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DK LONDON CONTENTS

Project editor Lizzie Davey Science and
Senior art editor Mabel Chan technology

Editors 10 The Universe
Ann Baggaley, Vanessa Daubney, Sarah Macleod, 12 The planets
Catherine Saunders, Rona Skene, Sarah Tomley 14 The Moon
16 Space exploration
Designers 18 Stargazing
Laura Brim, Alison Gardner, Mik Gates, Tessa Jordens, 20 Northern skies
22 Southern skies
Steve Woosnam-Savage 24 Physics
26 Electricity
Managing editor Paula Regan 28 Chemistry
Managing art editor Owen Peyton Jones 30 The elements
Jacket design development manager Sophia MTT 32 Biology
Producer, pre-production Nikoleta Parasaki 34 The human body
36 Skeleton
Producer Mary Slater 38 Muscles
Publisher Andrew Macintyre 40 The brain
Associate publishing director Liz Wheeler 42 Computers
44 Inventions
Art director Karen Self 46 Numbers
Publishing director Jonathan Metcalf 48 Geometry
50 Cars
Consultants 52 Tractors
Alexandra Black, Kim Bryan, Giles Chapman, Sheila Dickle, 54 Trucks and diggers
Robert Dinwiddie, Richard Gilbert, Sawako Irie, Philip Parker, 56 Trains
Penny Preston, Carole Stott, Tony Streeter, Marcus Weeks, 58 Motorbikes
60 Aircraft
Philip Whiteman, Chris Woodford, John Woodward 62 The story of flight
64 Bicycles
DK DELHI

Project editor Rupa Rao
Project art editor Mahipal Singh

Editors
Deeksha Saikia, Sonam Mathur, Agnibesh Das

Art editors
Amit Varma, Vikas Chauhan, Ranjita Bhattacharji

Senior DTP designers Shanker Prasad, Harish Aggarwal
DTP designers Nityanand Kumar, Rajesh Singh Adhikari

Picture researcher Nishwan Rasool
Jacket designers Suhita Dharamjit, Dhirendra Singh

Managing jackets editor Saloni Talwar
Managing editor Kingshuk Ghoshal
Managing art editor Govind Mittal

Pre-production manager Balwant Singh
Production manager Pankaj Sharma

First published in Great Britain in 2015
by Dorling Kindersley Limited, 80 Strand, London WC2R 0RL

Copyright © 2015 Dorling Kindersley Limited, London
A Penguin Random House Company

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

001 – 197156 – Oct/15

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may
be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted

in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the
prior written permission of the copyright owner.

A CIP catalogue record for this book is available
from the British Library.

ISBN 978-0-2411-8698-5

Printed and bound in Hong Kong by Hung Hing Printing Group

Discover more at

Nature 118 Birds of prey
120 Feathers
68 Tree of life 122 Animal journeys
70 How life began 124 Rodents
72 Fossils 126 Monkeys and apes
74 Plant-eating dinosaurs 128 Wild cats
76 Meat-eating dinosaurs 130 Whales and dolphins
78 Prehistoric animals 132 Animal skeletons
80 Plants 134 Dogs
82 Flowers 136 Cats
84 Trees 138 Horses
86 Mushrooms 140 Farm animals
88 Spiders and scorpions 142 Forest
90 Crustaceans 144 Rainforest
92 Insects 146 Savanna
94 Butterflies and moths 148 Deserts
96 Slugs and snails 150 Polar habitats
98 Fish 152 Ocean
100 Sharks 154 Coral reef
102 Seashells
104 Amphibians
106 Turtles and tortoises
108 Lizards
110 Snakes
112 Crocodiles and alligators
114 Eggs
116 Birds

Geography Culture

158 Earth 202 World religions
160 Volcanoes 204 World celebrations
162 Earthquakes 206 World languages
164 Shaping the land 208 The story of art
166 Rocks and minerals 210 Musical instruments
168 Gems 212 How music works
170 Water on Earth 214 Dance
172 Climate and weather 216 Ballet
174 Extreme weather 218 Great buildings
176 Environment in danger 220 Great books
178 Our physical world 222 Great thinkers
180 Our political world 224 Food around the world
182 Asia 226 Fruit
184 North America 228 Vegetables
186 South America 230 Cheese
188 Europe 232 Bread
190 Africa 234 Pasta
192 Oceania 236 Fish for food
194 Antarctica 238 Meat
196 Flags 240 Men’s fashion
198 Where food comes from 242 Women’s fashion

Sports and History
hobbies
284 The first humans
246 Ball sports 286 Early civilizations
248 Football 288 Ancient Egypt
250 American football 290 Ancient Greece
252 Baseball 292 Greek myths
254 Basketball 294 Ancient Rome
256 Racket sports 296 The Vikings
258 Tennis 298 Ancient Americas
260 Athletics 300 The Ottoman Empire
262 Winter sports 302 The Mughal Empire
264 Cycling 304 Imperial Japan
266 Water sports 306 Imperial China
268 Sailing 308 Medieval Europe
270 Fishing 310 Castles
272 Combat sports 312 The Renaissance
274 Knots 314 Exploration
276 Games 316 Revolutions
278 Magic 318 US Presidents
280 Horse riding 320 US Civil War
322 European empires
324 British monarchs
326 The Industrial Revolution
328 World War I
330 World War II
332 The Cold War
334 Spies

336 Index



Science and
technology

The Universe THE BIG BANG The Universe
begins, 13.8
The Universe is everything that exists – all of space, matter, Before the Big Bang, the entire
energy, and time. It is a huge wide-open space with billions Universe was inside a bubble that billion years ago
of galaxies, each containing billions of stars, and yet it is at was smaller than a piece of dust.
least 99.99 per cent empty space. It has been expanding It was extremely hot and dense,
constantly since its beginning 13.8 billion years ago, when and it suddenly exploded. In less
it exploded into life with the “Big Bang”. than a second, the Universe
became bigger than a galaxy. It
carried on growing and cooling,
and pure energy became matter.
During the billions of years that
followed, stars, planets, and
galaxies formed to create the
Universe as we know it.

