ປື້ມທໍາມະຊາດ ມ4

45 gIqk76o7kg7,u0v’c8 j ]tmkf,6ooaho da[9eo;o vk38,0v’r;d,ao gIqkwfh # V @ j = @ V # g-y’zqo76o9tgmq j kdaoF 9kdouhltcf’; j kgIqklhk’l6f j Al2 3 O 4nd8hv’c]h;D 9kd8q;1k’j fa’dj k;F gIqklts^5[wfh; j kgrn j vlhk’l6f0v’mkf8k,7 j kg7,u0v’mkf,6ogIqk 8hv’xt8y[af8k,0aho j 8vofa’ouhG j !? 0Polaopt]adg7,u0v’mkf,6o]q’rhv,ma’\kp7kg7,u0v’r;d,aofh;p38g]d3ic,a’D j @? -vdskmt;u76oI;,|hvpl5f0v’7 j kg7,umu j ltcf’vvdoahoD j #? skomt;u76oI;,|hvpl5foaho.sh7 j kg7,u0v’c8 j ]tmkf,6oc]h;0Po9eo;omu j wfhIa[ j oahoshvp.lg[nhv’0;kmk’]5 j ,0v’laopt]admkf,6omu j jdjP;0hv’D 8k8t]k’ 8k8t]k’ltcf’7jkg7,u0v’[k’mkf,6o kg7,u0v’[k’mkf,6o kg7,u0v’[k’mkf,6o kg7,u0v’[k’mkf,6o 7jkg7,u0v’[k’d5 kg7,u0v’[k’d5 kg7,u0v’[k’d5 kg7,u0v’[k’d5 kg7,u0v’[k’d5j,mkf 7jkg7,u 3]st vt3]st 7jkg7,u gmqk ! j Na, K, Ag, Cu, Hg H, Cl 7jkg7,ugmqk @ j Mg, Ca, Ba, Cu O, S Hg, Fe, Zn, Sn, Pb 7jkg7,ugmqk # j Al, Cr, Fe N 7jkg7,ugmqk $ j Mn C, Si, S 7kg7,ugmq j k & j Mn N,P 7kg7,ugmq j k * j Cr S dj5,mkf 7kg7,u j I II III NO C ,OH 3 -- - , l SO ,CO ,SO 3 2- 3 2- 4 2- PO4 3- ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

46 lts^5[G 7 lts^5[ jkg7,u0v’mkf,6o s^n d5j,mkf,6oc,jo8q;g]dltcf’g4y’7;k,leraomuj,u raomt8+dao0v’vk38, s^n d5,vk38,F gry j owfhdeoqfgvqk7 j kg7,u0v’Iu3fic-og- j y’g;]k.fd=gmq j jk ! c]t 7kg7,u0v’vk38,vqd-uc-o g- j y’g;]k.fd=gmq j k @ gxaosq;| j ;p;afcmd8k,s^ad7 j kg7,uG j 4hkI6h x, y c]t a s^n b 9t-vdwfh b s^n a. I6h a c]t b 9t-vdwfh x, y grnvlhk’gxaol6f3,g]d5o8k, j vaf8kl;oG j x y b a b a = = ′ ′ .sh x = b sn^ b′ c]t y = a sn^ a′ X4hk a ,b′ ′ c,og]drbfltmu j gxao9eo;o4h;o,u j 7jk8e]kmP[.lj a, b) &D dko7yfw] dko7yfw] dko7yfw] dko7yfw]j 8k,l6fg7,u 8k,l6fg7,u j8k,l6fg7,u 8k,l6fg7,u 8k,l6fg7,u dD 7;k,\kp0v’l6fg7,u dD 7;k,\kp0v’l6fg7,u dD 7;k,\kp0v’l6fg7,u dyf9tdeG dyf9tdeGdyf9tdeG .shoadIPorhv,daola’gdfly ’mu j gIqklk,kfI6hwfh9kdl6fg7,u0v’oE X j H2 O? 8+wxoUG { -nl6fg7,uc, j ooED j { .ol6fg7,u0v’oE,umkf,6oIu3fic-o c]t vqd-uc-oD { mkf,6oIu3fic-o,u @ vk38,F mkf,6ovqd-uc-o,u ! vk38,D { 7kg7,u0v’Iu3fic-ogmq j k ! F 7 j kg7,u0v’vqd-uc-ogmq j k @D j { ,;olko3,g]d5oG (2 x 1) + (1x 16)= 18 g. 9kddyf9tde0hk’gmy’l6fg7,u.shgIqkI6hwfhG { -n0v’mkfF [aofkmkf,6omu j xtdv[.omkfF mkff j P; s^n mkfxtlq,D j { 9eo;ovk38,0v’c8j]tmkf,6omuj,u.o3,g]d5o0v’mkf X4hkgxaomkfxtlq, 9tlk,kfI6h7kg7,u.ol6f?D j { ,;olko3,g]d5o0v’mkfD vu’8k,0=h,6omule7aod j P;da[l6fg7,u gIqklk,kf7yfw] j 8k,l6fg7,ufh;pc[[;ymu8 j k’M j ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

47 %B= m M Y M M B A B B x y A Bx y × = × 100 100 % % × 0D 7yfw] 0D 7yfw] 0D 7yfw] 0D 7yfw]jlj;oIhvpfhko,;olko0v’c8 ;oIhvpfhko,;olko0v’c8 ;oIhvpfhko,;olko0v’c8 ;oIhvpfhko,;olko0v’c8j]tmkf,6o.ol6f ]tmkf,6o.ol6f ]tmkf,6o.ol6f ]tmkf,6o.ol6f lq,,5f;k,ul6fg7,u j Ax B y gIqklk,kf7yfw]jlj;oIhvpfhko,;olko A c]t B. .ooAo mA, mB c,o,;olko0v’mkf,6o j A c]t mkf,6o B; MA c]t MB c,o,;olko j vk38,0v’mkf,6o A c]t mkf,6o B; MAx By c,o,;olko3,g]d5o0v’mkfxtlq, j Ax B y 4hkmkfxtlq,muxtdv[fh;ps^kpmkf,6o;ymu j 7yfw] j d=9t7hkp7ndaoD j 7D vu’.ljvaf8klj;ofhko,;olko0v’mkf,6o.omkfxtlq, ;ofhko,;olko0v’mkf,6o.omkfxtlq, ;ofhko,;olko0v’mkf,6o.omkfxtlq, ;ofhko,;olko0v’mkf,6o.omkfxtlq, 8q;1k’G -vdl6f3,g]d5o0v’mkfxtlq,g,n j vI6hvaf8kl j ;o,;olkofa j ’8+wxoUG Iu3fic-o j [ao95 ! l;o c]t vqd-uc-o ) l j ;oD j cdhG lq,,5f;k,;olkomkfmu j oewx;yw9c, j jo a dik, F ltoAo m a 9 n a 9 1 a 9 H H =→ = × = m 8a 9 n 8a 9 16 a 18 O O =→= × = n n H O = 2 1 ’D -vd,;olko0v’c8 ’D -vd,;olko0v’c8 ’D -vd,;olko0v’c8 ’D -vd,;olko0v’c8 ’D -vd,;olko0v’c8j]tmkf,6o.oxt]y,ko.f|b ]tmkf,6o.oxt]y,ko.f|b ]tmkf,6o.oxt]y,ko.f|b ]tmkf,6o.oxt]y,ko.f|b ]tmkf,6o.oxt]y,ko.f|bj’0v’mkfmu ’0v’mkfmu ’0v’mkfmu ’0v’mkfmu ’0v’mkfmuj.sh -vd,;olko0v’mkf A .omkfxtlq, Ax B y .o MAx By g 9t,u MA g s^n MA g mkf A ltoAo.o a g 0v’ Ax B y 9t,u b g mkf A D %A= m M X M M A A B A x y A Bx y × = × 100% % ×100 l6f3,g]d5oc,jo H2 O ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

48 b afim M afiXfiM M A A B A x y A Bx y = = 8q;1k’G .o !*g CuSO4 9t,u Cu 9ad g L ;ymucdhG ; a 16g = M Cu= 64 g; M CuSO4 = MA x By = 160g b = xt]y,ko Cu .o 16 g CuSO4 b 16g 64g 160g = 6,4g × = 8v[G 6,4 g 7e4k,G !D -vdl6f3,g]d5o0v’vqd-ufgs^adI6h;jk,;olko3,g]d5ogmqjk !*W vaf8klj;ofhko ,;olkoG M M Fe O = 7 3 @D -vdl;oIhvpfhko,;olko0v’c8 j ]tmkf,6o.ol6fD j dD HNO3 0 D A O2 3 l 7D Fe3 O4 #D 9qj’0Pol6f3,g]d5o0v’mkfxtlq,I6h;jk.omkfxtlq,,uvaf8klj;ofhko,;olko 8+wxoUG dD Fe = 70; O = 30. 0D Cu = 40% ; S = 20% ; O = 40% $D 9q’[vd7 j kg7,u c]t 9eo;ovk38,0v’c8 j ]tmkf,6o.ol6fD j dD SO3 0D Na2 O 7D CO ’D A O2 3 l 9D MgCl 2 lD CO2 &D 9q’0Pol6f3,g]d5o0v’mkfxtlq,mu j [ao95vqd-uc-o0v’[aofkmkf,6o8+wxoUG j dD Fe (III) 0D Na ( I ) 7D N (III) ’D N (V) 9D S. (VI) lD Al (III) -D Mg (II) *D 9q’0Pol6f3,g]d5o0v’mkfxtlq,gdnvrhv,fh;p-vd,;olko3,g]d5oG j dD Fe (II) xtdv[da[ NO3 Xou8iaf? 0D Na (I) xtdv[da[ SO4 X-6o2af? 7D Ca (II) xtdv[da[ PO4 X2qflt2af? ’D Cu (II) xtdv[da[ Cl Xd^=iq;? ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

49 [qfmu ) [qfmu ) lq,zqog7,u lq,zqog7,ulq,zqog7,u !D 7;k,\kplq,zqog7,u 7;k,\kplq,zqog7,u 7;k,\kplq,zqog7,u 8q;1k’I6[9e]v’]5 j ,oU oadIPo9tla’gdfwfhco;.fL j gryo.-hl6fg7,ugrn j vlhk’gxaolq,zqog7,uF 4hkI6hl6f0v’mkfmu j g0QkI j ;,.oxt8ydy]ypk c]t mkf j muwfhIa[s^a’xt8ydy]ypkc]h;F gry j olk,kfltcf’xt8ydy]ypkoAofh;plq,zqog7,uD j !? ;ymu0Polq,zqog7,u ;ymu0Polq,zqog7,u ;ymu0Polq,zqog7,u .odkolhk’lq,zqo0v’xt8ydy]ypkg7,uF g[Nv’-hkp,ngryo0Pol6fg7,u0v’mkfm j ug0QkI j ;,j xt8ydy]ypkdao Xmkfxt8yrao? c]t 16g[Nv’0;k,ngry j o0Pol6f0v’mkfmu j wfhIa[s^a’9kdxt8ydy]ypk j g7,u Xmkfzt]yf8trao?D ]ts;k’l6fma’s^kp.oc8 j ]tg[Nv’.sh.l j g7n j v’\kp[;d j (+) 0Ao]t s;jk’mkf X4hk,us^kpl6f?D lj;o16j]ts;jk’dk’0v’mkfxt8yrao c]t mkfzt]yf8trao 0v’xt8ydy]ypk.sh.-h]6dlvo-Uwxmk’g[Nv’0;k X→?D le]a[xt8ydy]ypkdq’xYoF g-y’oadIPo9tgsao j .o-AoIPo8+wx9t.-h]6dlvoma’wx c]t da[ XU?D ovd9kdoU gryopa’[vdrk;t0v’mkfvud j fh;pg-aoG j (s) \kpg4y’mkfc0’F ( l ) \kpg4y’mkfcs^; c]t (g) \kpg4y’dklF 8q;1k’G j 2Cu +O 2CuO (s) 2(g) → (s) @? ;ymu-aj’-klq,zqog7,u ’-klq,zqog7,u j ’-klq,zqog7,u ’-klq,zqog7,u ’-klq,zqog7,u la’gdf8q;1 la’gdf8q;1 la’gdf8q;1 la’gdf8q;1jk’8+wxoUG k’8+wxoUG j k’8+wxoUG k’8+wxoUG k’8+wxoUG { la’gdfg[y’9eo;ovk38,0v’c8 j ]tmkf,6o16 j g[Nv’-hkp c]t g[Nv’0;k0v’lq, j zqog7,uD { -a’-k9eo;ovk38,0v’mkf,6o.o3,g]d5o.sp j l5fd j vo c]h;9b j ’-a j ’-k9eo;ovk j 38,.o3,g]d5oohvp]q’8k,]efa[fh;p;ymu8n,8q;g]dlextlyf.l j |hkl6fg7,u.shg\kt j lq,D I6[ )D! lq,zqog7,u ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

50 { 4hk.olq,zqog7,u.f,umkffjP;.sh-aj’-kgxaovaofa[ l5fmhkpD { 8hv’gIaf.sh9eo;ovk38,0v’c8]tmkf,6ogxao j g]d9eo;o4h;o8el5fD j { c]h;oa[9eo;ovk38,0v’c8]tmkf,6o .oc8 j ]tj g[Nv’0v’lq,zqo.shgmqkdao \kp7;k,; j kG lq,zqooU j f5ofP’c]h;D j 8q;1k’G mv’ T vqd-uc-owfhmv’vqd-yf j @D lq,zqog7,uG lq,zqog7,uG lq,zqog7,uG Cu +O CuO (s) 2(g) → (s) !? -aj’lklq,zqo j’lklq,zqo-a { la’gdfgsao;jkG 9eo;ovk38,0v’vqd-uc-o 16g[Nv’0;k,n,urP’|b j ’vk38, l j ;o g[Nv’-hkp,n j ,ulv’vk38, fa’oAo gIqk8hv’8b j ,8q;g]d Xlextlyf? j @ .l8+|hkl6f0v’ j CuO .og[Nv’0;kF 8q;1k’G j Cu + O CuO 2 → c]h;8b,8q;g]d @ 16 j 8+ j I6[ )D# 0Ao8vo-a’-klq,zqog7,u j I6[ )D@ 37’Ik’lq,zqog7,u j .olq,zqorbf-t7toyfF 4hkgIqkxPo[ j vodao ]ts; j k’rkdl j ;og[Nv’-hkp c]t rkdl j ;oj g[Nv’0;k0v’lq,zqoF 7;k,\kp0v’,ao d=9t[+xPocx’ c8 j .olq,zqog7,u 4hkgIqkx j Po[ j vodao j ]ts;k’rkdl j ;og[Nv’-hkp c]t g[Nv’0;k0v’lq,zqo7;k,\kp0v’,ao9tx j Pocx’1 j k’j lYog-u’D I6[ )D $ -a’-klq,zqog7,ulq,[6oc]h; j |hk Cu g[Nv’-hkp g-aoG j { 9tgsaowfh;kG 9eo;ovk38,0v’c8 j j ]tmkf,6oma’lv’g[Nv’0v’lq,zqo oUgmqjkdaog-yj’\kp7;k,;jkG lq,zqo g7,uoU f5ofP’daoc]h;D j @? lq,zqog7,uc8d8 lq,zqog7,uc8d8 lq,zqog7,uc8d8 lq,zqog7,uc8d8jk’da[lq,zqo k’da[lq,zqo jk’da[lq,zqo k’da[lq,zqo rbf-t7toyf rbf-t7toyfrbf-t7toyf ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

