ປື້ມທໍາມະຊາດ ມ4

195 dtc9ddt9kpvvd9kd];’g7nvomu j gfu,wxD j gryogvUo xkdqfdkooU; j k j dkog9nvd0v’cl’ (scattering of light). 8vog-Qk s^n 8voc]’ .og;]k8kg;ao de]a’0Bo s^n .dhM9t8qdF 4hkgIqkco,g[y’mhv’ j 2hk[=]yg;omu16 j .dhf;’vkmyf9tgsaogxaolucf’D j oAod=grkt;jk g;]koAocl’8kg;aogfuomk’ ,kg4y’8kgIqk8hv’gfuomk’zjko-Ao[aopk dkfgxaow]ptmk’wdF cl’luoEg’yog-y’g9nvd j wfhfud;kwfhdt9kpskpwxF pa’gs^nvc8 j cl’lu j cf’gmqkoAo c]t g,n j vcl’lucf’dtmq[da[dhvog,d,aoltmhvo,kl6 j 8kgIqk9b j ’gIaf.shgIqkgsao j mhv’2hkgxaolucf’D .og;]kdk’g;ao cl’vkmyfgfuomk’,kg4y’3]dfh;pw]ptmk’lAod;jk cl’[+wfh4nd f6fdnos^kp s^n pa’[+4ndf6fdnos^kp s^n pa’[+4ndgIaf.shg9nvds^kp cl’mugsao9b j ’pa’gxaocl’0k;16 j jD 7e4k,G !D .odkodt9kpcl’3fpxiy-b,F cl’lu.f[P’vvd9kd];’g7n j vomu j gfu,0v’,aos^kp j d;k\6 j jL @D Ih5’dyooEgduf0Bowfhco;.fL #D I5h’dyooEgduf0Bo.od=]tou.f,ulucf’16]5 j ,L c]t d=]tou.f,ulucf’16 j gmy’L j $D phvospa’g;]k8kg;ao.dh9t8qd9b’gxaolucf’L j I6[ #)D$ ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

196 [qfmu #_ [qfmu #_[qfmu #_ lu0v’;af45 lu0v’;af45lu0v’;af45 !D xtgrf;af45 xtgrf;af45xtgrf;af45 g,nv.shcl’dtmq[.l j ;af458 j k’MF ;af45[k’-toyfcl’z j kowxwfhF [k’-toyfcl’z j kowfh[k’ j lj;o c]t [k’-toyfcl’[+lk,kfzkowfhD fa j ’oAoF gry j owfh9af;af458 j k’M8k,xt]y,ko c]t j ]adltotmucl’z j kogxaoc8 j ]txtgrffa j ’oUG j dD ;af45.lcl’ ;af45.lcl’;af45.lcl’ ;af45.lcl’ gxao;af45mucl’z j kowfhgdnv[ma’\qf1 j k’gxao]t[P[ c]t lk,kfla’gdf j g[y’;af45vn j ozj ko;af45xtgrfoU gsao-afg9oD ;af45xtgrfoU,uG cdh;.lF oE[=]yl5fF x^kl8yd.lFDDD j 0D ;af45,q;cl’ ;af45,q;cl’;af45,q;cl’ ;af45,q;cl’ gxao;af45mucl’lk,kfz j kowxwfh[k’l j ;o c]t z j kowfh[+gxao]t[P[ c]t j lk,kfla’gdfg[yj’;af45vnjozjko;af45xtgrfoUwfhc8jgsao[+-afg9oD ;af45xtgrfoU,uG cdh;,q;F g9hpw0FDDD 7D ;af45dAocl’ ;af45dAocl’;af45dAocl’ ;af45dAocl’ gxao;af45mucl’[+lk,kfz j kowxwfhD ltoAoF [+lk,kfla’gdfg[y j ’;af458 j k’M j zjko;af45xtgrfoUwfhD 8q;1k’;af45xtgrfoU,uG w,hF /kgInvod+F c; j ocp j ’g’qkFDDD j @D lu0v’;af45 lu0v’;af45lu0v’;af45 g,nv.shcl’lu0k;dtmq[.l j ;af458 j k’M gsao;af45,ulu8 j k’daoD dkogsaolu;af450Boda[xafw9spa’ j cfL c]t cl’,uvyfmyrqo8+dkogsaolu0v’;af45co;.fL 9twfhlbdlk9kddkomqf]v’fa j ’oUG j !? 8+w22hk9kd\=hcx’w22hkmu,uzqo]q[]tfa[w22hk j 12V .lfvdw22hk1 j 6.oda[cl’D j @? .-hczodAocl’mu j ,uxj v’.shcl’z j ko ! x j v’ xyf|hkda[cl’grn j v.shwfhg]qkcl’[k’ j zjkoxiy-b,mu;k’gmy’cz j og9hp0k; c]h;xa[,5,0v’cl’dtmq[.l j |hkxiy-b,grn j v.shgsao j dkodt9kpcl’s^kpmul5fF la’gdfc4[lumu j gduf0BoD c]h;[aombdzqoD j #? gvqkczjox^kl8yd.lluvyfF lu2hkF lu0P;F lugs^nv’F luoE\kddhP’ c]t lucf’;k’ dAo|hkxjv’cl’gmnjv]tczjoD .og;]kgvqkczjox^kl8ydc8j]tludAo|hkxjv’cl’ .shla’gdfc4[lumujgduf0BoD c]h;[aombdzqoD s^a’9kdoAoxP[mP[c4[lumujgduf0Bo .og;]k[+gvqkczox^kl8yddAo da[g;]k,ucz j ox^kl8yddAoD j ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

197 g,nv.shcl’lu0k; g-y j ’xtdv[fh;pcl’s^kplu l j v’z j kocz j ox^kl8yd.llu.fF cl’mu j jzjko vvd9kdczox^kl8ydwxd=,ulufP;da[cz j ox^kl8ydoAoD g,n j v.-hxiy-b,dt9kpcl’mu j jzjkoczox^kl8yd j .l c8]tlu rq[; j k ,ucl’luvn j olj ;o| j b’zj kowxoewfh c]t cl’[k’luwfh4ndcz j ox^kl8ydf6fdnow;hD j 8q;1k’G .-hcz j ox^kl8ydlucf’dAo gsaoc4[cl’lucf’ c]t c4[luoE\kddhP’c8 j xt]y,ko j cl’lucf’s^kpmujl5f 9bj’gsaocl’mujzjkovvd,kgxaolucf’D .o]adltotfP;daoF 4hk.-hczjo x^kl8yd.llu2hkdaho 9twfhcl’lu2hk c]t ,ucl’lu0P; c]t luvyfxqovvd,koefa’I6[ #_D!D j gryogvUocz j o.ldAocl’lu[k’luw;h c]t .shcl’lu[k’luz j kowfhoU; j k j czo8v’cl’D j xt3spf0v’czo8v’cl’ c, j o.-h.og7n j v’,n[k’-toyfmu j .-h.og;]k8hv’dkos^5fxt]y,ko j cl’lu.sh|hvp]q’ s^n g;]k8hv’dkocl’rP’[k’l;ogmq j koAoD 8q;1 j k’ dko.-hcz j o8v’cl’.o j dkovafI6[D dkocpdlu.odkory, c]t c;o8kdaocl’cffFDDD j .od=]toumucl’0k;dtmq[.l j ;af45dAocl’.f| j b’F ;af45oAo9tf6fdnocl’c8 j ]tlumu j xtdv[gxao j cl’lu0k;oAow;h.oxt]y,ko8k’daoD cl’l j ;omu j gs^nv9kddkof6fdno ltmhvovvd9kd;af45,k j g0Qk8kgIqk XI6[#_{@? gIaf.shgIqkgsao;af45gxaolufP;da[lucl’multmhvo,kg0Qk8kgIqks^kpmu j l5foAoD j 8k,xqddt8y;af45,umkf mugvUo; j k j mkflu mugIaf|hkmu j f6fdnocl’luD j ;af45mu,ulu8 j k’dao,umkflu8 j k’daoD 8q;1 j k’ dkomu j gIqkgsao.[w,hgxaolu0P; gxaophvo.o.[ j w,h,u d^=3i2uo g-y’gxaomkff6fdnocl’luvyf c]t lucf’w;h c]h;x j vpcl’lu0P; c]t lu.dh7P’ j ltmhvovvd,kg0Qk8kgIqks^kpl5fS l;ofvdw,hlucf’ ,ao,umkflucf’f6fdnocl’luvyfF lu2hk j c]t lu0P;w;hl;os^kp c]h;x j vpcl’lucf’xqoluoE\kddhP’ c]t lugs^nv’ltmhvovvd,k j g0Qk8kgIqks^kpmul5fD le]a[mkflufeF ,aof6fdnocl’m5dluw;h[+.shcl’lu.fltmhvovvdgIqk9 j b’j gsao;af45gxaolufeD mkflu0k; c,oltmhvocl’m5dlumu j jdtmq[.l,aoD j I6[ #_{! lu0P; lu2hk luvyf lucf’ luoE\kddhP’ zhklkd zhklkd czjo8v’cl’ czjo8v’cl’ lu0k; lu2hk lu0k; lucf’ xIy-b, xIy-b, ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

198 #D dkoxtlq,mkflu dkoxtlq,mkflu dkoxtlq,mkflu dkogsaolu0v’;af45F gduf9kd,ucl’lu0k;wxdtmq[.lj;af45D ;af45f6fdnocl’[k’luw;h c]h;ltmhvocl’lul;omu j gs^nvvvd.shgsao;af45gxaolu8 j k’M g-a j oG lucf’F gs^nv’F 0P;FDDD ltoAoF j dkogsaolu0v’;af458k’MoAoc, j ogsaolu9kdcl’mu j ltmhvo,k9kd;af45s^kpd; j kmu j gsao9kdcl’ j ljv’zko;af45oAovvd,kD fa j ’oAoF dkolbdlkd j P;da[dkoxtlq,lu0v’mkflu9 j b’gxaog]n j v’mu j |hk j lqo.9D 4hklkpcl’lu8k’daowxdtmq[.l j ;af45| j b’9tgsao;af45oAogxaolu8 j k’daoD ltoahoF 4hk1kd j gsaolume,t-kf0v’;af45|b’9t8hv’g[y j ’;af45oAofh;pcl’lu0k;9kdf;’8kg;aoD fa j ’oAoF ly j j’ mudeoqflu0v’;af45 ovd9kdcl’mu j dtmq[.l;af45oAoc]h; pa’,umkflu16 j |hk s^n xtlq,16 j .ogoNv j 0v’;af45vudD mkflumugIaf|hkmu j gxao8q;f6fdnocl’lumu j ,kdtmq[.l j |hk;af45 3fpg]nvdf6fdno[k’lu c]t j ltmhvo[k’luvvdD mkflumulk,kflhk’0Bowfh3fpdkoxtlq,mkflurNo4ko j (Primary colour) g0Qkdao g-y’,u # lu7nG lugs^nv’F lucf’vyf c]t lu2hk0P;D mkflurNo4koc8 j ]tlu lk,kff6f j dnocl’lu8k’dao.ocl’m j ugIaf.shgdufltgxad8ie Xc4[lu? 0v’cl’vkmyfc8 j ]t- j ;’D 8q;1 j k’j mkflucf’ [+f6fdnocl’lucf’ c]t luvyf c8jf6fdnocl’luvnjoD mkflugsn^v’[+f6fdnocl’ lugs^nv’mu16 j 4af9kdlucf’ c]t luvyf c8 j f6fdnocl’luvn j oD mkflu2hk0P;[+f6fdnoc4[cl’lu2hkF j luvyfF lu0P; c8f6fdnocl’luvn j ofa j ’.oI6[#_{#D j I6[ #_{@ ;af45lucf’vyf ;af45lu2hk0P; ;af45lugs^nv’ ;af45lucf’ ;af45lu0P; ;af45luoEg’yo lucf’vyf lu2hk0P; lugs^nv’ luoEg’yo lucf’ lu0P; cl’0k; cl’0k; cl’0k; cl’0k; cl’0k; cl’0k; ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

199 4hkgvqkmkflurNo4koma’ # -toyf,k xtlq,g0Qkdaofh;pxt]y,kogmqkdao9twfhmkf j luxtlq,muj,u75o]adltotf6fdnocl’lum5dlumju gIaf.shgdufc4[lu.oltgxad8ie0v’cl’ lu0k;D mkfluxtlq,fa’dj k; c, j omkflulufe j fa’I6[ #_{$D j 4hkgvqkmkflurNo4ko,kxtlq,g0Qkdao fh;pxt]y,ko8k’dao 9twfhmkfluxtlq,s^kp j lu pqdg;Aomkflu0k; g-y’gxaomkflumu j [+lk,kf j gIaf.shgduf0Bofh;pdkoxtlq,mkflu8k’MD j $D dkoxtlq,cl’lu dkoxtlq,cl’lu dkoxtlq,cl’lu cl’multmhvo s^n l j v’z j ko;af458 j k’M j lj;os^kp[+gxaocl’lufP;D fa’oAoF dkogsaolu j 0v’;af459jb’gxaozqo,k9kddkoxtlq,cl’ lu8k’MD j dkoxtlq,cl’lu,uzqoco;.fL gryowfh j lbdlk9kddkomqf]v’fa’oUG j { xa[da[xtlq,cl’lu 3fpsao|hk fhkomuj,uczjo8v’cl’lucf’F lu 0P; c]t lu2hkIa[cl’vkmyfD { xa[g]qkcl’mujzjkoxv’cl’.shdtmq[.l j j[jvomudeoqfw;hD j { xa[czo8v’cl’luma’ # .shgxaogsao;q’luma’ # 16 j gmy’zhklkdlu0k;D j I6[ #_D& da[cl’ I6[ #_D # lucf’ lugsn^v’ lu0P; cl’0k; ;af45lucf’vyf ;af45lu2hk0P; ;af45lugsn^v’ cl’0k; I6[ #_D$ luoEg’yo0P; lufe lu0P; lugsn^v’ lucf’vyf cl’0k; cf’ lu2hk ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