Energy turns
into matter

UNIVERSE SUPERCLUSTER LOCAL GROUP
The Universe is ever-expanding. It is full of dark energy, dark Superclusters are one of the largest known structures The Local Group is a cluster of about 50 galaxies inside
matter, and other matter such as superclusters of galaxies.
in the Universe, made up of galaxy clusters. the Virgo Supercluster that includes the Milky Way.

GALAXIES NEBULAE STARS

Galaxies are huge groups of stars, and they can be seen Nebulae are the “nurseries” of the Universe – they Stars are classified into different types depending on their
in the night sky using a telescope. They come in lots of are huge clouds of gas and dust in which stars temperature and brightness. Scientists use the Hertzsprung-
different shapes, and most of them are thought to have form. They may be trillions of kilometres wide and Russell graph (shown below) to compare the size, temperature,
a massive black hole at their centre. many have amazing shapes and colours. and brightness of individual stars.

Blue supergiant Yellow giant

BRIGHTER

White giant

SPIRAL BARRED SPIRAL Red giant Red
supergiant

TARANTULA NEBULA ROSETTE NEBULA Red
dwarf

MAIN SEQUENCE
STARS

ELLIPTICAL IRREGULAR DIMMER

WOAGUYAR L–GAAIOSXLRYAAPWXBAYARITRT–HRTAEHFRDIEMVSMESPFIIRLUKALYLL HOTTER COOLER

EAGLE NEBULA N90 STAR TYPES
Most of the stars, including our Sun, are found along a part of the
graph called the Main Sequence. As they age, these become giants

or supergiants, and then dwarfs or supernovas.

10

Atoms Stars form WHAT MAKES UP 23%
form THE UNIVERSE? DARK MATTER
This invisible matter
The Universe contains matter
and energy. Matter is generally has a strong
physical “stuff” that can be gravitational pull
seen, like the planets, but
galaxies also contain invisible 5%
matter called “dark matter”. MATTER
This does not give off light
or heat and so can be detected 72%
only by the effects of its gravity DARK ENERGY
on visible objects. Between and An unknowable energy
beyond both types of matter is force that accounts for
“dark energy”, a mysterious most of the Universe
thing that scientists know
almost nothing about.

First galaxies Rate of expansion THE SCALE OF THE UNIVERSE
increases
The Universe is so vast that it is hard to appreciate
its size. This series of pictures “zooms in” on the
Universe, to show how our Solar System and
planet relate to the rest of the Universe. Space is
so huge that astronomers use the speed of light
to measure distances. One light year is the distance
light travels in a year, which is nearly 10 trillion km
(6 trillion miles).

MILKY WAY GALAXY STELLAR NEIGHBOURHOOD SOLAR SYSTEM EARTH AND MOON
The Milky Way has a spiral shape and holds around Our Solar System is on one of the Milky Way’s spiral The Sun sits at the centre of our Solar System, Earth is one of the planets orbiting the

200 billion stars within its gravitational pull. arms, 27,000 light years from the galaxy’s centre. and eight major planets orbit it. Sun, and the Moon orbits Earth.

BLACK HOLES DWARF COMETS
PLANETS
A black hole is a region of Comets are small,
space where matter has Large planets have enough icy worlds that orbit
collapsed in on itself. This self-gravity to make them the Sun. They are
means there is nothing to form into a round shape as made of frozen
be seen, but astronomers they move through space. gases, rock, and
know black holes exist Smaller planets that dust. As they orbit
because they have such cannot do this, but do orbit the Sun, jets of gas
a strong gravitational pull the Sun, are called “dwarf and dust vaporize
that nothing can escape planets”. Pluto is one of behind them to
them – not even light. the largest dwarf planets create long “tails”
in our solar system. visible in space.

ARTIST’S IDEA OF A BLACK HOLE PLUTO COMET

PLANETS MOONS ASTEROIDS

Planets are large, A moon is a rocky body Asteroids are small rocky bodies that orbit the
spherical objects that that orbits a planet. Sun. There are millions of them in space, and
orbit a star. In our Solar Some planets have they are mainly made of materials that were
System, there are eight many moons but left over from the formation of planets.
planets: Mercury, Earth has only
Venus, Earth, Mars, one. Moons are
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, also known as
and Neptune. Planets natural satellites.
that occur outside our
Solar System are
known as exoplanets.

