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Published by Kayeng Vang, 2023-08-08 01:57:53

ປື້ມຄູ່ມືຄູ ຟີຊິກສາດ ມ7

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ຟີຊິກສາດ

Keywords: ຟີຊິກສາດ

145 UR UL UC ULC U ' I O R L C i t 2sin100 (A) 6. )# fl* 2 22 2 22 cos L U RU RU P Z Z RZ ' 2 150 ZL f L 6 ; 1 1 40 2 ZC C fC 6 & ffl+ (ffl 2ffl ff !(fl& ) * # : '( ) 0 110 PR R Z Z 6 L C 7. . 2 125 ZL f L 6 1 1 50 2 ZC C fC 6 " & 'Bflffi 2 # 2 2 ( ) 75 2 Z R ZZ 6 L C !. max max U RI R 150V 150sin100 (V) R u t max max U ZI L L 250V u t L 250sin 100 / 2 (V) max max U ZI C C 100V u t C 100sin 100 / 2 (V) . tan 1 45 Z Z L C R ' ' ; u *"," i " / 4 rad fl. max max U ZI 150 2V 150 2 sin 100 V 4 u t ffl ff fi ! " 8. *) )# fl* 2 2 2 cos U RU P Z Z ' ) # '& , (fl& 2 2 ' 1 .......................(1) U Z R P RU R fl ) # , (fl& & # ), (fl ( 2 2 2 22 2 22 '' 0,5 .......................(2) C C C RU R Z RZ P R Z Z RZ fl ) # , (fl& & # ) # 2 2 2 22 2 22 '' 0, 25 3 .......................(3) L L L RU R Z RZ P R Z Z RZ fl ) # , (fl& , , (fl ( ') & # # ), , *: 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 ...................(4) L C L C RU R Z R ZZ P Z R ZZ fl ສ.ວ.ສ ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ

146 u t 120 2 sin100 V RrL U UL UC UCL U I ' O R L U r UL UC UCL U I ' O UMN ffi L Ur ' (2) ') (3) 2 (4) * 2 2 0,65W RU P Z 9. . !% '* ')% " fl/(. " & 'Bfl 2 2 Z Rr Z Z L LC 40 Z L L 6 , 1 100 ZC C 6 2 2 100 6 Z Rr Z Z L LC '* fl ff max max 1,2 2 U I A Z 3 37 tan rad 4 180 CL C L Rr L U ZZ U Rr ' ' '* *" " % ) ) * , ff 37 37 1,2 2 sin 100 (A) 180 i t ffl ff fi ! " !. U IZ MN max max MN fl ZMN '" & 'Bfl(fl/ ff MN 2 2 MN 20 10 Z r ZZ 6 L LC U IZ MN max max MN 48 5 V 72 tan 3 72 rad 180 C L L Z Z r ffi ffi , '* *" " % ) ) * 6(fl/ ff MN , ff ffi 72 ') %) ) * 6(fl/ ff MN " % ) ) * AB ' 35 72 37 35 rad 180 ffi' MN 35 48 5 sin 100 rad (V) 180 u t ffl ff fi ! " . ,(fl" ''& )( fl : max V 72V 1 2 R RI U 2 2 max max V 24 5V 2 2 2 rL L L rL Z I rZI U max V 120V 3 2 C C Z I U , max V 120V 2 ZI U , max A 1,2A 2 I I

147 40V-40W UR UL UC UCL UAB I ' O UAN ffi fl. )# flfl ,! 2" fl/( P UI cos' fl 80 4 cos 100 5 R rL Z ' 4 cos 120 1,2 115,2W 5 P UI ' 10. . V %!(fl% ) ) * !(fl(*&"/ fl fl' V RI " & !(fl(* D' 2 40 U R P 6 10 Z L L 6 , 1 40 ZC C 6 " & 'Bfl6 (fl/ff AN ' 2 2 AN 40 2 Z RZ 6 C " & 'Bfl!(fl" fl/(' 2 2 AB ( ) 50 Z R ZZ 6 L C A %!(fl" ,! '* % " fl/( max AN max AN 1.5 2A 2 2 I U I Z V RI 40 1.5 2 60 2V !. ff fl )ffl" fl'* ') %) * 6(fl/ff AN ' tan 1 45 C C R U Z U R ffi ffi fffl )ffl" fl'* ')%) ) * 6(fl/ ff AB ' 3 37 tan 37 rad 4 180 CL C L R U ZZ U R ' ' '* *" " % ) ) * 6(fl/ ff AB , ff ' 37 ') *" " % ) ) * 6(fl/ff AN , ff 45 rad 4 ffi , AN max max AN 3(A) U I Z 3sin 100 + A 4 i t ffl ff fi ! " . uU t AB ABmax sin 100 + V fl ABmax max U ZI 50 3 150V 8 2 45 37 8 rad= rad 180 45 ffi' ສ.ວ.ສ ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ

148 R R0 L R L C U CI RI L I CL I I O AB 2 150sin 100 + V 45 u t ffl ff fi ! " 12. . !% '* *ffl+2"fl/(& 60 Z L L 6 1 100 ZC C 6 " & 'Bfl6 CL: 40 Z ZZ CL C L 6 ABmax max CL 3 2A CL U I Z , ABmax max R 4 2A U I R '* fl 2" ff fl/(' : max LC R I I I 2 2 III CL R 5 2A ') 3 37 tan 37 rad 4 180 CL R I I % '* *ffl+2"fl/(& AB 37 5 2 sin 100 A 180 i t ffl ff fi ! " '* 2&( (&*" " % ) ) * , ff 37 !. max max 24 U U Z I I 6 . 4 2 cos 0,8 5 2 RI I , max max cos cos 960W 2 U I P UI 12. . / 2 2 1 0 L U Z RR Z I 2 2 1 0 1200.............(1) RR ZL ') 1 0 1 tan 3 ZL R R ' RR Z 1 0 3 .................. 2 L / (1) ') (2) * 3 10 3 (H) 10 Z L L 1 0 R R 6 30 , ,fi " AB u *"," i " / 6 ') BM u *"," AB u " / 6 'fl" BM u *"," i " / 3 . fl , MB MB 0 0 tan 3 10 3 ZL R R ' ' 6 ') 1 R 6 20 !. )# fl 2 2 R ': 2 2 2 2 2 2 0 120 10 300 L RU R P RI RR Z R )# fl/ 2ffl , ff ( max R P 6 20 240W

149 R L C AC I L C R '1 UR UC 1I UAB '2 U U AB L 2 I '2 UAB 2 I '1 1I ' 13. . 250 / 3 Z L L 6 , 1/ 60 Z C C 6 " & 'Bfl6 R,C 2 2 1 100 6 Z RZC % '* % R,C 1 1max 1 iI t sin 100 (A) ' max 1max 1 1 1 37 1,5 2A; tan 180 U ZC I Z R ' ' , 1 37 1,5 2 sin 100 (A) 180 i t ffl ff fi ! " % '* % # L 2 2max 2 iI t sin 100 (A) ' max 2max 2 1,8 2A; 2 L U I Z ' , 2 1,8 2 sin 100 (A) 2 i t ffl ff fi ! " % '* 2"fl/(& ' : ii i I t 1 2 2 sin 100 A ' '&'%" ," ,&!(fl'* 1 2 I I I ffi # ,( UAB , ' , , & '%" ," ,& 2 22 1 2 12 1 2 2 cos 1,5 A I I I II I ' ' ') 21 1 1 1 sin 37 tg 0,75 cos 180 I I I ' ' ' ' , 37 1,5 2 sin 100 A 180 i t ffl ff fi ! " !. " & 'Bfl, )# fl* 2 ') ( & )# fl!(fl fl4 " fl/(. 2 1 150 100 ; 180W; cos = 0,8 1,5 U P Z P RI I UI 6 ' 14. . !% '* % " fl/(& . 100 Z L L 6 , 1/ 200 Z C C 6 %) ) * )ffl" fl(fl/ ff BM ສ.ວ.ສ ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ

150 2 I UMB 1 2 I I I 1I UAM UAB ' ," 2 i " /2 . MB MB(max) sin 100 2 uU t ffl ff fi ! " " MB(max) max U IZ C C 200V MB 200sin 100 2 u t ffl ff fi ! " '* 1 i % # ," % ) ) * MB u " /2 fl , 1 1max sin 100 2 2 iI t ffl ff fi ! " , fl MB 1max 2A L U I Z i t 1 2sin 100 A % !(fl'* 2"fl/(& ii i t t 1 2 2sin 100 sin100 i t sin 100 (A) !. !% % * 6(fl AB. , " % ) ) * 6(fl/ ff AM ", i uU t AM AMmax sin 100 , fl AMmax max U RI 6 200 3 u t AM 200 3 sin 100 %) ) * 6(fl AB': uU t AB AB(max) sin 100 V / '%" ," ,&, # ,( '* % " fl/(, ', UUU AB(max) AM(max) MB(max) 222 UUU AB(max) AM(max) MB(max) AB(max) U 400V MB(max) AM(max) 1 5 tan 3 6 66 U U ' ' 'fl" % ) ) * AB u ," '* 2 i " 5 6 . , AB 5 200sin 100 V 6 u t ffl ff fi ! "