200 { xa[czjo8v’cl’luma’ # .sh;q’ -hvodao8k,]efa[fa’oUG cf’F 2hk j c]t 0P;D zqodkomqf]v’ g,njv.shcl’lucf’F lu0P; c]t lu2hkxtlq,daofh;pxt]y,kogmqjk daowfhzqo7ndaoda[g;]klkpcl’0k;.ljzhk 0k;D oAoltcf’;jk cl’lu8jk’M.ocl’ lucf’F cl’lu0P; c]t cl’lu2hk];,dao gxaoltgxad8ie0v’cl’lu0k;r=fu faj’I6[ #_{*D cl’lu # lu fa’dj k;gr j yogvUo; j k j cl’lu rNo4koD faj’oAoF gIqklk,kfgvqkcl’lurNo 4koxtlq,daogrnv.shwfhcl’lu8 j k’daos^kplu j pqdg;AolufeD 7e4k,G !D gIqkgsao;af45,ulu8k’Mwfhco;.fL j @D ]adltot0v’czo8v’cl’,u7nco;.fL j #D .odkoxtlq,mkfluF 4hkxtlq,mkflurNo4kog0Qkdaofh;pxt]y,kogmqkdao9twfhmkf j lu.fL $D .odkoxtlq,cl’luF 4hkxtlq,cl’lurNo4kog0Qkdaofh;pxt]y,kogmqkdao9twfhcl’ j lu.fL I6[ #_D * cl’lu luoEg’yo lu0k; lucf’vyf luoEg’yo 0P; lucf’ lugsn^v’ lu0P; ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

201 [qfmu $W [qfmu $W[qfmu $W xt3spf c]t zqoglp0v’cl’ xt3spf c]t zqoglp0v’cl’ !D xt3spf0v’cl’ xt3spf0v’cl’ cl’gxaoly’9egxao8+dkofe]q’-u;yf c]t j ,uxt3spf8+,to5f1jk’,tsklkoD cl’gxao rt]a’’ko1k’|b j ’mu j wfh,k9kddkocz j ]a’lu0v’ j cs^j’degoufcl’g-ajoG f;’vkmyfF w2lkpF 8tdP’F fvdw2F g8qkw2 c]t vnoMD ,to5fgIqk j .-h8k.odkog[y’gsao3fpvkwlcl’- j ;p.odko j g[y’gsaoD cl’- j ;p.odko9tg]uog8u[.sp j 0v’ j rnfF .sh7;k,vq[v5o.shcd j 7qoF lafFDDD j !? xt3spf0v’cl’8kg;ao !? xt3spf0v’cl’8kg;ao dD .-hzt]yfw22hk .-hzt]yfw22hk.-hzt]yfw22hk cl’8kg;ao ovd9kd-;p.odkog[y j j’ gsao0v’,to5f c]t lafokM-toyf c]h;pa’ oe.-hg0Qk.odkozt]yfdtclw22hk,koe.-h8k, 7;k,8hv’dkovudD 7;k,8hv’dkofhkort]a’’kow22hkcl’ 8kg;aowfhgru,mt;u0Bo1 j k’w;;k.o- j ;’mhkplt8t;afmu j XX 3fpltgrkt.ofhkodkolt|v’ w22hk.shcdjg0f-qoot[qfmuj1j6g0fsjk’wdlvds^udcmow22hkmjuzt]yf fh;pg7jnv’9admjuc]jofh;p dkogzqkw\hoE,aog-Nvw2 grnvs^5fz j vodko96foE,aom j ume]kpltrk[c;f]hv,vkdkfF - j ;pj s^5frk;t3]dIhvoD I6[ $WD ! cl’-;p.odkog[y j j’ I6[ $WD @ cl’8kg;ao I6[ $WD # w22hkcl’8kg;ao ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

202 .oxt95[aoF grjnv-j;ps^5fzjvodkogzqkw\h oE,aog-Nvw2.ofhkodko7q,,tok7q,F grjnvs^5f rk;t3]dIhvo oad;ymtpklkfwfh7Qo7yfxtfyf]qf mjuc]jofh;prt]a’’kocl’8kg;ao0Bo.-hcmo]qf c]ofh;prt]a’’ko9kddkogzqkw\hoE,aog-Nvw2D j I6[ $WD $ ]qfc]ofh;pw22hkcl’8kg;ao j 0D .-h8Q,oE c]t v5 0D .-h8Q,oE c]t v5 0D .-h8Q,oE c]t v5 0D .-h8Q,oE c]t v5 0D .-h8Q,oE c]t v5jovkdkf jovkdkf ovd9kddkooe.-hg0Qk.o0t[;odkozt]yfdtclw22hkc]h;F gryopa’oe.-hrt]a’’ko j cl’8kg;ao.omk’7;k,Ihvo.og7nv’s5’8Q,mu j .-hcl’8kg;ao g- j aoG .-h.o]t[q[oEv5 j o le]a[7q; j gInvoF ]t[q[v5ooEle]a[lt]vpoEF ]t[q[v5 j ovkdkfF ]t[q[me7;k,g1aoF ]t[q[vq[csh’FDDD j dkooe.-h7;k,Ihvo9kdrt]a’’kocl’8kg;aogxao-v’mk’mu j j-j;pxt1afg-Nvw2xtgrf 2vf-u]muoa[,Noa[[qdcsh’ c]t 0kfc7oD py j ’wxd; j koAoF dkooe.-hrt]a’’kocl’8kg;aopa’ j gxaodko-;ps^5fz j vodkox j vpdklgInvocdh; 3fpltgrkt j CO2 . ]t[q[8Q,oEfh;pcl’8kg;ao lj;os^;’s^kpc]h; g7uprq[.o]t[q[zt]yfoEIhvo.-h.o vk7kolt4komumk’dkoF vk7kodko7hk8 j k’MF 8bdmu j j1j6vkwlF 3I’\=F l6o[e[afl50trk[F IhkovkskoF 3I’cI,FDDD @? xt3spf0v’cl’mu @? xt3spf0v’cl’mu @? xt3spf0v’cl’mu @? xt3spf0v’cl’mu @? xt3spf0v’cl’muj7qogIqklhk’0Bo 7qogIqklhk’0Bo j7qogIqklhk’0Bo 7qogIqklhk’0Bo f;’8kg;aolq’rt]a’’kocl’]q’,k1 j k’s^;’s^kp c8 j d=pa’[+rP’r=8k,7;k,8hv’dkoD j ltoAoF ,to5f9b’wfhxtfyflhk’cl’grn j vIa[.-h8k,7;k,8hv’dkog-a j oG 8tdP’F w2lkpF fvdw2F j 8k]qfFDDD grnv.-hgIaf;Pd.opk,dk’7nowfhltf;d0BoD j I6[ $WD & 8Q,oEfh;pcl’8kg;ao ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

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206 gv8uc]o X gv8uc]o gv8uc]o C2 H4 ? ,uxqo16.odklme,t-kf c]t .ooE,aofy[g]adohvpD gv8uc]o,u75oxt j 3spf.-h.odko[q,\kdw,h.shl5dw;F .-hgxaog-Nvw2F .-hgxao;af45fy[.odkox5’c8 j ’mkfvq’7tmkf j vnoMg-a j oG 3x]ugv8uc]oF gv8k3ooFDDD j vkg-8uc]oG X vkg-8uc]ovkg-8uc]o C2 H2 ? g-yj’c,jo|bj’.ozt]yf8trao0v’dko-uvv,dkd[q; XCaC2 ), ,u75oxt3spf .-hgxaog-Nvw2.odko8af s^n 9vf3]stF gxao;af45fy[.odkox5’c8’mkfvn j oM g-a j oG j 3x]u;uou]d^=iq;F c[a’c-oFDDD #D@D mkfzt]yf8traoIu3fidkd[vo #D@D mkfzt]yf8traoIu3fidkd[vo mkfzt]yf8traoIu3fidkd[vo ovd9kd9t,udkd[vo c]t Iu3fic-oc]h;pa’,umkf ,6ovnog-a j oG j O, Cl, N,DDD mkfzt]yf8trao0v’iu3fidkd[vomule7ao,uG j gs^Qkg,8u]yd F gs^Qkgv8u]ydF x^klt8ydF glaho.p F la’g7ktF 1k’1nfla’g7ktD $D gs^qhk (Alcool) gs^qhkgxaomkfxtlq,vq’7tmkfmuxtdv[fh;pmkf,6odkd[voF Iu3fic-o c]t vqd-uc-oD j gs^qhkmujle7ao,ulv’-toyf7nG gs^qhkg,8u]yd Xg,8k3o]? gs^qhkg,8u]yd Xg,8k3o]? c]t gs^qhkg,8u]yd Xg,8k3o]? gs^Qkgv8u]ydD gs^Qkgv8u]yd gs^Qkgv8u]yd gs^qhkg,8u]yd gs^qhkg,8u]ydgs^qhkg,8u]yd ,ul6fg7,uc,jo CH3 OH. gs^qhkg,8u]ydwfh,k9kddkodao\kdw,hD.ov5flkstde j gs^qhkg,8u]ydx5’c8’ wfh9kdxt8ydy]ypk]ts; j k’ j CO c]t H2 rkp.8h7;k,faol6’3fp,u ZnO c]t Cr2 O3 gxaomkf g]a’D j gs^qhkg,8u]ydl;os^kp.-hxt3spfmk’fhkov5flkstdeF .-hgxao;af45fy[.odkola’g7ktmkf j vq’7tmkfvnoMg-a j oG 2vd,k]gfIyfF .-hgxao8q;]t]kpF .-hgxaog-nhvw2F.-h.ov5flkstdegIafoEluD j gs^qhkg,8u]ydgxaovao8t]kp8+Ik’dkpF 4hkfn j ,g0qhkwxvkf9tgIaf.sh8k[vfF me]kp]t[q[xtlkf j s^n vkf8kpwfhD gs^qhkgv8u]yd gs^qhkgv8u]ydgs^qhkgv8u]yd gs^qhkgv8u]yd,ul6fg7,uc,o j C2 H5 OH. dkox5’c8j’Gdkox5’c8 gs^qhkgv8u]ydx5’c8’wfh3fp;ymu\adcxh’ c]t oE8kofh;p95]t-u[mu j gvuho; j kG cxh’gs^qhkD j dD x5’c8’9kdmkfcxh’ s^n oE8koD j 0D x5’c8’9kdgvqkgv8uc]o j (C2 H4 ) xt8ydy]ypk da[oE 3fp,uvk-yfgxaomkfg]aj’ C H (g) + H O (l) C H OH(l) 24 2 → 2 5 ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

207 I6[ $!D$D zt]yf8trao mujgIaf9kdglAo.pla’g7kt dkooe.-hgs^Qkgv8y]yd dkooe.-hgs^Qkgv8y]yd I6[ $!D#D zt]yf8traomugIaf9kdx^kl8yd j &D x^kl8yd X x^kl8yd Xx^kl8yd XPlastique? { ly’0v’x^kl8ydzt]yf,k9kd.lL j x^kl8ydc,ozt]yf8trao0v’mkf j 3x]uc,mugvqk,kgIafg7n j v’.-h8 j k’M g-a j oG j 4h;pF 9koF -k,F 8aj’F gdu[F dhko[ydF dtg[nhv’x^kl8ydF 4q’.lg7n j v’0v’ c]t vk j skoFDDD dko1k oEsv, gs^Qkgv8y]yd gs^Qkgv8y]ydgs^Qkgv8y]yd xtlq,da[g[p xtlq,da[g[pxtlq,da[g[p vk-yfvkg-8yd vk-yfvkg-8ydvk-yfvkg-8yd 1k’la’g7kt 1k’la’g7kt1k’la’g7kt *D glaho.pla’g7ktXglaho.pmP,? glaho.pla’g7ktXglaho.pmP,? glaho.pla’g7ktXglaho.pmP,? glAo/hkp c]t zhkcrwfh,k9kd.lL ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

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209 [qfmu $@ [qfmu $@[qfmu $@ mkfvtoq’7tmkf mkfvtoq’7tmkf !D mkfvtoq’7tmkf mkfvtoq’7tmkf dyf9tde !G dko96fgdnvdyo c]t 0UgzY’ dyf9tde !G dko96fgdnvdyo c]t 0UgzY’ fa’oAo gdnvdyo9afgxaomkf j vtoq’7tmkfD vtoq’7tmkfDvtoq’7tmkfD mkfvtoq’7tmkf3fpmq;wxc, j omkfmu j wfh9kdcI j mkf8 j k’MF g,n j v96fw2[+]5dw\h s^n j w\hc8j [+,u7;aolufe c]t [+wfhIa[ CO2 D @D cIjmkf oadIPoI6h[=;k .odkozt]yfv5xtdvomu j gIqk.-h.o-u;yfxt9e;aog-a j oG ,ufF rhkF glAo];fmv’DDD j gryo.-hmkflqf s^n cI j mkfL j I6[ $@D!D dko96fgdnvdyo c]t 0UgzY’ !D oadIPogvqkgdnvdyo.lj[j;’c]h; 96f la’gdfdkow\h c]t [aombdzqoD @D gvqk0UgzY’ s^n mPow0 .lj[j;’c]h; 96fF la’gdfxtdqfdko c]t [aombd zqoD 9kddyf9tdegsao;k0UgzY’g,n j v96f ]5d j w\h c]t .sh7;aolufeF 9afgxaomkfvq’7tmkfD vq’7tmkfvq’7tmkf lj;ogdnvdyog,nv96f.ocx;w2[+]5dw\hF j cImkfgxao-a[rtpkdvomu j gduf0Bogv’8k,me,t-kf3fp0t[;odkomk’ j m=]tou;ymtpk 16rkp.o3]d c]t 16 j |hk3]dD cI j mkf c, j omkfxqomu j ,ulj ;oxtdv[F ,u37’lhk’ c]t ]adltot j ltgrkt8q;D cIjg’yo cIjmv’ cIjgs^ad cIjla’dtlu I6[ $@D@D cImkf-toyf8 j k’M j ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