EARTH EARTH’S MOON EROS, A NAMED ASTEROID

11

THE SUN The planets

The Sun is the hottest and largest Around 4.6 billion years ago, a great cloud of dust
object in our Solar System. Its fiery and gas formed into the Sun. The parts that were
surface bathes the planets around not used began to form into clumps, which grew
it in light, and its gravity shapes their into planets orbiting the Sun. The four planets
orbits. The Sun is now about halfway closest to the Sun formed from rock and metal.
through its life. In about 5 billion years it will The four bigger outer planets formed from gases.
turn into a red giant, before puffing its outer
layers into space, leaving behind only a ghostly
cloud called a planetary nebula.

THE SUN IS SO HUGE
THAT EARTH COULD
FIT INSIDE IT ONE
MILLION TIMES

MERCURY VENUS

Mercury is the nearest planet to the Sun Venus is the second planet from the Sun. It is
and the smallest in the Solar System – it about the same size as Earth and made from
is about as wide as the Atlantic Ocean. similar materials, but its atmosphere is made
Mercury is a rocky world that has no of carbon dioxide – the gas that we breathe out.
atmosphere or water.

BRAHMS CRATER MAAT MONS
Mercury is covered in Venus has more than 1,600
craters made by debris
crashing into its surface. volcanoes, the highest of
which is Maat Mons.

MERCURY VENUS
ROCKY PLANET
ROCKY PLANET DISTANCE FROM THE SUN:
108.9 million km
DISTANCE FROM THE (67.6 million miles)
SUN: 69.8 million km DIAMETER: 12,104 km
(43.3 million miles) (7,520 miles)
TIME TAKEN TO ORBIT
DIAMETER: 4,879 km THE SUN: 224.7 Earth days
(3,030 miles) NUMBER OF MOONS: 0

TIME TAKEN TO ORBIT RINGS OF SATURN
THE SUN: 87.97 Earth days Saturn’s rings are
made up of ice crystals
NUMBER OF MOONS: 0
and rock.
JUPITER SATURN

Jupiter is the largest planet in the Solar System – The second-largest planet in the Solar System, Saturn
it could hold around 1,300 Earths. It is a giant is not dense – it would float in a planetary-sized
ball of gas ringed by colourful bands of chemical bathtub. It is surrounded by a system of rings that
gases that race around it as fierce winds. extend thousands of kilometres from the planet but
are only 9 m (30 ft) thick.

GREAT RED SPOT

This is a giant storm
several times bigger than

Earth, which has been
raging for 300 years.

JUPITER SATURN

GAS GIANT GAS GIANT

DISTANCE FROM THE SUN: DISTANCE FROM
816 million km (507 million miles) THE SUN: 1.5 billion km
(932 million miles)
DIAMETER: 142,984 km
(88,845 miles) DIAMETER: 120,536 km
(74,900 miles)
TIME TAKEN TO ORBIT THE SUN:
11.86 Earth years TIME TAKEN TO ORBIT
THE SUN: 29.46 Earth years
NUMBER OF MOONS: 67+
NUMBER OF MOONS: 62+

DISTANCE FROM THE SUN

The distances between the planets are huge, becoming bigger
as we move out through the Solar System. If the Sun were the
size of a grapefruit, Neptune would be 14.5 km (9 miles) away.
MERCURY
VENUS
EARTH
MARS

SATURN

SUN 500 million km (311 million miles) JUPITER 1,000 million km (621 million miles) 2,000 million km (1,243 million miles)

12

ORBITS PLANET SIZES

All of the planets orbit the Sun anticlockwise, in an elliptical, or oval The four rocky planets nearest to the Sun are much smaller
pattern. This means they are closer to the Sun at some points in their than the gas giants. The Sun dwarfs them all, but is itself
orbits than others. They are trapped by the Sun’s gravity and will much smaller than other stars in the Universe.
stay in the same plane of orbit for ever.

Venus Mars Sun Mercury Earth Jupiter
Saturn

THE SUN

PLANETS AROUND THE SUN Uranus MERCURY MARS VENUS EARTH NEPTUNE URANUS SATURN JUPITER
Neptune
EARTH
MARS
Earth moves around the Sun at 30 km per
second (18.6 miles per second) and takes 365 The planet Mars is red, because its surface is
days to orbit it completely. It is the only planet covered in iron-rich dust and rock. It is about half the
known to have life on it. size of Earth and has both the highest mountain and
the deepest valley of any planet in the Solar System.

HIMALAYAS OLYMPUS MONS
This mountain range was This mountain on Mars is about
formed on Earth around three times as tall as Earth’s Mount

70 million years ago. Everest. It is also volcanic.

EARTH MARS
ROCKY PLANET
ROCKY PLANET DISTANCE FROM THE SUN:
DISTANCE FROM THE SUN: 152.6 816 million km (507 million miles)
million km (94.5 million miles) DIAMETER: 6,780 km
DIAMETER: 12,756 km (7,926 miles) (4,213 miles)
TIME TAKEN TO ORBIT TIME TAKEN TO ORBIT
THE SUN: 365.26 Earth days THE SUN: 687 Earth days
NUMBER OF MOONS: 1 NUMBER OF MOONS: 2

