly mir-
business management means that eco- rored in other industrial nations, will con-
tourism will fail. Ecotourism typically tinue into the foreseeable future. This
involves travel to remote places, often with growth will increase the demand for suit-
local populations that are heavily influ- able information to serve all aspects of the
enced by the tourism. The social and cul- expanding ecotourism industry.
tural management policies and procedures
are vital elements of ecotourism. Eco- Describing the Ecotourist
tourism only exists if individual people
find out about the destination, discover Before one can discuss numbers, flows and
attractive activities, detect that the site and impacts of ecotourism, one must have an
activities will provide useful personal ben- operational definition of ecotourism and
efits, determine suitable levels of safety the ecotourist. Elsewhere in this book are
and comfort, find suitable transport, and discussions of the definitions of ecotourism
then decide to travel. Marketing is there- and ecotourists. Here we only briefly intro-
fore a critical precursor to the ecotourist duce the topic, for the purpose of under-
experience. This chapter discusses the standing information needs.
information sources and needs for eco-
tourism using these categories as a frame- Before one describes ecotourists one
work. needs to have a definition that allows for
measurement (Ballantine and Eagles, 1994).
The literature on ecotourism is large and Blamey (1995, 1997) developed a minimal-
growing rapidly. The Ecotourism Society, ist approach to the definition of eco-
in cooperation with Parks Canada and the tourism. He concluded that for market
University of Waterloo, publishes an eco- research purposes the following definitions
tourism bibliography of English language are most useful:
publications at frequent intervals (Eagles
and Nilsen, 2001). The Ecotourism Society An ecotourism experience is one in which an
is constantly publishing highly relevant individual travels to what he or she considers
to be a relatively undisturbed natural area
Business that is more than 40 km from home, the
management primary intention being to study, admire, or
appreciate scenery and its wild plants and
Environmental Ecotourist Social and animals, as well as any existing cultural
management experience cultural manifestations (both past and present) found
in these areas.
management
An ecotourist is anyone reporting to have
Marketing undertaken at least one ecotourism
experience in a specified region during a
Fig. 39.1. Model of the ecotourism experience. specified period of time (for example, during
a stay in Australia).

Importantly, Blamey was successful in pro-
viding definitions of ecotourism and eco-
tourists that can be used operationally in

Information Sources for Planning and Management 613

social and market surveys. It is critical that direct potential ecotourists. These include
such definitions are operational when vol- tips on selecting a tour operator, on mini-
ume and trend measurements are required. mum impact behaviour in sensitive sites,
and on cultural sensitivity. The visitor
Blamey and Braithwaite (1997) reported experience is composed of several ele-
that an understanding of social values ments: visitor satisfaction, guides and guide
assists with the comprehension of the training, accommodation, food, transport,
ideals that a person has about their world, as well as site and trip information.
their country and their community. Those
ideals impact on many issues, such as the Visitor satisfaction
proper method of payment for park man-
agement, income taxes versus user fees, for The visitor’s satisfaction with an experience
example. They make the telling point that is based upon a mixture of expectations and
people’s social values of community affect experiences. It is critical that the ecotour
the structure and form of an ecotourism manager attempts, as much as possible, to
experience. understand the existing visitor knowledge
level and expectations. The development of
The largest market study of ecotourism a visitor’s background knowledge and
undertaken so far was done for British expectations typically occurs before the
Columbia and Alberta in Canada in 1995 actual on-site experience. It is important,
(HLA and ARA, 1995a, b). For this study, based upon an understanding of the visi-
the term ecotourism was used and was tor’s knowledge level and expectations, for
defined broadly and simply as ‘nature, the manager to design programmes to fur-
adventure and cultural experiences in the ther influence the visitor’s expectations in
countryside’ (HLA and ARA, 1995a, p. ES- the desired direction. It is then necessary to
1). The study found a very large ecotourism operate the programme to provide the
market in Canada and the USA. In the desired experiences.
seven metropolitan areas studied, Seattle,
San Francisco, Los Angeles, Dallas, The interactions among the visitor, the
Chicago, Toronto and Winnipeg, a market natural environment, the ecotour provider,
of 13.2 million potential ecotravellers was and the other tourists provide the site basis
found, a high percentage of the area’s pop- for the visitor experience. All of those
ulation. This was much larger than antici- involved in the design and provision of the
pated, and showed a substantial market in visitor experience must have sufficient
North America. Wight (1996a, b, 1998) pro- information on each of the elements of the
vided further analysis of this data and experience so as to design a suitable and
described the market profile and trip char- satisfying programme. This information is
acteristics of potential North American often difficult to obtain, but sources are
ecotourists. Unfortunately, the excellent available. The managers should ensure the
market studies from Australia and Canada provision of detailed information for the
are much too rare. More such studies are needs of management, and for the needs of
needed in all industrial countries, and the visitors.
need to be repeated at a frequent rate.
The natural environment knowledge of
Visitor Experience the planner, manager and operator comes
from two primary sources. The first is for-
All ecotourism is based on a personal inter- mal, academic preparation of the decision
action between a traveller and a natural maker in ecology and resource manage-
environment. This intimate personal expe- ment. Abundant and relevant information
rience has several key elements that must is available in universities all over the
be well understood and managed. The world in these fields. The second source is
Office of National Tourism (1999a) of primary on-site experience with the natural
Australia produced guidelines to assist and environment of the local area. It is best if