51 8q;1k’G j cmomu9t0Po j 2A + 3C A C 2 3 l l l l → 2 lq,zqo ! gIqkwx0Po 2A C 2A + 3C 3 2 l l l l → lq,zqo @ ,aod=9t\kpg4y’xt8ydy]ypkxUo grkt;k lq,zqomu j ! ,aoltcf’g4y’xt8ydy]ypkxtlq,mkf j c8lq,zqo @ ltcf’g4y’xt8ydy]ypk;yg7ktD j lts^5[];,c]h; .odkolhk’lq,zqog7,ugIqk9t8hv’xt8y[affa’8+wxoUG j !? 0Pol6f0v’mkfxt8yrao16g[Nv’-hkp c]t mkfzt]yf8trao16 j g[Nv’0;kD j @? -aj’-klq,zqo fh;pdko8q;g]d Xlextlyf? 16jmk’|hk0v’c8j]tl6fg7,u.olq,zqo gIafco;.f.sh9eo;ovk38,0v’c8]tmkf,6o16 j .oc8 j ]tg[Nv’0v’lq,zqo.shgmq j jkjdaoD #? 0Polq,zqo.shlq,[6oc]h;0Po]6dlvo X ? s^n g7nv’\kp X j =? .llq,zqmu j -a j j’ -kc]h;D #?D 7;k,\kpoe.-h.odko7yfw] #?D 7;k,\kpoe.-h.odko7yfw] #?D 7;k,\kpoe.-h.odko7yfw] #?D 7;k,\kpoe.-h.odko7yfw]j8k,lq,zqog7,u 8k,lq,zqog7,u 8k,lq,zqog7,u 8k,lq,zqog7,u 8k,lq,zqog7,u .shoadIPo9q’la’gdf8k,lq,zqo8+wxoU j 8q;1k’G j CaCO t 3(s) CaO + CO (s) 2 (g) o ⎯ →⎯ 9eo;o3,]3,g]d5o ! ! ! 9eo;o3,]vk38, & @ # ,;olko Xdik,? !W &* $$ 9eo;o[=]y,kf X{? X{? !V@@F$ 9kd8q;1k’lq,zqo0hk’gmy’oU gIqklk,kfI6h7;k,\kp0v’lq,zqog7,u7nG j !? lq,zqog7,u.shgIqkI6hwfhmkfxt8yrao c]t mkfzt]yf8traomugduf0BoD j @? .shI6hvaf8kl;oG j T I6hvaf8kl;omk’fhko9eo;o3,g]d5oF 9eo;o3,]0v’[aofkmkf.olq,zqog7,uD j T I6hvaf8kl;omk’fhko,;olkoF [=]y,kf X0v’mkfvkp?c8 j ]tmkf.olq,zqog7,uD j #D dqfgdocs dqfgdocs dqfgdocs dqfgdocsj’dkoIadlk,;olko ’dkoIadlk,;olko ’dkoIadlk,;olko ’dkoIadlk,;olko .olq,zqog7,uF zqo[;d,;olko0v’[aofkmkfxt8yrao9tgmqjkzqo[;d0v’[aofkmkf zt]yf8traog-aoG j ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

52 lq,zqog7,u A + B = C+ D gIqk,u mA + mB = mC+ mD 8q;1k’j 4 + 32 = 36 $D 7yfw]j8k,lq,zqog7,u 8k,lq,zqog7,u j8k,lq,zqog7,u 8k,lq,zqog7,u 8k,lq,zqog7,u !? gIafco;.f9y’9t-vdsk,;olko0v’mkfxt8yrao c]t mkfzt]yf8traowfhD j 8q;1k’G g,n j vgzqksuox6o &W j g 4k,;k9tgda[wfhx6ofy[9ad j gL 0Ao8vodko7yfw] 0Ao8vodko7yfw]jG { 0Polq,zqoF -a’-klq,zqoG j CaCO t 3 2 CaO + CO o ⎯ →⎯ { -vd9eo;o3,] CaCO3 muoewxgzqkG j n m M 50 100 0,5mol CaCO CaCO CaCO 3 3 3 = == { -vd9eo;o3,] CaO mugda[wfhg,n j vxt8ydy]ypklYol5fG 8k,lq,zqog7,u9eo;o3,] j CaCO3 gmqjkda[9eo;o3,] CaO 4hk CaCO3 =0,5 mol ltoAo9eo;o3,] CaO= 0,5molS ,;olko mCaO = n x MCaO = 0,5 x 56 = 28 g @? gIafco;.f9y’9t-vdwfh[=]y,kfdklmu j g0QkI j ;,xt8ydy]ypk s^n dklmu j wfhIa[ g,n j vxt8ydy j ]ypklYol5fD 8q;1jk’G gry k’8q;1 ooegvqk dkd[vo X4 j ko? wxgzqkw\hda[vqd-uc-o $ j g 4k,;kdkldkd3[oyd j mugda[wfh.og’n j vow0 ,kf8t4ko9t,u9ad]yfL j 0Ao8vodko7yfw] 0Ao8vodko7yfw]j { 0Polq,zqo c]t -a’-klq,zqoG j C+O CO 2 2 → { -vd9eo;o3,]vqd-uc-omug0QkI j ;,xt8ydy]ypkG j nO2 = 4 32 0 125, 3,] { -vd9eo;o3,]0v’ CO2 mugduf0BoG 8k,lq,zqo ! 3,] j O2 g0QkI;,xt8ydy]ypk9twfh j CO2 ! 3,]D ltoAo4hk9eo;o3,] O2 = 0,125 3,] 9eo;o3,] CO2 d=9tgmqjk 0,125 3,]D [=]y,kf0v’ CO2 7yfw]wfhfa j ’oUG j V n CO CO 2 2 = = × × 22 4 0 125 2 8 ,, , l lts^5[0Ao8vo7yfw] lts^5[0Ao8vo7yfw]j !? 0Polq,zqo -a’-klq,zqog7,uD j ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

53 @? xPosq;| j ;p,;olko s^n [=]y,kfvvdgxao9eo;o3,]0v’mkfmu j jdjP;0hv’D #? vu’.llq,zqo-vd9eo;o3,]mkfmu j g0QkI j ;,xt8ydy]ypk s^n mkfmu j wfhIa[8k,[qf39f j mu’kpD j $? xPo9eo;o3,]mu j jwfhvvdgxao,;olko s^n [=]y,kf XV= 22,4 V n? Xm = n V M ?D [qfg/ydsafG [qfg/ydsafG[qfg/ydsafG !D 9q’-a j ’-klq,zqog7,u8+wxoU j dD A O AO 2 23 l l + → 0D C+O CO 2 2 → 7D A S AS2 3 l l + → ’D HgO Hg+O → 2 @D .olq,zqog7,u]5,oU.shgIqkI6hspa’cf j jL dD 4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) → 2Fe2 O3 0D C H HC 2 l l 2(g) (g) + → (g) #D 9kdlq,zqo A O AO 2 23 l l + → { 9q’-a j ’-klq,zqog7,u j { 4hk.-h A 2,7g l 9twfhIa[ A O2 3 l 9ad g L { 4hk O ,u 0,16g 4k,;k 9t.-h j Al 9ad gL $D g,njvoe4ko X j C? wxgzqkw\hda[vqd-uc-o XO2 ? 9twfhdkldkd3[oyd (CO2 ) { 9q’0Polq,zqo0v’xt8ydy]ypkg7,ufa j ’dj k;L j { g,nv,u4 j ko WF& 3,] 9twfhIa[dkldkd3[oyd9ad3,]L j { 4hk,uvqd-uc-o @ 3,] 9twfhIa[dkldkd3[oyd.og’nvow0,kf4ko9ad]yfL j X I6h;kG .og’n j vow0,kf8t4ko ! 3,] m5ddklgmq j k @@F$ ]yf? j &D 4hk,u S 10 g 4ndoewxgzqkIhvoda[ Fe 10g grnjv.shwfhgs^ad-6o2q; XFeS? 4k,;jk g,nvxt8ydy]ypklYol5f9t,umkf.fgs^nv c]t gs^nv9ad3,] j { ,;olkogs^ad-6o2q; XFeS? mugda[wfh,u9ad j g L ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

54 [qfmu _ [qfmu _ vqd-uc-o c]t vqd-yffk-q’ vqd-uc-o c]t vqd-yffk-q’ !D vqd-uc-o vqd-uc-ovqd-uc-o mkf,6ovqd-uc-o,u16mq j ;wx.ome,t-kfF .ovkdkf,uvqd-uc-oxt,ko !}& fhko[=]y,kfD j g-y’laopt]ad0v’vqd-uc-oc, j jo O; 3,g]d5ovqd-uc-oxtdv[,u @ vk38,F l6f3,g]d5oc,o j O2 . !? dkox5’c8 dkox5’c8 dkox5’c8 dkox5’c8j ’vqd-uc-o ’vqd-uc-o j’vqd-uc-o ’vqd-uc-o gryox5’c8 j ’vqd-uc-owfhco;.fL j dD .oshv’mqf]v’ dD .oshv’mqf]v’ dyf9tde !G x5’c8 dyf9tde !G x5’c8 dyf9tde !G x5’c8 dyf9tde !G x5’c8j ’9kddk]uvv,cxad,a’dkoaf ’9kddk]uvv,cxad,a’dkoaf j’9kddk]uvv,cxad,a’dkoaf ’9kddk]uvv,cxad,a’dkoaf ’9kddk]uvv,cxad,a’dkoaf (KMnO4 ) g,nvoE\qfd=ltcf’; j k vqd-uc-owfhg8a,s^vfmqf]v’ 9kdoAo.-hfvovafxkds^vf j mqf]v’ grnvgda[Iadlkw;hoewx.-hmqf]v’8+MwxD lq,zqog7,uG j 2KMnO K MnO +MnO +O 4 2 4 22 → dyf9tde @G x5’c8 dyf9tde @Gdyf9tde @G ’9kdmkfdk]uvv,d^=]af j KClO3 c]t Iu3fic-ocxadvqd-yf H2 O2 D 8q;1k’ !G ;yg7kt j KClO3 fh;p7;k,Ihvo3fp,u MnO2 gxaomkfg]a’D j 2KC O 2KC +3O 3 MnO 2 2 l l ⎯ → ⎯⎯ 8q;1k’ @G ;yg7kt j H2 O2 !D gvqkdk]uvv,cxd,a’dkoaf (KMnO4 ) xt,ko ! dik, .lcdh;dQox5h’F.-hfvo j muj,um+lqj’vkpvafxkdcdh;dQox5h’c]h; xjvom+lq’vkp]q’.l j s^vfcdh;mu j [ao95oE j g8a,.ovk’oE XI6[ _D!?D j @D 96fs^vfmqf]v’mu,u j KMnO4 fh;p8t dP’gs^Qk _WD KMnO4 4nd;yg7ktc]h; wfhvqd-uc-oF vqd-uc-omugduf0Bo9tp6hoE j vvd9kds^vfmqf]v’mu’;em+lq j ’vkpF j I6[ _D! x5’c8’vqd-uc-o j O2 H O2 KMnO4 ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

55 2H O 2H O + O 22 2 2 → 0D .ov5flkstde .ov5flkstde.ov5flkstde gryox5’c8 j j’ O2 9kdvkdkf fh;p7;k,faol6’ c]t v5ostr6,8O vkdkf9tdkpgxaomkf cs^;F s^a’9kdoAogIaf.shvkdkfcs^;]tgsupvkp9tgda[ N2 .ov5ostr6,{!_*OC 8+,k g,njv v5ostr6,{!)# OC 9twfh O2 c]h;gda[vqd-uc-ow;h.o4a’gs^addhkryglfD @? 75o]adltot0v’vqd-uc-o 75o]adltot0v’vqd-uc-o dD 75o]adltotmk’2u-yd 75o]adltotmk’2u-yd dyf9tde #G lbdlk]adltotmk’2u-yd0v’vqd-uc-o dyf9tde #G lbdlk]adltotmk’2u-yd0v’vqd-uc-o !D gvqks^vfmqf]v’[ao95vqd-uc-og8a,mu D ,ufvovafg-y j ’gda[wfh9kddyf9tde !D j @D .shoadIPola’gdfrk;tF lu 0v’vqd-uc-o.os^vfF c]h;[aombdzqoD #D w0fvomuvafs^vfmqf]v’vvdc]h;fq,dy j oF rhv,[aombdzqoD j 9kddyf9tde oadIPola’gdfgsao;k vqd-uc-o gxaodklF [+,ulu c]t g,n j vfq,9t[+,udy j jo fa’oAo9b j ’lts^5[wfhG vqd-uc-ogxaodklF [+,udy j oF [+,u]qfF |add; j kvkdkfF j ]t]kp.ooehwfh|hvp Xv5ostr6, 20OC oE 100 ml lk,kf]t]kpvqd-uc-owfh 3 ml ?D ltoaho vqd-uc-o9b’lk,kf7q’ j 8q; c]t Iadlk16j.ooEwfhD v5ostr6, {!!_OC c]t 7;k,fao 50 atm vqd-uc-o16j.ork;t cs^;F ,ulu2hk9nf c]t cs^;d;koED vqd-uc-o,uv5ostr6,2qf j -183OC, gxaomkf-;p.odko j skp.90v’7qo c]t lafD 0D 75o]adltotmk’g7,u 0D 75o]adltotmk’g7,u 0D 75o]adltotmk’g7,u vqd-uc-oxt8ydy]ypkda[vt3]st vqd-uc-oxt8ydy]ypkda[vt3]st { dyf9tde $G la’gdfdkogdufxt8ydy]ypk]ts; dyf9tde $G la’gdfdkogdufxt8ydy]ypk]ts; dyf9tde $G la’gdfdkogdufxt8ydy]ypk]ts; dyf9tde $G la’gdfdkogdufxt8ydy]ypk]ts;jk’vqd-uc-oda[4 k’vqd-uc-oda[4 jk’vqd-uc-oda[4 k’vqd-uc-oda[4jko XC? c]t ,kf X ,kf X ,kf XS? !D oed;fcdh;mu[ao95vqd-uc-o,k @ d;f j @D gvqk4kogzqk.shIhvocf’c]h;x j vo]q’d;fcdh;mu j ! oadIPola’gdfxkdqfdko c]t j [aombdzqoD #D gvqk/5o,kf.l j j[j;’96f.shIhvogxnvp 9kdoAox j vo]q’d;fcdh;mu@F la’gdfxkdqfdko j ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