URANUS NEPTUNE GREAT DARK SPOT
This storm, which has now
Methane in Uranus’s atmosphere gives Neptune is the furthest planet from the Sun, dispersed, was large enough
it a rich blue colour. This planet is often so it gets little sunlight to warm its atmosphere. to contain Earth, and moved
called the ”ice giant“ because 80 per cent Its vivid blue colour is due to methane and an at 1,200 km/h (750 mph).
unknown compound. Neptune
of it is made up of frozen methane, has the fastest winds in NEPTUNE
water, and ammonia. the Solar System. GAS GIANT
DISTANCE FROM THE SUN:
RINGS 4.5 billion km (2.8 billion miles)
Uranus has very faint DIAMETER: 49,528 km (30,775 miles)
rings compared to the TIME TAKEN TO ORBIT
THE SUN: 168.4 Earth years
other gas giants. NUMBER OF MOONS: 14

URANUS

GAS GIANT
DISTANCE FROM THE SUN:
3 billion km (1.86 billion miles)
DIAMETER: 51,118 km (31,760 miles)
TIME TAKEN TO ORBIT
THE SUN: 84.3 Earth years
NUMBER OF MOONS: 27

URANUS
NEPTUNE

3,000 million km (1,864 million miles) 4,500 million km (2,796 million miles)

13

The Moon HOW THE MOON FORMED

Always in orbit around Earth, the Moon is There are many theories about how the Moon came into existence. Scientists
known as Earth’s satellite. It provides Earth with think the most likely explanation is that something collided with Earth, sending
light during the night, though it has no light of debris into space that eventually formed the Moon.
its own – it merely reflects the Sun’s light, like a
mirror. It is the closest object to Earth in space, 1 IMPACT 2 MOON FORMATION
and we can see its cratered surface even with A giant astronomical object hit the Earth’s gravity pulled the debris
the naked eye.
primitive molten Earth. The object was into orbit, and the fragments collided

absorbed, but debris shot into space. and clumped together, forming the Moon.

INTERNAL Outer mantle Solid ORBITING EARTH
STRUCTURE inner core
The Moon takes 27.3 days to orbit Earth, and
The Moon is made up of Crust the same amount of time to spin on its axis. We
several layers: it has a crust, see some, all, or none of the Moon, depending
mantle, and a solid inner core on how much of its sunlit side faces Earth.
surrounded by a hot and fluid
outer core. There are regular Moon’s axis Earth’s axis
“moonquakes”, which last up
to ten minutes. Earth’s
equator
Heat from radioactive
elements has partially Moon orbits Earth
melted the inner mantle in 27.3 Earth days

Inner mantle

Fluid
outer core

CRATERS FAR SIDE AND NEAR SIDE

The Moon is rocky and pockmarked with craters formed by asteroids crashing The near side of the Moon is the side that Lacus
always faces Earth, because it Luxuriae
into its surface billions of years ago. The biggest craters are called “maria”, or takes the same amount of
time to rotate on its NEAR SIDE
seas. They are very flat because they were filled with volcanic lava that welled axis as it does The near side is divided
to orbit Earth. into two areas: the Lunar
up from inside the Moon and then solidified. In this Moon map, the near side is
Mare Highlands and maria.
on the left and the far side is on the right. Moscoviense

Mare Mare Mare Ingenii
Humboldtianum Moscoviense
(Sea of Humboldt) (Sea of FAR SIDE
Moscow) This side of the Moon

Mendeleev has a thicker crust,
Crater more highlands, and

Mare fewer maria (seas).
Serenitatis

(Sea of
Serenity)

Mare
Crisium
(Sea of
Crises)

Mare HOW CRATERS FORM
Nectaris
When the Moon was young it was bombarded by asteroids – rocky pieces left over
(Sea of from the planet-making process. They blasted away the Moon’s surface, forming
Nectar) craters, circular hollows about 10–15 times the size of the impacting asteroid.

Crater Gagarin
+8 km Crater

–8 km Elevation relative Mare Tsiolkovsky 1 INCOMING 2 INITIAL IMPACT 3 SHOCK WAVE 4 CRATER
to “sea level” Fecunditatis Crater SPACE ROCK The object On impact, the Some of the
14 (Sea of Fertility)
Mare Smithyii (Sea of Smyth) Schrödinger There is no strikes the ground object melts and rock vapour (ejecta
Crater

atmosphere to faster than the vaporizes, spewing flow) settles in and

protect the Moon speed of sound, hot rock vapour around the large hole

from flying objects. breaking the crust. over a huge area. that is the crater.

PHASES OF THE MOON KNWOOWEF ANTLHAWESAMTYOHSOESN“ENEFERTAOHRMESSEIADAMER”TEOHFFA–TCIHTE EISMOON

The Moon seems to get larger and smaller in the sky, but this illusion is caused by the fact
that we can only see the face of the Moon that faces Earth. One half of the Moon is always
bathed in sunlight, but most of the time only part of the sunlit area is visible from Earth.

WAXING CRESCENT FIRST QUARTER WAXING GIBBOUS FULL MOON WANING GIBBOUS LAST QUARTER WANING CRESCENT NEW MOON

Only a thin sliver The sunlit portion The sunlit part A full side of the Moon Turning away from Rising only around This marks the The lit half of the
of the sunlit part of increases to show increases – now more is now visible. This is Earth again, the lit-up midnight, this half-lit near completion of Moon is completely
the Moon is seen half of the Moon’s than half of the Moon halfway through the section of the Moon hidden from Earth
hemisphere lit up. Moon is brightest the Moon’s orbit
from Earth. is visible in the sky. lunar month. begins to decrease. at dawn. around Earth. at this point.