614 P.F.J. Eagles

this on-site experience builds upon the the- huge demand for such information has led
ory and background obtained by formal to an industry of guide books, of which the
academic training. It is naive to think that Lonely Planet guides have become particu-
technical knowledge can be obtained accu- larly successful.
rately and comprehensively without atten-
dance at an academic institution (see There is a wide variety of types of per-
Chapter 40). Guides, and others, that are sonal guides available. They may be spe-
self-trained may know the local flora and cially trained guides just for ecotourism, or
fauna intimately, but usually have little they might be someone whom the eco-
concept of the fundamental properties of tourist just happens to encounter on their
ecology, geology, biology, meteorology, lim- trip. The latter may be problematic because
nology, fisheries, marine biology, genetics, the information might not be accurate, or
ornithology, mammalogy, forestry, conser- might be purposely misleading due to
vation biology, landscape ecology, or park some ulterior motive of the provider. I
management. The lack of theoretical know of some people who asked for direc-
knowledge means that any information tions in Venezuela. The directions they
provided will be shallow in scope, without received from a local boy took them right
an understanding of background princi- into the hands of a robber. It behoves the
ples. Additionally, ecotourists are a highly international and national tourism bodies
educated population and only a well-edu- to ensure that sufficient accurate informa-
cated guide can deal with a full range of tion is available in order to warn tourists of
information needs of such a population the pitfalls, as well as provide correct
(see Chapter 3). directions. However, government and pri-
vate tourist companies are sometimes loath
For the ecotour operator to provide a ful- to provide accurate and potentially alarm-
filling ecotourist experience, it is important ing information on problems and dangers
that this operator knows more about the site due to a concern that this will scare away
features and about the experience than does potential clients.
the visitor. However, in many places in the
world, especially those in very remote sites Specially trained guides are sometimes
and those involving high cost, the eco- needed. In the cases of sensitive sites,
tourists are often very knowledgeable about crime-ridden communities, difficult travel
the natural environment. With high levels situations, and highly specialized condi-
of knowledge come high expectations of tions, some site managers require all
further learning, widespread background in tourists to be accompanied by a trained
the field and the need for carefully guide. The types and amounts of training
designed visitor programmes. It is critical required for guides is often under debate,
that the guide, when one occurs, has suffi- though over time, as the ecotourism indus-
cient knowledge in the subject area and of try matures, the guides are expected to gain
techniques of interpretation. higher levels of formal training. As more
information becomes available, consumers
Guides and guide training expect that their ecotour operators have
staff that keep up to date with that informa-
The guide is a critically important part of tion.
the ecotour. In the case of non-personal
ecotours, the guide may be a guide book, a Those responsible for hiring guides and
park brochure or a specialized publication interpreters usually require training in the
on special site characteristics. These types subject matter of environmental studies,
of non-personal interpretation sources are and in the techniques of interpretation. It is
vitally important because the independent much easier to teach a formally trained
traveller may rely heavily on one source of biologist, for example, techniques for pub-
information, such as a guide book. The lic speaking, safety and interpretation, than
it is to train an interpreter the complexity
of biology and ecology. The lack of accredi-
tation for guides in most countries leads to