151 fi VII ' ,ffl +* 20 ' ,ffl +* ,") 4 "ffifl 1. /fffl 2ffl : 1) ') ,! 2/" fi "fi fl' ,ffl + ') fl* . 'ffl+fl ,# ' ,ffl +* ') *"' ,ffl +* 2"fl/(. 2) ( , ' ,ffl +* , fl ') ' ,ffl +* 2"fl /(/. 3) 2 # " 4 2 ') ' ffl ,! 2 "/ "# . 2. ,(2& & # Maxwell fflff +,(2" : 1 'flfl' ,ffl + (B ) , 2ffl , fl* (E ). 1 'flfl* (E ), 2ffl, fl' ,ffl + (B ). 1 'flfl' ,ffl +')fl* 6 fl& # ,(fl') " /, # %2ffl , fl* ') fl' ,ffl +'%((*, ' ,ffl +* . ,( !(fl* / 'flfl* ') fl' ,ffl + , 2ffl ," 'fl!(flfl* ') fl' ,ffl +&# "" fl ') /- fifl& fl ,4 . ' ,ffl +* , & !" fl, ) ' ,ffl +* "3* , : (, ffl , ) "" ') ( . ' ,ffl +* ,( 2 * # &(fl( *'") (2 , ( . ,( "" *" 8 3 10 m/s , fl' " *"!(fl'flffl" fl2 ( " ,ffl Maxwell /flffl ff +" : ' flffl" fl '# ' ,ffl +* . "fl/(* (", (fl ( ') & # # !- ,(" : "fl/( *"* ffl+ "fl/(/ . *" fl* ,! & # ,(fl*,) (3&# # ,( ,fi / "* # / ,!ff *' " ,,(fl/ " & & ffl + " ) *". ສ.ວ.ສ ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ

152 )ff !(fl, (fl ( ') /* # " 1 !(fl # 2"fl/(, fl,fi fi * " 1 !(fl & : 1 2 . f LC 'fl* / 2'& ff )! "!(fl, (fl (* , *& % : q QSin t ( ) ' ,fi (, 2ffl, *"' ,ffl +* # ( ,fi 2 , (fl fl *"2 $ ,& (Transistor) ') *"' ,ffl +* '% ((* flffl "2 ' ,ffl +* ,fi 2 ( fl'&, 2( fl'&& & fl # La ,fi (2ffl && # ffi ( # L !(fl"fl/( *"' ,ffl +* 2,(fl fl ,( " : ( fl'& fl (/ ((). ' ,ffl +* (fl'&/ ((1 '% ) *2 flffl "*fi " 1 ff * # / fl'* 'fl62" 1 ff "" 1 , " 1 !(fl ' ,ffl +* . fi)flfl "- fl!(fl',ffl +* /1 , fi)flfl !(fl '* ( ,! 2" 1 . "ff 1 ff ) fl ",( " : ( fl'&. "fl/( 2 2 fl') ' ,ffl +* fl * ' " fl /(/ , fl( ", (fl ( C ') ( # ff L &# !- , / ') fl * 'fl" " fl/(/ fl(fl/& (fl , ( fl)" fl* ! : /& (fl " 1 !(fl" fl/(, (fl ') "fl/(, (fl fl2ffl , . ffl+ fi 1 2 ' *"!(fl ' ,ffl +* " 1 fl6 2( fl'& fl 2ffl# , fl' ,ffl +* 'fl6( (! fl( fl'& fl ') 1 '%) ((**2 ' ,ffl +* , ,(fi ( fl'&!(fl, (fl fl* !(fl' ,ffl +* , 'fl2(fl'& "" 1 , " 1 !(fl *"' ,ffl +* !(fl(fl'& fl. fl " ((( ffl ff + 2) AM ,fi 2 " 1)ffl" fl 530 1600kHz ffl+ " " 566 187m. 2 ) ' 2 fl,! " ,( ff " : fi ffl. 1 2 " 1

153 & " # ( 530 1600kHz ) ,(" : " (( 2 566m) ') 1 2 " 1 fl" ,( " : (( 8187m). fl " 2) ff FM ' " 1 )ffl" fl 88 108 MHz ffl+" ")ffl" fl 2,8 - 3,4 m. fl 2) AM ') FM & fl 6 " . ffi) , ' ,ffl +* " 1 8 10 Hz ' ,ffl +* " 1 fl) # (2 *(((ffi, (ionosphere) '&/) ff% *(ffi). , fl ffi) **3/& (fl2 1 1 1(, *)&# 3,fi ( ffi) / 1 fl , fl, ( & '" ')"!ffl 2ffl 'fl! (/ fl* fl1 6 * ,fi , ( , , ** 80 km , flffi) ,(fl/ " fl!(flffi) ffl + *ffi$," fi ffi) / 1 fl*ffl " , flffi/(6 " flffi/( & '-# fl6 ff fl , ( &fl2- fl, flffi). *ffi$," , ' ,ffl +* " " )ffl" fl 3 10 0,3m ffl+ 62 "fl" 1 9 11 10 3 10 Hz # *ffi$," 2 2 . 2/ ff 2 ff *ffi$," " 1 2400 MHz 2 fl'& ff fl( ffl , 1 fi fi % " ", , ,# / " , (" *ffi$," (/ % "ffi)ffl* . fl , ,fi 2 # ffiffl2 "/ , ( , ( " , )(*,... ( ("/ ff " 1 fffl ",( " : ,$ (Radar). 3. ( ' ') ,( "! (fl( 3. )# ( ,fl (*!" 2ffl ,fi " ' ,ffl +* */ . 1) http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulations/category/physics/soundand-waves 2) http://upload.srn.ac.th/wbi_srn/trans.html ສ.ວ.ສ ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ

154 4. / # ') ( 4.1 ( , ', ffl +* 1) 2ffl ( *% ') '& ) , : & , (, , # fl, ' ,ffl +* (" , ff 'fl ') *ffi$," ). 2) 2ffl , (2 !(fl Maxwell ') , ' ,ffl +* . ')"&( 1 : # / ,(2 !(fl' ,ffl +* ," ,1flffl fl? / ' ,ffl +* ,! * '"2? 3) ( , ' ,ffl +* & ,(2 '. 4.2 ( ""fl/(*" ffl+ "fl/(/ 1) ,- "fl/(/ ') "( "( ') ffl + ,# ' ,ffl +* !(fl"fl/(/ . 2) ') " , (2 ') ( " 'fl * / 2" ff fl/( *", *"' ,ffl +* 2"fl/( *"; *"* fl ; *"* " 1fl, " fl/( *" '-, ') (fl'& fl ') ' ,ffl +* . 4.3 ( " " ', ffl +* 1) ,- ffl+ " ' ,ffl +* . 2) ( " / flffl" *"" 1 fl ') ' . 4.4 ( " fl ', ffl +* 1) 2ffl fl ' ,ffl +* . 2) ( " ffl + fl ') ' ,ffl +* " & "6 fl: fl fl/ 1 " / fl, ff ffi) ') *ffi$," .

155 5. " ') , % fi / ) / : 1) fl," 2/ ') " ,( 2/2!(fl '& ) . 2) " ,! 2/!(fl ( ') ffl +fl& / - ( # 3) % " , ffl+ !. &( 1 ') ' # ,B ffl 1. (fl& Maxwell fl' ,ffl +* ,! * '"2? &(: !(fl Maxwell : 1) 1 'flfl' ,ffl + (B ) /, 2ffl, fl* (E ). 2) 1 'flfl* (E ) /, 2ffl, fl' ,ffl + (B ). 3) 1 'flfl' ,ffl + ') fl* 6 fl& # ,(fl') " /, # % 2ffl, fl* ') fl' ,ffl +'%((*, ' ,ffl +* . 2. "fl/(/ , "fl( "ffl fl' ? & # '2? &(: "fl/(* (", (fl ( ') & # # !- , fl ,(" : " fl/( *"* ffl+ "fl/(/ . 3. /fl( ) * q 2"fl/( *"* ? &(: *" fl* ',(,) &$fl, - , &"'" fl , (& # , "fl/( , ,(fl ( C * * / ,) ff 6&ffl +(. * / ff *" 2 C /,( ((*2ffl # L , &(C /,) (, * / ff /, 2ffl, 'fl, (* e !6 # L & ,!(fl,) 5 . , ,(* / ,ff ( / C *ffl L )ff fl, 2,") " /, * / ff') / L *ffl C ! , fi 2ffl, * / ff!2 C (. , ( * / 2 ff C )ff fl /,) # * / / ff C *ffl L ,! ( ') /, # *,) (3. ສ.ວ.ສ ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ

156 4. , fflfl *"!(fl" fl/( / fl1 ,( " *"' ,ffl +* ? &(: *"!(fl" fl/(: 1) fi)flfl !(fl" fl/( *")" fi) flfl * 6)"& "6 2, (fl ( ') fi) flfl ' ,ffl +)"&"6 2 # * # . 2) fi)flfl * ') fi)flfl ' ,ffl +!(fl"fl/( *") "'& 'fl, ("& " 1)"( - fl. 3) fi)flfl !(fl" fl/( *"* 1 . *"!(fl" fl/( *" ) " ,( " : *"' ,ffl +* . *"' ,ffl +* 2"fl/( *"' *"( ffl + , fl " *" 1 LC , " *",fi !(fl" fl/( *" , fl ' fl* ') fl' ,ffl +2"fl/(, 2ffl, *" # ' fl* ffl+ fl' ,ffl +/ ! fl(. *" fl 2" fl/( '* ffl+, ! ,(# " : *"', ffl +* . 5. (fl'&' ffl fl? !(fl( fl'& fl ') ( fl'& '"2? &(: & & ') " ,fi 2ffl- , !" - fl!(fl,(fl (* , fl 62 ) # " fl/( *"', , ' * # ,( " ( fl'&. ,fi (, 2ffl, *"' ,ffl +* # ( ,fi 2 , (fl fl *"2 $ ,& (Transistor) ') ,fi (2ffl *"' ,ffl +* '% ((* flffl "2 ' ,ffl +* ,fi 2 ( fl'&, 2( fl'&& & fl # La ,fi (2ffl & & # ffi ( # L !(fl"fl/( *"' ,ffl +* 2,(fl fl ,( " : ( fl'& fl (/ ((). ' ,ffl +* (fl'&/ ((1 '% ) *2 flffl "*fi " 1 ff * # / fl'* 'fl62" 1 ff "" 1 , " 1 !(fl ' ,ffl +* .fi)flfl "- fl!(fl',ffl +* /1 , fi)flfl !(fl '* ( ,! 2" 1 . "ff 1 ff ) fl ",( " : ( fl'&.