56 .og;]k96f.ovkdkf c]t s^a’9kdmuxj vo]q’.od;fF rhv,ma’[aombdzqoD j la’gdfg[y la’gdfg[y la’gdfg[y la’gdfg[y la’gdfg[yj’I6[c8h, ’I6[c8h, j’I6[c8h, ’I6[c8h, 9kddyf9tdeoadIPola’gdfgsao;kG j { g,nvgvqk4 j komu j w\hIhvocf’x j vo]q’.l j d;fcdh;mu!F 4 j kow29tI5 j ’cf’0Bod; j kgdq j ks^kp j oahophvo;k 4 j ko X j C ? xt8ydy]ypkda[ O2 c]h;dkpgxaodkl CO2 faj’lq,zqo C + O CO 2 2 → { g,njvgIqk96f,kf.ovkdkf,ao9tw\hrhv,da[,ucx;w2ohvpMlu,j;’F9kdoahog,njvoe gvqk,kfmude]a’gxn j vp x j vo]q’.l j d;fcdh;mu j @ ,ucx;w2lu, j ;’I5 j ’c9h’d; j kgdq j k oahod= j phvo;k ,kfw\h.ovqd-uc-o9twfhdkl-6o26giu s^n ,kf j IV vqd-yf fa’lq,zqoG j S + O SO 2 2 → { vqd-uc-oxt8ydy]ypkda[3]st vqd-uc-oxt8ydy]ypkda[3]st X pqdg;aho vqd-uc-oxt8ydy]ypkda[3]st Pt, Au ? 8q;1k’G j { vqd-uc-oxt8ydy]ypkda[mv’ (Cu) 2Cu + O 2CuO 2 → { vqd-uc-oxt8ydy]ypkda[gs^ad (Fe) 3Fe + 2O Fe O 2 34 → { vqd-uc-oxt8ydy]ypkda[,kgp-uvv, (Mg) 2Mg + O 2MgO 2 → vqd-uc-oxt8ydy]ypkda[Iu3fic-o.ork;tmkff vqd-uc-oxt8ydy]ypkda[Iu3fic-o.ork;tmkff vqd-uc-oxt8ydy]ypkda[Iu3fic-o.ork;tmkff vqd-uc-oxt8ydy]ypkda[Iu3fic-o.ork;tmkffjP; c]t mkfxtlq, jP; c]t mkfxtlq, P; c]t mkfxtlq, P; c]t mkfxtlq, { gdufxt8ydy]ypkda[Iu3fic-ork;tmkffP;j dD96f4jko 0D 96f,kf I6[ _D@D mqflv[]adltotg7,u0v’vqd-uc-o ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

57 I6[ _D# mqflv[xt]y,kovqd-uc-o.ovkdkf 6 5 4 3 2 1 6 5 4 3 2 1 2H + O 2H O 22 2 → { gdufxt8ydy]ypkda[Iu3fic-ork;tmkfxtlq,7nG T gdufxt8ydy]ypkgzqkw\hda[vkg-8uc]o (C2 H2 ) 2C H + 5O CO 2H O 2 2(g) 2(g) 2(g) 2 → + ( ) 4 l T gdufxt8ydy]ypkda[g,8ko (CH4 ) CH + 2O CO 2H O 4(g) 2(g) 2(g) 2 → + ( ) l vqd-uc-ogxaomkffP;mu j g7n j vows;g7,ucI’ X ryglf.ov5ostr6,l6’ ? vqd-uc-o gdufxt8ydy j ]ypkg7,uda[s^kpmkffP; c]t mkfxtlq, .omkfxtlq,l j ;os^kpmkf,6ovqd-uc-o j ,u7kg7,ugmq j k @D j #? lj;oxtdv[0v’vqd-uc-o.ovkdkf ;oxtdv[0v’vqd-uc-o.ovkdkf dyf9tde &G mqflv[xt]y,kovqd-uc-o.ovkdkf dyf9tde &G mqflv[xt]y,kovqd-uc-o.ovkdkf !D gvqkcdh;I6[m+dq,3]’mu j ,u0uyf\kp[=]y,kfc]h;c[ j ’0uf\kpvvdgxao * l j ;ogmq j kdaoD j @D gvqkm+dq,oAo8A’]q’.ovk’cdh;c]h;4vdok=h.l j .shr=furP’0uf\kpmevyf j #D gvqk2qflt2=.lj[j;’Xmu,ufvovaf16 j dhko? c]h;96f 9kdoAox j vo]q’m+dq,16 j .ov j k’cdh;mu j ,u j oE c]h;vafm+dq,.shc9[fa’I6[c8h, la’gdfxt]y,kooE.om+dq, c]t [aombdzqoD j 9kddyf9tde g,nv4vdoE.l j .ov j k’cdh; gsao; j koE.ov j k’ws^g0Qk.ocdh;I6[m+dq,rP’ j !}* 0v’0uf\kp Xvkdkf.om+dq,9tgs^nvrP’ & l;o? c]t rkps^a’mu j jxjvo[;’[ao952qfl2= j ]q’wx]=4hk9qow2,vfF gIqkgsao,u7;aolu0k;F 7;aofa’dj k;wfhlts^kp8q;.ooE c]t gsao; j koE.o j m+dq,wfhpn’0BoIvf0ufmu j @D \kp7;k,; j k[=]y,kf0v’vkdkf.om+dq,wfhglpwxxt,ko ! l j ;oj phvo;jkoEwfhg0Qkcmo[=]y,kf0v’dklmujwfhglpwx.odkow\hF ltoAodklmujglpwxoAoc,jo ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

58 vqd-uc-o X O2 ? fh;pgsfoU gIqk9b’lts^5[wfh; j kG vqd-uc-o X j O2 ? ,uxt,ko !}& mk’fhko[=]y,kf 0v’vkdkfD $? dkooe.-h dkooe.-hdkooe.-h O2 oadIPo9q’la’gdfg[ j y’I6[ c]h;[vd.shI6h; j k vqd-uc-ogry j ooe.-hgrn j vgIafspa’cf j jL I6[ _D$ dkooe.-hvqd-uc-o { vqd-uc-o-;p.odkoskp.9G .-hgzqkw\hmkfF - j ;ps^+]hP’.oI j k’dkp0v’7qo c]t j lafF -;p.shoad[yomu j [yol6’F 7qog9a[|adF oadfa[gru’F oadfeoEDDD j { vqd-uc-o-;pdkogzqkw\hG .-h9vf s^n 8af3]st gxaog-Nvw2.o3I’’kov5flkstdes^v, j 3]stF zt]yf]tg[uf.-h.odkod+lhk’F gxaog-Nvw2g0Qk.opkovk;tdkfD &? dkow\hc, dkow\hc, dkow\hc, dkow\hc,jospa’L g,nv96fmPow0gIqk9tgsao; j k,ucl’w2I5 j ’c9h’F ,u7;k,Ihvocz j vvdF mPo9t7 j vpM \qfwxF j oAoc,oxtdqfdkow\hD j dkow\hc,oxkdqfdkomu j gduf7;k,Ihvo c]t ,ucl’lts; j k’j g’njvow0mjurk.shgdufdkow\h jurk.shgdufdkow\h g’njvow0mjurk.shgdufdkow\h urk.shgdufdkow\h urk.shgdufdkow\h { v5ostr6,l6’rP’r= { ,uvqd-uc-orP’r= ltoAoF grnv[+.shdkow\hgduf0Bo9t8hv’gIaf.shv5ostr6,8+kd; j kv5ostr6,w\h c]t 8afcs^ j j’ lt|v’vqd-uc-o.shcddkow\hD j ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

59 .o[k’d=]touvqd-uc-ogdufxt8ydy]ypkda[mkf8k’M[+c, j o9tgxaoxt8ydy]ypkgzqkw\hltg\u j wxg-ao;j k 4hkgIqkxtgs^adw;h.ovkdkf-5 j ,w]pt|b j ’d=9tgsao; j kgs^adoahodkpgxaolu0uh\hP’D j @D vqd-yffk-q’ vqd-yffk-q’vqd-yffk-q’ !? 7;k,\kp0v’vqd-yffk-q’ 7;k,\kp0v’vqd-yffk-q’ 9q’la’gdflq,zqoxt8ydy]ypkmu j gduf0Bo]ts; j k’vqd-uc-oda[mkf8 j k’M j mkfxt8yrao mkfzt]yf8trao 9kdlq,zqo0hk’gmy’9tgsao;kxt8ydy]ypkg7,umu j gduf0Bo]ts; j k’vqd-uc-oda[mkf8 j k’M j c]h;wfhmkfzt]yf8traomugxaovqd-yf xt8ydy]ypkfa j ’dj k;oahogvuho; j k j vqd-yffk-q’D vqd-yffk-q’Dvqd-yffk-q’D xt8ydy]ypkvqd-yffk-q’,ulv’-toyf7nG xt8ydy]ypkvqd-yffk-q’,ulv’-toyf7nG xt8ydy]ypkvqd-yffk-q’,ulv’-toyf7nG { dkogzqkw\hmkf8k’Mfh;pvqd-uc-olqf gduf0Bow;F .shv5ostr6,l6’ c]t ,ucl’lt j s;k’j 8q;1k’G j 3Fe + 2O Fe O 2 500 C 3 4 o ⎯ → ⎯⎯ { dkogzqkw\hmkf8k’M.ovkdkfgduf-hk v5ostr6,8+k c]t [+,ucl’lts j ;k’g-a j oG j dkogduf\hP’0v’3]stF dkoc]dxPomkf.oI j k’dkp0v’7qoF lafF dko[q j ,/5 j oDDD j @? vqd-yf @? vqd-yf@? vqd-yf vqd-yfc,ospa’L c[ j ’vvdgxao9ad-toyfL j vqd-yf c, vqd-yf omkfxtlq,]ts; j k’3]st s^n vt3]stda[vqd-uc-ovqd-yfc[ j ’vvdgxaolv’ j -toyf7nG vqd-yf[kg-u c]t vqd-yfvk-yfD { vqd-yf[kg-uc,omkfxtlq,]ts; j k’3]stda[vqd-uc-o g-a j oG j K2 O, Na2 O, CaO... S + O SO 4Na + O 2Na O CH + O 2 2 2 2 4 2 CO + 2H O 2 2 ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

60 { vqd-yfvk-yf c,omkfxtlq,]ts; j k’vt3]stda[vqd-uc-o g-a j oG j CO2 , SO3 , P2 O5 dkovjko-njvqd-yf[kg-u vqd-yf[kg-u jvqd-yf[kg-uG v vqd-yf[kg-u vqd-yf[kg-u jko-nj3]st X4hk3]st,us^kp7jkg7,ud=[vd7jkg7,urhv, c]h;]q’mhkpfh;pvqd-yf? 8q;1k’G j Na2 O ok8iuvv,vqd-yf CaO dko-uvv,vqd-yf FeO gs^ad II vqd-yf Fe2 O3 gs^ad III vqd-yf dkovjko-njvqd-yfvk-yf jvqd-yfvk-yf jvqd-yfvk-yf G v jvqd-yfvk-yf jvqd-yfvk-yf ko-n j vt3]st X4hkvt3]st,us^kp7 j kg7,ud=[vd7 j kg7,urhv, j c]h;]q’mhkpfh;pvqd-yf? CO2 dkd[vo IV vqd-yf SO3 ,kf VI vqd-yf P2 O5 2qflt2= V vqd-yf [k’d=]tou gryovj ko9eo;ovk38,vt3]st8k,rklk]kc8a’F !X3,3o?F @ Xfu? F # X8iu?F j $ Xg88ik?F & Xcx’8k?F * XgIad-k?DDDc]h;8+fh;p-njvt3]st 9kdoAo vjko9eo;ovk38, vqd-uc-o 8k,rklk]kc8a’ c]h;]q’mhkpfh;pvqd-yf 8q;1k’G j P2 O5 vjko;k fu2qflt2=cxa’8kvqd-yfD j N2 O3 vjko;k fuou38ic-o8iuvqd-yfD j { 4hkvt3]st,u|b’vk38,9t[+v j ko9eo;ovk38, c8 j jvjko9eo;ovk38,0v’vqd-u c-oD CO2 vko; j k dkd[vofuvqd-yfD j SO3 vjko;k ,kf8iuvqd-yfD j CO vjko;k dkd[vo3,3ovqd-yfD j NO vjko;k ou38ic-o3,3ovqd-yfD j [k’d=]tou vqd-yfvk-yf[k’-toyfmumP,76 j vk-yf lk,kfv j ko0Bo8Qofh;pvkoIufiyf8+fh;p j ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

61 -n vt3]st c]h;]q’mhkp XgVu? s^n XVyd?D j SO2 vko; j k vkoIufiyf-5o26giu j SO3 vko; j k vkoIufiyf-5o26iyd j CO2 vko; j k vkoIufiyfdkd3[oydD j P2 O5 vjko;k vkoIufiyf2ql2=iydD j [qfg/ydsafG [qfg/ydsafG[qfg/ydsafG !D g,nv96fdkd[vo WF@$ j g mu,umkfvn j o[+w\hxqo16 j @ : 4k,; j kdkldkd3[oydmu j gduf0Bo j ,u9ad g L @D 9q’-vd[=]y,kfvqd-uc-o c]t vkdkfmu j 8hv’.-hgzqkw\hmkfxqo !W j g .ooAo,u,kf @W: c]t 2ql2= )W:L #D 9q’9af[aofkl6f0v’vqd-yf8+wxoU.l j 8k8t]k’.sh4nd8hv’ j Na2 O, MgO, CaO, ZnO, Al 2 O3, K2 O, CO2, Mn2 O7, CrO3, SO3, CO $D mkf.f8+wxoU.-hx5’c8’vqd-uc-owfhG j Fe3 O4 , KMnO4 , KClO3 , H2 O,CuSO4 , CaCO3 &D .oshv’mqf]v’gryjox5’c8j’ Fe3 O4 fh;p;ymugvqkgs^adxt8ydy]ypkda[vqd-uc-o.o v5ostr6,l6’ dD 9q’0Polq,zqo c]t -a j ’-k j 0D 4hk1kdwfh Fe3 O4 13,5g 9t.-hvqd-uc-o.og’nvow0,kf8t4ko9ad]yfL j 7D 4hk,uvqd-uc-o !* g 9twfh Fe3 O4 9ad gL *D g,nvly j ’c;f]hv,gxygxNvo9t,uzqoglpskpspa’cf j gduf0BoL 1kdgIaf.shvkdkfxvf.l j c]t ,uvqd-uc-orP’r=9t,u;ymuxhv’daoco;.fL l6f3,g]d5o -nmkf vqd-yf[kg-u vqd-yfvk-yf j ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

62 [qfmu !W [qfmu !W[qfmu !W Iu3fic-o Iu3fic-oIu3fic-o !D mkf,6oIu3fic-o mkf,6oIu3fic-o mkf,6oIu3fic-o.ome,t-kf16j.ork;tgl]u,uxt]y,ko|hvpc8j.omkfxtlq,,us^kp g-aoG.ooEF [+oE,aofy[F [+4 j kosuoFDDD mkf,6oIu3fic-o,ulaopt]adc, j jo H , 3,g]d5oxtdv[fh;p lv’vk38, l6f3,g]d5oc,jo H2 .om5dM mkfxtlq,Iu3fic-o,u7kg7,ugmq j k ! j @D dkox5’c8 dkox5’c8 dkox5’c8 dkox5’c8j’Iu3fic-o ’Iu3fic-o j ’Iu3fic-o ’Iu3fic-o gryox5’c8 j ’Iu3fic-owfhco;.fL j dD .oshv’mqf]v’ dD .oshv’mqf]v’ dyf9tde!G dyf9tde!dyf9tde! x5’c8j’9kd Zn xt8ydy]ypkda[ xt8ydy]ypkda[xt8ydy]ypkda[ HCl !? xtdv[g7nv’mqf]v’fa j ’I6[c8h, j @? 1vfvk-yf HCl xt,ko & ml ]q’.o davd 9kdoAod=gxufdavd.shvk-uf]q’.lj d;fcdh;mu,ula’dtluxt,ko ${& g,afD j xtw;hw]pt|b’.shdkl]tgsupvvd grn j jv gIaf.shvkdkf.od;fcdh;\qfwxF .-h s^vfmqf]v’gda[gvqkdklmu jwfhc]h; vaffh;pfvoD #? oes^vfmqf]v’[ao95dklmujxyjoxkd]q’ ]5,vaffh;pfvomu j ,um+lq j ’dkl j $? 9kdoAo.shxyoxkds^vfmqf]v’0Bogmy’F j .-hw,h0ufw2muj,ucx;w2]5dw\h96fdkl Iu3fic-omuxkpm+l j q’dklF la’gdfxkdqf j dko c]t [aombdzqoD I6[ !WD@ dkomqflv[7;k,lqfdklIu3fic-o H2 I6[ !WD! dkox5’c8’Iu3fic-o j Zn H2 HCl ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