Information Sources for Planning and Management 615

much confusion for the potential eco- including a variety of architectural plans for
tourist. From the point of view of the ecolodges (Hawkins et al., 1995). Recently,
potential consumer of a service, there are the advent of the World Wide Web has
information, personality, cost and safety allowed ecolodges to provide a global view
concerns. It is very difficult for the eco- of their facilities to their potential clients.
tourist to evaluate the effectiveness of a This availability of information means that
guide before the purchase decision. And in all those involved in ecotourism can get site
many cases the ecotour operator provides information in a speedy and comprehensive
low levels of information to the consumer fashion. It also means that the ecotourist can
on the guide’s characteristics. In mature be very well informed of sites well before the
tourism markets, as in most European site visit occurs.
countries, the guides are all accredited and
licenced. This leads to a much higher level Food
of quality across the guiding fraternity and
to more quality assurance by the consumer. Food is an important, but standard part of
A typical example is the ‘Blue Badge any travel experience. It is important that
Guide’ training system in place across all people involved in ecotourism under-
much of the UK (British Tourist Authority, stand their clients’ food preferences. It is
1999; The Guild of Registered Tourist doubtful that ecotourists’ desires and needs
Guides, 1999). for food are much different from any other
tourists. However, ecotourists are probably
It is critical that the ecotour operator, more likely than the average tourist to
whether public or private, provides accu- request locally grown food, and to be con-
rate and sufficiently detailed information cerned that the food production is environ-
on the guide so as to enable the potential mentally suitable.
client to make an informed decision and to
form appropriate levels of expectation.

Accommodation Transport

A critical element of any trip is the accom- Transport to and from the primary eco-
modation. It must have suitable amenities, tourism site typically consists of standard
pricing and location. Recently, with the forms such as aeroplanes, boats, buses and
advent of the ecolodge, the accommodation private cars. The biggest difference with
facilities have become ecotour attractions ecotourism is the specialized forms of
in themselves, with abundant natural envi- transport that occur on-site. Over the last
ronmental elements around the rooms, a 50 years many specialized transport vehi-
good library, some minor scientific sup- cles have been developed just for eco-
plies, and suitable opportunities for on-site tourism. These include the safari vehicles,
interpretation. of several types, developed and used
throughout Africa, the snowmobiles devel-
It is crucial for all those involved in eco- oped in Canada for snow-based movement,
tourism to fully assess the suitability of the specialized submarines built in
accommodation for ecotourists. This can be Vancouver for moderate depth ocean view-
done using the normal information sources ing and used extensively in marine parks
of brochures, familiarization tours and dis- in the tropics, and the sport utility vehicles
cussions with other operators. Good refer- that are now utilized all over the world. All
ences are available on many aspects of of this transport requires a thorough
ecolodge development. The Ecolodge Source- knowledge of the capability, functionality
book contains information on site selection, and cost of the vehicles. In many private
finance, planning, design, alternative energy ecotour companies the vehicles are the
applications, conservation education, guide- biggest single expenditure unit and the
lines and an impressive set of resources,

616 P.F.J. Eagles

most time-consuming part of the business Understanding the client
operation. Information on such equipment
can be obtained at trade shows, from other All ecotourism is dependent upon the per-
operators, from equipment dealers, and sonal desires of individual people. It is
from the Internet. critical that those involved in ecotourism
understand these desires and how they are
Site and trip information derived. Several key questions need
answers:
The ecotourists want to know about the
site they are considering visiting. Site • Why does this person choose to travel,
information includes: the general ecologi- rather than save their money or spend it
cal features of the site, special site features on another service or a good?
to be expected, special or sensitive species
to be encountered, available tourism ser- • What personal attitude set predeter-
vices, prices and expected behaviours. mines a desire to take this trip?
They also want to know key information
about the trip. This trip information • What type of experience is being
includes: the cost, the length, the start sought?
time, the end time, the types of accommo-
dation, the types of transport, the expected • What memories, products or experi-
weather, potential dangers, required cloth- ences are looked for?
ing, safety issues, special expectations of
them by the tour providers, special equip- • How much experience with ecotravel
ment needs, the physical difficulty of the does the person have?
trip, and cultural expectations.
• What is the person’s financial capabil-
It is best that all of this information is ity?
provided to the ecotourists well before the
trip. This enables proper preparation and • What is their physical capability?
the development of suitable expectations. • What language do they speak and read?
The information can be provided in written • What information sources do they uti-
format. This is inexpensive and effective, if
it is read. In high volume settings special- lize?
ized videos are available. These can be sent
to the person’s home before the visit, and A solid ecotourism marketing effort is
can be repeated in the visitor centre or on based on a good understanding of the
the bus on the way to the site. In some answers to these questions. Such answers
cases the company offers special meetings are relatively difficult to obtain due to a
or training sessions. These are usually lack of publicly available research in this
done for long-distance, high-cost trips. area, but a few studies provide useful infor-
Increasingly the Internet allows for the rel- mation.
atively easy, inexpensive and fast transfer
of written, visual and video information to Eagles and Higgins’ (1998) case studies
the traveller’s home well before the trip. of the ecotourism market in Kenya and
Costa Rica revealed principles that can be
Marketing useful elsewhere. The development of a
solid, sustainable ecotourism industry is
Information for marketing of ecotourism dependent upon several key factors.
can be categorized into: understanding the Important ecological sites must be pro-
client, attracting the ecotourist, setting tected within a set of national parks and
prices and programme evaluation. reserves that are well managed and avail-
able for tourism use. Most of the eco-
tourism visitation in these two countries
involves the national reserves, but private
reserves and ecolodges play a role through
the provision of specialized programmes
and services. The long-term success of park
tourism requires cooperation between the
public and private sectors. An ecotourism
industry will only survive if the quality of
the natural environment is maintained.