210 I6[mu $@D#G3]stla’dtlu mkfvtoq’7tmkfmule7ao[k’-toyfmu j wfh9kdcI j mkf,uG la’dtluF mv’F dq j ;F gs^adF g’yoF j ,kfF vuvqfDDD dD la’dtlu dD la’dtlu dD la’dtlu (Zn) la’dtluwfh9kdcIjlt2kg]uiyfXZnS) 3fpgvqkcIj mkffaj’djk;,kgzqk.ovkdkf grnjvxjPogxaomkfxtlq, vqd-yf (ZnO) djvoF s^a’9kdoAo9bj’gvqkwxs^v,.shgduf xt8ydy]ypkda[dkd[vo g-yj’gIaf|hkmujgxaomkffb’vqd-uc-o c]h;wfh la’dtlu c8jpa’[+maolqfD .odkocpdgvqk la’dtlulqf 3fp.-h;ymudkocpdfh;pw22hk Xgvg]ad38i]ug-u?D xt3spf0v’la’dtlu .-hgIafgxnvds5h,fhkoovd4koj w2lkpF g7nv[czogs^ad Xcz j ola’dtlu? ,5’gInvoDDD j 0D mv’(Cu) mv’gxao3]st,ulugs^nv’cf’ c]t rq[.ome,t-kf gxaomkflqf s^n vkf];,16.ocI j g-a j oG cI j ,k]k-yf j (Malachite) XCu2 CO3 (OH)2 ), cIjdko3d-yf (Chalcocite,Cu2 S), cIdko3dxyIyf X j CuFeS2 ?D 8q;1k’G dkozt]yfmv’ gry j ooegvqkcI j dko 3dxyIyf j X CuFeS2 ? wxgzqkc]h;9twfhmv’-6o2q; XCu2 S? c]t mkf xqovnoM 9kdoAo oegvqkmv’-6o2q;wxgzqk.ovkdkf 9twfh j mv’lqf c]t dkl SO2 gvUo0t[;odkooU;kG j dko1hk’ dko1hk’ cIjD fa jD cI ’xt8ydy]ypkG j 2CuFeS (s) + 4O Cu S + 2FeO + 3SO Cu S + O Cu + SO 2 22 2 2 2 2 → → 2 xt3spf0v’mv’ .-hzt]yflkpw22hkF m+F3]stxtlq,D ovdoAo pa’gIafczjo;q’9vo gvg]ad38ioydF g7nv’.-h8 j k’M c]t .-h7Pofyok3,D j I6[ $@D&D zt]yf8t raomugIaf9kdmv’ j I6[ $@D$D cImv’ j I6[ $@D#D 3]stla’dtlu ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

211 7D dqj; X7D dq Sn ? dq;rq[gsao.ocI j mkfme,t-kfg-a j oG cI j dkf-yg8iyf j (Cassiterite) SnO2 c]t vnjoM 8q;1jk’ dkozt]yfdqj; gryjogvqkcIjdkf-yg8iyfxtlq,da[4jkodqd c]t suox6o.lj.o g8qks^v,9twfhdq;lqf c]t dkldkd3[oydD fa j ’lq,zqoG j SnO +C CO +Sn 2 2 → dq;gvqkwx.-hxt3spf g-a j oG g7nv[cz j ogs^adF gIafdt j xJv’ [ao95vkskoF xtlq,da[-nogIaf dq;9vfF .-hgIaf j rk-tot8k’MFDDD j ’D gs^ad ’D gs^ad ’D gs^ad (Fe) gs^adrq[s^kp16gxnvd3]dgxaovaofa[lv’Iv’9kd vk]6,u j ouvv,D cIjmujle7ao0v’gs^adwfhcdjG cIjgI,k8yfXFe2 O3 )F ,kgp8yf X Fe3 O4 ?D dkogIaf.shgs^adlqf8hv’gvqkcIgs^q j koUxqoda[ j dkd[vo c]h;gvqkwxs^v,.og8qks^v,D gs^adlqf[+c0’F ltoAogryo9b j ’zt]yfgxaogs^addhkD gs^addhk j c,ogs^admu j ,udkd[vo c]t 3]stvn j oxqo16 j .oxt]y,kog]adohvpF j ,u]adltotc0’ c]t mqomko8+dkodafshPofud;jkgs^adme ,tfkD gs^adgvqk,k.-hxt3spf1k’d;hk’0;k’.oI6[0v’gs^ad j lqf c]t .oI6[0v’3]stxtlq,g-ajoG gIafv5xtdvog7njv’,n 8jk’MF gIafg7nv’9ad3fpltgrktgs^addhkg-y j ’gxao3]stxtlq, j oypq,.-hdaos^kpD 9D g’yo X 9D g’yo X9D g’yo XAg? .oltw\dvogry j orq[g’yo.o]adltotgxao j dhvoohvpM c]t rq[xqo.ocIF [k’gmn j vrq[g’yo j xqo16da[7e grkt; j kma’g’yo c]t 7egxaomkfmu j [+ j ;jv’w;.odkogdufxt8ydy]ypkF faj’oAomkfma’ I6[ $@D*D cIjdqj; I6[$@D (DdtxJv’[ao95vkskogIaffh;pdqj; I6[ $@D_D cIg’yo j I6[ $@D!WD 3]stg’yo I6[ $@D)D cIgs^ad j ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

212 lv’ 9b’[+];,8q;daoD g’yol j ;os^kpwfh,k9kddkos^v,cI j c]twfh9kddkogvg]ad38i]ug-u mv’D j g’yo gvqk,k.-hxt3spf gIafg7nv’gvh c]t g7n j v’.-h8 j k’MD j lD ,kf X lD ,kf XlD ,kf XS? ,kfrq[.ome,t-kfxqo16.o cI j g-a j oG cI j vkoIufiyf j (Anhydrite) CaSO4, xuiyf (Pyrite) FeS2 c]t -y[g-u (Gypse) CaSO4 .2H2 O s^n rq[gxao mkfxtlq, g-aoGdkl j -5o26gIu (SO2 ), dklIu3fi-5o2q; ( H2 S) xt3spf0v’,kf.-hxtlq,.odko zt]yf1k’1nf grnvgIaf.sh1k’,u7;k,|P;F xtlq,da[0Ug9p j gIaf\NxnoF .-h0hkc,’w,h c]t g-Nv3]d8k’MD j -D vuvqf X -D vuvqf X-D vuvqf XI? vuvqf,u.oxt]y,ko|hvp.ooEmtg]F ovd9kdoUpa’xqo 16.ogdnvvu3vfafg-y j ’,u16 j .ome,t-kfg-a j oG gdnv3-fP,vuvqffafD j vuvqf.-hxt3spfgxaolj;oxtlq, .o1kcdhwvF xtlq,da[gdnv dyoxhv’dao3]d7=|P’F mkfxtlq, g’yovuvqffq; XAgI? .-hgIaf /qomP,D 7e4k,G !D 4hk8hv’dko1kdI6h;kmkf.f|b j ’9af; j kgxaomkfvq’7tmkf s^n mkfvtoq’7tmkf j oadIPo9tgIafdko mqf]v’wfhco;.fL @D mkfvtoq’7tmkfwfh,k9kd.lL #D g0qhkF oE8koF gdnv -uholaf c]t oE,ao4qj;gs^nv’gxaomkf,k9kdcs^j’.fL c]t 9afgxaomkfvq’7tmkf s^n mkfvtoq’7tmkfL $D 9q’[vd0t[;odkozt]yfmv’L j &D gxaospa’9b’[+oypq,.-h3]stg’yogIaflkpw22hkL j *D 16.ome,t-kfF gs^ad[ao9516 j .ocI j -toyf.fcf j jL I6[mu $@D!!D cI,kf j I6[mu $@D!@D vuvqf ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

213 rkdmu IX dko4jkpmvf]adltotmk’de,trao kpmvf]adltotmk’de,trao kpmvf]adltotmk’de,trao kpmvf]adltotmk’de,trao [qfmu $# [qfmu $#[qfmu $# 37i3,3-, 37i3,3-, 37i3,3-, ly’mu j ,u-u;yfc8 j ]t-toyf Xlaf c]t rnf ];,ma’7qogIqk? wfh,udko4 j kpmvf-u;yf.\ j s^n j Ijk’dkp.\jmuj,u]adltotg\nvor+c,j.shcdjI5jo]6ds^ko8+Mwx1jk’[+15f1A’D ]adltotfaj’djk;oU ,ao[ao9516rkdl j ;o.f0v’I j k’dkp c]t ,udko4 j kpmvfc8 j I5 j ooUskI5 j o8+Mwxwfhco;.fL j !D 37i3,3-, X 37i3,3-, X37i3,3-, XChromosome? 37i3,3-,c,ospa’ c]t rq[1 j 6.lL j dyf9tde !G m;o7nol dyf9tde !G dyf9tde !G ;oxtdv[0v’95]a’ c]t lbdlkl j ;oxtdv[8Qo8=0v’cd j o95]a’D j 9q’c8h,I6[ $#D! c]t $#D@ .l j xB,0Po0v’8qogv’rhv,ma’\kp-n j .lj jD I6[ $#D@ 95]a’la’gdffh;p dhv’95]tmafgvg]ad38ioyd dyf9tde @G dyf9tde @G dyf9tde @G lbdlk[qf[kf0v’37i3,3-,.o95]a’w0xtlq,grf j { 95]a’w0xtlq,grf0v’|6 c]t dt8 j kp9tc[ j ’8q; c]t rafmtokgxaospa’L phvospa’L j I6[ $#D #D 37i3,3-,.o95]a’w0xtlq,grf j 95]a’w0jxtlq,grf 0v’dt8kpj 37i3,3-, 95]a’w0jxtlq,grf0v’|6 dt8kpj |6 I6[ $#D! 95]a’la’gdffh;p dhv’95]tmafme,tfk ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

214 { 9kddkolbdlkgIqklk,kflts^5[wfhco;.f L { 9q’9af]Po7ela[8 j k’M]5 j ,oU7no.\ j .shgxaoxt3spdmu j lq,[6o .l j xB,0Po0v’8qogv’D j T 37i3,3-,F ]adltotln[g-Nv X]adltotde,trao?F dko4kpmvfF ;af45rNo4koF j 16.ocd j o95]a’D j @D vq’xtdv[0v’37i3,3-, vq’xtdv[0v’37i3,3-, dyf9tde G lbdlkvq’xtdv[0v’37i3,3-, dyf9tde G lbdlkvq’xtdv[0v’37i3,3-, { vq’xtdv[0v’37i3,3-,,uspa’cfjL 9q’0Poxt3spd] j 5,oU.shlq,[6oD j T 37i3,3-,xtdv[fh;p @ c0o7nGDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDg-y’8+.l j daofh;p95f|b j ’g-y j ’gvUo; j kDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD j cdog7y’7n9tcpd @ 37i,k8uf .shdkpgxao @ 37i3,3-, X.ow]ptmhkp0v’dkoc[ j j’ 95]a’?D 37i3,3-,9t,uI6[Ijk’c8d8jk’dao 8k,c8j]tw]pt0v’ dkoc[j’95]a’ g-ajoG .o w]ptdtdP,37i3,3-, ,u]adltotgxaoglAo.pc][M gvUo;kglAo.p37i,k8uo j (chromatine) g-y’[+lk,kfgsaowfh1 j k’-afg9oF c8 j 16 j .ow]ptdkoc[ j ’95]a’ glAo.p37i,k8uosqf8q;lAog0Qk j c]t |k0Bo gvUo;k37i3,3-,D j #D -5f37i3,3-, -5f37i3,3-,-5f37i3,3-, (Caryotype) dyf9tde !G dyf9tde !G dyf9tde !G 9qj’9af7j6 c]t oa[9eo;o 6 c]t oa[9eo;o j6 c]t oa[9eo;o 6 c]t oa[9eo;o37i3,3-,0v’7qo 37i3,3-,0v’7qo { 37i3,3-,muj,uI6[Ijk’ c]t 0t|kf7ndao.sh0Pog]dfP;daoD .odko9af76.sh9af7 j j6 .spwxsk7 j 6ohvp8k,]efa[D 7 j 6.sp j l5f .sh.l j oEg[u !D 7 j 6mu j ,u0t|kfs^5f]q’,k.sh .l j oEg[u j @ c]h;8+Mwx 4hkskd37i3,3-,76.fohvpd; j k \6 j s^n [+,u7 j 6 .sh\kpgxao7 j 6l5fmhkpD j c0olAo c0opk; -a’38ic, @ 37i,k8uf cdog7y’7n j 37i3,3-, 37i,k8uo I6[ $#D$D vq’xtdv[0v’37i3,3-, I6[ $#D&D I6[Ik’0v’37i3,3-,.o95]a’ j ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