63 zqo0v’dkomqf]v’ zqo0v’dkomqf]v’ gsao,u/vfdkl8yf16jzy;|hk0v’g,afla’dtlu c]h;d=,udkl]tgsupvvdF g,afla’dtlu 9tohvp]q’wxg]NvpMD lq,zqog7,umu lq,zqog7,umu lq,zqog7,umu lq,zqog7,umu lq,zqog7,umujgduf0Bo gduf0Bo jgduf0Bo gduf0Bo Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl 2 + H2 g,nv.-hw,h0ufw2mu j ,ucx;w2]5dw\h96fxkpm+lq j ’dkl9t,ucx;w2lu, j ;’gduf0Bo j lts^5[ 9kdzqodkomqf]v’1A’1nowfh;k dklmu j gduf0BooAoc, j oIu3fic-o gry j ogda[dkl j Iu3fic-ozkooEphvo; j kIu3fic-o[+]t]kp.ooED j \kpgsfG .odkox5’c8 \kpgsf j’dklIu3fic-ovkf9txjPocmo HCl gxao H2 SO4 9k’F xjPocmo Zn gxao3]stvno g-a j oG j Al, Fe d=wfhD 0D .ov5flkstde 0D .ov5flkstde .ov5flkstdegryolk,kfx5’c8 j ’dklIu3fic-owfh9kddko;yg7ktoEfh;pdtclw22hk j 3fp.-h NaOH s^n H2 SO4 gxaomkfg]a’D j 2H O2 2H +O ⎯ → ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 2 2 ovd9kdoAopa’.-hdkd[vo16.om+lq j ’vkp4 j koIhvof6fvqd-uc-ovvd9kdoE s^n x5’c8 j j’ Iu3fic-o 9kdvkpme,t-kfF vkp[+oE,aofy[ fa’I6[c8h,D j ;yg7ktw22hk dD 9kd[+oE,aofy[ 0D 9kdoE 7D 9kdvkp4koj I6[ !WD# zt]yfdklIu3fic-o.ov5flkde H2 O2 H2 O H2 O ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

64 #D 75o]adltot0v’Iu3fic-o 75o]adltot0v’Iu3fic-o !? ]adltotmk’2u-yd ]adltotmk’2u-yd dyf9tde @G lbdlk]adltotmk’2u-yd0v’dklIu3fic-o dyf9tde @G lbdlk]adltotmk’2u-yd0v’dklIu3fic-o !D gvqks^vfmqf]v’[ao95dklIu3fic-og8a,mu,ufvovafc9[ g-y j ’wfh9kddkox5’c8 j ’D j @D .shoadIPo la’gdfrk;tF lu0v’dklIu3fic-o c]t [aombdzqoD #D w0fvomuvafs^vfmqf]v’ c]h;fq,dy j oF rhv,[aombdzqoD j 9kddyf9tde @ gsao;k dklIu3fic-ogxaodkl [+,uluF [+,udy j oD j dyf9tde #G lbdlk]adltotmk’2u-yd0v’Iu3fic-o dyf9tde #G lbdlk]adltotmk’2u-yd0v’Iu3fic-o gvqkx6,gxQk ! |;p mu j l6[fh;pdklIu3fic-o c]t vud ! | j ;p l6[fh;p[A’l6[,afxkdx6, j gxQk c8]t| j ;p fh;plkp1k’c]h;x j vp0Bol6 j vkdkfrhv,daoF la’gdf c]t [aombdzqoD j 9kddyf9tde # gsao;k x5,gxqhkmu j [ao95dklIu3fic-oxy;0BowfhF l j ;o|; j pmu j l6[fh;p[A’l6[ j 9t[+xy;D oAoltcf’;k dklIu3fic-og[qkd; j kvkdkfD j Iu3fic-o ovd9kd,u]adltotmujdjk;,koUc]h; pa’,u]adltotvnoMvudg-a j oG j [+]t]kp.ooEF ,uv5ostr6,gxnvp{@&_F#$ j OCF 2qf {@&@F)(OCD @? ]adltotg7,u ]adltotg7,u]adltotg7,u dD Iu3fic-oxt8ydy]ypkda[vqd-uc-o dD Iu3fic-oxt8ydy]ypkda[vqd-uc-o !D [ao95vqd-uc-o.lcdh;mqf]v’xkdd;hk’mu j ,u[=]yu,kf!WW j ml @D oegvqkIu3fic-ox5’c8’wfhc]h;,k96f9kdoAox j vom+lq j ’dkl]q’d;fmu j [ao95vqd-uc-o j fa’I6[ !WD$ ly j ’mu j 7;ogvqk.9.l j G g;]kx5’c8 j ’dklIu3fic-o8hv’gvqk.9 .l j ryl6f.shwfh j 7;k,lqf0v’dklIu3fic-oglpdvo9b j ’oewx96fgrn j vxhv’daodko]tg[ufD dkomqf j ]v’gsao;jk dklIu3fic-o9tln[8+w\h.ovqd-uc-ocI’0BoF g[Nv’.o0v’d;f cdh;,ug,afoEohvpM8yf16jD lq,zqog7,u 2H +O t 22 2 2H O o ⎯ →⎯ ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

65 I6[ !WD$ mqflv[]adltotg7,u0v’3fic-o 0D Iu3fic-oxt8ydy]ypkda[ Iu3fic-oxt8ydy]ypkda[ Iu3fic-oxt8ydy]ypkda[ CuO xtdv[dkomqf]v’fa’I6[ j oegvqkdklIu3fic-olqfzkog0Qkwx.os^vfmu j [ao95 j CuO lufemude]a’gzqkIvhoF zqodko j mqf]v’ gsao;k .ov5ostr6,me,tfkxt8ydy]ypk[+gduf0Bo c8 j g,n j v,uv5ostr6,l6’xt,ko $WW j °C /5o j CuO lufe9tdkpgxao Cu lugs^nv’ c]t ,uoEgduf0BoD lq,zqog7,uG H +CuO t H O + Cu 2 2 o ⎯ →⎯ #? dkooe.-hdklIu3fic-o dkooe.-hdklIu3fic-o 9q’la’gdfI6[]5 j ,oU c]h;[vd; j k dklIu3fic-ogry j ooe.-hgIafspa’cf j jL HCl H2 H2 O HCl O2 Zn I6[ !WD& dklIu3fic-oxt8ydy]ypkda[mv’lv’vqd-yf CuO H2 H2 O ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

66 l6[[k]6o c]t x6,gxQk zt]yfg-Nvw2 9vfF 8af3]st x5’c8j’3]stlqf 9kdvqd-yf3]st x5’c8j’ HCl zt]yfxJ5p zt]yf NH3 9kddkola’gdfI6[ gsao;k gry j ooe.-hdklIu3fic-o l6[[k]6oF x6,gxQkF zt]yfg-Nvw2 j Xoelq’]6dlvow2F cmooE,aocvaf-a’FDDD?F x5’c8 j ’3]stlqfF vk-yfd^=IufiydD zt]yfvk3,oypadF j xJ5pD .-h.odko9vf c]t 8af3]stD ovd9kdoAo pa’zt]yfmkfvq’7tmkf8k’MD j [qfg/ydsafG [qfg/ydsafG[qfg/ydsafG !D 9q’0Po c]t -a j ’-k lq,zqo8+wxoU.sh7q[4h;o j dD Fe O + H t 23 2 o ⎯ →⎯ 0D HgO+ H t 2 o ⎯ →⎯ 7D C + H 2 2 l → @D g,nvoegvqkdklIu3fic-owxz j komv’ j II vqd-yf $)g c]h;gzqkIhvo dD 9q’7yfw] j ,;olkomv’mu j wfhIa[,u9ad j gL 0D -vdsk[=]y,kf0v’dklIu3fic-o.og’nvow0,kf8t4komu j 9t8hv’.-h,ugmq j k.f]yfL j #D 9q’-vdsk,;olko0v’oEmu j wfhIa[g,n j vgry j o.shdklIu3fic-o )F$ ]yfxt8ydy]ypkda[ j dklvqd-uc-o @F) ]yf Xdklm5d-toyf]h;oc8;afcmd.og’n j vow0 ,kf8t4ko?D j $D 9q’pqd8q;1 j k’dkooe.-hdklIu3fic-omu j I6h9adL j &D 9q’7yfw] j jlj;oIhvpfhko,;olko0v’dklIu3fic-o.omkfxtlq,8+wxoUG C2 H2 , H2 SO4 I6[ !WD* xt3spf.odkooe.-hIu3fic-o ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

67 rkdmu III dtclw22hkdq’ dtclw22hkdq’ dtclw22hkdq’ [qfmu !! [qfmu !![qfmu !! dkorq;rao]ts; dkorq;rao]ts; dkorq;rao]ts; dkorq;rao]ts;jk’dtclw22hkF zqo]q[]tfa[w22hk k’dtclw22hkF zqo]q[]tfa[w22hk k’dtclw22hkF zqo]q[]tfa[w22hk k’dtclw22hkF zqo]q[]tfa[w22hk c]t7;k,8hkow22hkS dqfgdo3v, 7;k,8hkow22hkS dqfgdo3v, !D dtclw22hk c]t myf0v’dtclw22hk dtclw22hk c]t myf0v’dtclw22hk oadIPowfhIPo,kc]h;;k 4hk[aofkgvg]ad8iq’gl]ug7n j vomu j wx8k,myffP;dao.o;af45oew2 j 2hk grjyo4n;jk .o;af45oew22hkoAo,udtclw22hkc]jozjkoD dtclw22hk9tgduf0Bowfh.o;af45 oew22hkwfh8hv’,u]tfa[w22hkmuc8d8 j k’dao s^n g;Qkvud1 j k’|b j ’;j k 8hv’,uzqo]q[]tfa[w22hkD j ly’mu j rk.shgduf,uzqo]q[]tfa[w22hk gr j nv.sh,udtclw22hkgduf0BooAo ,ulv’-toyf 7nG -toyf j mu|b’wfhcd j xyo c]t vadd5p g- j y’vkwlxt8ydy]ypkmk’g7,uF -toyfmulv’ wfhcd j fuok3, g- j y’vkwl j rt]a’’kodqo9ad c]t c,gs^adD j dyf9tde !G dyf9tde !Gdyf9tde !G lbdlkmyf0v’dtclw22hk lbdlkmyf0v’dtclw22hk !? 8+g7nv’cmdw22hk.l j xyo ! dhvo fa j ’I6[ !!D!D la’gdfdkog|a’8u’0v’g0a,g7n j v’cmd j w22hk c]t [aombdzqoD @? gIafdkomqf]v’7n !? c8jxjPogvqklkpw22hkmu8+da[lQo[;d0v’g7n j v’cmdw22hkwx8+da[ j lQo]q[0v’xyo c]t dq’dao0hk,D oadIPola’gdf gsao dkog|a’8u’0v’g0a,g7nv’cmdw22hk.odkomqf]v’ !? c]t @? 8 j k’j daoco;.fL 9tlts^5[wfhco;.fL I6[ !!D! I6[ !!D@ ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

68 zqodkomqf]v’ !? c]t @? g0a,g7nv’cmdw22hkg|a’8u’wxmk’dq’0hk,dao XmP[da[ j 0uf W?D oAoltcf’;k dtclw22hkvvd9kdxyo s^n vadd5p ,urP’myffP;7n 9kd0Q;[;dwxsk j 0Q;]q[ g-y’gr j yogvUo; j k j dtclw22hkdq’ sn^ dtclw22hk DC. .o]ts;k’xu 7Dl !)#W m j kovecx X!((&{!)#*? oad;ymtpklkf-k;/ia j ’ wfhdeoqf; j kG j 1j6;q’9vorkpovd[+w22hkF dtclw22hkdq’c,odtclw22hkmu j g7n j vomu j vvd9kd0Q;[;dwxsk j 0Q;]q[0v’[+w22hk Xxyo sn^ vadd5p? fa’I6[ !!D@ j @D dkorq;rao]ts; dkorq;rao]ts; dkorq;rao]ts; dkorq;rao]ts;jk’7;k,g0A,dtclw22hkda[zqo]q[]tfa[w22hk k’7;k,g0A,dtclw22hkda[zqo]q[]tfa[w22hk k’7;k,g0A,dtclw22hkda[zqo]q[]tfa[w22hk k’7;k,g0A,dtclw22hkda[zqo]q[]tfa[w22hk dyf9tde @G dyf9tde @G dyf9tde @G 7;k,g0A,dtclw22hk0Boda[zqo]q[]tfa[w22hk !? 8+xyo ! dhvoF g7nv’cmdvecx j (A) ! g7nv’F g7n j v’cmd3;o j (V) ! g7nv’ c]t sq;mPo j *V ! fvdD .shgxao;q’9vow22hkXfaj’I6[!!D#?D la’gdf7;k,I5j’0v’sq;mPoF vjko7jk0v’ 7;k,g0A,dtclw22hk(I) c]t zqo]q[]tfa[w22hk(U). [aombdzqoD @? gIafdkomqf]v’7nda[ 0=h !? c8.-hxyo @ dhvo8+]PodaoD j #? gIafdkomqf]v’7nda[ 0=h !? c8.-hxyo # dhvo8+]PodaoD j { 7;k,I5’0v’sq;mPo.og;]k.-hxyo ! dhvoF @ dhvo c]t # dhvo 8 j k’daoco;.fL j { 7k7;k,g0A,dtclw22hk j (I) c]t zqo]q[]tfa[w22hk(U) g;]k.-hxyo ! dhvoF @ dhvo c]t # dhvo xPocx’co;.fL j { oadIPo9tlts^5[zqodyf9tde 7nco;.fL 9kdzqodyf9tdeoadIPogsao;jk g,njvgruj,9eo;oxyomuj8+]Podao0BoXgruj,zqo]q[]tfa[ w22hk0Bo? 7;k,Ij5’0v’sq;mPo c]t 7jk7;k,g0A,0v’dtclw22hkgruj,0Bo8k,]efa[D oAoltcf’;k .o;q’9vow22hkF ovd9kddkox j Pocx’0v’[+w22hkc]h; 4hkl j ;oxtdv[vn j jo [+xPocx’ sn^ g;Qk; j k4hk7;k,8hkow22hk[+x j Pocx’ c, j o7;k,g0A,dtclw22hkgru j ,0Bo8k, j dkogruj,0Bo 0v’zqo]q[]tfa[w22hkD 8k,dkomqf]v’0v’oad;ymtpklkf1j6.oshv’mqf]v’ I6[ !!D# V A V A ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