Darker areas JOURNEY TO THE MOON 7. Third crew member continues
are “maria” – to orbit the Moon in CSM
smooth, low- On 16 July 1969, three astronauts began a journey into space
lying areas to land on the Moon. Their spacecraft was Apollo 11, which 8. Ascent stage of Lunar
(like seas was launched into space by the three-stage Saturn V rocket. Module takes astronauts
without water) It delivered the astronauts on to the Moon in a Lunar Module. back to CSM, after which
it is discarded

12. Command Module 5. Apollo craft
makes a parachute adjusts its course
landing in the sea to go into lunar orbit

11. Command Module
enters Earth’s atmosphere

10. Service Module
is jettisoned

4. CSM turns and 9. CSM adjusts its
docks with Lunar course and heads
Module. Third rocket back to Earth
stage is now discarded

1. Saturn V rocket 6. Lunar Module
carrying Apollo craft transports two
blasts off and positions astronauts to
craft in Earth’s orbit lunar surface

2. The rocket’s third stage and 3. Combined Command
Apollo craft leave Earth’s orbit and Service Module
and head towards the Moon (CSM) separates from
the rocket

The Lunar MEN ON THE MOON
Highlands are
hilly regions In 1972 the crew of Apollo 17 landed
with lots on the Moon and stayed there for three
of craters days. They completed three successful
excursions to examine craters and the
Taurus Mountains.

ASTRONAUT EUGENE CERNAN ON
THE LUNAR ROVING VEHICLE, 1972

TRUE OR FALSE? ALIENS INHABIT THE MOON MOON MISSIONS AGENCY SUCCESSFUL MISSIONS
Samples of the Moon taken by NASA (USA) 27
People have had theories about astronauts show no trace of In the second half of the 20th century,
the Moon since they first looked other life, past or present. there was a “Space Race” between the RFSA (USSR/RUSSIA) 20
up at the skies in ancient times. USA and the Soviet Union (USSR) to
Modern science has helped us YOU WEIGH LESS ON THE MOON launch crafts, satellites, and people into CNSA (CHINA) 3
work out which Moon myths are “Weight” depends on the pull space. In 1959 the USSR landed a space JAXA (JAPAN) 2
true and which are false. between two gravitational forces. probe on the Moon, and in 1969 the USA
The Moon’s gravity is less than landed people on the Moon. Since then, ESA (EUROPE) 1
FULL MOON CAUSES LUNACY Earth’s, so you would weigh less. other countries have sent spacecraft to
Research by scientists has proved find out more about the Moon. ISRO (INDIA) 1
there is no link between madness THE MOON IS DRIFTING
and the full moon. AWAY FROM EARTH MMTAHONEOLNLAAWNSTDAESTDIIMNOEN1A9T7H2 E
The Moon is moving away from
MOON AFFECTS THE us by 3.8 cm (1.5 in) per year.
OCEAN TIDES
The Moon’s gravity does affect THE MOON HAS A DARK SIDE
the tides of waters on Earth. The Moon spins on its axis, so
every part of it is exposed to the
Sun at some point during rotation.

15

Space MISSIONS TO SPACE MISSIONS TO THE MOON
exploration NUMBER OF MISSIONS SENT: 100+
Space missions have landed people on the Moon and KEY MISSIONS:
At the start of the 20th century, rockets rovers on Mars. They have sampled the atmosphere • APOLLO 15: Launched in 1971, this
were invented that were powerful enough of Jupiter and explored Saturn, Mercury, and
to blast away from Earth. By the century’s even the Asteroid Belt. These missions help us was the first of the longer missions,
end, thousands of spacecraft and hundreds understand the Solar System and our own planet. where astronauts stayed for three
of people had entered space. The spacecraft days on the Moon.
of the 21st century are beginning to explore MISSIONS TO JUPITER • LUNAR RECONNAISSANCE
the furthest reaches of our Solar System. ORBITER: Launched in 2009, this
NUMBER OF MISSIONS SENT: 9 spacecraft is gradually mapping
APOLLO MISSION BADGES the entire surface of the Moon.
KEY MISSIONS:
The US space programme is run by NASA (National Aeronautics and Space URANUS
Administration), and it creates a mission patch, or badge, for every space mission. • PIONEER 10: The first craft to go
The badges include elements that represent different parts of the mission: its through the Asteroid Belt and
purpose, the name of the space vehicle, and its official number. obtain close shots of Jupiter.

• JUNO: Launched on 5 August
2011, Juno is flying towards
Jupiter with the aim of
orbiting it for one year.

PIONEER 10 JUNO

MISSIONS TO ASTEROID BELT

NUMBER OF MISSIONS SENT: 10

KEY MISSIONS:

• DAWN: This spacecraft was launched in 2007 to study
two bodies in the Asteroid Belt: Vesta and Ceres. It
spent a year orbiting Vesta before moving on to Ceres.

• ROSETTA: A mission to a comet that photographed
asteroids Steins and Lutetia on the way through.

APOLLO 1 APOLLO 7 APOLLO 8 APOLLO 9

ROSETTA

APOLLO 10 APOLLO 11 APOLLO 12 APOLLO 13 MISSIONS TO MERCURY

NUMBER OF MISSIONS SENT: 2

KEY MISSIONS:

• MARINER 10: The first craft sent to
study Mercury, this was launched in
1973 and did three Mercury flybys.