157 6. ffl+ " ' ,ffl +* '"2? &(: ffl+ fi 1 2 ' *"!(fl ' ,ffl +* " fl62( fl'& fl 2ffl# , fl' ,ffl +* 'fl6(( (! fl( fl'& fl ') 1'% ) ((**2 ' ,ffl +* , ,(fi ( fl'&!(fl, (fl fl* !(fl' ,ffl +* , 'fl2(fl'& "" 1 , " 1!(fl *"' ,ffl +* !(fl(fl'& fl. " ' ,ffl +* * fi / fl- , )ffl , flfl," , fl& fl " (ff # ) ') fi fi (. 7. fl " 2) ff AM & fl fl " ff FM '"2? &(: fl 2) AM ') FM & fl 6 " . fl , /fl, 2ffl, (fl " ff AM # " ff FM *. / fl " " ) ff AM , ( *,1fl, (fl * (fl fl : , ( fl*, (fl & ,fi ,(" : ') ,( *,1fl *((( ') " () fl ffl , (fl ,fi ,(" : . / fl") FM " 1 fl" AM. " ff FM (2 *(((* - (. , # 2 */fl2 fifl'& . 8. (!(fl " 2 ff *(((ffi,$, '"2? &(: " ff' (6 *(((!(fl ') " ( ffi) '& " (!(fl " 2 ff *(((ffl ff +)fl& ) # , (" 1!(fl ,fi !. , ,fi fl " ffl , ff (fl ", fi fi ffl + 1 fl " ff1 (& # 3, *) ') % &# (fl& & fl( fl'& fl. 9. (ffl fl2 / fl ") FM /fl # 2 *? &(: / fl") FM " 1 fl" AM. " ff FM (2 *(((* - (. , # 2 */fl2 fifl'& . ສ.ວ.ສ ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ

158 10. fl ffi) **3 " 2 " ,fi 2 # ) 2!(fl fl "? &(: 2 fl ffi) 1 fl((/ 1 * fl fl** * ff # , 80 ffi)' , (fl/ " fl!(flffi) ,fi ( fl ffi) ** *) fl* ffi# &(fl fl1 , ( fl& # 3 ,fi * 2 # ) # (6 *(((!(fl " 2 *ffi," fi ffi) / 1 fl*ffl " 6 &fl fl 2"flffi/( , ( &fl, flffi). 11. ': fl : (1 = 0,1nm 10 10 m ; (2 = 6cm -2 = 6 10 m *) : . 1f ? !. 2f ? . ,(fl/ , ) fl ,( : 8 18 1 10 1 3 10 3 10 Hz 10 c f ( !. ,(fl/ , *ffi ," (,$ ): + 8 9 2 2 2 3 10 5 10 Hz 6 10 c f ( 12. ': fl : L 10 *H -5 10 H ; C 30 *F -5 3 10 F *) : f ? / 1 2 f LC 3 5 5 1 9,18 10 Hz 2 3,14 10 3 10 f 13. ': fl : f 1,02108 Hz; v 3.108 m/s *) : min ( ( ?; ? - ,(fl/ , " "" : ff 8 8 3 10 2,94m 1,02 10 c f ( - " " : ff min 2,94 1, 47m 2 2 ( (

159 21 ' ,ffl +* fl ,") 3 "ffifl 1. /fffl 2ffl : 1) ') ,! 2/" ) fl ($ ,$, 'flffl" fl, ) fl ( &$ "ffi(,), )fl ,( ') 5 )fl ' , ' ,ffl +* 62 "fl" 1 ffl + " "2, , &$ !(fl # ' ,ffl +* . 2) ( 2 # ' ,ffl +* 2 & fl3. 3) ff ffiffl ') " (fl) fl . 2. ,(2& & # )fl ($ ,$ ffl + )fl )ff 'fl, 'fl,fl # ,ffl, , ' ,ffl +* " 1)ffl" fl 11 10 14 10 Hz ffl+" ")ffl" fl 6 3 10 10 m . )fl ($ ,$ )ff% ,4( - 3 , fl'fl # # % * . ) fl ( $ ,$1 2 # 2) (fl (fl fl ,fi ( "2ffl ffl + , fl fl& fl32 fl, ( ; 2 1 fi - ffi)/ " ,fi ( 'fl !(fl * ffl + ,( !(flB flff , flffi) . 'fl, ' ,ffl +* " 1 14 14 4 10 -8 10 Hz ffl+ " " 400- 700nm . & !(fl, ff ' ,ffl +* 2 "fl * ; 'fl " " 700nm & / , 'fl, 'fl " " & / , 'fl', ,ffl + (fl, !", ') ( & ) # . 'fl ( " " 400nm; 'flfl4 " , ()"& " ") ,4 , 'fl! ". 'fl"2ffl , / " 1 ff (ff fflfi fl ') " 1 , ! fi (3 ffl+ " 12) ( fflfi ff & fl . ' ,ffl +* " 1 ffl" fl 15 18 10 10 Hz ,(" : ) fl (&$ *"ffi( ,) ffl+ )fl (. ) fl ( &$ *"ffi(,)2 # "2ffl / '% ) fl !(fl"fl( , )fl ( &$ *"ffi(,)# )ff% fl !" fl - 3*, '& ສ.ວ.ສ ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ

160 , 2ffl, (fi fl & * , 2 fl 'fi,fi 2 # ) fl (&$ *"ffi(,) ,fi ("fi % "-fl, '& 1 * ) fl (&$ *"ffi(,)2) ffl+ ,# 2ffl, ( &) & # % "-fl ') & * . ' ,ffl +* " 1 2)ffl" fl 17 21 10 10 Hz ffl+ " "2) ffl" fl 13 9 10 10 m 1,( )" " : ) fl ,( 5 . )fl ,( , 5 ( )ff % fl !" fl - 3*. ,fi 2 ) fl ,( ,fi5 ("(( " ffl ff + "1 ), ff 2 ffl ffl+ , !(fl%ffi ffi # / ,# &(fl, ffl ffl+ , . )fl ' , ' ,ffl +* " 1 fl" ) fl ,( 5 , '& (,fi 2 "# “) fl ' ”. '& 2 / ff ' ,ffl +* " 1 fl" ) fl ,( 5 "* 1# ,( " : )fl,( 5 . )fl ' (/ , / ) !(fl # &fi ) fl ') ", ) fl ffi , fl / (ffi) ') '% !(fl) fl !(fl ( fi ') ff " / * ff 1,) fl2,(fl,) fl(fi ff ,# 2ffl, ) fl ' *. 3. ( ' ') ,( "! (fl( 3. )# ( ,fl (*!" 2ffl ,fi " ' ,ffl +* */ . http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulations/category/physics/sound-and-waves 4. / # ') ( 4.1 2ffl "($ ,$ 1) 2ffl ( *% ') 21 ' ,ffl +* (" , ff 'fl ') *ffi$," ). 2) 2ffl , (2 " ) fl ($ ,$ ') "& fl 1 " # : - )fl ($ ,$, ' ,ffl +* # ? - ' ,ffl +* " 1 ffl + " " , /fl,( " : )fl ($ ,$? - ,fi 2 # ) fl (, fflfl' ') %( &) & # fl " # ? 3) ( ,(2 " ) fl ($ ,$& '.

161 4.2 2ffl " 'fl 1) 2ffl , (2 " ) fl ($ ,$ ') "& fl 1 " # : - 'fl, ' ,ffl +* # ? - , ,fl,ffl 'fl& fl2 "fl" 1 ffl + " " , 2? 1 " 1 fl" ffl+ & " # , ,fl,ffl # ? - 'fl"2ffl , / 2? ,fi 2 # 'fl, fflfl' ? 2) ( ,(2 " 'fl& '. 4.3 2ffl " ) fl (&$ *"ffi(,) 1) 2ffl , (2 " ) fl ( &$ *"ffi(,)')"& fl 1 : # - 'fl, ' ,ffl +* # ? - )fl ( &$ *"ffi(,)" 1 ffl + " " , 2? - )fl ( &$ *"ffi(,) , (&) & # % "-fl , # ? ( . - ,fi 2 # ) fl ( &$ *"ffi(,), fflfl' ? 2) ( ,(2 " 'fl& '. 4.4 2ffl " ) fl,( ') ) 5 fl ' 1) 2ffl , (2 " ) fl ,( ') 5 )fl ' ') "& fl 1 : # - fi"(fl # " ,") ,! -((- ffl + 1 # ,fi 2 (ff( ffl+ ,(fl"(, ' ,fi 2 ) fl ffl fl? - 2 fl 'fi,fi 2 ) fl ,( ,5 fflfl? ( . - )fl ,( ') ) 5 fl ' %ffifflffl fl' ? 2) ( ,(2 " 'fl& '. 5. " ') , % fi / ) / : 1) fl," 2/ ') " ,( 2/2!(fl '& ) . 2) " ,! 2/!(fl ( ') ffl +fl& / - ( # 3) % " , ffl+ !. ສ.ວ.ສ ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ

162 &( #1 1. )fl ($ ,$ )'"2? ( &(: )fl ($ ,$, 'fl,fl # ,ffl, , ' ,ffl +* " 1)ffl" fl 11 10 14 10 Hz ffl+" ")ffl" fl 6 3 10 10 m "1 ff (fflfi ff )ffl" fl -200 C ffl 400 C /'%) fl " ( ffl + )fl ($ ,$(( , %# fl% "-fl!(fl ff ) fl ($ ,$* fl "fl" " , 1 fl "/ # ) fl ($ ,$* . & & fl " fl /'% ) fl ($ ,$&ffl +(,") ') )fl( $ ,$ ) ff % ,4( - 3*. 2. )fl ($ ,$ * 1 2 # , fflfl' ? &(: )fl ($ ,$1 2 # 2) (fl (fl fl ,fi ( "2ffl ffl + , fl fl& fl32 , ( ; 2 1 fi - ffi)/ " ,fi ( 'fl!(fl * ffl + ,( !(flB flff , flffi). (fl1 fi " ( ",/ ," (!(fl" 1 , "( ff 'fl *ffl+"!(fl,) (2% "-fl, "/ " (2( (* ff ') ")ff (* "# 1 2ffl ,1 fl, 4 6 fl1 & (fl. ,&ffiffi) 2 / ff 2 fl ", 2 'fl # (Optical Fiber) ') fi ffl # fl ' ) fl ($ ,$ ,fi " 2 'fl # fl ( 1 'fl( ) "* fl . 3. 'fl " " , 2, /fl , fl,ffl ') / ' # * ? &(: 'fl, ' ,ffl +* " 1 14 14 4 10 -8 10 Hz ffl+ " " 400- 700nm & !(fl, ff ' ,ffl +* 2 "fl * ; 'fl " " 700nm & / , 'fl, 'fl " " " & / , 'fl', ,ffl + (fl, !", ') ( & ) # . 'fl ( " " 400nm.