69 .-hg7nv’cmd,u7;k,-afg9ol6’ lk,kflts^5[; j kG j .o;q’9vow22hk|b’ 4hk7;k,8hkow22hk j R [+xPocx’F 7;k,g0A,dtclw22hk j I 9txPocx’8k,zqo]q[]tfa[w22hk j U 8k,dkorq;raovaf 8kl;odq’dao j I ~ U #D dkorq;rao]ts; #D dkorq;rao]ts; #D dkorq;rao]ts; #D dkorq;rao]ts;jk’7;k,g0A,dtclw22hkda[7;k,8hkow22hk k’7;k,g0A,dtclw22hkda[7;k,8hkow22hk k’7;k,g0A,dtclw22hkda[7;k,8hkow22hk k’7;k,g0A,dtclw22hkda[7;k,8hkow22hk dyf9tde dyf9tde #G lbdlkdkorq;rao]ts; #G k’7;k,g0A,dtclw22hk c]t 7;k,8hkow22hk j !? 8+xyo # dhvo 8+]PodaoF g7nv’cmdvecx j (A) ! g7nv’F g7n j v’cmd3;o j (V) ! g7nv’F j sq;mPo ! fvd c]t g7nv’8hkow22hk j (R) ! vao .shgxao;q’9vow22hk Xfa’I6[ !!D$?D j la’gdf7;k,I5’0v’sq;mPoF v j ko7 j k7;k,g0A,dtclw22hk c]t zqo]q[]tfa[ j w22hkD [aombdzqoD I6[ !!D$ @? gIafdkomqf]v’7n 0=h !? c8.-hg7n j v’8hkow22hk j (R) @ vao 8+]PodaoD #? gIafdkomqf]v’7n 0=h !? c8.-hg7n j v’8hkow22hk j (R) # vao 8+]PodaoD { 7;k,I5’0v’sq;mPo.og;]k8+g7n j v’8hkow22hk j (R) .l ! vaoF @ vaoF # vao 8 j k’dao j co;.fL { g,nv8+g7n j v’8hkow22hk.l j ;q’9vo ! vaoF @ vao c]t # vao 7 j k7;k,g0A,dtclw22hk j c]t zqo]q[]tfa[w22hkxPocx’co;.fL j { 9kdzqodyf9tde oadIPo9tlts^5[dP;da[dkorq;rao]ts; j k’7;k,g0A,dtclw22hk j da[7;k,8hkow22hkco;.fL zqodyf9tde [+w22hk[+xPocx’F 7;k,I5 j ’0v’sq;mPo sn^ 7 j k7;k,g0A,dtclw22hks^5f]q’ j g,njvgruj,9eo;og7njv’8hkow22hk0BoD oAoltcf’;jk .o;q’9vow22hkF g,njvzqo]q[]tfa[ w22hk[+xjPocx’7;k,g0A,dtclw22hks^5f]q’8k,dkogruj,0Bo0v’7;k,8hkow22hkD 8k, dkomqf]v’0v’oad;ymtpklkf16.oshv’mqf]v’mu j .-hg7n j v’cmd,u7;k,-afg9ol6’ lk,kflts^5[ j ;jkG .o;q’9vow22hk|b’ 4hkzqo]q[]tfa[w22hk j (U) [+xPocx’F 7;k,g0A,dtclw22hk j (I) xPoj cx’8k,7;k,8hkow22hk (R) 8k,dkorq;raovaf8kl;oxUodao j R I 1 ~ D R R A V ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

70 $D dqfgdo3v, dqfgdo3v,dqfgdo3v, dko7Qo7;hkmqf]v’dP;da[ dkorq;rao]ts; j k’ 7;k,g0A,dtclw22hkF zqo]q[]tfa[ j w22hk c]t 7;k,8hkow22hk.o;q’9vow22hk|b’ mj ko 9avf-u,vo3v, j (George Simon Ohm) wfhlts^5[gxaodqfgdo c]t 0Pogxaol6f0v’dkorq;raofa’oU G j 7;k,g0A,dtclw22hk (I) muc]j o.o8vo|b j ’0v’;q’9vow22hkF gxaovaf8kl j ;odq’da[ j zqo]q[]tfa[w22hk (U) c]t gxaovaf8kl;oxYoda[7;k,8hkow22hk j (R). R U I = X!? 9kd X!? 4vowfh I U R = X@? sn^ = IRU X#? 8k,l6f X@? zqo]q[]tfa[w22hk(U) ,usq;|j;p gxao3;o(V), 7;k,g0A,dtclw22hk(I) ,usq;|;pgxaovecx j (A), 7;k,8hkow22hkXR?9t,usq;|j;pcmdgxao 3;o}vecx 3;o}vecx3;o}vecx (V/A) c8jgrnjv]tobdg4y’zqo’ko0v’ mjko 3v,DXoad2u-yd-k;g1p]t,aomu j,u-n jlP’g-jy’gxaoz6h7Qo 7;hkmqf]v’ c]t lhk’gxaodqfgdodkorq;rao]ts;jk’ 7;k,g0A,dtclw22hkF zqo]q[]tfa[w22hk c]t 7;k,8hko w22hk g-y’4n; j kgxaodqfgdorNo4komu j le7ao0v’w22hkdtcl j dq’? gryo9b j ’deoqf sq;| j ;pcmd7;k,8hkow22hkgxao j 3v, 3fp.-hvadlvo3vg,dk(Ω ) .orklkgdiadgxao laopt]adD fa’oAo j A V =Ω 11 7e4k, !D 9q’.shoypk,dtclw22hkdq’ rhv,ma’vtmy[kplkgsfdkodegouf0v’,aoD j @D 4hk16lv’95f0v’lkpw22hk ,u]tfa[w22hkgmq j kdaoD 4k,; j k 9t,udtclw22hkc] j ozj koj 8volkpoAo[+L phvospa’L #D 9q’g]q j kgoNv.odqfgdo3v,D j mjko George Simon Ohm (1789-1854) ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

71 [qfmu !@ [qfmu !@[qfmu !@ 8volkp8+]Podao c]t 8+0t|kodao 8volkp8+]Podao c]t 8+0t|kodao !D 8volkp8+]Podao 8volkp8+]Podao dyf9tde !G lbdlkdko8+g7n dyf9tde !G dyf9tde !G v’.-hw22hk s^n g7 j nv’8hkow22hkc[[]PodaoD j !? 8+sq;mPo ! fvdF xyo @ dhvo .shgxao;q’9voxyf fa’I6[ !@D!D la’gdf7;k,I5j’0v’sq;mPoD [aombdzqoD @? 8+sq;mPo @ fvdF xyo @ dhvo .shgxao;q’9voxyffa’I6[ !@D@ j la’gdf7;k,I5’0v’sq;mPoD j [aombdzqoD #? 8+sq;mPo # fvdF xyo @ dhvo.shgxao;q’9voxyf fa’I6[!@D#D la’gdf7;k,I5 j ’0v’ j sq;mPoD [aombdzqoD I6[ !@D ! I6[ !@D @ I6[ !@D # ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

72 { .odkomqf]v’ !?F @? c]t #? 7;k,I5’0v’sq;mPo8 j k’daoco;.fL j { dko8+sq;mPo]Podao XI6[ !@D@? c]t XI6[ !@D#? c[[.f,udtclw22hk c]ozj kowlh j 0v’sq;mPos^kpd;kL I6hwfhco;.fL j { dko8+sq;mPo s^n 8+g7nv’.-hw22hkvn j oc[[]Podao XI6[ !@D@? c]t XI6[ !@D#? c[[.f9t j ,u7;k,8hkow22hk];,s^kpd;kL I6hwfhco;.fL j .odkomqf]v’ !?F @? c]t #? mju.-hsq;mPo7ndao8+da[[+w22hkXxyo? vaofP;dao Xxyolv’dhvo7ndao?D ltoAoF zqo]q[]tfa[w22hk1j6lv’0Q;0v’sq;mPoma’\qfgmqjkda[zqo]q[ ]tfa[w22hk16lv’0Q;0v’[+w22hk Xlv’0Q;0v’xyo @ dhvo 8+]Podao?D j g,nvmP[zqodkomqf]v’ !?F @? c]t #? gsao; j k @? 7;k,I5 j ’0v’sq;mPos^5f]q’ mP[da[ j !? c]t X#? 7;k,I5’0v’sq;mPos^5f]q’vudmP[da[ X@?D ltcf’; j k g,n j vsq;mPo8+]Podaos^kp0BoF j 7;k,8hkow22hk];,0v’;q’9vogru,s^kp0BoD j dkomqf]v’0v’oad;ymtpklkf mu.-hv5xtdvo,u7;k,-afg9ol6’ lk,kflts^5[wfhfa j ’oU j Xlts^5[8k,8volkp8+]Podao fa’I6[ !@D$?D j { 7;k,g0A,dtclw22hk I muc]j ozj kom5d95f.o;q’9vogmq j kdao X7;k,g0A,dtclw22hk j [+xPo? \kp; j k j I zko;q’9voma’\qfgmq j k j 1I zjko R1 gmqk j 2 I zjko R2 . 1 2 I = = I I (1) { zqo]q[]tfa[w22hk16lv’0Q;0v’g7n j v’j .-hw22hkma’\qfgmqkzqo[;d0v’[aofk j zqo]q[]tfa[w22hk16lv’0Q;0v’g7n j v’j .-hw22hkm5dvaomu8+]Podao.o8volkpD j UU U = +1 2 (2) I6[ !@D $ { 7;k,8hkow22hkma’\qf gmqjkzqo[;d[aofk7;k,8hkow22hk0v’g7njv’8hkow22hk ;q’9vo mu8+]PodaoD j R = + R R 1 2 (3) V1 V2 V R1 I R2 1I 2I ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

73 [qfg]d8q;1jk’G 7;k,g0A,dtclw22hkc] jk’[qfg]d8q;1 ozj ko8volkpmu j 8+]Podaovao|b j ’,u7 j kgmq j jk ! AD .o;q’9vooU,ug7nv’.-hw22hklv’vao g- j y’r;d,ao,u7;k,8hko j w22hk @Ω c]t #Ω D 9q’-vdskG j d? 7;k,8hkow22hkma’\qf.o;q’9vo 0? zqo]q[]tfa[w22hk0v’g7nv’.-hw22hkgs^q j koAoD j cdhG d? .-hl6f R = + R R 1 2 ⇒ = + =Ω R 235 0? .-hl6f UU U = +1 2 c]t U IR = U = IR1 + IR2 = I (R1 + R2 ) = 1(2 + 3 ) = 5 V. s^n U = IR = 1 x 5 = 5 V. @D 8volkp8+0t|kodao 8volkp8+0t|kodao dyf9tde dyf9tde @G lbdlkdko8+g7n v’.-hw22hk s^n 8+g7 j nv’8hkow22hkc[[0t|kodaoD j !? 8+sq;mPo ! fvdF xyo @ dhvoD .sh gxao;q’9voxyffa’I6[ !@D& la’gdf 7;k,I5’0v’sq;mPoD [aombdzqoD j I6[ !@D* I6[ !@D& @? 8+sq;mPo @ fvdF xyo @ dhvo .shgxao ;q’9voxyf faj’I6[ !@D*D la’gdf 7;k,I5’0v’sq;mPoD [aombdzqoD j ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

74 #? 8+sq;mPo # fvdF xyo @ dhvo .shgxao ;q’9voxyffa’I6[ !@D(D la’gdf 7;k,I5’0v’sq;mPoD [aombdzqoD j I6[ !@D( { dkomqf]v’ !?F @? c]t #? 7;k,I5’0v’sq;mPo8 j k’dao[+L gxaophvospa’L j dko8+sq;mPo0t|kodao XI6[ !@D*? c]t XI6[ !@D(? sq;mPoc8j]tfvdIj5’gmqjkdaoD oAoltcf’;kzqo]q[]tfa[w22hk1 j 6lv’0Q;0v’ sq;mPoc8 j ]tvao gmq j kzqo]q[]tfa[w22hk1 j 6lv’ j 0Q;0v’[+w22hkD dkomqf]v’0v’oad;ymtpklkfmuj.-hv5xtdvo,u7;k,-afg9ol6’ lk,kflts^5[wfh fa’oU G j .o8volkp8+0t|kodaoG { 7;k,g0A,dtclw22hkmuc]j o.olkp8Qo gmq j kzqo[;d7;k,g0A,dtclw22hkmu j c]j o.o j [aofklkpxud I = I1 + I2 X!? { zqo]q[]tfa[w22hk16lv’0Q; 0v’g7n j v’.-hw22hkma’\qf gmq j kzqo]q[]tfa[w22hk1 j 6lv’ j 0Q; 0v’g7nv’.-hw22hkc8 j ]tvaoD j U = U1 = U2 X@? { 7;k,8hkow22hkma’\qf (R) 7yfw]8k,l6fG j 1 2 111 R R R = + X#? 9kd X#? 4vowfhG 1 2 1 2 1 R R R R R + = sn^ 1 2 1 2 R R R R R = + X$? [qfg]d8q;1jk’G g7n k’G[qfg]d8q;1 v’.-hw22hkmu j ,u7;k,8hkow22hk @ j Ω c]t #Ω 8+.ldaoj c[[0t|kodao.o;q’9vow22hkvao|b’D j d? 9q’-vdsk7;k,8hkow22hk];,0v’r;d,aoD j I6[ !@D) I 1I 2 I R1 R2 V V1 V2 I ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

75 0? g,nvI6h; j k dtclw22hkwxz j kog7n j v’.-hw22hkmu j ,u7;k,8hkow22hk @ j Ω gmqk !F@ j A. 9q’-vdsk7;k,g0A,dtclw22hkmu j c]j ozj kog7n j v’.-hw22hk j mu,u7;k,8hkow22hk # j Ω c]t 7;k,g0A,dtclw22hk];,ma’\qfD ;ymucdhG ;ymucdh d? -vdsk7;k,8hkow22hk];,G oe.-hl6f 1 2 1 2 R R R R R = + ⇒ 2 3 1,2 2 3 R × = =Ω + 0? deoqf.s h I 1=!F@ A c,o7;k,g0A,dtclw22hkmu j wxz j kog7n j v’.-hw22hkmu j ,u7;k,8hko j w22hk @ Ω c]t .sh I2 c,jo7;k,g0A,dtclw22hkmujwxzjkog7njv’.-hw22hkmuj,u 7;k,8hkow22hk #Ω D fa’oAoG j U = U1 = U2 I1 R1 = I2 R2 1 1 2 2 1, 2 2 0,8A 3 I R I R × ⇒= = = -vdsk I ];,ma’\qfG 9kdl6f I = I1 + I2 cmo7kwfhG j I = 1,2 + 0,8 = 2 A #D dko8+g7n #D dko8+g7n #D dko8+g7n #D dko8+g7n #D dko8+g7njv’.-hw22hkc[[xtlq, v’.-hw22hkc[[xtlq, jv’.-hw22hkc[[xtlq, v’.-hw22hkc[[xtlq, ovd9kddko8+fh;p;ymu8+]Po c]t 8+0t|koc]h; .o8q;9y’gryolk,kfgvqkdko8yf8A’ j g7nv’.-hw22hkma’lv’;ymu,k];,.l j dao Xc[[xtlq,? 1 j 6.o;q’9vovaofP;daowfh fa j ’I6[ !@D_D j I6[ !@D _ R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 2 I 1 I 3 I 4 I ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