215 { 9eo;o37i3,3-, 0v’7qo,u9ad76L c8 j ]t7 j 6,uI6[I j k’ c]t 0t|kf7ndao[+L j { 9q’lbdlk8k8t]k’]5 j ,oU c]h;lts^5[D j I6[ $#D*D -5f37i3,3-, laf c]t 7qo 9eo;o37i3,3-,16.o95]a’ rnf 9eo;o37i3,3-,16 j .o95]a’ j Ijk’dkp X95]a’3-,k? Ik’dkp X95]a’3-,k? j lk]u ,ao/iaj’ 1kl6[ \kdg]ajo 4q;]aog8qk j g0Qkg[^ 7qo \k c,; dt8kpj c,’;aooElq, ]u’7qo $* () #) $$ ) $) @W $) $) @$ !$ !$ 3fpmqj;wxc]h;lyj’muj,u-u;yfc8j]t-toyf,u9eo;o c]t I6[Ijk’0v’37i3,3-,lt grkt0v’.z,aog-y’gry j ogvUo9eo;o37i3,3-,ltgrktgs^q j koU; j k-5f37i3,3-,0v’c8 j ]t-toyfD j 16.o95]a’I j k’dkp 37i3,3-, 9t1 j 6gxao7 j 6 g-y j ’gry j ocmofh;p j 2nD dyf9tde @G lbdlk-5f37i3,3-,grf.o95]a’I dyf9tde @G lbdlk-5f37i3,3-,grf.o95]a’I dyf9tde @G lbdlk-5f37i3,3-,grf.o95]a’I dyf9tde @G lbdlk-5f37i3,3-,grf.o95]a’Ijk’dkp0v’7qo k’dkp0v’7qo jk’dkp0v’7qo k’dkp0v’7qo oadIPo9q’la’gdfI6[]5 j ,oU c]t [vd; j k -5f37i3,3-, 0v’grf-kp c]t grfpy’ 7ndao j c]t 8k’daoco;.fL j ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

216 1 23 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 X 13 14 15 16 17 18 Y 9q’0Po8n j ,.l j j[jvo,u9EM.o8k8t]k’]5,oU.l j xB,0Po0v’8qogv’D j 16.om5dM95]a’I j k’dkp0v’ly j ’mu j ,u-u;yf-toyffP;dao,u-5f7ndao c]t 9eo;o37i3,3-, j 7ndao c]t gmqjkdaoF -toyf8jk’daod=,u-5fc8d8jk’daoD 8q;1jk’16j.om5dM95]a’3-,k0v’7qo ,u9eo;o 37i3,3-, gmqkdao\qf 7n9eo;o $* vao s^n @# 7 j 6 .ooU @@ 7 j 6 c, j o37i3,3-, j me,tfk sn^ 3v383-, XAutosomes? c]t vud ! 76 c, j o37i3,3-,grf X j sex chromosome?D 9eo;o760v’ j 37i3,3-,4ndcmofh;pg7njv’\kp 2n; n = 9eo;o7j60v’ 37i3,3-,D .od=]tou0v’7qo n = @#S \kp7;k,;k7qogIqk,u 9eo;o37i3,3-,gmq j kda[ @# 7 j 6D c8 j ]t7 j 6xtdv[,u @ 37i3, j 3-,mu,uI6[I j k’ c]t 0t|kf7ndao gvUo; j k 37i3,3-,7ndao X j Chromosomes homologues? g-yj’ vao|b’wfh,k9kdr+ c]t vudvao|b j ’ wfh,k9kdc, j jD -5f37i3,3-,0v’grfpy’ c]t grf-kp8k’dao1 j 67j 6l5fmhkp g-y j ’,aoc, j o37i3,3-,grfD j grfpy’,u XX lj;ogrf-kp,u XYD -5f37i3,3-,0v’7qo16j.o95]a’Ijk’dkp -5f37i3,3-,0v’grfpy’ DDDDDDDDDDDDD 3v383-, T DDDDDDDDDDDD X37i3,3-,grf? -5f37i3,3-,0v’grf-kp DDDDDDDDDDDDD 3v383-, T DDDDDDDDDDDD X37i3,3-,grf? I6[ $#D)D -5f37i3,3-,0v’grf-kp 44 + xy 44 + xx wfh,k9kdr+ wfh,k9kdc,j I6[ $#D_ 37i3,3-,7ndao I6[ $#D(D -5f37i3,3-,0v’grfpy’ 19 20 21 22 1 23 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 XX 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

217 ly’mu j ,u-u;yf0v’m5dM-toyf9t,u37i3,3-,grf7n0v’7qo\qf[+L j 3fpmqj;wxc]h;16j9er;dlaf,uoq,F dq[0PfF lafg]nv7ko c]t c,’w,h Xovd9kd c,’dtg[Nv?F 37i3,3-,muj deoqfgrfc,j c,jo XX lj;ogrfzh6c,jo XYD dq’dao0hk, 1j69er;doqdF c,’dtg[Nvgrfc,c,j o j XYF l;ogrfzh6c, j jo XXD { .og,nv9eo;o37i3,3-, 16 j .o95]a’I j k’dkp7qo,u j 2n = $* 1695]a’ln[rao9t,u9eo;o j 37i3,3-,gmqk.f XI6[ $#D!W? grn j vIadlk9eo;o37i3,3-,0v’7qogIqk.sh7q’8q;D j { 9q’0Po8n j ,.l j 8k8t]k’]5 j ,oU X.oxB,0Po0v’8qogv’?D j { 95]a’ln[rao0v’zh6-kp,u @ -toyf7nG @@ T X c]t @@ T Y; 95]a’ln[rao0v’zh6py’,u -toyffP;7nG @@ T X. { 9eo;o37i3,3-, ma’\qf.o95]a’ln[rao0v’7qo,u @#D \kp7;k,;k,ug7y j ’|b j ’0v’ j 9eo;o 37i3,3-,.o95]a’Ik’dkpD j 3fpmqj;wxc]h;gryjocmo9eo;o37i3,3-,.o95]a’ Ijk’dkpfh;p @n c]t 9eo;o 37i3,3-,.o95]a’ln[raofh;p n D 7qo 9eo;o3v383-, c]t -toyf 9eo;o37i3,3-, ma’\qf.o95]a’ln[rao 37i3,3-,grf.o95]a’ln[rao c,py’j zh6-kp I6[ $#D!W 37i3,3-, 16j.o95]a’ln[rao0v’7qo Xzh6-kp? g-y’gry j ogvqkvvd,k9kd.o| j ;pvaomtD j 1 2 3 4 56 X 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 19 20 21 22 Y ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

218 $D |hkmju0v’37i3,3-, u0v’37i3,3-, ju0v’37i3,3-, u0v’37i3,3-, 37i3,3-,,u|hkmuspa’cf j Lj 37i3,3-,gxao[vo1 j 60v’sq;| j ;p]adltotln[g-NvF ,u|hkmu j .odkoc[ j ’95]a’ c]t 7;[ j 75,dko4kpmvf 0=h,6od j P;da[ ]adltotln[g-NvD j 7e4k,G !D 9q’oypk,7e; j k 37i3,3-,D j @D 37i3,3-,,uvq’xtdv[.fcfjL #D oadIPo9q’la’gdfI6[[aofk 37i3,3-, fa j ’8+wxoU,uvao7ndao c]t 8 j k’daoco;.fL j $D 16.o95]a’0v’I j k’dkply j ’mu j ,u-u;yf,u-5f c]t 9eo;o37i3,3-,7ndao s^n 8 j k’daoL j 9q’vt my[kpD j &D 9eo;o76j0v’37i3,3-, cmofh;pg7njv’\kpspa’ 7qogIqk,u9eo;o76j37i3,3-, gmqk.fL wfh,k9kd.lL j *D |hkmu0v’37i3,3-,,uspa’cf j jL -a’38ic, -a’38ic, ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

219 [qfmu $$ [qfmu $$[qfmu $$ dkoc[j’95]a’c[[Iadlk ’95]a’c[[Iadlk ’95]a’c[[Iadlk ’95]a’c[[Iadlk Ijk’dkp0v’rnf c]t laf ]h;oc8xtdv[lhk’fh;p95]a’D 95]a’c, j osq;| j ;p37’lhk’ j rNo4ko0v’Ijk’dkp0v’lyj’muj,u-u;yfD faj’oAoF ,ao9bj’,udkog8u[.spj0tspkp8q;F c[j’8q;F skp.9F de9afly’glfgs^nv g\nvofa j ’Ij k’dkpD j dqowdvao.fgIaf.sh-u;t-kf,udkog8u[.sp0tspkp8q;L j !D w]pt8jk’M0v’dkoc[ k’M0v’dkoc[ j k’M0v’dkoc[ k’M0v’dkoc[j’95]a’c[[Iadlk ’95]a’c[[Iadlk j ’95]a’c[[Iadlk ’95]a’c[[Iadlk ’95]a’c[[Iadlk (Mitose) dyf9tde !G dyf9tde !G dyf9tde !G lbdlkrbf8yde0v’37i3,3-,D { lq,mP[ I6[ $$D! dq’da[I6[ $$D@ I6[.fL vtmy[kp0t[;odkoc[’95]a’c[[Iadlk j ,u9adw]ptL dkoxPocx’I6[I j k’0v’373,3-, c8 j ]tw]ptgxaoco;.fL j I6[ $$D! dkoc[’c[[Iadlk 0v’95]a’xkpIkd0v’zadmP, j Xljv’fh;pdhv’95]tmafgvg]ad38ioyd) !D w]pt8Qo @D w]ptdk’ Xfhko0hk’? #D w]pts^a’ $D w]ptmhkp ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

220 .oIk’dkprts595]a’ d j vomu j 95]a’.f95]a’|b j ’9t,udkoc[ j ’8q;F 95]a’oAo8hv’,udkodP,rhv, j djvomuj9tc[j’8q;D ;q’9vo0v’dkoc[j’95]a’ g]uj,9kdw]ptdtdP, (Interphase) wx9qo g4y’w]ptl5fmhkp c]h;dhk;g0Qkl6w]ptdtdP,vud gvUo; j kG ;q’9vo-u;yf0v’95]a’ X;af4t9ad j 0v’95]a’? (Cycle cellulaire). I6[ $$D@ czo;kfdkoc[’95]a’c[[Iadlk 0v’95]a’laf @ j n = $ !{@{# w]pt8QoF $ w]ptdk’F & w]pts^a’F * w]ptmhkpD 37i3,3-, g9hps5h,cdo -a’38ic, j cdoohvp j valc8 37i,k8uf glAo.p[+,uluD -a’38i3-, ! # & @ $ * glAo.p[+,ulu ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

221 dyf9tde @G dyf9tde @G dyf9tde @G lbdlkI6[ $$D#S w]ptdtdP,G 9u ! XG1? w]ptdvolhk’ fugvogv j X!@ -qj; 3,’?F gvl (S) w]ptlhk’fugvogv X*{) -q;3,’? c]t 9u @ j (G2) w]ptlYol5fdkolhk’ fugvogv X#{& -qj;3,’?. w]pt8Qo8=0v’dkoc[’95]a’G w]pt8QoF w]ptdk’F w]pts^a’ c]t w]ptmhkpD j 3,g]d5o fugvogv (DNA). ;q’9vo-u;yf0v’95]a’ ! Iv[,u & w]pt7nG w]ptdtdP,, w]pt8Qo, w]ptdk’F w]pts^a’ c]t w]ptmhkp. I6[ $$D# ;q’9vo-u;yf0v’95]a’.o0t[;odkoc[’95]a’c[[Iadlk j w]ptmhkp w]pts^a’ w]ptdk’ w]pt8Qo G2 G1 S ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

222 s^a’9kdlYol5fw]ptdtdP, 95]a’d=g0Qkl60t[;odkoc[ j ’95]a’c[[Iadlk g-y j ’c[ j ’vvdgxao j $ w]pt8Qo8=8+gonv’daoD j !? w]ptdtdP, !? w]ptdtdP, !? w]ptdtdP, (Interphase) w]ptdtdP, gxaow]ptmu95]a’,udkoc]dx j Pomkf j (Metabolisme) l6’s^kpF g8u[.spg8a,mu j j c]t dP,8q;g0Qkc[[IadlkD .ow]ptdtdP, lk,kfla’gdfgsaocdo95]a’wfh -afg9oF cd j o,u0t j |kf.spj0BoF37i3,3-, ,u]adltotgxaoglAo.ppk;0qfwx0qf,k c]t xtdv[fh;p @ glAo 37i,k8uf Xg-y’gduf0Bo9kddko76olv’0v’ j fugvogvD w]ptdtdP, c[’gxao # w]pt7nG j T w]pt 9u ! (G1?G \kpg4y’dvolhk’ j fugvogv gxaow]pt8+gonv’ s^a’9kdw]ptmhkp j c]h;.\MD .ow]ptoU,udkolhk’3xi8yo1 j k’s^;’s^kpD j T w]pt gvl (S)G gxaow]ptmu,udkolhk’fugvogv gxao9eo;os^;’s^kp3fpdko9e]v’ c[[fugvogv c]t 37i3,3-,D g,nvlYol5fw]ptoUc]h;9kd 37i3,3-, ! vao9tdkp j ,kgxao @ 37i,k8uf mupbf8yfdao16 j -a’38ic, j (Centromere)D 37i,k8ufc8]t7 j 6,u j ]adltot7hkp7ndaoD T w]pt 9u @ XG@?G gxaow]ptlYol5fdkolhk’fugvogv c]t 37i3,3-,D cdjo95]a’pa’,ug9hps5h,16jD lujw]pt0v’dkoc[ j w]pt0v’dkoc[ w]pt0v’dkoc[ jw]pt0v’dkoc[ w]pt0v’dkoc[j’c[[Iadlk,ufa ’c[[Iadlk,ufa j’c[[Iadlk,ufa j’c[[Iadlk,ufa ’c[[Iadlk,ufaj’oUG @? w]pt8Qo w]pt8Qo w]pt8Qo (Prophase) 1j6.ow]ptoU ,ugsfdko8k’Mgduf0Bo7nfa j ’oUG j { 37i3,3-, c8]tvaomu j xtdv[fh;p @ 37i,k8uf[yfgxaoglAodP; c]t sqflAog0Qk9b j j’ gIaf.sh37i3,3-,|k0Bo c]t gsao-afg9o0BoD { g9hps5h,cdo c]t cd j oohvp7 j vpMl6oskpwxD -a’8iu3voxtdv[gxao @ valc89 j v’.l j daoj fh;pglAo.p[+,ulu c]t c8]tvalc89tg7n j vophkpwx16 j c8j ]t0Q;0v’95]a’D j 1j695]a’rnf[+,u -a’8iu3vo c8,uglAo.p[+,ulugdkt1 j 6-a’38ic,0v’37i3,3-,D j #? w]ptdk’ w]ptdk’ w]ptdk’ (Metaphase) gsfdko8k’Mgduf0Bo1 j 6.ow]ptoU,u7nG j { [aofkglAo37i3,3-,muj1j6xqogxdao 9t,kg8Qk3I,dao1695f.9dk’0v’95]a’ 3fpgvqk j -a’38ic,8yfda[glAo.p[+,uluD { glAo37i3,3-,muj]Podaogxao @ 95wfhdhP; c]t sqf8q;g0Qkg4y’0AolAomujl5fg-yj’gIqk lk,kfdeoqf9eo;o c]t I6[Ik’0v’ glAo37i3,3-,wfhD -a’38ic,9tc[ j ’g7 j y’j gIaf.sh @ 37i,k8ufg]u,cpd8q;vvd9kddaoD j ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