• MESSENGER: The first craft to orbit
Mercury, this was launched in
2004 and is still in operation today.

MARINER 10 MESSENGER SOHO

APOLLO 14 APOLLO 15 APOLLO 16 APOLLO 17

THE SPACE AGE 1959 1965 1973 1981
Soviet cosmonaut
In 1957 the Soviet Union (USSR) The USSR launches Alexei Leonov NASA’s Pioneer NASA launches
launched a polished aluminium Luna 2, which crashes becomes the first 10 becomes the Columbia, the
ball containing a temperature on the Moon, becoming person to perform first spacecraft first “space
control system, batteries, and a spacewalk. to travel beyond shuttle”, or
radio transmitter outside the first man-made the Asteroid reusable
Earth’s atmosphere. This was object to reach the 1969 Belt and fly spacecraft.
the beginning of the Space Age. The USA’s Neil past Jupiter.
lunar surface. Armstrong and Buzz
Aldrin become the
Yuri Gagarin first humans to walk Neil Armstrong

1961 on the Moon.
Soviet cosmonaut Yuri
Gagarin becomes the
first human in space.

1950

1957 1958 1965 1971 1973 1977
NASA launches its first
The Soviet Union The USA NASA’s Mariner 4 The Soviet Union space station, Skylab. NASA launches
marks the start of launches becomes the first launches Salyut 1, Voyager 1 and 2.
Explorer 1, its spacecraft to fly by Mars. the first space station.
the Space Age first satellite. Over the next
when it launches few years they
send images
Sputnik 1, and scientific
the first
data from
man-made Jupiter
satellite. and Saturn.

Sputnik 1 Rocket Mariner 4 Salyut series Skylab Voyager 1
carrying space station
16 Explorer 1

APOLLO 15 MISSIONS TO MARS MARINER 9
LUNOKHOD 1 ROVER
LUNAR NUMBER OF MISSIONS SENT: 40+
RECONNAISSANCE
KEY MISSIONS:
ORBITER
• MARS GLOBAL SURVEYOR: Launched
LUNAR in 1996, aiming to map the whole MARS GLOBAL CURIOSITY
PROSPECTOR surface of Mars. SURVEYOR ROVER

• CURIOSITY: An active
mission, this landed
on Mars in 2012 and has
already discovered
organic material.

GRAIL

KUIPER MISSIONS TO KUIPER BELT
BELT
NUMBER OF MISSIONS SENT: 1
EARTH MOON MARS NEW HORIZONS
SUN VENUS KEY MISSIONS:
MERCURY
ASTEROID BELT • NEW HORIZONS: Launched in 2006
to take close-up pictures of the icy
worlds in the Kuiper Belt, such as
Pluto and its moons. By 2015 it had
travelled 5 billion km (3 billion miles).

JUPITER

SATURN MISSIONS TO SATURN

NUMBER OF MISSIONS SENT: 4

KEY MISSIONS:

• PIONEER 11: The first
mission to explore Saturn
was launched in 1973.

• CASSINI: Sent to explore the
Saturnian system from orbit
in 1997. It is still flying.

NEPTUNE

PIONEER 11

CASSINI

MISSIONS TO THE SUN MISSIONS TO VENUS MAGELLAN MISSIONS TO NEPTUNE
NUMBER OF MISSIONS SENT: 15 VENUS EXPRESS
KEY MISSIONS: NUMBER OF MISSIONS NUMBER OF MISSIONS SENT: 1
• SOHO: Launched in 1995, this has SENT: 40+
gathered information about the KEY MISSIONS:
Sun’s structure and dynamics. KEY MISSIONS:
• GENESIS: Collected • VOYAGER 2: This achieved
solar wind material for • MAGELLAN: Sent on a the first flyby of Neptune and
investigation in 2004. radar mapping mission from Uranus. In 2007 it entered the
1989 to 1994. heliosheath, the outer shell of
GENESIS particles around our Sun.
• VENUS EXPRESS: Sent to study
Venus’s atmosphere, it reached VOYAGER 2
Venus in 2006. The mission ended
in 2014.

1995 2011 2012 2014
Tiangong-1, The European
NASA’s Galileo International Dragon, Philae probe
spacecraft Space Station China’s the first is the first
first space commercial man-made
becomes the station, is craft, carries object to land
launched. cargo to and on a comet.
first to orbit from the ISS.
2007 2015
Jupiter. It Japanese aerospace agency
JAXA launches Selene, the 2015
1986 studies the 1998 largest lunar explorer since NASA’s Dawn
composition of the Apollo programme. mission orbits
Mir, the first The assembly of dwarf planet
modular the planet’s the International
space station, atmosphere. Space Station (ISS) Ceres to
is launched take images.
by the USSR. begins with the launch
Dawn
Mir of its first module.

1990 2003 2005 2010

NASA launches The European Space Agency NASA launches the Virgin Galactic, a
the Hubble Space (ESA) launches Mars Express – Mars Reconnaissance private company,
Telescope into its first visit to another planet in Orbiter (MRO) with flies the first
Earth’s orbit using scientific instruments suborbital plane.
a space shuttle. the Solar System. on board.