76 7e4k, !D dko8yf8A’g7njv’.-hw22hk.o;q’9vow22hk,uc[[.fcfjL 9qj’vtmy[kp95fryglfc8j ]tc[[D @D gryo8+sq;mPolv’fvdF fvdmu|b j ’,u7;k,8hkow22hk !W j Ω F fvdmulv’,u7;k,8hko w22hk @WΩ g-y’8+gxao8volkpfa j ’oUG Xd? 8+c[[]Podao X0? 8+c[[0t|kodaoD j 9q’-vdsk7;k,8hkow22hkma’\qf 0v’8volkpc8 j ]tc[[oAoD j #D .sh;q’9vow22hk fa’I6[ !@D( c]t .s j h R1 = R2 = R3 = 6Ω c]t xyo @ dhvo g-yj’ c8]tdhvo,uzqo]q[]tfa[w22hk16 j !F& 3;oD 9q j ’-vdsk7;k,8hkow22hk];, c]t j 7;k,g0A,dtclw22hk];,0v’;q’9vow22hkoUD $D .sh;q’9vow22hk fa’I6[ !@D) c]t .sh j R1 = $Ω F R2 = *Ω F g7nv’cmd3;o j V1 vjko7kwfh @F$ 3;oD 9q j ’-vdskG j dD 7;k,8hkow22hk];, 0v’;q’9vow22hkoUD 0D 7;k,g0A,dtclw22hkmuwxz j kog7n j v’8hkoc8 j ]tvaoD j 7D g7nv’cmd3;o j V2 -U9ad3;oL &D .sh;q’9vow22hk faj’I6[ !@D_ c]t .sh R1 = !Ω F R2 = @Ω F R3 = @Ω F R4 = !Ω c]t R5 = #Ω D 9q’-vdsk7;k,8hkow22hk];, 0v’;q’9vow22hkoUD j ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

77 [qfmu !# [qfmu !#[qfmu !# 7;k,8hkow22hk0Boda[7;k,pk;F goNvmu 7;k,8hkow22hk0Boda[7;k,pk;F goNvmu 7;k,8hkow22hk0Boda[7;k,pk;F goNvmu 7;k,8hkow22hk0Boda[7;k,pk;F goNvmu 7;k,8hkow22hk0Boda[7;k,pk;F goNvmuj|hk8af c]t mkfmu c]t mkfmu c]t mkfmu c]t mkfmu c]t mkfmujgIaflkpw22hk gIaflkpw22hk gIaflkpw22hk gIaflkpw22hk !D 7;k,8hkow22hk0Boda[7;k,pk;0v’lkpw22hk 7;k,8hkow22hk0Boda[7;k,pk;0v’lkpw22hk dyf9tde !G dyf9tde !G dyf9tde !G dkorq;rao]ts;k’7;k,8hkow22hkda[7;k,pk;0v’lkpw22hk j !? 8+sq;mPo ! fvdF xyo @ dhvo c]t ];foy3di, d0D .shgxao;q’9vow22hkfa D ’I6[ j !#D!D la’gdf7;k,I5’0v’sq;mPoD [aombdzqoD j @? gIafdkomqf]v’7nda[!? c8.-h];foy3di, 7’ ,u0t|kf.sp j gmq j k d0 c8 j pk;d; j jk d0 fa’I6[ !#D@D la’gdf7;k,I j 5’0v’sq;mPoD [aombdzqoD j #? gIafdkomqf]v’7nda[ !? c]t @? c8.-h];foy3di, 9l j ,u0t|kf.sp jgmqk d0 c]t j 7’ c8pk;d; j jk 7’ fa’I6[ !#D#D la’gdf7;k,I j 5’0v’sq;mPoD [aombdzqoD j .odkomqf]v’ !?F @? c]t #? 7;k,I5’0v’sq;mPo8 j k’daoco;.fL oadIPo9tlts^5[ j zqodkomqf]v’.odyf9tdeoUco;.fL zqodkomqf]v’!?F @? c]t #? gsao;kG .odkomqf]v’ @? 7;k,I j 5’0v’sq;mPos^5f]q’ j d;kdkomqf]v’!? c]t .odkomqf]v’ #? 7;k,I j 5’0v’sq;mPos^5f]q’d; j kdkomqf]v’ @?D j oAoltcf’;k dkomqf]v’ @? ,u7;k,g0A,dtclw22hk c] j ozj kowlhsq;mPoohvpd; j k !?S #? j ,u7;k,g0A,dtclw22hk c]ozj kowlhsq;mPoohvpd; j k @?D j zqodkomqf]v’dyf9tdeoU.shIh6;kG 7;k,g0A,dtclw22hk j I, gxaovaf8kl;orq;raoxUo j da[7;k,pk; A 0v’lkpoew22hk.o;q’9vow22hkoAo s^n ;k j 1 I ∼ A D I6[ !#D! I6[ !#D@ I6[ !#D# d 0 7 ’ 9 l ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

78 .o[qfmu !! wfh.shIh6c]h;;kG .o;q’9vow22hk|b j ’ 7;k,g0A,dtclw22hk j I, gxaovaf8kl;oj rq;raoxUoda[7;k,8hkow22hk R X 1 I ∼ A ?D dkorq;rao]ts;k’7;k,pk; j A c]t 7;k,8hkow22hk R gxaofa’oUG j 1 1 R ∼ A sn^ R ∼ A X ! ? fa’oAoF lk,kflts^5[wfhfa j ’oUG j 7;k,8hkow22hk R, gxaovaf8kl;orq;raodq’da[7;k, j pk; A 0v’lkpoew22hkoAoD @D 7;k,8hkow22hk0Boda[0tsokf.sp 7;k,8hkow22hk0Boda[0tsokf.sp 7;k,8hkow22hk0Boda[0tsokf.sp 7;k,8hkow22hk0Boda[0tsokf.spj0v’lkpw22hk 0v’lkpw22hk 0v’lkpw22hk 0v’lkpw22hk dyf9tde @G dyf9tde @G dyf9tde @G dkorq;rao]ts;k’7;k,8hkow22hkda[7;k,.sp j 0v’lkpw22hk j !? 8+sq;mPo ! fvdF xyo @ dhvo c]t ];foy3di, d0 .shgxao;q’9vow22hkfa’I6[ !#D$D la’gdf7;k,I5’0v’sq;mPoD [aombdzqoD j @? gIafdkomqf]v’7nda[ !? c8.-h];foy3di, 7’ j pk;gmqk d0 j c8,u0t|kf.sp j d;j jk d0 fa’I6[ !#D&D la’gdf7;k,I j 5’0v’sq;mPoD [aombdzqoD j #? gIafdkomqf]v’7nda[!? c]t X@? c8.-h];foy3di, 9l j pk;gmq k 7’ c8 j ,u0t|kf j .spd;j k 7’ fa j ’I6[ !#D*D la’gdf7;k,I j 5’0v’sq;mPoD [aombdzqoD j .odkomqf]v’ !?F @? c]t #? 7;k,I5j’0v’sq;mPo8jk’daoco;.fL oadIPo9t lts^5[zqodkomqf]v’.odyf9tdeoUco;.fL d 0 7 9 l I6[ !#D$ I6[ !#D& I6[ !#D* ’ ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

79 zqodkomqf]v’ @? mP[da[ !? c]t #? mP[da[ @? gsao;kG j .odkomqf]v’ @? sq;mPoI5’d; j kdkomqf]v’ !? c]t dkomqf]v’ #? sq;mPoI j 5’d; j jk d;kdkomqf]v’ @?D oAoltcf’; j k .odkomqf]v’ @? ,u7;k,g0A,dtclw22hkc] j ozj kowlh j sq;mPo.spd;j k !? c]t dkomqf]v’ #? ,u7;k,g0A,dtclw22hkc] j ozj kowlhsq;mPo.sp j d;j jk @? s^n g;Qkvud1k’| j b’ goNvm j u|hk8af0v’lkpoew22hk.sp j ,u7;k,8hkow22hk|hvp c]t dq’dao j 0hk,D fa’oAoF 7;k,g0A,dtclw22hk j I gxaovaf8kl;orq;raodq’da[goNvmu j |hk8af j A 0v’lkp oew22hkoAo s^n I ~ A [qfmu !! wfh.shIh6c]h;;k .o;q’9vow22hk|b j ’ 7;k,g0A,dtclw22hk j I gxaovaf8l;oj rq;raoxUoda[7;k,8hkow22hk R s^n R R A ∼ D fa’oAoF dkorq;rao]ts; j k’goNvmu j |hk8af j A c]t 7;k,8hkow22hk9b’gxaoG j R R A ∼ X@? 9kd[aoskmudj k;,k0hk’gmy’lk,kflts^5[wfhfa j ’oUG j 7;k,8hkow22hk R gxaovaf8kl;oj rq;raoxUoda[goNvmu|hk8af j A 0v’lkpoew22hkD #D 7;k,8hkow22hk 0Boda[mkfmu 7;k,8hkow22hk 0Boda[mkfmu 7;k,8hkow22hk 0Boda[mkfmu 7;k,8hkow22hk 0Boda[mkfmu 7;k,8hkow22hk 0Boda[mkfmujgIaf];flkpoew22hk gIaf];flkpoew22hk gIaf];flkpoew22hk gIaf];flkpoew22hk dyf9tde #G dyf9tde #G dyf9tde #G dkorq;rao]ts;k’7;k,8hkow22hkda[mkfmu j gIaf];flkpoew22hk j !? 8+sq;mPo ! fvdF xuo @ dhvo c]t ];foy3di, d0 .shgxao;q’9vow22hk fa’I6[ j !#D(D la’gdf7;k,I5’0v’sq;mPoD [aombdzqoD j I6[ !#D( I6[ !#D) I6[ !#D_ d 0 7 ’ 9 l ou3di, gs^ad mv’cf’ ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

80 @? gIafdkomqf]v’7nda[ !? c8.-h];fgs^ad 7’ .sp j jd;kpk;gmq j kda[];fou3di, d0 j fa’I6[ !#D)D la’gdf7;k,I j 5’0v’sq;mPoD [aombdzqoD j #? gIafdkomqf]v’7nda[ !? c]t @? c8.-h];fmv’cf’ 9l j .spd;j kpk;gmq j k];fou j 3di, d0 fa’I6[ !#D_D la’gdf7;k,I j 5’0v’sq;mPoD [aombdzqoD j .odkomqf]v’!?F @? c]t #? 7;k,I5j’0v’sq;mPo8jk’daoco;.fL oadIPo9t lts^5[zqodkomqf]v’ dyf9tdeoUco;.fL zqodkomqf]v’ @? da[ !? c]t #? da[ @? gsao;kG .odkomqf]v’ @? sq;mPoI j 5’s^kp j d;kdkomqf]v’!? c]t dkomqf]v’ #? sq;mPoI j 5’s^kpd; j kdkomqf]v’ @?D oAo ltcf’; j jk ,udtclw22hkmu,u7;k,g0A,c] j ozj kowlhsq;mPo.odkomqf]v’ #? .sp j d;j kdkomqf]v’ @? c]t j dkomqf]v’ @? .spd;j kdkomqf]v’ !?D j zqodkomqf]v’dyf9tdeoU.shIh6;k 7;k,g0A,dtclw22hkmu j c]j ozj ko];flkpoew22hk j 9txPocx’8k,-toyf0v’mkfmu j gIaf];flkpoew22hkoAoD j dko7Qo7;hk0v’oad;ymtpklkfrq[;jk 7;k,8hkow22hk0v’lkpw22hk gxaovaf8k lj;orq;raodq’da[ ltrk[7;k,8hkow22hk ρ Xvko; j jk3i? 0v’mkfmugIaflkpw22hkoAoD j R ∼ ρ X#? ltrk[7;k,8hkow22hk ρ 0v’mkfmugIaflkpw22hkgxao9eo;o7q’7 j kle]a[ c8 j ]tj mkfgryo9b j ’gvUo; j k 7;k,8hkow22hk9egrkt0v’c8 j ]tmkfD ,usq;| j ;pgxao j Ωm X3v,c,af?D 7;k,8hkow22hk9egrkt0v’mkf9eo;o|b’1j 6 @Wj C D -jnmkf 7;k,8hko9egrkt X nmkf 7;k,8hko9egrkt X nmkf 7;k,8hko9egrkt XΩm ? g’yo !F*V!W{) Ωm mv’cf’ !F(V!W{) Ωm vk]6,uouvv, @F(V!W{) Ωm gsa^d )F*V!W{) Ωm -no @@V!W{) Ωm oycdo $@V!W{) Ωm ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

81 9kd X!?F X@? c]t X#? gryolk,kf0Pol6fdkorq;rao]ts; j k’j R, A , A c]t ρ wfhfa’oUG j R A = ρ A X$? [qfg/ydsaf [qfg/ydsaf[qfg/ydsaf !D g,nvgr j yola[x j Po];foew22hk @ glAom j u,u0t|kfgmq j kdaoF xkdqf; j k fvdw22hkm j u8+.l j ;q’j 9vofa’dj k;I j 5’[+gmq j kdaoD 9q j ’vtmy[kplkgsf0v’7;k,c8d8 j k’oAoD j @D 9qj’lq,mP[7;k,8hkow22hk0v’];fmujgIaffh;pvk]6,uouvv,da[];fmujgIaffh;p mv’cf’mu,u7;k,pk; c]t goNvmu j |hk8afgmq j kdaoD j #D g7njv’8hkow22hk # vao,u7;k,8hkow22hk !WΩ S @WΩ c]t #WΩ 8k,]efa[D 4k,;k 4hkgvqkg7n j v’8hkow22hkma’lk,vaooU,k8+.l j dao 8k,I6[]5 j ,oU 9twfh7;k, j 8hkow22hk];,gmqk.fL j $D g7nv’8hkow22hk # vaoF c8 j ]tvao,u7;k,8hko ! j Ω gmqkdao\qfD 4hkgvqkg7n j v’8hko j w22hkma’lk,vao,k8+daoc[[G d? ]PodaoF 0? 0t|kodao 9twfh7;k,8hkow22hk ];,.oc8]tc[[gmq j k.fL j &D g7nv’8hkow22hk $ vaoF c8 j ]tvao,u7;k,8hko !W j Ω gmqkdao\qfD 9t8hv’oer;d,ao j ,k8+daoco;.f 9b’9twfh7;k,8hkow22hk];, @F& j Ω c]t @&Ω D *D gryjomqf]v’8+sq;mPofvd|bj’da[\=hw22hk|j;p|bj’ fh;plkpw22hk0t|kf.spj gmqkdaofa j ’8+wxoUG gmn j vmu ! .-hlkpw2pk; ! j mF gmnvmu @ .-hlkpw22hkpk; !W j mD zqodkomqf]v’gryogsao; j k gmn j vmu ! sq;mPoI5 j ’d; j kD 9q j ’vtmy[kpphvospa’9b j ’gxao j co;oAoL (D gxaospa’gryjo[+.-hlt;yfme,tfkmuj.-hda[fvdw22hkmqj;wx g0Qkda[g7njv’.-hw22hk mu.-hdtclw22hk.sp j g-a j oG g8qkw22hkF g8qk]ufF g7n j v’xa[vkdkfDDD j R1 R2 R3 ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