163 4. (ffl fl'flffl" fl ,/ " 1 ,%ff ( / fl # 2 # , fi ffl* ? &(: 'fl, ' ,ffl +* , " " . ff , ,fi 2 # 'fl , fi ffl * " ff ') ffi) . '& " 'fl ,/ " (" 1 ff # 1 2 # , fi ffl* , (fl/ / ffffl+ " 1'&& fl ') , # ,4 . 5. 'fl! "!(flffl +(* (ffl+()ffi(,$, ) , ! * '"2? &(: ffl+(%) )fl ( &$ *"ffi(,) /fl, " 6 2ffl +()ffi(,$, (Fluorescent) ( / ff6fi 2, , ('* ')% , 2ffl, )fl ( &$ *"ffi(,)(( . '&,fi (2ffl* 'fl ! " ,fi ,( " "'fl2 - fl2!(flffl+( ,() fl ( &$ *"ffi(,)2 " "'fl '% 'fl ! " (( , ") fl ( &$ *"ffi(,)1ffl +('"!" fl # 2ffl/ (( (*. 6. )fl ,( ') ) 5 fl ' ') & fl '"2? &(: )fl ' , ' ,ffl +* " 1 fl" ) fl ,( 5 , '& ( ,fi 2 "# “) fl ' ” )# ' ,ffl +* " 1 fl,/ ) & " !(fl'( &( ( ", ) !(fl + # &fi ) fl . '& 2 / ff * ' ,ffl + " 1 fl" ) fl ,( 5 "* 1# ,( " : ) fl ,( 5 . )fl ' ( / ,/ ) !(fl # &) fl ') ", ) fl ffi , fl / ( ffi) ') '%!(fl) fl !(fl ( fi ff / * ff 1,) fl2,(fl,) fl(ff fi ,# 2ffl, ) fl ' * . ສ.ວ.ສ ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ

164 fi VIII 'fl 22 'fl ,") 4 "ffifl 1. /ff fl 2ffl : - ') ,! 2/" ffifi 'fl , (ffl + ') (ffl+!(fl'fl 2 '& fl3. - ') ,! 2/ / !(fl'fl, ,/(!(fl'fl ') ,(' ". - ,! 2/" 4 !(fl) 2 & fl3 ') 2 # ,ffl + ,! 2 ' ,B ffl . 2. ,( 2&&# 1) 'fl,ffl: 'fl,() fl ,fl,ffl * "& , ,(" : ' fl ,ffl. , fl, &$ !(fl'fl,ffl # ' ( "ffl + '1 !- '& 4 3 10 ffl 12 1 10 m. 2'flffl" fl ,fl,ffl * " " )ffl" fl 7 7 3,8 10 7,5 10 m. 'fl,() fl ff , (!ffl *2'") (ffl" fl, ( ) "" *" 8 c 3 10 m/s. (& ")ffl" fl" " !(fl'fl% " " !(fl'fl% '") (2- fl, ) fl fl,( " (& ffl'fl!(fl'")( . 2) 'fl" ''fl *" "" 1 " , , *" (# # 'fl& ,") ffl+ 1 'fl& ,") , %) ,' # 'fl& ,") . 3) (ffl+!(fl'fl' , / ( !(fl(fl ffl + ffl+ 'fl ((/ # 'fl". %) )ffl" fl(fl, fl,!(fl'fl ((/ # 'fl"ffl +fl/ % (fl) & fl fi 6 / 2- ff fl/,! ,fl ('1'/ fl)

165 ') !'1 : 1 2 rr m ( ') 1 2 1 2 rr m ( ffl ff fi ! " , & ) # . , fl m '/ "'1!(fl! # ,fl ( m = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . . . ), 1 m = 0 '! '/fl, fl fl. 4) (ffl+!(fl'fl % '"fl !(fl6 fl ( Young): ,('fl*% (fl) (slit) , 2ffl, - !(fl'fl ff24 2 ff , fl ,, !- ') " 1 !(fl'fl . 'fl ff fl(fl!" fi % ') "/, ! ,fl !(fl'1) fl !(fl (ffl +, '1 ') '1'/flffl + ffl + , ,(" : , , &$ . # - )# '1'/ fl' : d m sin ( - )# '1 ' : 1 sin 2 d m ( ffl ff fi ! " , fl m 0, 1, 2, . . - *)ffl fl)ffl" fl'1,fl '/ fl' : m mD x d ( , - *)ffl fl)ffl" fl! ,fl ' : 1 2 m D x m d ffl ff ( fi ! " - *)ffl fl)ffl" fl(fl'1'/ fl ffl + (fl'1 62 ' : m 1 m D xx x d ( , fl d '*)ffl fl)ffl" fl 2 ) , D '*)ffl fl)ffl" fl/ , ff fl fl!(fl 2 ) ffl % . 5) (ffl+!(fl'fl " fl fl " - # 'fl ,() 4 'fl S - fl(fl2 '% fl (fl- !- ') " - 4 ,4 # d , fl (& ffl 'fl n *" fl2( . (ffl +!(fl 'fl,! / 'fl 2 '% fl') ", ( ') ffl !(fl 'flffl+ 3fl. ) fl !(fl'fl ffl% '") ('% fl ') (/,ffl *% ), fl,!(fl'fl ( ) , fl' '1,fl (ffl +!(fl'fl. (ffl+', ('1'/ fl) ' : 1 2 2 nd m ( ffl ff fi ! " ') ' ffl) fl ('1 ) ' : 2nd m ( , fl m 0, 1, 2, . . ສ.ວ.ສ ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ

166 6) (ffl+!(fl'fl '% fl " - 'fl (ffl+): '% fl , " 2, fl (flfifl fl( , ffi (3 ,(" : ffl +. (ffl+'fl6 / &ff fl3, flffl +'! " - !(flffl + , fl (ffl +'fl , ! * / % ) , fl,!(fl'fl, " ) # !(fl'% fl " - # 'fl. - )# '1'/ fl m ': 2 m nd m( ') )# '1'/ fl (m+1) ': ) 2 1 nd m m1 ( ') *)ffl fl)ffl" fl'1,fl (ffl +' : 2 y n ( ffi ,( ffi , (3. fl , 2ffl *) , $ fl (rad). 7) "fl'ffl"",& 1 ,(# ,)'flfifl" ff , )4 )ffi fl R !(fl- "" fl ,& fl'% ' "fifl " - 2- fl/, ffl+!(fl( " - # , )ffl" fl- !(fl,) ') ' ". ffl +( /), fl (((/ ff & '!(fl,) ' ". fl , , 6, fl- !(fl,) , &$ ( # ffl+'fl ,/ ffl +( /fl, " fl "/ 2/ fl" ff ( ((/ &ff ' ') fl" fl'/ fl ') " fl ffl + . " fl !(fl! ,fl ' " ,&, % )(fl ') * ,( " : " fl'ffl"",& (Newton’s rings) )4 !(fl'1"fl ') ) 4 !(fl'1"fl'/ fl ' : 2 r mR ( 2 1 2 rm R( ffl ff fi ! " , & ) # . , fl m = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . 8) / !(fl'fl% '"ffl+ )(fl!(fl ",& : 2 'fl/ "fl& ," , ! " , fl, 'fl,/ )" !(fl'flffl + ' "ffl + ( Prism) ,ffl" 'fl ffl((/ ' "ffl +'((, & fl ffi'fl'& ) /ffl ((/ ' " ffl+2 fl(, 'fl ! " # , ,( " : / !(fl'fl (Dispersion Of Light) ') ,('1 / ((/ 'fl! " " : , &$ # (Spectrum) ') ,( !(fl ) fl ffl((/ ' "ffl + ) fl " : fl (Deviation Angle).

167 )# 'fl ( " " ( , " 1 ff ffl+ ') ff fl 2ffl ff "'fl 'fl/ fl ! 'fl (. 9) ,/(!(fl'fl ,/( (Scattering) !(fl'fl, !(fl'fl, ( 2 ( fi , ff (fi / ff fi) flfl ') "'% fi) flfl (( 2ff fl. - 1 ( fi ff !- 2ffl , ( " " 'fl, : ,/(!(fl 'fl,('fl (,. ,/ (' # ! " " !(fl'fl, ",ffl , /fl',ffl (,, ! ", (fl/ ,/ (!(fl'fl2 3ff " ". - 1 ( fi ff !- ( , ( !- " " 'fl, ffi,) ff!(fl( . ,/(!(fl'fl " " / ffl+ " 'fl " " ", : 'fl( ') 'fl , '&'fl (/ # " "(fl& # & !(fl , . fl , , /fl , fl,ffl '&'fl , "ffl + . - 'fl ,/(* " 'fl 'fl, ( , , ( # , !(fl"6 . 'fl ,fl,ffl / (fl ffi / (, ' , / ,/(!(fl'fl, (fl/ ffi,) !(fl( , 1 ff # ( (fl / (/ 2 "fl( 6, . - , ,fl,ffl "fl( , 'fl2 ')fl ') , ,fi " 2,") 'flffi fl/ "fl( , fl% - " & ') ", 2ffl'fl " " ,/ (* " ,") 'fl*,1 fl% fl,/ fl,ffl + ('& 'fl " " "/ fl, 2ffl, ,fl,ffl "fl( , 'fl ffl + '. 10) , (' " fi ",(' " fi " !(flffi), - ' "ffi2ffl )fl 2 "fl) fl ( &$ *"ffi(,) (Ultraviolet) % ) fl ffl - !(flffi)* , - ffi) ) fl ')" ()fl " ffl+ 2 "fl!(fl) fl ($ ,$ (Infra red) ((* , fl" " ' ) fl " (. fl , / fl, 2ffl" ('% / 6 2 !(flffi). fl " ,4 ( ສ.ວ.ສ ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ

168 '" ffl -ff ffi)2ffl 6 2fi " ff fl fl" ( (( fflfi ff ). fl ",( " : ,('" (Greenhouse Effect). 2 !(flffi) / ff ) fl 9 ffl + /, * , fl, % / !(fl , ff , : ffi 9 ( CO2), ,& 9 (CH4), ) 9 # ffi$)( # ffi) ( (CFC8) ') 9 ffi&$' ( ( N2O) , &. ,ffl 9 + )ff fi ,: ') ()fl ($ ,$ * . fl , , (- ffi) ()fl 2 "fl" " !(fl) fl ($ ,$! ,ffl 9 + / ) fl ($ ,$,( *" ffl +fl/ / # ( )fl " ((( , 2ffl # ),"- ffi) ') (fflfi ff fl !. ,( 9 , 2ffl, fi "' " : 9,('" (Greenhouse Gases). 3. ( flfi : " ') (3 "! (fl. , (ff (: '"ffl + ( Prism), ,/ ffl + ) (Slit), (* , * ffl+ *!. (media): ( ,fl (*!"2ffl http://www.math.ubc.ca/~cass/courses/m309-03a/m309-projects/fun/Slits.html 4. / # ') ( 1) #,! fi # " )ff !(fl'fl , '% ) !(fl , (fl(& fl3!(fl . 2) ( "'fl ') ff )!(fl'fl ,- # ffifi ') )ff !(fl'fl, " 4 " 'fl , 'fl ,fl,ffl "& , , 'fl,()fl ('fl ") ') " " !(fl'fl,()fl & fl3. (2 ,fl (*!2ffl 2 ' "ffl + ( Prism) ,fi (''fl! "((, 'fl ,()fl & fl3, / ,- " 4 !(fl'fl ( ') 'fl) ff'fl.

169 ,- # fi"fi )ffl" fl" " , " *"'% ) 'fl ') " 1, " ( & 'flffl !(fl'") (. 3) ( " (ffl +'fl - ( (ffl +!(fl'fl , ,fl (*!, ( ffl+'fl '& 22.1 ') ( ,'1,fl '/ fl ') !(fl'fl , fl% fi ( fl! *) . - fi # '& 22.2 )(fl!(fl 6 fl ')( ,'1 '/fl ') '1 !(fl'fl6 , fl% . fi ( fl,- *) '1,fl ( ffl+!(fl'fl% ) . - ,- # (ffl+!(fl'fl 2'% fl " - 4 ,4 # . '& 22.3 )4 'fl% '% fl, ( ,'1,fl ') ! *)'1'/ fl, '1 , fl% . - ,- # (ffl+!(fl'fl 2'% fl " - 'fl (ffl+). - '& 22.4 )4 'fl% '% fl, ( ,'1,fl ') ! *) '1'/ fl, '1 , fl% . - ( (ffl+!(fl'fl % ffl +( ("fl'ffl" ",& ). '& 22.5 fi( fl,- *) '1" fl'/ fl, " fl . - ( / !(fl'fl% ' fl) . - fi # )(flffi, (fl'fl% ' "ffl + ') " fl,, fl !,fl / ( !(fl'fl) ffl% ' "ffl +') "( / !('fl. - ( ,/(!(fl'fl ffi' # 2ffl fl, !(fl'fl & ," ,") (fl% (, , ,ffl!(fl (,& fl3. - ( ffl + ,fflfi 2ffl, , (' " 6 2- *) ') ( " 9 , , 9 (' " (Greenhouse Gases). ສ.ວ.ສ ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ

170 - fi # ' ,)& "6 fl ffi,) (,( fl!# 2 ,B ffl ,fi ( 2ffl,! 2/ 2 # ,! 2 ' ,B ffl. 5. " ') ,% ,/ : - " & fl2/2 , &( 1 !(fl # . - " "2'& ) / !(fl # . - " , ffl+ !. #&( ') ' ,B ffl 1. &(: (ffl+!(fl 'fl' , / ( !(fl(fl ffl + ffl+ 'fl ((/ # 'fl". % ) )ffl" fl(fl, fl,!(fl'fl (( / # 'fl" ffl +fl/ % (fl) & fl fi 6 / 2- ff fl/,, &$ # !,fl '/ fl ') ! ,fl ffl + . 2. &(: ,(, (fl'fl ! "% ' "ffl + 'fl 'fl ') 'fl (/ fl ffl '&& fl # (" 'fl fl(fl " " & fl . 'fl ( " " ( '& " 1 ffl+ /ffl # ffl + ') 'fl'fl' " " 2ffl '& " 1 ( fl /ffl # - (? 3. &(: fi ",(' " fi ", (' " fi " !(flffi), - ' "ffi2ffl )fl 2 "fl) fl (&$ *"ffi(,)% ) fl ffl - !(flffi)*, - ffi)/ ) fl ')" () fl " ffl+ 2 "fl!(fl) fl ($ ,$((*, , fl" " ' ) fl " (. fl , / fl, 2ffl " ('% / 6 2 !(fl !(flffi). fl " ,4 ( ' " ffl -ff ffi)2ffl 6 2fi " ff fl fl" ( (( fflfi ff ). fl ",( " : ,('" (Greenhouse Effect). ,fi (fflff +%(fi ", (' " ffl + fflff +%( , 9 (' " ' & (flffl ff +%(2 ,% *4& fl3 ( ffi 9 ( CO2), ,& ( 9 CH4), ) 9 # ffi$)( #ffi) ( (CFC8) ') 9 ffi&$' ( ( N2O) , : ,% *4* , # , (" , fi & fl32ffiflfl ( ffl ff ') ( # 3 , fl ,ffl 9 + ') ()fl ($ ,$* .

171 4. fl : 1 = 0,546m = 0,546x10-6m; D = 50cm = 0,5m; x = 0,1mm = 10-4m, 2 = 0,435m = 0,435x10-6m *) : . d = ? !. x= ? . / D D1 x x d d ( ( fl , ',)2/* : 2 d m 0,273 10 !. / 2D x d ( , ',)2/* : 4 x 0,7967 10 m 5. fl : d = 0,35mm = 0,35x10-3m, D = 1m, m = 4, xm = 5,5mm = 5, 5x10-3m *) : = ? / !,fl '/ fl m mD x d ( , ',)2/* : ( 0,481 m . 6. fl : d = 2cm = 2x10-2m; = 0,5m = 0,5x10-6m; D = 50cm = 0,5m *) : x = ? *)ffl fl)ffl" fl(fl! '/ fl ffl + (fl! 62 ' : m 1 m D xx x d ( D x d ( ',)2/* : x 12,5m . 7. fl : = 0,6m = 0,6x10-6m; n = 1,5 *)'& 0 ffl ! m = 10 ': x = 10-2 m *) : = ? / *)ffl fl)ffl" fl! ,fl (ffl +'fl: 2 y n ( ffi '& 2 2 m m x mx n nx ( ( ffi ffi ',)2/* : 4 ffi 2 10 rad 8. fl : R = 4m; r1 = 1mm = 10-3m; n = 4/3 *) : . 1 = ? !. r2 = ? / )4 !(fl!'/ fl: 2 1 0, 1, 2, 3, . 2 rm R m ( ffl ff fi ! " ສ.ວ.ສ ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ

172 . )# " fl'/ fl 1: 2 1 1 2 rm R( ffl ff fi ! " , fl m = 0, fl : 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 r r R R ( ( ',)2/* : 4 ( 5 10 mm . !. ,(1( 'ffl +" (& 'flffl n = 4/3 2/* ) 4 !(fl"fl'/ fl 1 ': 2 1 1 0 2 2 R r Rr n n ffl ff ( ( fi ! " ',)2/* : r 0,87mm . 9. fl : *)ffl fl)ffl" fl) 4 !(fl! 4 25 ': r(m)25 - r(m)4 = 9mm = 9x10-3m ') )4 !(fl,) R = 15m *) : = ? / ) 4 !(fl!" fl 2 mr mR ( /*: m r mR ( : 6 3 m 25 m 4 9 10 25 4 9 10 3 15 0,6m 15 rr R R ( ( (( fl 10. fl : *)ffl fl)ffl" fl) 4 !(fl!'/ fl 2 3 ': r3 – r2 = 0,5mm = 0,5x10-3m, = 5,5x10-7m *) : R = ? / ) 4 !(fl!" fl'/ fl 2 1 0, 1, 2, 3, . 2 rm R m ( ffl ff fi ! " )# ! '/ fl 2 ' m = 1 ') !'/ fl 3 ' m = 2, & ) # . "fl'/ fl 2: 2 1 3 1 2 2 R r R ( ( ffl ff fi ! " "fl'/ fl 3: 3 1 5 2 2 2 R r R ( ( ffl ff fi ! " 3 2 5 3 2 2 R R r r ( ( ',)2/* : R 3,6m .