223 $? w]pts^a’ w]pts^a’ w]pts^a’ (Anaphase) .ow]ptoU,ugsfdko8k’Mfa j ’oUG j { glAo.p[+,ulusqf8q;lAog0Qk c]h;fb’37i,k8uf.shcpd8q;vvd9kddao dkpgxao37i 3,3-, @ d5,F c8 j ]td j 5,7j vpMg7n j vophkpwxskc8 j ]t0Q; XlQo? 0v’95]a’D j &? w]ptmhkp w]ptmhkp w]ptmhkp (Telophase) { 37i3,3-,c8]td j 5, I j ;,dao16 j c8j ]t0Q;0v’95]a’g]u j ,,kp8q;vvd dkpgxaoglAo.p j [k’Mc][M g-y’gIqk gvUo; j kglAo.p37i,k8ufmu j gIqk[+lk,kfgsaowfh-afg9ofa j ’fP; j da[16.ow]ptdtdP,D j { glAo.p[+,uluskpwxD { g9hps5h,cdo c]t cd j oohvpg]u j ,xkdqf0BoD j { g9hpsh5,95]a’9t7vpMdy j ;g0Qks; j k’dk’95]a’ 9qo.omu j l5f95]a’0kf c]t c[ j ’vvdgxao j lv’95]a’ Xc84hkgxao95]a’rnf9txkdqf,ucz j o0Ao]ts; j k’dk’95]a’ j (phragmoplaste) mu0Ao37i3,3-, @ d5 j , c]h;dkpgxaogxnvdsh5,0v’ @ 95]a’.\ j mu j cpd9kddao? j { lv’95]a’.\ Xlv’95]a’]6d? ,u9eo;o37i3,3-,gmq j kdaoda[9eo;o37i3,3-,0v’95]a’ j c, c]t ,ul j ;oxtdv[ c]t ]adltot7ndao c]t 7nda[95]a’c, j vudfh;pD j dkoc[’95]a’c[[Iadlkc, j ospa’L ,ao,uxt3spfco;.f8+ly j ’mu j ,u-u;yfL j g,nv95]a’8 j k’Mg8u[.sp j g8a,mu j c]h;d=9t,udkoc[ j ’8q;9kd ! gxao @ 9kd @ gxao $ wxg]NvpMD j dkoc[’95]a’c[[Iadlk 0v’I j k’dkpgvdt95]a’ c]t rts595]a’oUgxaodkoc[ j ’95]a’ j grnvdkocr j rao s^n grn j vgru j ,9eo;o95]a’0v’I j k’dkp X95]a’3-,k?D le]a[I j k’dkprts595]a’ j g-ajo laf0Aol6’];,ma’7qogIqkoe dkoc[j’95]a’c[[Iadlkc,jogrnjvdkog8u[.spj c]t 0tspkp8q;F lhv,c-,mqfcmo95]a’mug4Qkcd j 8kpwx c]t lhv,c-,[kfcz8 j k’MD j I6[ $$D $D czo;kfdy;3fpsp=h0v’dkoc[ j ’95]a’c[[Iadlk j (Mitose) @ n @ n 95]a’c,j @ n 95]a’]6d ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

224 dkoc[’95]a’c[[Iadlk c, j o0t[;odkomu j fegouowx1 j k’]Po8yfrkp.og;]kmu j c8d j 8jk’daoF ,ao0Boda[c8]t-toyf0v’95]a’D 16 j .oI j k’dkpmu j pa’v j vo s^n de]a’,udkog8u[.sp j dkoc[ j j’ 95]a’c[[Iadlk fegouowxw; c]t gduf0Bo.oxt]y,kos^kpd;kIj k’dkpmu j cdj c]h;D j 7e4k,G !D dkoc[’95]a’mu j .sh @ 95]a’ g-y j ’[ao950=h,6odkoln[g-Nv7ndaoc, j odkoc[ j ’95]a’c[[.fL j @D dkolhk’ X76o @? fugvogv (DNA) c,o1j 6w]pt.f0v’dkoc[ j ’95]a’L j #D dkoc[’95]a’c[[Iadlk c, j oco;.fL ,ao,uxt3spfco;.f8+ly j ’,u-u;yfL j $D dkoc[’95]a’c[[Iadlk c[ j ’gxao9adw]pt 7nw]pt.fcf j L 9q j ’vtmy[kpc8 j ]tw]ptD j &D dkoc[’95]a’c[[Iadlk .o95]a’rnf c]t laf8 j k’dao7nco;.f L j *D [aofkI6[faj’]j5,oU[+]P’]efa[0v’0Ao8vomujgduf0Bo.odkoc[j’95]a’c[[IadlkD 9q’]P’]efa[7no.\ j .sh4nd8hv’D j !@ # $ ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

225 [qfmu $& [qfmu $&[qfmu $& dkoc[j’95]a’3fpmk’dq’ j’95]a’3fpmk’dq’ j’95]a’3fpmk’dq’ ’95]a’3fpmk’dq’ !D dkoc[j’95]a’3fpmk’dq’ ’95]a’3fpmk’dq’ j’95]a’3fpmk’dq’ ’95]a’3fpmk’dq’ (Meiosis) dyf9tde !G 0t[;odkoc[ dyf9tde !G 0t[;odkoc[ dyf9tde !G 0t[;odkoc[ dyf9tde !G 0t[;odkoc[j’95]a’3fpmk’dq’ ’95]a’3fpmk’dq’ j’95]a’3fpmk’dq’ ’95]a’3fpmk’dq’ lbdlkI6[ $&D! c]t $&D@ 0t[;odkoc[’95]a’3fpmk’dq’xtdv[fh;pdkoc[ j ’95]a’ j 9adgmnvL c8 j ]tgmn j vxtdv[,u9adw]ptL j { vtmy[kpdkoxPocx’0v’37i3,3-, .o0t[;odkoc[ j ’95]a’3fpmk’dq’D \kp j -n.lj ]6dlvoD j I6[ $&D! dkoc[’3fpmk’dq’ X8af];’0;k’0v’s^vfohvp.o| j ;pvaomt0v’laf]hP’]6d j fh;poEoq, ljv’fh;pdhv’95]tmaf0tspkp !WWW gmnv?D j g]u,w]pt8Qo j I mhkpw]pt8Qo I w]ptdk’ I w]pts^a’ I w]ptmhkp I w]pt8Qo II w]ptdk’ II w]pts^a’ II w]ptmhkp II ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

226 g]u,w]pt8Qo j I mhkpw]pt8Qo I w]ptdk’ I w]pts^a’ I w]ptmhkp I I6[ $&D@ w]pt 8k’M0v’dkoc[ j ’95]a’3fpmk’dq’D j w]pt8Qo II w]ptdk’ II ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

227 dyf9tde @G dkoc]dx dyf9tde @G dkoc]dx dyf9tde @G dkoc]dx dyf9tde @G dkoc]dxjPo8vo0v’37i3,3-, jPo8vo0v’37i3,3-, Po8vo0v’37i3,3-, Po8vo0v’37i3,3-, lbdlkI6[ $&D#D dkoc]dxPo8vo0v’37i3,3-,0v’7 j 67ndao.oly j ’,u-u;yf,uco;.fL j .o0t[;odkoc[j’mk’dq’9tgduf,udkoc]dxjPo8vo0v’37i3,3-,0v’7j67ndao g-y’,uzqofu8+ly j ’mu j ,u-u;yf 7ngIaf.sh]adltotln[g-Nv,udkoxqogxdaoS I j k’dkpmu j gduf,k9t,u]adltot j .\c8d8 j k’9kdr+c, j jD .odkoc[’mk’dq’ 95]a’9t8hv’z j kow]ptdtdP,g-a j ofP;da[dkoc[ j ’c[[Iadlkc8 j j w]ptlhk’ DNA 9t.-hg;]kfqod;kD j zjkodkola’gdf gsao;k dkoc[ j ’95]a’3fpmk’dq’,udkoc[ j ’ @ gmn j v8+gon j v’daoD gmn j jv mu IG xtdv[fh;pw]ptdtdP, I 9qog4y’w]ptl5fmhkp IS gmnvmu j IIG w]ptl5fmhkp I 9tc,jo w]ptdtdP, II w]ptoU95]a’rnf[k’-toyfvkf[+c[’gxao @ 95]a’gvdt]kfF c8 j 37i3,3-,,udko j xjPocx’dhk;g0Qkl6w]pt8Qo j II 9qog4y’w]ptl5fmhkp II. gmnjvmu IG T w]ptdtdP, I (Interphase I)G 37i3,3-,xkdqfgxaoglAo c]t ,udko76o @ 0Bo xtdv[fh;p @ 37i,k8uf c8pa’8yfdao16 j j -a’38ic,D -a’8iu3voxtdv[gxaovalc8 X1695]a’laf?D j 37i3,3-,7ndao g0Qk76daoj gdufdkow0;dao X-uval,k j Chiasmas? sn^ dhP;/Ao dao]ts;k’37i,k8uf0v’37i3,3-,7ndaoD j 37i,k8ufmucpdvvd9kddao,udkoc]dx j Po8vo j g-y’dao c]t dao X j Crossing-over? 168vomhkp0v’w]pt j 8Qo I. I6[ $&D#D dkoc]dxPo8vo0v’ j 37i,k8uf0v’76j37i,k3-,7ndao .odkoc[’95]a’c[[mk’dq’ j ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

228 T w]pt8Qo I (Prophase I) w]pt8Qo gxaow]ptmule7ao c]t .-hg;]k _W: 0v’g;]kc[ j ’95]a’ma’\qfD 37i3,3-, j 7ndao9t,k9a[76daoF dhP;raodao8k,mk’pk; c]t lAog0Qkg-y j ’gsaoc9h’mu j l5f c]h;cpdvvd j 9kddaoF vkf,udkoc]dxPo8vo.f8vo|b j ’g-y j ’dao c]t dao]ts; j k’37i,k8ufD g9hps5h,cd j jo skpwxF glAo.p[+,uluxkdqf0BoD T w]ptdk’ I (Metaphase I) 37i3,3-,ma’\qf,k];,dao16g0fl6ol6f0v’glAowp[+,ulu c8 j [aofk37i3,3-,mu j 7ndaopa’ j 1j6gxao76Dj T w]pts^a’ I (Anaphase I) glAowp[+,ulu 9tsqf8q;lAog0Qkc]h;37i3,3-,767ndao9tzaocpdvvd9kddao wxskc8 j ]tlQo j 0v’95]a’D T w]ptmhkp I (Telophase I) c]t w]pt8Qo II (Prophase II) w]ptmhkp I oU 95]a’[k’-toyf9t,udkoc[’vvdgxao @ 95]a’ mu j ,u j n 37i3,3-,muxtdv[ j fh;p @ 37i,k8ufD c895]a’[k’-toyf9t[+,udkoc[ j ’vvdgxao @ 95]a’ c]t 37i3,3-, ,udko j xjPocx’g0Qkl6w]pt8Qo j II 3]fD gmnjvmu gmn IIG T w]ptdtdP, II (Interphase II) 95]a’[k’-toyf9t[+,uw]ptoU grkt;k[+,udko76o @ j 0v’ fugvogv c]t [+,udko76o @ 0v’37i3,3-,D T w]pt8Qo II (Prophase II) 37i,k8uf9tsqflAod;kgdq j kD j T w]ptdk’ II (Metaphase II) 37i,k8ufma’\qf,kIP’dao16g7y j ’dk’95]a’D j T w]pts^a’ II (Anaphase II) 37i,k8uf9tzaocpdvvd9kddao wxskc8]tlQo0v’95]a’D j T w]ptmhkp II (Telophase II) gIqk9twfh $ 95]a’.\mu j ,u j n 37i3,3-,D lts^5[c]h;dkoc[’95]a’3fpmk’dq’ c, j odkoc[ j ’95]a’xtdv[fh;pdkoc[ j ’ @ gmn j v8+ j gonv’daoG j { gmnvmu j IG 9kd ! 95]a’mu,u @ j n 37i3,3-,gIqk9twfh @ 95]a’mu,u j n 37i3,3-,D X9eo;o 37i3,3-,s^5f]q’g7y’|b j ’?D j { gmnjvmu II: 9kd @ 95]a’muj,u n 37i3,3-,gIqk9twfh $ 95]a’mu,u j n 37i3,3-,D zjkodko7Qo7;hk,k0hk’gmy’ oadIPo9t.shoypk,dkoc[’95]a’3fpmk’dq’; j kco;.fL j ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