82 [qfmu !$ [qfmu !$[qfmu !$ g7n jv’8hkow22hkx jv’8hkow22hkx v’8hkow22hkx v’8hkow22hkx v’8hkow22hkxjPo7jk c]t g7n jk c]t g7n k c]t g7n k c]t g7n k c]t g7njv’8hkow22hk.og8adoyd jv’8hkow22hk.og8adoyd v’8hkow22hk.og8adoyd v’8hkow22hk.og8adoyd v’8hkow22hk.og8adoyd .o;q’9vow22hk c]t ;q’9vogvg]ad38ioydmq;wx ,ad.-hg7n j v’8hkow22hkmu j gIaffh;p / j 5oj dkd[vovafc|hogxaoI6[m+dq,D g7nv’8hkow22hkc[[f j a’dj k;oU,u7 j k7;k,8hkow22hk7q’7 j k9b j j’ gvUo;k g7n j v’8hkow22hk7q’7 j k c]t laopt]adfh;p j 3fp7k7;k,8hkow22hk9t[vd j fh;pc4[lu mu0ufIv[g7n j v’8hkow22hkoAo fa j ’I6[ !$D!D j c4[lumu0ufvhv, Iv[g7n j v’8hkow22hkc8 j ]tvao,u7;k,\kpfa j ’oUG j c4[mu ! [vd7k38g]dmevyfD j c4[mu @ [vd7k38g]dmulv’D j c4[mu # [vd7k38g]dde]a’mu j 8hv’gvqkwx76oda[lv’38g]dmevyfD j c4[mu $ [vd7k7;k,zyff j P’ 0v’7 j k7;k,8hkow22hk mu j jvjkowfh9kdlk,c4[oAo 3fp[vdgxaol;oIhvp Xgxug-ao?D j c4[mu ! c4[mu @ c4[mu # c4[mu $ laopt]ad I6[ !$D! D I6[g7nv’8hkow22hk7q’7 j jk V! Ω W V!W! Ω !: V!W@ Ω @: V!W#Ω V!W$ Ω V!W& Ω V!W* Ω V!W(Ω V!W) Ω VWF!Ω &: !W: c4[mu ! c4[mu @ c4[mu # c4[mu $ W ! @ # $ & * ( ) _ lu c4[ W ! @ # $ & * ( ) _ fe oEvhvpdhvo cf’ oE\kddhP’ gsn^v’ 0P; oEg’yo vyf 0Ugmqjk 0k; 7e g’yo ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

83 8q;1jk’G g7n jk’G8q;1 v’8hkow22hkvao|b j ’ ,uc4[lu0ufvhv,Iv[fa j ’oUG j gIqkvko7 j k7;k,8hkow22hkfa j ’oU G j fa’oAoF g7n j v’8hkow22hkoU,u7 j k7;k,8hkow22hk j s^n 3 3 25 10 5 25 10 100 R × × =× ± = (25 000 1250) = 23750Ω s^n 26250Ω !D g7njv’8hkow22hkx v’8hkow22hkx j v’8hkow22hkx v’8hkow22hkx v’8hkow22hkxjPo7jk g7njv’8hkow22hkxjPo7jkmuj.-h3fpmqj;wxxtdv[fh;p c4[7;k,8hkow22hk g-yj’vkf gIaffh;pdkd[vo s^n glAo];frao.lm+x^kl8yd s^n fyo4h;p0k; 8+da[0k ! c]t #F l j ;o|hklezaf8+ j da[0k @F fa’I6[!$D@ j cf’ 0P; luoE\kddhP’ { c4[lumevyf lucf’ { c4[lumulv’ 0P; { c4[lumulk, luoE\kddhP’ { c4[lumuluj lu7e dD g7nv’8hkow22hkx j Po7 j jk laopt]ad 0D ;q’9vow22hk8+da[g7nv’8hkow22hkx j Po7 j jk I6[ !$D@ 7e 1 2 3 2 3 1 A ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

84 dkoxa[xPo7;k,8hkow22hkF xt8y[afwfh3fpdkog]n j vof5,lezafgmy’|hklezafc4[g7 j nv’j 8hkow22hk s^n |hkd=h];fD dkooegvqkg7nv’8hkow22hkx j Po7 j k wx.-h7;[75,dtclw22hk.o;q’9vo j w22hk xt8y[afwfh3fpdko8+ 0k ! s^n 0k # c]t 0k @ g0Qkda[;q’9vow22hk7nfa’ I6[ !$D@ 0?D j g,nvg]n j vof5,lezafgmy’|hklezaf0v’g7n j v’8hkow22hkx j Po7 j k.o;q’9vo 9kdm j u8A’lQo ! wxsk j lQo # 7;k,8hkow22hk9tgru,0BoD fa j ’oAoF 4hkg]n j vof5,lezafwxgmy’|hklezaf0v’g7 j nv’8hko j w22hkwx.omyfdq’0hk,9tgIaf.sh7;k,8hkow22hks^5f]q’ gIaf.shdtclw22hk.sp0BoD g7n j v’8hko j w22hkxPo7 j kmu j gIaf|hkmu j 7;[75,dtclw22hk.o;q’9vow22hkgvUo; j k j g7nv’7;[75,dtclw22hkD j @D dkog7n @D dkog7n @D dkog7n @D dkog7n @D dkog7njv’8hkow22hkx v’8hkow22hkx j v’8hkow22hkx v’8hkow22hkx v’8hkow22hkxjPo7jk.-h.og8adoyd k.-h.og8adoyd j k.-h.og8adoyd k.-h.og8adoyd k.-h.og8adoyd g7njv’8hkow22hkxjPo7jk,adoypq,.-h7;[75,dtclw22hk.o;q’9vow22hkD I6[ !$D# c,oczo;kfltcf’dko.-hg7n j v’8hkow22hkx j Po7 j k7;[75,7;k,I j 5’0v’fvdw2 c]t .-hxa[ j 7;k,fa’7jvp{fa’cI’0v’lP’.og7njv’lP’8jk’MD I6[ !$D$ dkogIaf;Pd0v’g7njv’cmd xt]y,kooE,ao.o4a’oE,ao]qf9ad c]t ]qf.spjD ovd9kdoUpa’.-hgxaol;oxtdv[le7ao0v’g7n j v’cmd[k’-toyfg-a j oG g7n j v’cmd7;k, j 8hkow22hk X3v,,ug8u?D #D fu3vf #D fu3vf#D fu3vf (Diode) fu3vf gIaf9kd;af45g7y’oew22hk,u0Q; j w22hk[;d c]t 0Q;]q[ fa’I6[ !$D*D j I6[ !$D& fu3vf I6[ !$D* laopt]ad0v’ fu3vf 8q;g]nvoj fvdw2 g7nv’8hkow22hk j I6[ !$D# g7nv’8hkow22hkx j Po7 j jk .-h7;[75,7;k,Ij5’0v’fvdw2D I6[ !$D$ g7nv’8hkow22hkx j Po7 j k.-h j .og7nv’cmdo=hk,ao.o4a’o=hk,ao]qfD j ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

85 dyf9tde !G dyf9tde !G dyf9tde !G lbdlkdkogIaf;Pd0v’fu3vf !? 8+fu3vfF \=hw2 c]t g7nv’cmdvecx gxao;q’9vow22hk 3fpgvqk0Q;[;d0v’fu3vf j 8+da[0Q;[;d0v’\=hw2 c]t gvqk0Q;]q[0v’fu3vf 8+da[0Q;]q[0v’\=hw2 fa’I6[ !$D(D j la’gdfg0a,0v’g7nv’cmdvecxD [aombdzqoD j @? gIafdkomqf]v’7nda[ !? c8jltsa^[0Q;0v’fu3vf 3fpgvqk0Q;]q[0v’fu3vf 8+da[ 0Q;[;d0v’\=hw2 c]t 0Q;[;d0v’fu3vf 8+da[0Q;]q[0v’\=hw2 fa’I6[ !$D)D la’gdf j g0a,0v’g7nv’cmdvecxD [aombdzqoD j .odkomqf]v’ !? c]t @? g0a,0v’g7nv’cmdvecx-U8 j k’daoco;.fL oadIPo9tlts5^[ j zqodkomqf]v’0v’dyf9tdeoUco;.fL zqodkomqf]v’ !? c]t @? gsao;k .odkomqf]v’ !? g0a,0v’g7n j v’cmdvecx[ j P’j vvd9kd0uf WF oAoltcf’;k ,udtclw22hkc] j o.o;q’9voS l j ;o.odkomqf]v’ @? g0a,0v’ j g7nv’cmdvecx [+g|a’8u’F oAoltcf’; j k [+,udtclw22hkc] j o.o;q’9voD j 9kddkomqf]v’.odyf9tdeoU lk,kflts^5[wfh;k fu3vf,u[qf[kf.shdtclw22hkc] j jo zjko s^n [+.shzko s^n g;Qk1 j k’| j b’c, j o g, j nv.shdtclw22hkc] j ozj kowx.omyf| j b’ ,ao,u7;k, j 8hkow22hk|hvp c8.omyfdq’dao0hk,,ao,u7;k,8hkow22hks^kpm j ul5f9qogIaf.sh7;k,g0A,dtcl j w22hkgxao WD faj’oAoF fu3vf gxaov5xtdvow22hkmjupv,.shdtclw22hkzjkowfhrP’myffP;D phvoco;oAo gryo9b j ’.-hfu3vfx j Podtclw22hkltsa^[wxgxaodtclw22hkdq’D j I6[ !$D( I6[ !$D) ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

86 [qfg/ydsaf [qfg/ydsaf[qfg/ydsaf !D g,nv,udtclw22hkmu j ,u7;k,g0A, @ j A c]ozj koglAoI j 5’Xwlh?fvdw2fvd| j b’ gIaf.shgduf j ,uzqo]q[]tfa[w22hk16lv’lQo0v’glAoI j 5’oAogmq j k !WW j V. dD 9q’-vdsk7;k,8hkow22hk0v’fvdw22hkoUD j 0D 4hkdtclw22hkc]ozj kofvdw2oU ,u7;k,g0A,gmq j k WF& j A. 9q’-vdskzqo]q[]tfa[ j w22hk16lv’lQo0v’fvdw22hkoUD j @D g7nv’8hkow22hk,u j dD c4[luG oE\kddhP’F feF cf’ c]t lu7eD 0D c4[luG oEvhvpdhvoF 0UgmqkF oE\kddhP’ c]t luoEg’yoD j 7D c4[lu 0P;F 2hkg0A,F gs^nv’ c]t lu7eD 4k,;k g7n j v’8hkow22hk dF 0 c]t 7 c8 j ]tvao,u7;k,8hkow22hkgmq j k.fL j ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

87 [qfmu !& [qfmu !&[qfmu !& de]a’w22hkF rt]a’’kow22hk c]t de]a’w22hkF rt]a’’kow22hk c]t cI’’kodtclw22hk dtclw22hkdtclw22hk !D de]a’w22hk de]a’w22hkde]a’w22hk 4hkla’gdfg[y’g7n j v’.-hw22hkc8 j ]t-toyf g-a j oG fvdw22hkF g8qkw22hkF raf]q,F g8qk]ufw22hkD j 9tgsao;jk g7jnv’.-hw22hkc8j]tvao,u8q;g]ddeda[8yf1j6da[g7njv’.-hw22hkoAog-ajoG fvdw22hk fvd|bj’ ,ug]ddeda[ @@WV-60WS raf]q,|j;p|jb’ ,u8q;g]ddeda[ @@WV{#&W; \=hs5’ g0Qk|j;p|jb’ ,u8q;g]ddeda[ @@WV{)WWW;DDD 8q;g]d @@WV [vd.shIh6;jk g7jnv’.-hw22hk c8j]tvao8hv’.-hda[w22hkmuj,uzqo]q[]tfa[w22hk @@WVD lj;o8q;g]d *WW; 35W; 800W... [vd.shIh6de]a’0v’g7nv’.-hw22hkc8 j ]tg7 j nv’oAoD j .odko.-h8q;9y’F fvdw22hk !WWW Ij5’d;k fvdw22hk $W j W; lts;kow22hkm j u,ude]a’ j !&WWW, .-hda[fvdlts;ko.sp j c]t lk,kf g9ktg[8q’F w,hc0’ c]t |kwfhS l j ;olts; j koj ohvpmju,ude]a’ #WWW .-hwfhrP’c8jda[fvdlts;jkoohvp c]t lk,kfg9ktwfhc8jw,h[k’ me,tfkS 8Q,oExt]y,kogmqkdaofh;p\h=| j ;pfP;daogmy’g8qkw22hkm j u,ude]a’ !&WW j W 2qfw; d;k8Q,.og8qkm j u,ude]a’ !WWW j WDDD oAoltcf’.shIh6;k g7 j nv’.-hw22hk-toyffP;daoF g7 j nv’.f,u j de]a’.spd;j kc, j o,ao,ucI’s^kpd; j k s^n vvdcI’’kowfhs^kpd; j kD j dko7Qo7;hkmqf]v’dP;da[de]a’w22hk fh;pg7 j nv’,nm j u,u7;k,-afg9ol6’ gr j yolk,kf j lts^5[wfh;k de]a’w22hk0v’g7 j nv’.-hw22hk gmq j kda[ zqo76o]ts; j k’ zqo]q[]tfa[w22hk1 j 6lv’0Q; j 0v’g7nv’.-hw22hk da[7;k,g0A,dtclw22hkm j uc]j ozj kog7 j nv’.-hw22hkoAoD j P =UI U ,usq;|;pgxao3;o X j V? I ,usq;|;pgxaovecx X j A? P ,usq;|;pgxao;af X j W?→1W = 1A V 1V ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

88 gonv’9kd j U = IR. fa’oAoF l6f j P = IU lk,kf0PovudI6[|b’fa j ’oUG j 2 2 U P IR R = = sq;|;pde]a’w22hkc, j o;af j (W) F ovd9kdgxao;af (W) c]h; pa’.-h G dy3];af (kW) c]tg,dk;af (MW) vudfh;pG 1kW = 1000 W = 103 W c]t 1 MW = 1000 000 W = 106 W @D rt]a’’kow22hk c]t cI’’kodtclw22hk rt]a’’kow22hk c]t cI’’kodtclw22hk dD rt]a’’kow22hk dD rt]a’’kow22hk g,nv.shdtclw22hkc] j ozj kofvdw22hkF fvdw22hkI j 5’0BoS g, j nv.shdtclw22hkc] j jozjko wlhg8qkw22hk,aocf’I5’0Borhv,ma’.sh7;k,IhvoS g, j nv.shdtclw22hkz j koraf]q,w22hkF raf]q, j xjyoSDDDD 8q;1jk’mjudjk;,koU ltcf’.shIh6;jk dtclw22hk,urt]a’’ko c]t rt]a’’kow22hk lk,kfxPogxaort]a’’koI6[vn j oM8k,-toyf0v’g7n j v’.-hw22hkoAo g-a j o;j kG raf]q,F lts; j koj w22hkF dq[w22hkF ]qfw22hkDDD xPort]a’’kow22hkgxaort]a’’kodqo9adS dt8yd8Q,oEw22hkF j \h=s5’g0QkDDD xjPort]a’’kow22hkgxaort]a’’ko7;k,IhvoDDD rt]a’’ko0v’dtclw22hk gryogvUo; j jk rt]a’’kow22hkD 0D cI’’kow22hk 0D cI’’kow22hk .o;q’9vow22hkmuxtdv[fh;p [+w22hk8+da[g7n j v’.-hw22hk fa j ’I6[!&D! j .sh I c,o7;k,g0A,dtclw22hkmu j c]j jo .o;q’9voD Q c,oxt]y,kow22hk[ao95 c] j ozj koj g7nv’.-hw22hkD j U c,ozqo]q[]tfa[w22hk1 j 6lv’0Q;0v’ j g7nv’.-hw22hkD j W c,ocI’’’kow22hkmu j g7n j v’.-hw22hk j zt]yfvvd.ow]ptg;]k t ;yokmuD I6[ !&D! R U ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