Information Sources for Planning and Management 617

Protected sites best survive politically studied the ecotourists who participated in
when a mobilized constituency, including Earthwatch Expeditions in Australia.
the tourism industry, argues for their exis- McCawley and Teaff (1995) described the
tence. characteristics and environmental attitudes
of divers on the coral reefs of the Florida
Forestry Tasmania (1994) found that Keys in the USA. Obua and Harding (1996)
many private ecotourism operators misun- studied the visitor characteristics and travel
derstood the desires and intentions of their attitudes of the visitors to Kibale National
clients. For example, most ecotourists Park in Uganda. Silverberg et al. (1996)
placed higher emphasis on the quality and investigated the lifestyle characteristics of
content of the environmental interpretation tourists in an area of the USA. They con-
than did the operators providing the ser- cluded that psychographics can be used to
vice. This study revealed that even when differentiate segments of the nature-based
in constant contact with their clients, the tourism market. Wight (1996a, b) provided
ecotour operators were unable to properly a thorough and sophisticated summary of
assess a key part of their clients’ needs. North American ecotourists. Woods and
This reinforces the need for independent Moscardo (1998) described Australian,
and thorough evaluation of ecotourism pro- Japanese and Taiwanese ecotourists, one of
grammes, and especially the component of the first papers in English to discuss the
understanding the ecotourist. Wild (1998) emerging ecotourist populations in Japan
described the ecotourism marketing experi- and Taiwan.
ence in Canada. Silverberg et al. (1996)
found that psychographic research tech- These studies, and many others like
niques were useful in differentiating seg- them, provide a reasonably thorough
ments within the nature-based tourism description of the characteristics of eco-
market. The information on the lifestyle tourists in the countries studied. These
characteristics of the tourists was derived data provide a good basis for the develop-
from a consumer survey. Statistical analy- ment of a market analysis and marketing
sis of the research data found at least six strategy aimed at attracting the ecotourist
group types within their sample. Carefully to a particular destination or product. For
designed and implemented consumer sur- the operator in the field, one limitation in
veys are important primary sources of accessing the information available is its
information on ecotourists. presence in unpublished government
reports, and in academic libraries.
Attracting the ecotourist Furthermore, there is very little market
information available, in English, on the
There is an abundant literature describing ecotourists of many countries, such as
the characteristics of ecotourists, and more Germany, Japan and Italy.
is becoming available on a continuous
basis. Eagles (1992) provided an early study Setting prices
of the social and attraction motivations of
Canadian ecotourists. Ballantine and Eagles Surprisingly, there is little available on
(1994) described Canadian ecotourists visit- ecotourism pricing policies. J. Laarman and
ing Kenya. Crossley and Lee (1994) found H. Gregerson (unpublished) prepared a
that ecotourists differed significantly from summary of the policy and administrative
mass tourists in several ways: age, educa- aspects of nature-based tourism pricing.
tion, income, occupation, trip duration, Silverberg et al. (1996) found that there are
number in tour group, trip partner, trip sea- subtle differences in various sectors of eco-
son, type of lodging, trip planning, and per- tourism, each of which require a different
centage of tour cost spent for transport. pricing approach. Much more work needs
They found no difference in gender or total to be undertaken on setting prices for eco-
trip cost per day. Weiler and Richins (1995) tourism.