Virgin Galactic

2005 2008

The European Huygens The Indian Space
probe of the Cassini– Research Organisation
(ISRO) sends its first mission –
Huygens mission lands Chandrayaan-1 – to the Moon.
on Saturn’s moon, Titan.
Hubble Space The Chandrayaan-1
Telescope It is the first landing on spacecraft
another planet’s moon.

17

Stargazing PICTURING SPACE

Astronomy is the branch of science that is Astronomers learn about space using telescopes. These telescopes are designed to
dedicated to studying stars, planets, and all each pick up one particular type of electromagnetic radiation from space, and use
the celestial bodies that surround Earth. It that radiation to create an image. The pictures on the right here show the Crab
seeks to explain where we came from and Nebula viewed through different types of telescopes.
the beginning of the Universe itself.
INFRARED TELESCOPE
These detect heat given
off by objects. They are
often used in space,
where they are kept
cold and far from
Earth (so that they
do not pick up
confusing heat data
from objects on Earth).

LOOKING AT THE SKY JUPSIETMEENERR,WCAUINTRDHY,STVAHETENUNURASN,KMCEADANRESYB,EE OPTICAL TELESCOPE

Binoculars are a great way to start These use lenses and
looking at the night sky, because they mirrors to capture
reveal up to ten times as much detail light from distant
as the naked eye and are easy to use. objects. Reflecting
Telescopes provide even greater detail. and refracting
telescopes are forms
of optical telescopes.

NAKED-EYE VIEW OF BINOCULAR VIEW OF TELESCOPE VIEW OF ULTRAVIOLET
THE ORION NEBULA THE ORION NEBULA THE ORION NEBULA TELESCOPE
Hot and active objects
HOW OPTICAL Light from star in the cosmos give
TELESCOPES WORK enters telescope off large amounts of
ultraviolet energy, so
Galileo Galilei made the first refracting they are revealed in
telescope in 1609, and in the 1680s most detail with this
Isaac Newton invented the reflecting kind of telescope.
telescope, which uses mirrors to collect
light and form it into an image. X-RAY TELESCOPE
These telescopes
Eyepiece Light from star capture high-energy
enters telescope rays from extremely hot
REFRACTING TELESCOPE objects. X-rays from
celestial objects are
Light enters the telescope Focal point partly blocked by the
Light rays Earth’s atmosphere,
and is focused on to the Lens converge Smaller mirror so these telescopes are
sent into space. They
focal point by a lens. Main REFLECTING TELESCOPE gather information from
mirror In this telescope, a curved space objects as they
An eyepiece then mirror captures the light and orbit around Earth.
reflects it back up the tube. A
magnifies the small, flat mirror directs it to a
focus, and the image is viewed
focused light through a magnifying eyepiece.

into an image

the right size

for your eye. Focal point

Eye Eyepiece

TIMELINE c.330 BCE 240 BCE c.150 BCE 1543 CE Earth 1633
The Polish The Catholic Church puts
Since ancient times, people Greek philosophers Eratosthenes, Claudius Ptolemy says astronomer Copernicus’s Italian astronomer Galileo
have recorded astronomical begin to believe a Greek that Earth sits Nicolaus Solar System Galilei on trial
observations. As science that Earth is at the centre of the Copernicus for teaching
advances, we are still a sphere. astronomer, cosmos. Belief in the publishes his Copernicus’s
trying to discover the great estimates Earth’s Ptolemaic system revolutionary heliocentric
mysteries of the Universe. continues for the model of the Solar (Sun-centred)
circumference next 1,400 years. System, putting theory.
with accuracy. the stationary
Sun at the centre. Galileo Galilei

Aristotle Ptolemy

2500 bce

2500 BCE 700 BCE 240 BCE 1054 CE Elliptical 1687
Building of Stonehenge. Babylonians The first certain Chinese astronomers
The stones here mark predict regular appearance of Halley’s observe a supernova orbit English scientist
the rising and setting patterns of Sun Comet is described that is visible in the Isaac Newton
points of the Sun at and Moon eclipses. in the Chinese Records daytime. The matter 1609 discovers that
the solstices. of the Grand Historian. blasted outwards by it German mathematician gravity keeps
Aristarchus’s remains observable the Moon in
Stonehenge calculations Halley’s Comet as the Crab Nebula. Johannes Kepler orbit around
calculates that the planets Earth, and the
280 BCE
Ancient Greek astronomer follow noncircular, planets in orbit
Aristarchus calculates the size elliptical orbits. around the Sun.
of the Sun and Moon and their
Isaac Newton
distances from Earth.

18

VIEW FROM SUN MOON MARS POLARIS METEOR VENUS SATURN
EARTH

It is impossible to tell how large
a star or planet is by looking at
it from Earth, because some
are huge but very far away. The
Sun’s diameter is 400 times
that of the Moon, but it is also
about 400 times further away.

LIGHTS IN THE SKY THE CELESTIAL SPHERE CONSTELLATIONS

Sometimes we can see the interaction of light The celestial sphere is an imaginary sphere around Earth. Stargazers in ancient times named groups
and magnetism in the skies through colourful Any sky object can be mapped on to this sphere. Because of stars after mythical beings and animals.
light displays such as the northern lights. Earth rotates, the celestial sphere appears to rotate. These star patterns are called constellations
Like Earth, it has north and south poles and is divided and we still use them today to find the stars.
into hemispheres by an equator. There are 88 constellations in total, and
each one is only visible at certain times
The celestial and from certain places.
sphere

The Plough
(marked in red)

NORTHERN LIGHTS SOUTHERN LIGHTS

Also known as the aurora borealis, Also known as the aurora australis,
this light display is caused by this is similar to the northern lights

particles from the Sun hitting Earth’s but takes place above Earth’s
magnetic field. southern hemisphere.