89 dkorq;rao]ts;k’ j W, U, Q c]t I gxaowx8k,l6ffa’oUG j W = QU c8 j Q = It fa’oAo j W = UIt le]a[g7nv’.-hw22hk8 j k’M mu j ,u7;k,8hkow22hk j R c,jo U = IR fa’oAoF 0PowfhG j 2 W I Rt = sn^ R tU W 2 = fhko|b’ 9kdl6f j W = UIt c]t P = UI lk,kf4vowfhG W = Pt sq;|;pcI’’kow22hk gr j yod=.-h16oX j J? sn^ dk]=]uXCal? 7ndaoda[ cI’’kodqo9ad c]t cI’’ko7;k,IhvoD cI’’ko0v’dtclw22hkmuzt]yfvvd.o8volkp| j b’ gmq j kda[ xt]y,ko j rt]a’’kow22hkmu8volkpoAo.-hgr j nvxj Pogxaort]a’’koI6[v j noD j 8q;1jk’ !G g8qkw22hk| k’ !G ;p|b j ’,ude]a’w22hk !WWW j W. 4h.-hg8qkw22hkoU ! -q;3,’ j ,ao9t.-hrt]a’’kow22hkgmqk.fL j ;ymucdhG .shIh6 ;ymucdhG;ymucdhG P = 1000W , t = 1 h = 3 600 s -vdsk W =? oe.-hl6f W = Pt cI’’kow22hkmug8qkw22hkzt]yfvvdc, j oG j W = Pt = 1000 V 3600 = 3 600 000 (J) 9kdzqo8v[0v’[qfg]d8q;1k’oU .shI6h; j k cI’’kow22hkF 4hk7yfgxao j J X16o? 9tgxao 9eo;o.spjs^kpD faj’oAoF grjyo9bj’.-hsq;|j;pmju.spjd;jk16o sq;|j;pfaj’djk; gryjogvUo;jk dy3];af3,’ laopt]ad kWh. dy3];af3,’ c,jocI’’kow22hkmujzt]yfvvd g,njvg7njv’.-h w22hkmu,ude]a’ j 1 kW gIaf;Pd.og;]k ! h (-q;3,’ j ). ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

90 g7nv’.-hw22hkmu j .-h.oc8 j ]tgInvo s^n vk7ko l j ;os^kp9tgxaog7n j v’.-hw22hkmu j .-hda[w22hk j @@W V. rt]a’’kow22hkmu.-h.oc8 j ]tgfnvo0Boda[9eo;og7n j v’.-hw22hkF de]a’w22hk0v’g7n j v’j .-hw22hkc8j]t-toyf c]t g;]kmuj.-hg7njv’.-hw22hkc8j]tvaomuj,uoAoD cI’’kow22hkmuj.-hma’ \qf9t4ndoa[fh;p\=hoa[w22hk c]t dko9kpg’yo7 j kcI’’kow22hk c, j o9j kp8k,cI’’ko j w22hkmu\=hoa[w22hk[aombdw;hD j 8q;1jk’ @G fvdw22hkfvd|b jk’ @G ’,ude]a’w22hk $W j W 4hkw8hfvdw22hkfvdoU !W -q;3,’ j 9t.-hcI’’kow22hk9addy3];af3,’L c]t 9tglp7kcI’’kow22hkgmq j k.fL j 4hkvaf8k7kw22hk ! dy3];af3,’ gmq j k #!W du[L j ;ymucdh G .shIh6G ;ymucdh G ;ymucdh G P = 40W = 0,04 kW; t =10 h -vdG cI’’kow22hk (W = ?) cI’’kow22hkmufvdw22hkzt]yfvvdc, j oG j W = Pt = 0,04 V 10 = 0,4 kWh. 8hv’glp7kw22hkgmq j kc, j oG j WF$ V #!W du[ = 124 du[D #D dkocmdcI’’kow22hk dkocmdcI’’kow22hk 8k,l6f W = UIt gsao;k gr j nvcmdcI’’kodtclw22hk8hv’.-hg7 j nv’cmdg4y’ # 1 j k’7nG j g7nv’cmdvecxF g7 j nv’cmd3;o c]t 3,’9a[g;]kD .o8q;9y’ cI’’kodtclw22hk 4ndcmd j fh;pg7nv’cmdw22hk-toyf| j b’g- j y’gvUo; j k \h=oa[w22hk Xdq’g8u j s^n Meter? fa’I6[ j !&D @ I6[ !&D@ dq’g8uw22hk g,nv,udtclw22hkc] j ozj ko;q’9voF \h=oa[ j w22hk 9toa[xt]y,kocI’’ko mju[aofkg7jnv’.-hw22hk 8jk’M 1j6.o;q’9vozt]yfvvdgxaody3];af 3,’. ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

91 $D dkooe.-hrt]a’’kow22hk dkooe.-hrt]a’’kow22hk rt]a’’kow22hkgxaort]a’’komultvkfF [+gxaoryfgxaowr8+ly j ’c;f]hv,F ltf;d8+dko j .-h c]t lk,kfxPort]a’’kow22hkgxaort]a’’koI6[vn j oMD fa j ’oAoF .o3]dxt95[ao zh6zt]yfg7n j v’j .-hw22hk9b’zt]yfg7n j v’.-hw22hkokM-toyfvvd.-h oa[c8 j g7n j v’.-hw22hk’ j kpfkpmu j l5f Xw2lkp? j g4y’la[lqomul5f Xg7n j v’7v,ry;g8u?D j g7n jv’.-hw22hkxtgrf8 v’.-hw22hkxtgrf8 v’.-hw22hkxtgrf8 v’.-hw22hkxtgrf8jk’M,uG { g7nv’.-hw22hk.shrt]a’’kocl’lts; j k’g-a j oG fvdw22hkF s^vfw22hkDDD j { g7nv’.-hw22hk.shrt]a’’ko7;k,Ihvog-a j oG g8qk]ufw22hkF g8qkw22hkF \=hs5’g0Qkw22hkF j dt8yd8Q,oEw22hkF g8qkvq[w22hkF 7hvo9vfw22hkDDD { g7nv’.-hw22hk.shrt]a’’kodqo9adg-a j oG 3,g8uw22hkF raf]q,F g7n j v’gxq j kzq,F g7n j v’xa j jo \kdw,hF g7nv’-adzhkDDD j { g7nv’.-hw22hk.shrt]a’’kolP’g-a j oG dtfy’w22hkF ;ymtp5F 3m]tla[DDD j [qfg/ydsafG [qfg/ydsafG[qfg/ydsafG !D vu’.lgsfzqovao.f9b j j’g;Qkwfh;k dtclw22hk,urt]a’’koL j @D 4hkw8hsq;mPo 6V- 0,45 A fh;p\=hw2 6V gxaog;]k !F& -q;3,’ ,ao9tzt]yf j cI’’kow22hkvvdgmqk.fL j #D g8qkw22hkvao|b’ g,n j v8+da[]t[q[w22hkmu j ,uzqo]q[]tfa[w22hk @@W j V c]h;,udtcl w22hkc]ozj koj 5A. 4k,;k g8qkw22hkoAo ,ude]a’gmq j k.f;afD j 8q;1k’dkooa[xt]y,kocI’’kow22hk j ]efa[ ]kpdko de]a’0v’g7nv’.-h g;]km j u.-h cI’’kow22hk j X-qj;3,’ sn^ h? X kWh ? ! fvdw22hk 1000W= 0,1 kW # -q;3,’ j 0,3 @ \h=s5’g0Qk 500W= 0,5 kW ! -q;3,’ j 0,5 # g8qk]uf 1000W = 1 kW WF& -qj;3,’ 0,5 ];, $ ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

92 [qfmu !* [qfmu !*[qfmu !* dqfgdo16o{c]ol dqfgdo16o{c]ol !D dqfgdo16o{c]ol !D dqfgdo16o{c]ol g,nv.shdtclw22hkc] j ozj ko;af45oew22hkmu j ,u7;k,8hkow22hk ,aogIaf.sh;af45oAoIhvo0Bo j c]t dt9kp7;k,Ihvovvd,k 8q;1k’G .shdtclw22hkc] j ozj kowlhg8qkw22hkF wlhg8qk]ufw22hk j sn^ wlh0v’g7nv’gxq j kzq,DDD ,ao,u7;k,Ihvogduf0BoD j .odko7Qo7;hkdkoxPort]a’’kow22hk j gxaort]a’’ko7;k,Ihvo grjyowfhgIafdkomqf ]v’fh;pv5xtdvofa’oUG g7n j v’cmd7;k,IhvoF j \=hw22hkxt,ko *{!@V, g7nv’cmd3;o lk,kf j cmdwfh.o0v[g0f W{!& V. g7njv’cmdvecx mulk,kfcmdwfh.o0v[g0f W{!W j A, g7nv’8hko j w22hkxPo7 j kwfhF g7n j v’cmdv5ostr6, c]t lt j ;yfw22hkma’\qf8+gxao;q’9vow22hkD zqodko mqf]v’sa^’9kdxvp.shdtclw22hkc] j ozj ko;q’ j 9vo.og;]k t ;yokmuF grjyogsao;jk oE1j6.og7njv’cmd7;k,IhvooAoIhvo0Bo g-yj’la’gdfwfh 9kddkoxPocx’v5ostr6,.og7n j v’cmdv5ostr6,D j xkdqfdkofa’dj k;ltcf’; j k g, j nvdtclw22hkc] j ozj ko];foew22hkm j u,u7;k,8hkow22hk j R, ,aogIaf.shgduf7;k,IhvoD oAoltcf’;k rt]a’’kow22hkwfhx j Pogxaort]a’’ko7;k,IhvoD j g,nvgvqkxt]y,ko8 j k’Mm j udj P;0hv’ ,k7yfw] j grj yogsao; j k j cI’’kow22hk W mjudtclw22hkzt]yf vvdgmqkda[xt]y,ko7;k,Ihvo j Q muczj .shcd j oED j fa’oAoG j W = Q 9kdl6f W = I2 Rt = UIt = Pt lk,kf0Powfh Q = I2 Rt = UIt = Pt Q ,usq;|;pgxao j Joule 0Posph=fh;p J 1 J = 0,24 Cal I6[ !*D! ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

93 fa’oAoF l6f7yfw] j 7;k,Ihvom j u.-hsq;| j ;p j Cal 9b’gxaoG j Q = 0,24 I2 Rt = 0,24 UIt = 0,24 Pt .odkoxPocx’rt]a’’kow22hk,kgxaort]a’’ko7;k,Ihvo .odkomqf]v’oU [+0Boda[ j g’nvow0mk’ovd \kp; j k rt]a’’kow22hkrP’c8 j jxjPoI6[,kgxaort]a’’ko7;k,IhvogmqkoAoD j oad2u-yd-k;va’dyf-nj;jk 16o (Joule) c]t -k;]afg-p-nj;jk c]ol(Lenz) wfhgIaf dkomqf]v’ c]t wfhIa[zqo7hkp7ndao;k j g,nvdtclw22hkwxz j ko;af45oew22hkm j u,u7;k,8hko j w22hkrkp.o w]ptg;]k.f|b’ ,aowfhgIaf.shv5ostr6,;af45oAox j Pocx’ g- j y’cI’’kow22hk j mjudtclw22hkzt]yfvvd gmqkda[ xt]y,ko7;k,Ihvom j ugduf0BoD j ltoAoF dqfgdooU9b’wfh4nd gvUo; j jk dqfgdo16o{c]olD dqfgdo16o{c]olD dqfgdo16o{c]olD 8q;1jk’ !G g8qk]ufw22hkg7 jk’ !G nv’| j b’,u7;k,8hkow22hk @W j Ω F g,nv.shdtclw22hk & j A c]jo zjkog8qk]ufoU #Ws. 9qj’7yfw]j7;k,Ihvomujgduf0Bo9kdg8qk]ufw22hkoU .osq;|j;p J c]t Cal. ;ymucdhG ;ymucdhG;ymucdhG .osq;|;pj J. oe.-hl6fG Q = I2 Rt ⇒Q = (5 ) 2 X 20 X 30 = 15.000 J sn^ = 15 kJ .osq;|;p j cal oe.-h7kxP[mP[G j 1 J = 0,24 cal ⇒Q = 0,24 X 1500 = 3600 Cal sn^ = 3,6 k Cal 8q;1jk’ @G g8qkw22hkg7 jk’ @G nv’| j b’ ,u7;k,8hkow22hk ) j Ω F g,nv.shdtclw22hk j 15A c]jozjko g8qkzy’fa’dj k;gxaog;]k $ -q j ;3,’D 9q j ’-vdskde]a’0v’g8qkgxao j W c]t cI’’ko w22hkmug8qkoAozt]yfvvd.ow]ptg;]kfa j ’dj jk; c]t 4k,;k 9t8hv’glp7 j kw22hk j 9addu[ 4hk;kvaf8k7 j kw22hk #!W du[} j kWh?D ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

94 ;ymucdhG ;ymucdhG;ymucdhG 7yfw]de]a’0v’g8qkG j oe.-hl6fG P = I2 R ⇒ P = (15 )2 ×8Ω = 1 800 W = 1,8 kW. 7yfw]cI’’kow22hkG j oe.-hl6fG W = Pt ⇒ W = 1,8 ×4 = 7,2 kwh 8hv’9kp7 j kw22hkG j 7,2 ×310 du[ = 2 232du[. @D dko.-hg7n dko.-hg7n dko.-hg7n dko.-hg7n dko.-hg7njv’.-hw22hkmu v’.-hw22hkmu j v’.-hw22hkmu v’.-hw22hkmu v’.-hw22hkmuj.sh7;k,Ihvo .sh7;k,Ihvo j.sh7;k,Ihvo .sh7;k,Ihvo g7nv’.-hw22hkmu j .sh7;k,Ihvo c, j og7n j v’.-hw22hkmu j jxjPort]a’’kow22hkgxaort]a’’ko 7;k,Ihvo g-y’,us^kp-toyfg-a j o G g8qk]ufw22hkF g8qkw22hkF \=hs5’g0Qkw22hkF dt8yd8Q,oEw22hkF j g8qkvq[w22hkF 7hvo9vfw22hkDDD lj;oxtdv[mule7ao0v’g7n j v’.-hw22hkmu j .sh7;k,Ihvo c, j o ]=-= sn^ cz j o3]stmu j gIaffh;p j 3]stxtlq, ]ts;k’oygdyoda[3di, g-y j ’gxao3]stxtlq,mu j ,u7;k,8hkow22hks^kp c]t ,u95f j Ihvogxnvpl6’D ]=-= sn^ cz j o3]st0v’g7n j v’.-hw22hk.sh7;k,Ihvol j ;os^kp9t3v[fh;pmkfdao j w22hkmuoelq j ’7;k,Ihvowfhfu c]h;3v[fh;p3]stmqo7;k,Ihvol6’D g7n j v’.-hw22hk.sh7;k,Ihvo j I6[ !*D@ ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