173 23 )"" ') fl ,") 4 "ffifl 1. /fffl 2ffl : - ') ,! 2/ ) "" !(fl'fl% ) & fl3 ') ' fl !"!(fl'fl , fl, )ff ( 6 flfl!(fl'fl. - ,! 2/" 4 !(fl) 2 & fl3 ') 2 # ,ffl + ,! 2 ' ,B ffl . 2. ,(2& & # 1) ffifi )"" !(fl'fl : )"" , ! , ( 'fl, ( % fl !" fl2'") (" , 1 fl !" fl , ( *"fifl fl " ') "fi " "- fl '% / / !(!(flfl !" fl* fl ffl +fl fl !" fl . 2) )"" !(fl 'fl% ) " - 'fl( !- ( 1) "" ffl +fl/ % ) & fl3 fl!(fl'fl, ,ffl " 6 /ff - fl, fl% / 2/ fl!(fl) ff /, , ') ", " '/ fl fl ('1'/ ff fl) ') , '1 ') '/flffl + *. fl , # &fl'1 !(fl) , &$ / # )"" !(fl'fl% ) fl : bm m sin ( 1, 2, 3 1 m = 0 ''fl2ffl ,ffl fl!(fl'fl & , fl, fl " ,! 'fl fl ff ffl+ ,(" : ' 1'/fl, fl fl !(fl), & . # - " ,! fl ('1'/ ff fl2/ fl) " " fl, (fl, !(fl'1(3. (*: sin b ( ສ.ວ.ສ ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ

174 3) )""!(fl 'fl% (fl , , &$ # ,/ ) "" !(fl'fl% (fl'( "" fl '/ fl, fl fl ') ( (( "" fl ffl + . 1 2ffl R ') 4 !(fl(fl , , % fl D (D = 2R), fl " fl (# ' : 1,22 1,22 sin 2R D ( ( 4) )""!(fl 'fl% ) : - ) 2 ) , fl'& )) " " fl b " fl!- ') 6 ffl fl *) a. - 1 ) , ff fl,, fl) '1,fl / ) "" !(fl 'fl% (fl) / '1 ') '1'/ flffl + , fl* / " '&& fl!(fl*) fl'fl% ) fl(fl. - # &fl!(fl'1'/ fl' : am m sin , 1, 2, 3 ( 9 '1' : bm m sin 1, 2, 3 ( 9 5) ,$&fl)"" - )"" ,/ ) ffl+ '"fl, '&)) " fl, b ') a '*)ffl fl)ffl" fl) '&) ffl + ,(" : , $& fl)"". , &$ # */ ) "" /( "'1'/ fl'3, / " # ffl+ , fl( (fl &fl " ,! fl ('1'/ ff fl) ' : am m sin 0, 1, 2, 3 ( 9 ') &fl'1 ' : am m sin 1, 2, 3 ( 9 ) ) , fl a '*)ffl fl)ffl" fl(fl) 6& . 1 N '/ ") # (,$&fl); / ", # ffl+ '1'/fl& #- flffl"- ")"fl "!(fl,$& fl ' / , / ") # N. fl , /* : 1 a N

175 6) 'fl! "!(fl'fl 'fl! " ( Polarization) , - fl,! & !" fl, 'fl' ' ,ffl +* , fl( " fl* ') fl' ,ffl + *"& )"fl&fl , fl ') ') & fl ,( !(fl6 ,4 . - ,(, (fl'fl SI " ( i *,) (3/( 2- fl/*'fl ( '& *"& )"fl& fl - fifl(, , fl, 'fl ' fl !", ( fl " ,( " : $",& (Brewster) '" Pi , ,") ) 4 'fl( ') ) 4 'flffl& fl fi #. $",& 'fl2ffl,ffl " ( , 2ffl'fl (, 'fl 'fl !" ' ! ( & 'flffl !(fl'") (fifl6 fl" ') &(-(fl& %: 2 1 tan P n i n , 2,( n1 ') n2 '( & 'flffl !(flfi '") ( 1 ') 2, & ) # . - , )ff (Malus’s law) , , % ,fi (2 *) " ,! !(fl'fl % ** , fl) " ,! !(fl'flfi "fi fl 2 cos !(fl )ffl" fl( (' ff fl! " fl(fl, : 2 0 I I cos 7) ,/(!(fl'fl ,/(!(fl'fl ( Scattering) ,/ ( fi ff !- 2ffl , ( " " !(fl'fl , fl( ": ) "" , (''/ / ') ffl!(fl'fl,ffl + , & , : ,/(!(fl'fl, (fl/ 'fl % (, !- 2ffl , % ffi,) !(fl( ff !- ( , ( " "!(fl'fl. & ' ,ffl +* !(fl ,/(!(fl'fl1 " 2'") (' * / ff & 6 / ff fl!(fl" 'flffl 62fi "/ "* . ,( ',ffl +* 2 * / , * ff / fffl " / # ') fl ((*, ສ.ວ.ສ ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ

176 1 " " ffl # fl " 1 !(fl ( # Natural Frequency) !(fl* / ff / # (, '& 1 " 1 !(fl fl " 1 # !(fl* / /, ff ( fl)". * / ff 'fl ') / fl (( *"!- !(fl 2ffl , ". "ff ( fi 2 ff fflfflff # ffi) fl,* ' 6 / , ff 2- fl, ,('fl ( fi ff /, # 6 2- fifl2- fl ffi fl ,/ ( ((*23 ff ffi,fi ' fl(((/ , ff fl ". 3. ( flfi : " ') (3 "! (fl. , (ff (: )' ffl + ,/ , (* , * . (media): '% CD ffl+ ( ,fl (*!"2ffl ,fi " (ffl+'fl / ," * & fl3. 4. / # ') ( 4.1 #,! fi # " ffiffl # ffifi " ) "" !(fl * % . 4.2 ( " )""!(fl'fl 1) ,- # ) "" !(fl'fl fi # '& ') ( , ) "" !(fl'fl% fl !" fl fl 23.1. 2) ,- # ) "" 'fl% ) " - '& 23.2. ') ( , ) "" !(fl'fl% ) ". - # '1'/ fl, '1 !(fl'fl, fl% , # *) ') ( )ff !(fl'1 ') '1'/ fl. - ( " ,! fl !(fl'fl ff *, fl% 2 ) # , '1'/fl 2/ fl ') " " fl, (fl, !(fl'1(3 fl 23.3.

177 - ,- # , , &$ # ,/ ) "" !(fl'fl% (fl ' ( "" fl '/ fl, fl fl ') ( (( "" fl ffl+ fl 23.4 3) ,- # ) "" !(fl'fl% (fl) '& 23.6. ') ( , ) "" !(fl'fl% ) fi ( fl # *) '1'/ fl ') '1 . 4) ( " ,! !(fl'fl ( , , &$ ) # */ )(fl !(fl 6fl fl 23.7 5) ,- # ) "" 'fl% ffl + ) (,$&fl). - '& 23.8. ') ( , ) "" !(fl'fl% ffl + ) . - # '1'/ fl, '1 !(fl'fl, fl% / , # # *) ') ( )ff !(fl'1 ') '1'/ fl. - ( / ", # ffl+ / "'1& # #- flffl"- ")"fl "!(fl,$& fl ') ,# / ") # N. - ( " ' fl! "!(fl'fl 6) ,- # ff)!(fl'fl, , ' fl! "!(fl'fl. - '& 23.9 ') ( , !(fl ' fl! " ') ) . - '& 23.10 'fl # 'fl! "( "'fl 'fl! "/ "ffl # + ') 'fl'fl! "/ " # 2 fl %) ,!(fl fl* # fl . 7) ,- # , ' fl! "!(fl'fl% '") ( " (. '& 23.12 ') ( , $",& !(fl 'fl! " fi ( fl! % !(fl $ ",& . - ( ,1fl )(fl!(fl ) , ( ff )ff !(fl'fl % ( (' ff fl! " ( polarizer) ') ((" ff , ( analyzer) fi( fl , ' fl! "!(fl'flffl +fl/ % ( ( ff fl(fl fl 23.13. - !% !(fl , )ff fi( fl( " 4 !(fl% . ສ.ວ.ສ ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ

178 - fi # )(fl ' fl! "!(fl'fl (1 ,fl (*!), fl, ') ( % )(fl. 8) ( " ,/ (!(fl'fl - ( ,/ (!(fl'fl% '") (& fl3 (" fl !" fl, fl,!(fl'fl ffi( *'fl2 ('fl"fl # & ," ) fl 23.14. - ( " ,fl ' fl! "!(fl'fl/ ,/ (!(fl'fl 5. " ') ,% ,/ : - " 2/, & fl 1 ') &( # 1 !(fl # . - " "2& / !(fl # . - " , ffl+ !. - " &fl2/2 . #&( ') ' ,B ffl 1. &(: )"" 'fl ' 'fl fl ,(!ffl 62'") ()") , (fi fl !" fl& fl3, : ) ffl+ "1 ff ! - (. fl !" fl fl "/& (fl !- , ffl + 2fl !- !(fl " "!(fl'fl ,(fl2 . 2. &(: ,(, (fl'fl SI " ( i *,) (3/( 2- fl /*'fl ( '& *"& )"fl& fl - fifl(, , fl, 'fl ' fl! ", ( fl " ,( " : $",& ' " P i , ,") ) 4 'fl( ') ) 4 'flffl& fl fi # 2 1 tan / Pi nn ') ( fl "/&(-(fl& ,fl (*! 2 1 tan tan ' / i i nn , fl 2 1 n n '( & 'flffl!(fl'") (( . ,( ,fl (*! ' ,fl (*!!(fl +",& . 3. &(: " ,! !(fl'flffl" fl % ( (" ff , ( analyzer) , (& " fl )ffl" fl( (' ff fl! " fl(fl : ( (' ff fl! " (polarizer) ') ((" ff , ( analyzer). ffi% !(fl , ) ' ff 2 0 I I cos .