229 I6[ $&D$D czo;kf3fpsp=h0v’dkoc[’95]a’3fpmk’dq’ j n n n n n n 2 n ⎪ ⎪ ⎭ ⎪ ⎪ ⎬ ⎫ $ 95]a’]6d c[j’gmnjvmu @ c[j’gmnjvmu ! 95]a’c,j dkoc[’95]a’3fpmk’dq’c, j odkoc[ j ’95]a’.shwfhIa[95]a’ln[raoD g,n j vIj k’dkp0tspkp j g8a,muc]h; 95]a’ryglf0v’I j k’dkpmu j ,u @ j n 9tzko0t[;odkoc[ j ’3fpmk’dq’ grn j vIa[xtdao j dkozt]yf95]a’ln[raomu,u j n 37i3,3-,D dyf9tde #G dyf9tde #Gdyf9tde #G 9q’.-hg-nvd2k’xt8y[af8q;9y’7nda[czo;kf3fpsp=h0v’dkoc[ j ’95]a’3fpmk’dq’3fp j @n gmqkda[ * 37i3,3-,D j dyf9tde $G dyf9tde $Gdyf9tde $G 9q’lq,mP[dkoc[ j ’95]a’3fpmk’dq’da[dkoc[ j ’c[[Iadlk j 2n=2 2n=2 c[’c[[Iadlk j c[j’ gmnjvmu @ c[j’ gmnjvmu ! c[j’c[[dk’dq’ ⎟ ⎟ ⎟ ⎟ ⎟ ⎟ ⎟ ⎟ ⎠ ⎞ czo;kf $&D&D czo;kfdkolq,mP[ dkoc[’95]a’3fpmk’dq’ c]t c[[Iadlk j ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

230 lq,mP[dkoc[ lq,mP[dkoc[ lq,mP[dkoc[ lq,mP[dkoc[j ’95]a’c[[Iadlk X ’95]a’c[[Iadlk X j’95]a’c[[Iadlk X ’95]a’c[[Iadlk X ’95]a’c[[Iadlk XMitose? c]t mk’dq’ ? c]t mk’dq’ ? c]t mk’dq’ (Meiosis) dkoc[’95]a’c[[Iadlk j (Mitose) dkoc[’95]a’3fpmk’dq’ j (Meiosis) { ,udkoc[’95]a’ @ gmn j vwfh $ 95]a’]6dD j { 95]a’]6d,u9eo;o37i3,3-,gmqkda[ j g7y’|b j ’0v’95]a’ c, j Xj n ?D { ,udko9a[760v’37i3,3-,7ndaoF j ,udkoc]dxPo8vo.f 8vo|b j ’D j { c,odkoc[ j ’95]a’grn j vgxao95]a’ j ln[raoD { ,udkoc[’95]a’gmn j vfP;wfh @ 95]a’]6dD j { 95]a’]6d,u9eo;o c]t I6[Ik’37i3, j 3-,7ndao c]t 7ndaoda[ 0v’95]a’c,j X 2n ?D { [+,udko9a[760v’37i3,3-,7ndaoF [+,u j ,udkoc]dxPo8vo.f 8vo|b j ’D j { c,odkoc[ j ’95]a’grn j vlhk’gxao95]a’ j Ijk’dkpD dyf9tde 0t[;odko0tspkp8q;0v’95]a’ln[rao dyf9tde 0t[;odko0tspkp8q;0v’95]a’ln[rao oadIPo9q’la’gdfI6[ $&D*D czo;kf0t[;odko0tspkp8q;0v’95]a’ln[raogrfz6h c]t j grfc,0v’7qoxtdv[,u9ad0Ao8vo Xw]pt? 7n0Ao8vo.fcf j L ,uvao7ndao c]t 8 j k’dao7nco;.fL j dkozt]yf95]a’ln[raoc,og]u j ,c8 j jvkp5w;-vo[jk;F -volk;D le]a[16jgrfzh6c,jo16.oj w]ptg8u[.spj dD czo;kfdko 0tspkp8q;0v’95]a’ln[raogrfz6h w]ptmt;u76o w]ptl5d w]ptdkoxPocx’I6[I j k’j 2n 2n I II n n n @D dko0tspkp8q;0v’95]a’ln[rao0v’7qo dko0tspkp8q;0v’95]a’ln[rao0v’7qo ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

231 s^vfohvp0v’|;pvaomtS l j ;o95]a’ln[raogrfc, j c, j o0tspkp8q;1 j 6.oI;pw0 j jD dko0tspkp8q;0v’95]a’ln[raogrfz6h c]t grfc,,uvao7ndao7nG ,aoxtdv[fh;p # w]pt j 7ndaog-aoG w]ptmt;u76oF w]ptg8u[.sp j c]t w]ptl5dS l j ;o1 j 695]a’ln[raogrfz6h9t,uw]pt|b j ’8n j ,vud j gvUo;k w]ptdkox j Pocx’I6[I j k’D j @D!D w]ptmt;u76o @D!D w]ptmt;u76o @D!D w]ptmt;u76o (Multiplication) 95]a’g7Qk X2n? 9t,udkoc[’c[[Iadlks^kpgmn j vgrn j vgru j ,mt;u9eo;o95]a’0Bo 16 j grfpy’ j c,o9t15f16 j 8vo|+]6dwfh !& vkmyfD j @D@D w]ptg8u[.sp @D@D w]ptg8u[.spj (Accroissement) 9eo;o95]a’muwfhmt;u76o0Bo X j 2n? 9t0tspkp8q;1k’w;;kF ryglf95]a’.ow]ptg8u[.sp j j 0v’95]a’ln[raogrfc,j9t,u[=]y,kf.spjd;jkgrkt,aoltlq,mkf[e]5’]hP’cIw;hs^kpmujl5f XI;pw0ma’ @ 0v’|+]6d & gfnvo,u95]a’w]ptg8u[.sp j xt,ko * ]hko c8 j 8vogduf9tgs^nvrP’ j xt,ko $ clo? D @D#D w]ptl5d @D#D w]ptl5d@D#D w]ptl5d (Maturation) c8j]t95]a’mujwfhzjkow]ptg8u[.spj9t,udkoc[j’3fpmk’dq’ g-yj’,udkoc[j’ @ gmnjv 8+gonv’dao7n gmn j vmu ! 9kd ! 95]a’mu j ,u j 2n 37i3,3-,gIqk9twfh @ 95]a’mu,u j n 37i3,3-,D gmnvmu j @ 9kd @ 95]a’mu,u j n 37i3,3-,gIqk9twfh $ 95]a’mu,u j n 37i3,3-,D c8.odko0tspkp0v’ j 95]a’grfc,gIqk9twfh95]a’w0 j rP’| j ;pfP;D j w]ptxjPocx’I6[Ijk’,uc8j1j6dko0tspkp8q;0v’95]a’ln[raogrfz6hgrnjvxjPocx’I6[ Ijk’dkpgxaovtl59yD 0D czo;kfdko 0tspkp8q;0v’95]a’ln[raogrfc,j 2n w]ptg8u[.spj w]ptmt;u76o w]ptl5d I6[ $&D* czo;kfdko0tspkp8q;0v’95]a’ln[raogrf (Gametogenese) 2n n n ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

232 95]a’ln[rao,u 37i3,3-,d=lk,kfIadlk -5,37i3,3-,ltgrkt0v’-toyfwfhD dkoc[j’ 95]a’ c]t dkoxtlq,raoc,odqowdgrn j v7;k,7q’8q;0v’9eo;o c]t I6[I j k’0v’37i3,3-, j 0v’c8]t-toyfD ly j ’le7aoc, j odko76olv’F dkocpd8q;0v’37i3,3-, c]t ];,8q;g0Qkgxao j -5,37i3,3-,D Ik’dkp,udkoc[ j ’95]a’1 j k’[+15f1A’D fa j ’oAoF dko4 j kpmvfvq’xtdv[0v’95]a’ j c8]t-toyf 9b j ’,u7;k,le7ao.oI5 j o8+Mwxgrn j vIadlk95fryglfltgrktmk’fhko9eo;o c]t j I6[Ik’0v’37i3,3-,D j 7e4k,G !D dkoc[’95]a’,u9adc[[ 7nc[[.fcf j L dkoc[ j ’95]a’3fpmk’dq’c, j ospa’L j @D dkoc[’95]a’c[[Iadlk c]t 3fpmk’dq’,u95f c8d8 j k’dao7nco;.fL j #D [aofkI6[fa’]j 5,oU[+]P’]efa[8k,dkog;]k 0v’0Ao8vo.odkoc[ j ’95]a’3fpmk’dq’D j 9q’la’gdf c]t 9af]P’]efa[7noD j 1 2 3 456 ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

233 [qfmu $* [qfmu $*[qfmu $* 7;k,zyfxqddt8y0v’37i3,3-, 7;k,zyfxqddt8y0v’37i3,3-, 37i3,3-, c,o;af45rNo4ko0v’dko4 j kpmvf]adltotmk’de,trao X]adltotln[g-Nv?D j ly’mu j ,u-u;yfc8 j ]t-toyf,uI6[I j k’ c]t 9eo;o37i3,3-,ltgrktD j .o-5,37i3,3-,0v’ly’mu j ,u-u;yfI j k’dkp.f|b j ’ 4hkskd7 j 6.f7 j 6|b j ’ s^n \qfm5d7 j 6,u9eo;o j 37i3,3-,gru,0Bo s^n s^5f]q’F 37i3,3-,gru j ,8voF glp8vo I j k’dkpoAo9t,u]adltotgxao j co;.fL dyf9tde !G 7;k,zyfxqddt8y0v’37i3,3-, dyf9tde !G 7;k,zyfxqddt8y0v’37i3,3-, { 9q’oa[9eo;o37i3,3-,0v’ I6[ $*D!D j c]h;[vd;k,udkozyfxqddt8y1 j 6[j vo.fL j c,o-5,37i3,3-,0v’grfpy’ s^n j grf-kpL 9q’vtmy[kpD j { la’gdfgfadohvp7qooU ,u]adltotco;.fL gfadohvpz6hoU ]k;,u37i3,3-, 76mu @! [+cpd j vvd9kddao .og;]kIjk’dkpr+ sn^ c,jlhk’95]a’ ln[g-NvF gIaf.sh]6dgduf,k,u9eo;o 37i3,3-, gmqkda[ $( 76 j 3fp76 j mu @! ,uvud ! 37i3,3-,g0Qk,k j gruj, ];,daogxao # 37i3,3-, gvUo;jk8iu3-,u d=]touoU gduf0Boda[ 37i3,3-,me,tfkF gfadohvpz6hoU ,u]adltotzyfxqddt8y gryogvUo; j kG rtpkfxaopkv j voj XDown Syndrome?D I6[ $*D @ w]pts^a’0v’dkoc[j’ c[[mk’dq’ I6[ $*D! -5,37i3,3-,0v’7qo,u]ad ltotzyfxqddt8y (8iu3-,u trisomie 21) 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 1 2 3 4 5 XX 19 20 21 22 ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

234 dyf9tde @G dyf9tde @G dyf9tde @G lbdlk37i3,3-,.oI6[ $*D@D lbdlk37i3,3-,.oI6[ $*D@D lbdlk37i3,3-,.oI6[ $*D@D { .odkoc[’95]a’gmn j voUgIqk9twfhIa[95]a’xqddt8y[+L phvospa’L j ovd9kd37i3,3-, 76mu @! zyfxqddt8y mu j gry j orq[s^kpd; j kc]h;F 76 j vn j oMd=,udkozyfxqddt8y j g-aodao X8iu3-,u !# c]t !)?D j dyf9tde #G lbdlk8k8t]k’ dyf9tde #G lbdlk8k8t]k’ oadIPo9q’vj ko8k8t]k’ c]h;0Po9eo;o37i3,3-,ma’\qfmu j ,u.o95]a’mu j dq’da[9eo;o j 37i3,3-, zyfxqddt8y .l.oshv’mu @ 0v’8k8t]k’D j 7j6mu !) ,u # vao ! 8+ &WWW zyfxqddt8yG dt3s^dsq;F |hkF 8uoF ,nF sq;.9F \kdw0s^a’D l j ;os^kp j 9tglp-u;yfdvovkp5wfh ! xuD j 9eo;o37i3,3-, zyfxqdt8y 9eo;o37i3, 3-,.o95]a’Ijk’ dkp gfadzyfxqddt8y8+ 9eo;ogfadohvp gduf ]adltot XXY grf-kp ! dj5,vkdkow7] 8+ (WW g2]g8u (Syndrome de Klinefelter) vaomtohvpF zt]yfvtl59y|hvpF ]adltotgrf0Aolv’ gdnv[;jk xqddt8yF g8Qkoq,0tspkpF lj;os^kp,u,aolt|v’xqddt8yF gxaodtgmup Xl;os^kpgxao\ao? j XYY grf-kp ! 8+ vaomtxqddt8yF xt]y,ko &WW vtl59yxqddt8yF crg-Nvwfh j XXX grfpy’ ! 8+ I;pw0xqddt8yF cr j g-Nvwfh j &WW Xo dj5,vkdkogmugou XSyndrome de Turner ? grfpy’Ik’dkpohvpF I;pw0 j ohvpF j ,qf]6dohvpF ]adltotgrf0Aolv’ [+0tspkp8q; Xg8Qkoq,[+0tspkpF [+,uxt9egfnvo?F gxao\aoD 7j6mu @! ,u # vao Xd5,j ! 8+ (WW vkdkofk;? j gxao7qog-U-hk Xdnd?F |hk,qogxF fa’ohvpF lq[g8nvpF oY;8uooY;,nlAoF j I6[Ik’8 j eD l j ;os^kpvkp5lAoD j grfpy’ ! 8+ @(WW ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