618 P.F.J. Eagles

Programme evaluation ness, with only good intentions and hard
work. The high failure rates and turnover
All programmes can be improved with for- rates reveal that good intentions can never
mal, frequent evaluation. Since marketing replace solid educational preparation.
is such a key function in the ecotourism
business, it is critical that such pro- The Canadian Tourism Commission (CTC)
grammes are frequently evaluated. It is (1995) produced a summary of the potential
important to check if the tourists are arriv- for ecotourism and adventure tourism in
ing at the site properly prepared psycho- Canada, revealing important business need in
logically, physically and with proper Canada. They undertook a road show of
clothes and equipment. Did all aspects of adventure and ecotourism consultation
the food, transport, and guiding function across the country in 1997. This effort pro-
properly? What made the clients choose duced a useful set of documents describing
one destination or company over others? the business opinion of the industry and out-
Many of these, and other important busi- lining policy needs (Villemaire and Murray,
ness elements, are best evaluated by the 1997). This document provides a useful lens
marketing section of the business or gov- into the business concerns of the many small
ernment agency. This arm must maintain a ecotourism businesses in that country. The
certain level of independence from the rest Department of Environmental Affairs and
of the operation, so that it can function as Tourism in South Africa (1996) produced a
an independent source of critical informa- status and summary statement on ecotourism
tion for the decision makers. in that country. Given the importance of eco-
tourism to the national economy in South
Forestry Tasmania (1994) undertook an Africa, national government policies are very
elegant and practical evaluation of the pro- important in encouraging and guiding the
fessionally guided tours taking place in the business development in this rapidly grow-
state forests of Tasmania. This study found ing industry. Lindberg et al. (1998) edited one
fundamental weaknesses in the private of the most useful books available on eco-
industry’s ability to earn profit and to tourism management, entitled: Ecotourism: a
respond to the market demand. The find- Guide for Planners and Managers. This book
ings in this useful report reveal the impor- has an international focus and provides solid
tance of a carefully structured evaluation of descriptions of many aspects of ecotourism
ecotourism operations and programmes. business management.

Business Management Finance

Business management in ecotourism can be All operations, big and small, government
seen as composed of several fields: finance, and private, require finance. This chapter
law, licences and permits, accreditation, lia- and this book are not the appropriate
bility and insurance, staff training, and per- places to fully discuss the details of busi-
sonnel management. The most compact ness finance. Typically, one needs the
source of business management information assistance of financial experts when
on ecotourism is McKercher’s (1998) book. designing and implementing a business
This one source provides a solid back- plan. This can be obtained by using spe-
ground to all major aspects of business cialized finance consultants or, in simpler
management for ecotourism. The value of a situations, banks and loan companies may
formal business education, as found in a have staff that can assist. All predictions of
business school or a leisure studies school tourism volume, cash flow and expenses
with a business programme, is high and should be conservative, in order to err on
should not be underestimated. There is a the positive.
lot of naivety in tourism. Too many feel that
they can be successful in a tourism busi- The Australian tourism bodies frequently
produce useful publications in ecotourism

Information Sources for Planning and Management 619

management. An excellent way to reduce ance, employee training certification, bus
financial costs and to reduce the ecological driver licences, and many others. The
footprint of an operation is to adopt policies licences can be issued by the national,
to minimize chemical use, energy use and provincial, regional or local governments.
water use. Excellent guidelines on environ- Park and protected area agencies often
mentally sensitive tourism design and man- require special permits before sites can be
agement are available from the Australian used. All licences and permits must be
Department of Tourism (Commonwealth comprehensively handled by competent
Department of Tourism, 1995). staff and kept up to date.