179 4. &(: ,(, (fl'fl ! "% ,$& fl6 '1'/ fl/, '1'/fl!(fl'fl ,()fl & fl3 'fl6 fl& # ,(fl/ 'fl (/ ,1 fl'fl 'fl. fl , '1 '/fl2/ fl/ fl, ! ", 6 (fl! fl!(fl'1'/ fl2/ fl/, '1'fl,()fl ffl+ ,fi " 'fl,() fl # ( . 5. &(: ,(!- ') *)ffl fl)ffl" fl(fl) a # 'fl, *)ffl fl)ffl" fl'1'/ fl 6& x /fi"fi ffi fl *)ffl fl)ffl" fl ) ffl /# D. fl , (*)ffl fl D ,fi ! /, # 2ffl*)ffl fl)ffl" fl'1 '/fl x ,fi !, ". 6. fl : 9 ( 632,8nm 632,8 10 m ; 4,4 2 4,4cm 2,2cm 2 y y ') *)!'/ fl 1 ' m = 1 *) : b = ? / b m sin ( ' &fl!(fl'1 , , (2ffl m =±1 *) *) '1'/fl, fl fl* , '& , (, fl : sin tan y D 7 sin 1438,18 10 m 0,144mm m D b mb y ( ( 7. / % 2 0 I I cos ') 0 I 2I *) : = ? . 2 0 0,5 0,5 2 cos I II 2 fl cos 1 0 !. 2 0 0, 25 0, 25 2 cos I II 2 fl cos 0,5 45 8. / 1 a m sin sin N ( 1 ( sin m N , fl m = 1; = 650nm = 650x10-9 m ') 1500 2 N 1500 10 / m cm fl 1 92 sin 1 1650 10 1500 12 5,60 ສ.ວ.ສ ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ

180 9. / 1 a m sin sin N ( 1 m sin N ( = 90° , fl/ * '1'/ fl ff , = 600nm = 600x10-9 m ') 2 2 5000 5000 5000 10 / 10 N m cm fl , 2 9 1 sin90 sin 3,33 5000 10 600 10 m N ( / *) , *'1'/ fl ff ' '1 3. '&'1'/ fl!(fl ) " "' , ! 6 fl(fl! fl m 3,33. fl , '1'/ fl fl4 ,ffl*, m 7 '1. 10. / ,fl(*! ,'1'/ fl a m sin ( ffi2ffl, )# '1'/ fl 5 (m=5) *: 5 A a x D ( ffl ff fi ! " )# '1'/ fl 3 (m=3) *: 3 B a x D ( ffl ff fi ! " fl : 3 5 A B ( ( (" - fl: / sin sin a a m m (( /*: sin 5 sin 3 A B a a ( ( # $$ % $ $& ' 2 /* : 3 5 A B ( ( " " % (

181 24 ') , fl,ffl ,") 3 "ffifl 1. /fffl 2ffl : - ') ,! 2/" , , '% &(fl'fl , " fffl!(fl'fl, & ') ,fl,ffl . -,! 2/" 4 !(fl) 2 & fl3 ') 2 # ,ffl + ,! 2 ' ,B ffl . 2. ,(2& & # ( Colour) 4 ,1fl) !(fl'fl & # & !(fl, 2ffl,ffl , 4"4, ! ", , 'fl, !" ') # (3. , 'fl - fl , fl 2ffl ,ffl ,('fl% )((fl( 2( ffl # + % ' "ffl + ') " , & fl3)" fl4 7 : 'fl, ', ,ffl + (fl, !", , "fl ') , fl,( " : ff fl (Rainbow) ffl+ flfl,fi ,('1 " , &$ ( # Spectrum) !(fl'fl. 'fl2 # & fl3)" 6 6 fl4 ,4 # ')" , 'fl! ", , ('fl ! " " 1 ff 2- fl / # ( !(fl" 1 ff (( ,! & !(fl, . "1 ff! "/ (* ff , "" 1 ff / # 'fl*"4 4 " # ('fl 2(( ,) . ,fi!(fl: 6 2 ' # fl((, 2 ,fi2ffl3 : ,2 ') # ff fl! . 1) ,2 # 6 2 : - , 'fl , / ffl !(fl'fl, ff fl, ,/ ' "ffl +. - 62" 1 ff ffl+ ,( ( Pigment) 6 2" 1 ff # "* , !(flfi , ') ' & fl3. 2) ff fl! *2 fl, / " 1 ff ') # fl , , , fl fl ",( " : " . ສ.ວ.ສ ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ

182 : ,( 'fl ! " 2 " 1 ff 'fl2- fl, "1 ff / 'fl !(fl'&) (, ! " *" 2) '&& fl ') 'fl" ,ffl+ (/ / (((/ " 1 ,! ff & !(fl, ')", 2ffl, ,ffl"1 ff , " 'fl (((/ " 1 ff fl ". 'fl" " 1 ff ,(" : . " 1 ff & fl ' & fl . &"6 fl: , ,ffl2 *, !" # (" 22* ffi$ +# , fl, 'fl ( ') 'fl'fl,( *"* ') " ('fl!" ') 2 fl ((( . fl , /fl, 2ffl, ,ffl2*, !" ') ( 3… )# # / 'fl ff ,( *"# 2ffl'fl 2 ((( , /fl,ffl "1 ,ff ') # ! "' ('fl 3 ff 2 . : & fl36 2, (" 1 ff # fl! * / & fl3,! " 6 3 : ,ffl + (fl, 'fl "fl ') !" , fl fl ",( " : fi1 (Primary Color). fl 3 )ff fl : - ,ffl + (fl /# '1 ,ffl + (fl 1 'fl, (/ 4 . - 'fl "fl/ # 'fl2'1 'fl ') "fl, ( 4 . - !"/# '1 , "fl ') !", (/ 4 . 3) & fl3 , ,ffl,/ !(fl' fifl 3 , : 'fl, !" ') . 2 'fl 2 " : '" (Additive Color Mixing) ') ') (Subtractive Color Mi Xing). 'fl '" ' ,( fi1 : 'fl 'fl, 'fl !" ') 'fl ,! /* ! "6 , fl fl ') * (fl ( # Secondary Color) : !" (Cyan), "fl'fl ( Magenta) ') ,ffl + (fl (Yellow). 'fl ') ' ,( !", "fl'fl ') ,ffl + (fl ,! /* (fl # : , !" ') 'fl . '% &(fl'fl: ,(2ffl 'fl ! " , fl( "'fl ffl+ (fl% '% + &2, 'fl % ((/ '% + & / # " !(fl'%

183 + & . &"6 fl: 2 '% + & 'fl, '%&(fl , 'fl % '% + &((** '& 'fl 'fl ') ' '& ) 'fl'flffl + ff, "'fl (1 *" . fl , / fl,ffl 'fl % (( , 'fl. 2 )" 1 2 '% + &2 *# 'fl % ((*' ffl+ , 'fl!" ') 'fl "fl (( ,# )(. fl , / fl,ffl 'fl . ,fi ,('% 2 'fl fl *" ') 2ffl 'fl fl % * ,( " : ' %&(fl 'fl" ff fl!(fl'fl : 'fl, fi)flfl , 2ffl, ( 1'fl 2 " '/ fl ffl + " fffl!(fl'fl (Illuminance) F E A 2 E '" fffl!(fl'fl ffl"- ", ),& # & ' 2 lm/m ffl+ ) [lx]. F '" ffl" fl!(fl'fl ffl"- ", ), [lm]. A ', ( 'fl ffl"- "& ' [m2 ]. " ,! !(fl" fffl'fl ( LuminousIntensity) '" ,! !(fl) 'fl (fl*2 fl2- fl&# " ffl+ " ffl" fl!(fl'fl 2 fl2- fl '%(( 2- flffl"- "!(fl & ( Solid Angle). 4 F I " ,! !(fl" fffl'fl I ffl"- "' ',) ( Candela, Cd) & '- fl2 5 ( # !(fl , , !(fl& ' 2& ffifl!(fl'flffl" fl ') ' ( ( ff 'flffl" fl ) "(fl fl, ,fi ,2 & ,fi ("'" ,! !(fl'flffl" fl* % ,/. fi " # !(fl& ( "ffl + fi ", : ,)& (Lens) (fl- ", , ,)'fl/ " 1 ff &(fl , fl,ffl . 6, (fl- ') ,(flffl +fl!(fl' "& ' ( "'") (2 ( Aqueous Humor) ') Vitreous Humor , fl,( " : *! # & . 6! fl- !(fl' "& - fl 'fl , fl,( " : & (Iris) , - " ,! !(fl'fl2ffl *& 2 fi & . 6, fl fl!(fl' "& (fl (3 , % 2/ fl 8mm ສ.ວ.ສ ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ

184 'fl2ffl () fl,1 fl 2mm ,(6 fl'fl' ') ,( " : & (Pupil). " 6( !(fl& ,( ff " : ' " & (Cornea) , - (fl- " & . fi " 6, (flffl +fl !(fl& ,( ff " : fi& (retina) , - !(fl "1 ')ff " fl% *ffl 4(fl. (/ 6 fi & fl /-ff fl, fl' / )" ff !(fl, ,! ffl "fl& , /ff # " " 'flffl" fl ') * ,(" : / ff ('fl (Blind Spot). ,fl,ffl: " 2 , fl,ffl ' ! / )ff fl ( Cell) 'fl 2 &, ff : 1 / )ff fl 'fl 'fl& fifl ff " /# " ,ffl 'fl'fl ') (3 , # ". 1 / )ff fl 'fl fl 3 &fiff (3 ') , /, " ,ffl , 'fl! ". 1 / ff )fl 'fl fl 2 2 3 &fiff (3 ') , /, " ,ffl , 'fl( (Compound Color) , fl, , / !(flfi1 , : 'fl "fl, !" ') ,ffl + (fl, &. 1 " / )ff fl 'flfl 3 fi ( '& # 1& 2ffl ff , " , " # ,ffl'fl (2,) . ,(, fl" 1 fflff + fl!(fl& fl3 6 fl'/ fl2,") ' , /fl "& , ,fi " fi & 1& , ff !(,!, 2ffl, &(-(fl , 1 ffl , ,fl" 1 * ff 3 # fl, 2ffl &(-(fl fl ) fl ') "/, 2fflfi & 1 ) ) # fl/ 2 # * (& (). 'fl " ffflffl + 3*' : 'fl& ," , 'fl,), , 'fl/ (*(*),...,fi ((fl ,& ,") , fl" 1 ff " ffflffl + '2ffl fi & ,( 'fl " fffl,! & . ,fl"fl& ," ' , fl* 2&(, &(& ," )# fl! ') &(')fl&(& ," )# fl /&, ,fi " 2,") 'fl& ," " fffl- ( ') " ,! # # fl. ,fl" 1 ff " fffl- ( # , (&) , fl" 1 ff " ffflffl + , '&1 , ,fl" 1 ff " fffl- (/ , */ , 2ffl, *, fl & ,") , (& & (fl, "-% & ') 1 , fl* 3/, 2ffl , (& , (fi * , .