235 9kddko7Qo7;hk0hk’gmy’oAo oadIPolk,kflts^5[wfhco;.fL 4hkskd,u7;k, zyfxqddt8y fhko9eo;o s^n fhkodkoxtdv[lhk’0v’37i3,3-,gduf0Bo16Ij k’dkp.f|b j ’Lj 4hkskd,u 37i3,3-,gru,0Bo s^n s^5f]q’1 j 676 j .f|b j ’ s^n \qfm5d7 j 6 s^n 8vo.f|b j ’0v’37i3,3-, j skdgru,0Bo s^n s^5f]q’1 j 67qo s^n lafI j k’dkpoAo9t,u]adltotI6[I j k’ s^n lt]u]tzyfxqdt8y s^n gxaort j pkfIhkpcI’D c8j1j6rnf-E,uzqofu8+7qogIqk 8q;1k’G zad[Q’ j 2n 9t,u.[ c]t dhko.spD \kd3, j 3n [+,ucdoD j lts^5[c]h;7;k,zyfxqddt8yfhko9eo;o 167j 6.f|b j ’ s^n \qfm5d7 j 6fhkodkoxtdv[lhk’0v’ j 37i3,3-,gduf0Bo16Ij k’dkp.f|b j ’0v’laf c]t rnf9t,u]adltot zyfxqddt8yfhkoI6[I j k’ c]t j lt]u]tlkf s^n gxaortpkfIhkpcI’D 4hk16rnfc, j o,uzqofu8+7qogIqk c8 j ,uzqoglpskp.shcd j rnfgv’D j 7e4k,G !D oadIPo9q’la’gdf -5f37i3,3-,.oI6[ X!? j c]h;.sh[vd;k7qozh6oU,u]adltot1 j k’.fL j dD c,py’,u <]adltotd5,vkdkof j k;< j 0D c,py’,u <]adltotd5,vkdkof j k; c]t gmugou< j 7D c,py’ s^n z6h-kp,u <]adltotd5,vkdkof j k;< j @D oadIPo9q’la’gdf -5f37i3,3-,.sh.oI6[ X@? j c]h;[vd;kc, j o7;k,zyfxqdt8yc[[.fL j dD -5,37i3,3-,rts5mq[ 0D 76.f|b j ’gru j ,0Bo j 7D 76.f|b j ’s^5f]q’ j #D 7;k,zyfxqddt8yfhko9eo;o c]t fhkodko xtdv[lhk’0v’37i3,3-,16laf c]t 7qo9tgIaf.sh j Ijk’dkpoAo,u]adltotgxaoco;.fL $D 7;k,zyfxqddt8yfhko9eo;o c]t 0v’ 37i3,3-,16rnf9tgIaf.shI j k’dkpoAo,u]adltot j co;.f8+rnfgv’ c]t 8+da[7qoL A B D E C F G X 1 234 5 6 789 10 11 12 X 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Y X!? X@? ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

236 [qfmu $( [qfmu $([qfmu $( dqfgdodkoln[g-Nv0v’m dqfgdodkoln[g-Nv0v’m dqfgdodkoln[g-Nv0v’m dqfgdodkoln[g-Nv0v’mjko,a’cf] ko,a’cf] ko,a’cf] ko,a’cf] 7qogIqkwfhI6h9adgvqk.9.lg4y’xkdqfdkoln[g-Nv,k8A’c8 j fqookoc]h;D .zd=I6h; j k I j k’dkp j ly’,u-u;yf-toyf.f|b j ’pj v,gduf,k9kdly j ’,u-u;yf-toyffP;daoD fa j ’oAoF g,n j vly j ’,u-u;yfg8u[.sp j 0Boj ,k9t,u]adltot7hkp7nr+c,jD g,njvgIqkdhkg,afg0Qk,aod=9tg8u[.spjgxao8Qog0Qk c8j,ao9t[+ gxao8Qolufk s^n 8QovnoM1 j k’co j ovoD c,;d=p j v,vvd]6dgxaoc,; c8 j gIqkd=la’gdfgsao; j k]6d j 9t,u[k’]adltotmuc8d8 j k’9kd r+c, j g-a j jo c,;lugs^nv’vkf9tvvd]6dgxaoc,;lu0k; s^n lufed=wfh g-y’g]n j v’oUgxaodko4 j kpmvf]adltotde,trao X4 j kpmvf]adltotln[g-Nv? gxao8q; j dkomugIaf.sh]6ds^kogduf,k,u]adltotc8d8 j k’ s^n 7hkp7nda[[aort[5]5fD ;ymtpklkfmu j lbdlk j djP;da[dko4kpmvf]adltot8 j k’M0v’ly j ’,u-u;yf9kdI j 5o|b j ’wxl j 6I5 j o8+MwxoAo gvUo; j k de,trao j ;ymtpk (Genetique). ]adltot8k’M0v’r+c, j 4nd4 j kpmvfwxl j 6Ij 5o8j k’Mwfhco;.fL j !D xts;afdko7Qo7;hkmk’de,trao;ymtpk0v’m xts;afdko7Qo7;hkmk’de,trao;ymtpk0v’m xts;afdko7Qo7;hkmk’de,trao;ymtpk0v’m xts;afdko7Qo7;hkmk’de,trao;ymtpk0v’mjko,a’cf] ko,a’cf] jko,a’cf] ko,a’cf] mjko diud= ,a’cf] (Gregor Mendel !)@@{!))$? oad[;f7qo3v8iyf mujg,nv’[i6oF wfh7Qo7;hk]adltotln[g-Nv0v’-u;t-kfF ,a’cf]wfhgIafdkomqf]v’xtlq,raornf c]t laf 9eo;o|b’ g-a j oG 8Qo\kd4q j ;F zadF fvdw,hF lk]uF |6F gzY’ c]t vn j joMS c8dko7Qorq[mu j gxao j [kfdhk;le7ao.odkolbdlkdjP;da[dko4jkpmvf]adltmk’de,traooU wfhcdjdkomqf]v’ xtlq,rao\kd4q;paf X j Pisum sativum?D phvo,u7;k,Ih6rNo4kodP;da[dkoxtlq,raornf m j ko,a’cf]wfh7afg]nvdgvqkco; Xr+rao j c,rao? 4q j ;mu j gxaog-Nv Xrao? [=]yl5f Xraocmh?S raofa j ’dj k;wfh9kddkogvqk8Qo4q j ;c8 j ]trao,kx6d j c]h; xvp.sh,aoxtlq,]tvv’zh6gvqkgv’ 9kdoAo]=9qo,ao.shfvdF \kd c]h; 9b j ’7afg]nvdgvqk8Qo j mu,u]adltot7n r+c, j oewxxtlq,rao8+wx 3fp.-h;ymudko7nmevyf gIafc[[oU8+wxs^kpMI j 5o9qowfh j \kd4q;mu j gxaog-Nv[=]yl5fmu j ,u]adltot7nda[r+c, j vhvp8hvp X,u]adltot7ndao\qf?D j 0Ao8QomkowfhgIafdkoxtlq,rao-vf co;\kd4q j ;mu j c8d8 j k’daorP’c8 j ! ]adltot j Xdkoxtlq,-vf ! 7j6 ]adltot (Monohybridisme? g-ajoG 8Qol6’da[8Qo8jeS cdjodhP’da[ cdo-k c]t vn j oMS c]h;8+wx9b j ’7Qo7;hkdkoxtlq,-vf @ 7 j 6 ]adltot X j Dihybridisme? g-aoG j 8Qol6’cdodhP’ da[8Qo8 j eF cd j o-k c]t vn j oMD j ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

237 phvogsf.f mko,a’cf] 9b j ’g]nvdmqf]v’da[4q j ;paf X4q j ;]aog8qk?L j { 4q;-toyfoU,uvkp5lAoF x6d’ j kp c]t ,ufvds^kpD j { gxao4q;mu j ,us^kpraomu j ,u]adltotc8d8 j k’dao1 j k’9tc9h’ c]t g]nvdskrao[=]yl5fwfh’ j kpD j { fvd0v’,ao gxaofvdlq,[6ogrf c]t lk,kfxtlq,]tvv’zh6gvqkgv’.ofvdfP;dao wfh8k,me,t-kfF phvodkoxtdv[lhk’ryglf0v’fvdg-y’,u du[[ j ;’sh5,gvqkgdlvozh6 j c]t gdlvoc,F |hvpmu j l5f,ao9t4ndxtlq,-vfc[[xqogxdaoD j phvodkomqf]v’-Ewx-E,ks^kpMgmnv c]t gxaog;]ks^kpxu m j ko ,a’cf]9b j ’7Qorq[ j dqfgdorNo4ko0v’dkoln[g-NvD I6[Ik’ lu0v’goNv lu0v’gxnvd I6[I j k’ lu0v’ mu j 8A’0v’fvd 7;k,l6’ j 0v’cdo cd j o sh5,cd j jo 0v’\kd \kdvjvo 0v’]e8Qo dhP’ gs^nv’ cf’ dq, 0P; 16dhko l6’ j -k 0P; 0k; cx gsn^v’ 16jpvf g8hp I6[ $(D#D ]adltotc8d8k’dao0v’4q j ;pafmu j ,a’cf]oe,kmqf]v’ j I6[ $(D!D fvd4q;pafgsaofhko0hk’ j 4q;paf c]t \kd4q j j;paf I6[ $(D@D fvd4q;paf j 8af8k,];’pk;0v’ du[fvd gdlvozh6 gdlvoc,j dk[fvd Xdu[]hP’? ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

238 @D dkoxtlq,-vf ! 7 dkoxtlq,-vf ! 7 dkoxtlq,-vf ! 7 dkoxtlq,-vf ! 7j6 ]adltot 6 ]adltot j6 ]adltot j6 ]adltot 6 ]adltot (Monohybridisme) 8q;1k’G dkomqf]v’0v’,a’cf]D ,a’cf]xtlq,-vf4q j ;paf 8Qol6’ da[ 8Qog8hpD j dyf9tdeG oadIPo9q dyf9tdeG dyf9tdeG ’la’gdf c]t vtmy[kp I6[ $(D$D c]t I6[ $(D&D j 2vpxafgvqk]tvv’gdlvoz6h I6[ $(D$D I6[mko,a’cf] I6[ $(D&D ,a’cf]gIafdkoxtlq,-vf4q j ;paf j I6[ $(D *D czo;kfdkoxtlq,-vf4q;paf @ g-Nv[=]yl5fG 4q j ;8Qog8hp da[ 4q j ;8Qol6’ j 8Qol6’ 8Qog8hp Ij5or+c,j (P) Ij5o]6d (F1 ) Ij5os^ko (F2 ) ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

239 { I5or+c, j j (P) ,u]adltotco;.fL { vaf8kl;o ]ts; j k’ ]adltot8Qol6’ c]t 8Qog8hp .oI5 j o]6d j (F1 ) gxaogmqk.fL I5 j o]6d j (F1 ) ,u]adltot7n I5or+c, j j (P) ma’lv’/kp[+L j { vaf8klj;o ]ts;jk’ ]adltot8Qol6’ c]t 8Qog8hp .oI5jos^ko (F2 ) gxaogmqjk.fL ,u]adltot0v’ I5oj (P) ma’lv’/kp ,kxkdqfvvd1 j 6 I5 j os^ko j (F2 ) [+L ,a’cf]wfhgIafdkomqf]v’c[[oU-Ewx-E,ks^kpMgmnjv gxaog;]ks^kpxu c]t wfhIa[ zqo8k,vaf8kl;ogmq j kMdaom5dgmn j v fa j ’oAom j ko9b j ’wfhlhk’gxaodqfgdo g-y j ’gvUo; j k <dqfgdodkoln[ j g-Nv0v’,a’cf]< 9kddkomqf]v’faj’djk;oU ,a’cf]gvUo]adltotmujxkdqfvvd.oIj5omu ! g-ajoG 8Qol6’ gxao]adltotgfaoD l j ;o]adltotmu j [+xkdqfvvd.oI j 5o mu ! c8 j ,kxkdqfvvd16 j .oI j 5o mu @ g-a j oG j 8Qog8hpgvUo;k]adltot]a[D j g,nv,a’cf] oa[9eo;o]6d.oI j 5o mu @ j (F2 ) la’gdfgsao;kvaf8kl j ;o]ts; j k’]adltot j gfao c]t ]adltot]a[c, j oxt,ko # gfa j o 8+ ! ]a[D 8q;1 j k’G 8Qol6’ !W 8Qo c]t 8Qog8hp # 8Qo j fa’oAo dqfgdodkoln[g-Nv0v’,a’cf],ufa j ’oUG j T dqfgdomu !G dqfgdomu !Gdqfgdomu !G dkoxtlq,-vf @ g-Nv[=]yl5fc8d8jk’daofh;p ! s^n s^kp]adltotF ]adltotmujxkdqfvvd1j6Ij5o]6d (F1 ) ]h;oc8j7ndao\qfvkf7nr+ s^n 7nc,j c8jc,jo ]adltotgfaoD j T dqfgdomu @G dkoxtlq,-vf @ g-Nv[=]yl5fc8d8 dqfgdomu @G dqfgdomu @G jk’daofh;p ! s^n s^kp]adltot ]adltotmuxkdqfvvd1 j 6Ij 5os^ko j (F2 ) 9t,udkocpd]adltot8k,vaf8kl;o # gfa j o8+ j ! ]a[D gxaospa’9b’wfhIa[zqo7nco;oUL j ,a’cf] wfhvtmy[kpzqodkomqf]v’oU;k ly j ’,u-u;yf,usq;| j ;p7;[75,c8 j ]t]adltotmu j j lk,kf4jkpmvf9kdr+c,jwxpa’Ij5o8+wxwfhD sq;|j;p7;[75,]adltotoU,u1j6gxao7j6M1j6.o95]a’ Ijk’dkpD g,nvly j ’,u-u;yf lhk’95]a’ln[rao sq;| j ;pfa j ’dj k;9tcpdvvd9kddaowx1 j 6.o95]a’ln[rao j c8]tvao c]t 9t,kg0Qk7 j 6daovudgmn j v|b j ’.o95]a’xtlq,raoD | j ;p7;[75,]adltot8 j k’MoU8+,k j gvUo;k <c-o< j (Gene) g-y’,uma’c-omu j 7;[75, ]adltotgfa j o c]t c-omu j 7;[75, ]adltot]a[D j 3fpmq;wxc]h;c-o|b j ’Mxtdv[fh;p @ vkc]] c8 j .o8q;9y’ [k’d=]tou9t,us^kpd; j k @ c-o j d=,u 8q;1k’G c-omu j d;fdkluzy;0v’7qogIqkxtdv[fh;ps^kpvkc]] j (Poly allele). ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