Law Accreditation

All business operations must function Ecotourists look for independent indicators
within the laws of the country of business. of product quality, and accreditation is an
In ecotourism, the international aspect of excellent way of indicating the achievement
the travel means that a complicated, multi- of such quality. Accreditation is a formal
jurisdictional approach to the legal aspects process for the determination of product
of business must be adopted. The inbound and service quality. In a competitive mar-
operator may be based in one country, the ket, such as tourism, accredited operators
transport company in a second country, the and sites have a competitive advantage.
outbound operator in a third country, and Given the difficulty faced by potential
the ecotourists from many others. This cre- tourists in their ability to assess the travel
ates challenging contractual, monetary and product before purchase, independent
operational issues. accreditation is seen as a very useful sign
of quality. Given this market pressure, the
It is critical that the base of operations more mature the tourism markets, the
of any business is in a country with a fair higher the levels of accreditation.
and operational rule of law. The police
must be honest and the judiciary indepen- The best example of accreditation in
dent and honest. Without these key factors ecotourism in the world today is found in
any property ownership, contract, licence Australia (see Chapter 37). The national
or agreement will be exposed to the whims ecotourism accreditation scheme is func-
of corruption and bribery. Many ecotour tioning well, is widely accepted and has
operations have failed when corrupt gov- become a model for other countries. The
ernment officials, police or local operators programme has helped to raise the stan-
engaged in fraudulent activities. It is dards of ecotourism across the country. It
imperative that any ecotour business allows competent operators to clearly
becomes familiar with the legal situation in reveal to others their high level of business
their area of operation. management. It provides a framework for
continuous improvement in the industry.
Licences and permits Up-to-date information on this programme
can be found on the web site of the Office
All ecotour operators, both public and pri- of National Tourism (1999b).
vate, require licences and permits in order
to operate. These can include: access per- The Green Globe programme of tourism
mits for parks, vehicle safety permits, food accreditation is gaining wider acceptance
handling permits, firearm permits, business globally. Some of the larger operators are
operations licences, land-use development adopting the ISO 9000 series of programme
approvals, building permits, tax collection operation standards to improve their opera-
licences, proof of incorporation, workplace tions and to prove to their clients that they
health and safety approval, proof of insur- are serious about quality. In all cases, it is
important for tourism operators to see
some form of independent assessment of

620 P.F.J. Eagles

quality, such as accreditation. Once this is Personnel management
achieved, this must be communicated to
potential clients. After the features of the natural environ-
ment that attracts the ecotourists, the quali-
Liability and insurance ties of the personnel are the most
important component of any ecotourism
All people providing a service to others in business. It is critically important to
return for financial remuneration have a attract, properly reward and retain good
duty of care to their clients. Typically, this personnel. All ecotourism businesses need
duty of care involves providing a level of to be very concerned about professional
service and safety as would be normally levels of personnel management. Unfortun-
expected in similar circumstances in the ately, small size and seasonality may limit
area of operation. However, tourists from the abilities of many ecotourism operators
distant locales may have service and safety to attract and retain well-qualified staff.
expectations quite different from that nor- Some countries, such as Kenya and
mally occurring in the local area of opera- Australia, have specialized college pro-
tion. All operators, both public and private, grammes for ecotourism training. The out-
should make themselves aware of the stan- comes of such training are obvious in these
dard of care normally expected in their area. countries, with higher than average service
They then must put operational procedures quality, more skilled information provision
into place to ensure that all parts of their and better operations overall.
operation provide this standard of care. It is
important that sufficient levels of insurance Social and Cultural Management
coverage are maintained. It is important that
the legal structure of the country of opera- The policies for and management of the
tion is sufficiently mature to allow insur- social and cultural elements of ecotourism
ance to function at internationally acceptable are important for long-term success. Such
levels. Mature ecotourist operations provide management can be seen as being composed
information to their clients on the levels of of several areas: community relations, cul-
security, safety and insurance coverage that tural impact, and local economic impact.
they hold. Experienced ecotourists demand
such information before making a travel Community relations
decision.
Most ecotourism occurs in beautiful,
Staff training remote locales. In most of those locales
local people are affected by the tourism
Ecotourism is an information-rich, highly activities. Generally, the local residents are
personal activity. Ecotourists generally used to having a resource-based economic
have high service, safety and information system, based on the exploitation of the
expectations. Those who have travelled forests, the fisheries, or the agricultural
widely know very well what it means to be potential of the area. In very remote locales
serviced by personnel with appropriate the local people may not be in a market
levels of ecological, service and interpreta- economy, and are used to trading between
tion experience. Therefore, all staff each other for needed goods and services.
involved in ecotourism, from the safari dri- Tourism is quite different. Those who
ver to the booking agent, require high lev- exploit natural resources see the environ-
els of service training. Typically, this is ment as a source of physical products, and
achieved by local or regional colleges, or in frequently do not understand an economic
some countries by industry training bodies. system that sees the environment as a
source of experiences.