185 ,fl" 1 ff " ffflffl + (" ,! fl) ffi% ( (, ff : (fl (fl fl*, (fl/ ) ff ,# 2fflfi & ,(,* , " , fl "& , . fl , 1 6 , fl" 1 ff " ffflffl + ffi% ( ('fl ff & (fl2 '%&(fl'fl& ( ( ff ,fi (fflff +%(" fffl!(fl'fl) fl/ , 2ffl& & , fl* . 3. ( flfi : " ') (3 "! (fl. , (ff(: '%&(fl . (Media): '% CD ffl+ ( ,fl (*!"2ffl ,fi " ') , fl,ffl / ," * & fl3. 4. / ') ( # 1) ,!# fi # " ffiffl # " ') , & ') , fl ,ffl*2 % . 2) ( " ') - ( " fi1 ') )ff !(fl fi1 . - fi # ffi , (fl'fl% '% &(fl ') fl, */ fl 24.2. - ( 'fl '" ') ( 'fl*/ fl 24.3. 'fl '", !(fl'fl , fl ' fi1 : 'fl 'fl, 'fl !" ') 'fl /* ! "6 ,fl fl. '" ' /* (fl # : 'fl !", "fl 'fl ') ,ffl + (fl. - ( 'fl ') ') ( 'fl*/ fl 24.4 'fl ') , !(fl' : !", "fl'fl ') ,ffl + (fl. 'fl,/ ') /* (fl # : , !" ') 'fl. ສ.ວ.ສ ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ

186 - ( " ,fi" 1 (" ff 1 ffiff fl'fl, "1 ff "'fl ') " 1 ff 'fl) ') ( " '% &(fl'fl . - ( " " fffl!(fl'fl ') " ,! !(fl" fffl!(fl'fl. - ! *) ') ( ffl"- ". 3) ( "& ') ,fl,ffl - ( " ffifl( fl!(fl& ') , "!(fl'&) fi " . - ( " , fl,ffl !(fl& , : ,fl,ffl , , fl" 1 ff " ffflffl + , ,fl" 1 ff " fffl- ( ') , fl" 1 %ff (('fl. ff 5. " ') ,% ,/ : - " 2/, & fl 1 ') &( # 1 !(fl # . - " "2'& ) / !(fl # . - " , ffl+ !. - " &fl2/2 . &( #1 ') ' ,B ffl 1. ' / ? 1 6 * , # ! "" 2' ? &(: ' fi1 3 : 'fl, !" ') . - 1 6 * " # : ,ffl + (fl, 'fl "fl ') !". - 1 6 * ! "" : 'fl, # ') !". 'fl! " 'fl ! " '%&(fl'fl '%&(fl'fl 'fl!" 'fl 'fl"fl 'fl'fl 'fl' & (S) I

187 2. ) " ffl" fl' ffl fl? ffl"- "" ''"2? &(: ) " ffl" fl' ) !(flfi)flfl (((/ # # ,'fl2- fl&#- flffl"- ",") ffl + (& 2ffl fi) flfl ,( " : ) " ffl" fl ffl+ ,(" " ffl" fl!(fl'fl ( Luminous Flux). ffl"- " "'' ) , [lm]. 3. " fffl!(fl'fl % & # & !(fl, '"2? ,fi ( (fl% fl "", '"2? &(: " fffl!(fl'fl % & # & !(fl, : , (, fl" 1 ff ffl+ fl!(fl & fl3 " ffflffl + 6 fl'/ fl2,") ' , /fl "& , ,fi " fi& 1& , ff !(,!, 2ffl, &(-(fl , 1 ffl , ,fl" 1 ff *3 # fl, 2ffl &(-(fl fl ) fl ') "/, 2fflfi & 1 ) ) # fl /2 # * ffl + & (*. " '*! : &(fl, fl" 1 ff " fffl ffi% '% &(fl'fl. 4. ffl+(*,(fl'fl!- 40W / " # 3 ffl+( && fl6 , fl,fi fl2m, ffl(fl , '/ !- 2mx3m. 1 " ffl +(* % 67,5 lm/W. ,)!(fl" fffl!(fl'fl2ffl (fl , 2? 1 ( & 2ffl fi) flfl ') ,* &" ('fl 500 lm. ': , ( 'fl ( A) = ,( fiffl(fl+, ( B ffl(fl 2 A 2 3 2 2 2 3 2 2 26m - ffl+(* (& 2ffl fi) flfl ffl + " ffl" fl!(fl'fl ' : F 40 3 67,5 8,100 lm - (& 2ffl fi) flfl 'fl , ( fl4 ' : F = 8100 – 500 = 7600 lm - fl , " fffl,) !(fl'fl2, ( ffl(fl fl4 ' : 7600 2 292,3 lm / m 292,3 lx 26 F E A ສ.ວ.ສ ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ

188 5. ffl+(*,(fl'fl 1 ffl+( 2fflfi) flfl 'fl 2500 lm. 1 " " fffl!(flffl +( * / " # 4 ffl+(6, flffi& , ( 5m2 / , 2? ': ( & 2ffl fi) flfl F = 2500 lm, ,( 'fl A = 5m2 / "(* # n = 4. *) " fffl!(fl(* E = ? / " fffl!(flffl +(*: 2500 4 2000 lx 5 F E n A fflff ffl ff fi fi !" ! " 6. ffl+(*!- 84W " ,! !(fl" fffl'fl 36 cd. 1 & (fl " fffl 6, flffi&!- 144 lx. 1 " & (fl'!"(* fl/ - ffi& " *), 2? - /fl *) " fffl!(flffl +(*6/ -ff fl, flffi& ffl fl/ / 2/ fl!(flff ffi&*) 0,8m. ': " ,! !(fl" fffl'fl I = 36 cd, " fffl!(flffl +(* E 144 lx *) )"fl*)ffl fl'& (*ffl - ffi& R = ? / 2 2 36 1 0,5 m 144 4 I I ER R R E fl /&(fl& (*6 flffl fl/ - ffi&*) 0,5 m - " fffl!(flffl +(*6/ -ff fl, flffi& ffl fl/ / 2/ fl!(flff ffi& *) 0,8m ': A 2 A I E R 4 4 , fl 2 2 RA 0,5 0,8 0,954m " fffl!(flffl +(*2 !- - ffi&' : / / 2 cos cos A A I E E R 4 4 , fl 0,5 0,5 cos 0,943 RA fl : / / 2 2 36 0,5 cos 21,43lx 0,945 0,945 A I E R 4

189 fi IX ( &( 25 ffifl fl!(fl fl" 1ff ,") 3 "ffifl 1. /fffl 2ffl : - ') ,! 2/ffifl fl 1 !(fl fl" 1 , ffifi ') ( ff fl( ( &(, fi ( ,) &$(. - ') ,! 2/" (ffl " ') * / !(fl( ff ,) &$(. - ') ,! 2/'/ )(fl( &(!(fl$ # , B( ') (. - 2 # & fl3,! 2 ' ,B ffl. 2. ,(2& & # ffl" ') '"" " ffifl fl 1 !(fl fl" 1 , ff ffifi " ( &(, " fi ( ,) &$(, " (ffl " ') * / ff!(fl(,) &$(,'/ )(fl( &(!(fl$ # , B( ') (. 3. ( - flfi : ' 7 " ffifl fl!(fl fl "1 , ff ') " ( 3 "! (fl. - , (ff(: '& , " 1 / ff & ') ffi$'/ )(fl' # " ( &(.,!,fl (*!": http://www.chemicool.com/ 4. / ') ( # 4.1. ffifi " ( &( : &fl 1 # : , fflfl (ffl /fl, !(fl'!fl, /# fl, !(fl'ffl+",...? "1 ff'&) ("ffl fl ') ffifl fl ( 1 '"2? ສ.ວ.ສ ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ

190 , 2ffl & fl- 1-2 ) !ff &(& " ,! 2/. : fflff + #&(: 450 ( ) ) (Leucippus) , + (Greek) *,- '"" " 1 " , fl 'fl* ffi/ " # fl / # , , (' fl& # *,)(3/*ffl "- " ( ,( ff " ( &(. 380 ( ) ffi$ & (Democritus) , * + "" ffi) (" fl" 1 ') ff (" fl, , , fl fl" 1 ( ff "( &(, fl, ffl" -" ( ff # /'fl'& # **( . fl" 1 '&ff ) /( " ( &( '& !- , fl ') / )fl( &(& fl . 'fl !(flfl" 1 ' ff , / 'fl) / )fl!(fl( &(. 2 "fl,") 2 fl ( $ ffi& (Aristotle) , * + ( ffifl fl!(fl fl" 1 "ff fl" 1 ff ff , (& # ,(fl, # (, " fl ') 'fl((, " (36 fl # / # , 4 " " # ( &(. ( $ ffi& , (" ff fl" 1 2ffi)( ff "( fl( 1 4 6 fl : , , ) # , *. 'fl!(flfl" 1 ,ff ! , (( fl( 1 'fl. / '"" !(fl ( $ ffi& , 2ffl %fi 'fl)ff !(fl fl" 1 &ff fl3 / ffi)ffl) 12ffl , ffi)ffl ) 'fifl , ffl + ,ffl +2ffl , . ,1 # fl" % " ffl +''fl 2*4 # ) %ff & / ff fffl4 & '& # ,# 2ffl" fl, ,fi !, , ,) " ,! 2/2 / # 'fl" 1 ((, ff ') "(/ # ) . ff &" 18 * fi " , / )" !(fl fi "2( & " !(fl" fl . . 1808 )& (Dalton) * fl ( &( , fl , (2" fl" 1 ( ff "( &(, fl, ffl"- " ( ( ') ' ff fl'& # *( # *. " ( "( &( " , & fl ( "( &(& fl . ( &(!(fl '& ) / fl ') -# ,fi .

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