240 oadde,trao.-hlaopt]adgrnvltf;d.odko7yfw] j lt4y8yg-a j oG j xtlq,-vf \kpg4y’dkoxtlq,rao16.olkpraofP;dao c8 j ]adltotdq’dao0hk,daoD j x \kpg4y’ xtlq,rao P \kpg4y’ I5or+c, j j c[[c-o sn^ g-3o8u[ XGenotype? \kpg4y’ [aofkc-o16gmy’37i3,3-,7 j 67ndao s^n 8 j k’dao j g-y’ltcf’fh;p [aofkvkc]]D j 8q;vadlvo s^n laopt]adcmoc-o c8j]tc-o 3fp.-hvadlvory,8q;.spj muj7;[75, ]adltotgfao c]t vadlvory,8q;ohvpcmoc-omu j 7;[75,]adltot]a[D j 8q;1k’G j vadlvo T cmoc-o mudeoqf8Qol6’ gxao]adltotgfa j oD j vadlvo t cmoc-o mudeoqf8Qog8hp gxao]adltot]a[D j 9kdlaopt]adcmoc-o mudeoqf]adltot8Qol6’ c]t 8Qog8hp gIqklk,kf0Poczo;kf j ltcf’c-omu7;[75,]adltot c]t zqo0v’dko4 j kpmvf]adltotln[g-Nv.odkoxtlq,rao]t j s;k’4q j ;8Qol6’da[4q j ;8Qog8hp .oI5 j jo P. F1 c]t F2 oadIPo9q’0Po8n j ,.l j j[jvo9EMfa’8+wxoUD j 8Qol6’ 8Qog8hp Ij5o0v’ PG XTT? V Xtt? F1 : ..... ….. ….. ….. c[[c-o0v’ F1 : (.....) c[[I6[0v’ F1 : [……] l6’\qfm5d8Qo s^n l6’ 100% .oI5omu ! XI j 5o]6d? g,n j v c-o j T mu7;[75,]adltot8Qol6’g-y j ’gxao]adltotgfa j o g0Qk76 j da[j c-o t mu7;[75,]adltot8Qog8hpg-y j ’gxao]adltot]a[ ]adltotmu j xkdqf.shgsao9tgxao ]adltotgfa j jo \qf X8Qol6’7ndao\qf?D g,nvoeI5 j omu ! XI j 5o]6d? wxx6d8+ c]t x j vp.shxtlq,]tvv’zh6gvqkgv’9twfhIa[zqofa j ’czo j ;kf8+wxoUD F1 \kpg4y’ I5o]6d j F2 \kpg4y’ I5os^ko j F3 \kpg4y’ I5ogsa^o j c[[I6[ sn^ g23o8u[ (Phenotype) \kpg4y’ ]adltotmuxkdqfvvd.shgsaoD j 95]a’ln[raoG DDD DDD DDD DDD ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

241 F1 x F1 8Qol6’ x 8Qol6’ (Tt ) x (Tt) 95]a’ln[raoG F2 : ..... ….. ….. ….. c[[I6[G [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] c[[c-o,u DDDDDDDDDDD c[[G vaf8kl;oDDDDDDDDDDD XDDDDDDDDDD?F XDDDDDDDDD?F XDDDDDDDDDD? j c[[I6[,u DDDDDDDDDDD c[[G vaf8kl;oDDDDDDDDDDD j [DDDDDDDDD]F [DDDDDDDDD] lq,mP[zqodkomqf]v’0v’,a’cf] mugsaoc8 j ]adltotmk’ovd Xc[[I6[ sn^ g23o8u[? j da[dko7yfw] c[[c-ooU oadIPo9tlts^5[wfhco;.f L j 9kddko7Qo7;hk0v’,a’cf]gIaf.shgIqkI6h;k ly j ’,u-u;yf,uc-ogIaf|hkmu j deoqf]adltot j 8jk’Mg-aoG 7;k,l6’F luzy;F luzq,c8 j ,a’cf][+Ih6; j k c-o1 j 6rkdl j ;o.f.o95]a’0v’ly j ’,u-u;yf c]t j ,udqowddko4kpmvf]adltotco;.fD j 7e4k,G !D 9’.shoypk,7ela[fa jq ’8+wxoUG g-Nv[=]yl5fF g-Nv-vfF ]adltotgfa j oF ]adltot]a[F dkoxtlq, j ]tvv’zh6gvqkgv’D @D c,jospa’mujgxaosq;|j;p7;[75,c8j]t]adltotmujlk,kf4jkpmvf9kdr+c,jwxpa’ Ij5o8+M wxwfhL gryoxtlq,-vf @ g-Nv[=]yl5f 1 j 6Ij 5o j P G \kd4q; cd j odhP’ da[ cd j o-k 9kdoAogry j oxj vp.sh j F1 xtlq,]tvv’ zh6gvqkgv’D 4k,;k zqowfhIa[.oI j 5o j F2 9t,uc[[I6[ c]t c[[c-o .ovaf8kl;o7nco;.fL j N N N N DDD DDD DDD DDD ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

242 [qfmu $) [qfmu $)[qfmu $) c-o c]t dko7;[75,dkoltcf’vvd0v’c-o c-o c]t dko7;[75,dkoltcf’vvd0v’c-o !D vk-yf o6gdivyd vk-yf o6gdivyd vk-yf o6gdivyd (Nucleic acid) vk-yf o6gdivyd gxaomkfxtlq,vq’7tmkf muj,u7;k,le7ao8+lyj’muj,u-u;yf7nG gxaomkf de,trao X;af45ln[g-Nv? 0v’95]a’F ,u|hkmu7;[75,dkola’g7kt 3xi8yo c]t 0t[;odko8 j k’M j 0v’ly’mu j ,u-u;yfD j vk-yfo6gdivyd,u @ -toyf7nG vk-yfgfvqd-uiu3[o6gdivyd (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid) sn^ fugvogv (DNA) c]t vk-yfiu3[o6gdivyd (Ribonucleic Acid ) sn^ RNA . fugvogv rq[.o 37i3,3-,0v’lyj’muj,u-u;yfF gxaocsj^’0=h,6ode,traomuj9egxao8+dkola’g7kt3xi8yo RNA gIaf|hkmu.odko4vf]tsaf9kd j RNA c]h;g7nvomu j g0Qk,ksk,kf95]a’ c]t la’g7kt3xi8yoD j lj;oxtdv[rNo4ko0v’vk-yf o6gdivyd ;oxtdv[rNo4ko0v’vk-yf o6gdivyd 3,g]d5o0v’vk-yfo6gdivyd xtdv[lhk’,k9kdsq;|;p37’lhk’mu j gvUo; j kG o6gdi3v8yf j XNucleotide? g-y’ltcf’gxaork[];,fa j ’oUG j @D c-o XGene? c-o c,ospa’L rq[16 j .l L ,ao,u|hkmu j co;.fL j dyf9tde !G lbdlkI6[ $)D! c-omu dyf9tde !G dyf9tde !G 7;[75,[aofkvk,yo3ovk-yf j o6gdi3v8yf = ou38ic-o g[l T oE8kogro38l T vk-yf2qflt2=iyd I6[ $)D! c-omu7;[75,[aofk vk,uo3ovk-yf j 37i3,3-, DNA 3,g]d5o3xi8yo c-o c-o his leu glu arg his leu { Iyl8ufyo (Histidine-His) { ]5p-yo (Leucine-Leu) { vkduoyo (Arginine-Arg) { d]68k,yo (Glutamine-Glu) ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

243 c-o c,o|j ;p7;[75,]adltotmk’de,trao0v’ly j ’mu j ,u-u;yfD c-o gxaol j ;o|b j ’0v’ j fugvogv ,u7;k,lk,kf.odko7;[75, .sh95]a’I5o]6ds^ko ,uI6[I j k’]adltot c]t |hkmu j j8jk’M 7ndaoda[95]a’0v’r+c,jF xtdqfdkomuj]6ds^ko7nda[ r+c, gvUo; j jk de,traoD faj’oAoF fugvogv 3,g]d5o|b’9t,uc-os^kpd; j k ! c-o 0BowxD j fugvogv3,g]d5o|b’ xP[g\nvo]qfw27ao|b j ’ mu j [ao9586h]qfw2s^kpM86hg-y j ’c8 j ]t86h9t[ao95 j lyo7hk sn^ z6h3fplko8k’daoD 86h]qfw2c8 j ]t86h xP[g\nvoc-o l j ;o]qfw2 xP[g\nvo fugvogvD j fugvogv ,u37’lhk’xtdv[fh;plv’lkpg-y’,u]adltot[yfgxaodP;D c8 j j]t3,g]d5o 0v’fugvogv xtdv[fh;ps^kpc-oD c-oc,jo8vo|bj’0v’lkpfjP;fugvogvg-yj’rq[16j.o cdo95]a’D j c-o,u|hkmujle7ao.o0t[;odkola’g7kt3xi8yoD 3xi8yo c,jomkfvq’7tmkf -toyf|b’mu j gxaol j ;oxtdv[lhk’8Qo8=0v’95]a’ s^n I j k’dkp,u-u;yfD ,ao,u[qf[kfle7ao vao.sp j s^;’ j g0Qk.odkog7njvows;0v’95]a’ c]t deoqfI6[Ijk’]adltot8jk’M0v’Ijk’dkpg-ajoG luzq,F \;fg]nvfF I6[Ik’]adltot0v’95]a’g]nvfF .[s6F Iu,lq[ c]t vn j oMD j #D dko7;[75,dkoltcf’vvd0v’c-o dko7;[75,dkoltcf’vvd0v’c-o dyf9tde !G lbdlk]adltotrkpovd0v’7qogIqk dyf9tde !G lbdlk]adltotrkpovd0v’7qogIqk ! @ # I6[ $)D@ ]adltot8k’M0v’7qo j { 9q’la’gdfI6[8+wxoU; j k,u ]adltotltcf’ j vvdco;.fL phvospa’L ,to5fm5d7qo16jgmy’3]dgIqkoU9af1j6.o-toyf fP;dao g-y’,u]adltot];,7ndao g-a j oG ,uzq,F 8kF j fa’F Iu,lq[F c0h;F \;fg]nvf c]t vnoMF c8 j d=,u j ]adltot[k’1k’c8d8 j k’dao g-a j oG 8ksy[F 8k[+ j sy[S 7Y;dqj’F 7Y;g9uf c]t vnoMF l j ;olaf s^n rnfd= j g-aofP;daoda[7qo mu j la’daf1 j 6.o-toyffP;daoD j 3fpmq;wxc]h;gIqkla’gdfgsao; j kc8 j ]t7qo,u j ]adltotc8d8k’daoD 8q;1 j k’G [k’7qo ,u zq,lufeF j lumv’DDD zq,-n s^n d6fF \;fg]nvfgv X j A? s^n 3v XO) s^n gv[u XAB?D ]adltotma’\qffa’dj k; oUc, j ophvo j c-ogxao zh6deoqf c]t gIaf.shIk’dkpgIaf|hkmu j j wfhgxaoxqddt8yD ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ

244 dyf9tde @G lbdlk]adltotlu0v’0qo|6D dyf9tde @G lbdlk]adltotlu0v’0qo|6D dyf9tde @G lbdlk]adltotlu0v’0qo|6D 0qo|6,ulu.fcfL c8 j ]tludeoqffh;pvkoc]].f.oc-ofa j ’dj k;L vkoc]]mu j deoqflu j 0qo|6,u[vo16 j co;.fmP[da[37i3,3-,7ndaoL j I6[ $)D $ dkoxPocx’]adltot0v’zq, j I6[ $)D# vkc]]mudeoqf]adltot0v’lu0qo j 0qolufe 0qo lu0k; [jvo160v’c-omu j 7;[75,]adltotlu j 0v’0qo0v’|6 c[[c-o XNb? 8jk’95]a’xtlq,grf vkoc]]0qolufe N vkoc]]0qolu0k; b b vkoc]]0qolu0k; b c[[c-o Xbb? 8jk’95]a’xtlq,grf gIqklk,kflts^5[wfhco;.fL gIqklk,kflts^5[wfh;k ]adltotlu0qo|6c, j o4nddeoqffh;pc-oD lu8 j k’daoc, j o4nddeoqf j fh;pvkoc]]8k’dao g-y j ’[aofkvkoc]]fa j ’dj k;,u[ j vo1 j 6dq’dao.o37i3,3-,7 j 67ndaoD j $D dkorq;rao]ts; dkorq;rao]ts; dkorq;rao]ts; dkorq;rao]ts;jk’c-oda[ly k’c-oda[ly j k’c-oda[ly k’c-oda[ly k’c-oda[lyj’c;f]hv, ’c;f]hv, j’c;f]hv, ’c;f]hv, dyf9tdeG dyf9tde lbdlkdkox lbdlkdkox lbdlkdkox lbdlkdkoxjPocx’7;k,pk;0v’zq, XI6[ $)D$? c]t ]adltot Pocx’7;k,pk;0v’zq, XI6[ $)D$? c]t ]adltot jPocx’7;k,pk;0v’zq, XI6[ $)D$? c]t ]adltot Pocx’7;k,pk;0v’zq, XI6[ $)D$? c]t ]adltot sq;]hko XI6[ $)D&? sq;]hko XI6[ $)D&? sq;]hko XI6[ $)D&? { phvospa’zh6mu,uzq,pk; 9b j ’dkpgxaozq,lAoL j ສະຫງວນລຂ ິ ະສດ ິ ສ.ວ.ສ