MOONDOG SUNDOG URSA MAJOR

A moondog appears as a halo around Patches of sunlight appear at either This constellation is also known
the Moon. It is caused by the side of the Sun. They are caused by as the Great Bear. It contains
refraction of moonlight on ice sunlight refracting off ice crystals an asterism (smaller group of
crystals in clouds. stars) known as the Plough,
in clouds. or the Big Dipper.

Rotational path of
the celestial sphere

LIFE OUT THERE Earth’s axis of spin

The SETI (search for extraterrestrial intelligence) project LINE OF SIGHT Portion of the Alkaid
was set up in 1960 to search for signs of life beyond Earth. celestial sphere
Its powerful radio telescopes scan the skies but have not Wherever you stand on The stars in the Mizar
picked up an artificial (non-natural) radio signal so far. Earth, you can see a portion Plough as seen Alioth
of the celestial sphere. For
example, the Plough seems from Earth Megrez Dubhe
to be a fixed shape, but it is
actually formed by stars Earth Phad
moving far out in space, Merak
all at different distances
from the Earth.

SETI TELESCOPES DISTANCE FROM EARTH

1781 1933 1992 2006
Astronomers The International
German-born American physicist Karl discover the first Astronomical Union
astronomer, Jansky records the first extra-solar planets defines the properties
William Herschel radio-wave signals from (exoplanets). of a “planet” and in
discovers Uranus, space, which he concludes doing so demotes
a planet beyond are from the Milky Way. Infrared Pluto from a planet
Saturn, doubling the Astronomical to a dwarf planet.
size of the known
Solar System. Satellite

Uranus

1801 1843 1922 2018

Italian astronomer German amateur American astronomer 2018
Giuseppe Piazzi astronomer Samuel Edwin Hubble works The James Webb Space

comes across a rocky Heinrich Schwabe out that there are more Telescope (JWST) is
body orbiting between observes that galaxies in the Universe a space observatory
than the Milky Way, and scheduled to launch in
Mars and Jupiter. sunspots (areas of October 2018. It is a
Named Ceres, this is lower temperature) that they are moving successor to the Hubble
the largest object in follow regular cycles. apart – the Universe Space Telescope and
will offer the clearest
the asteroid belt, is expanding. images ever seen of
and is classified as
objects in space.
a dwarf planet.
19
Ceres Sunspots James Webb Space Telescope

Northern skies OFITNTHHTCEEHONECMAONEMNOFESRRSTTOEFHMLOELRRTANHMTEISOOKSNITESS
ANCIENT GREEKS
If you live north of the equator, you live in the
northern hemisphere. On a dark and cloudless night, KEY Yellow star Magnitude Magnitude
you can see a mass of glittering stars. If you know Red star brighter than 0.0 brighter than 3.0
what to look for, you can pick out individual stars, This map shows stars Orange star
constellations, and other wonders of the night sky. that are visible to the White star Magnitude Magnitude
naked eye. Magnitude Blue star brighter than 1.0 brighter than 4.0
marks how bright a
star is – the lower the Magnitude Magnitude
number, the brighter brighter than 2.0 brighter than 5.0
the star.

THINGS TO LOOK FOR

Individual stars, star clusters, and whole
galaxies can be seen with binoculars or a
small telescope. Here are some key sights
to look out for in the northern skies.

Altair

DUMBBELL NEBULA STAR CLUSTER M13 HYADES STAR CLUSTER AQUILA
This is a planetary nebula, which means it is This is the finest globular (globe-shaped) This star cluster makes up the face of the bull in
made up of clouds of material shed by a star. cluster in the northern skies. It lies in the the constellation Taurus. The brightest star here is the SERPENS
giant star Aldebaran, which marks the eye of Taurus. CAUDA
It is in the constellation of Vulpecula. Hercules constellation.

OPHIUCHUS

PLEIADES STAR CLUSTER PERSEUS CONSTELLATION
This cluster in Taurus is also known as This constellation is best known for its yearly Perseid
the Seven Sisters, because seven of its meteor shower, which takes place in mid-August. It lies just
blue stars are visible to the naked eye. below the “W” shape of the constellation of Cassiopeia.

SERPENS
CAPUT

LEO CONSTELLATION ORION NEBULA M71 STAR CLUSTER REFLECTION NEBULA
The constellation Leo contains three This nebula marks the position of This loosely packed star cluster is This ghostly blue nebula is in the
spiral galaxies: M65, M66, and NGC 3628. the “sword” below the “belt” of Orion on the edge of our galaxy. It sits in constellation of Cepheus. At its
They are known as the Leo Triplet.
in the Orion constellation. the Sagitta constellation. heart is a cluster of stars.

LYRA CONSTELLATION CRAB NEBULA M15 STAR CLUSTER BEEHIVE CLUSTER
The small constellation Lyra has one This is the remains of a supernova This globular cluster is in Pegasus, This swarm of stars in the
brilliant star, Vega. It is the fifth-brightest (an exploding star). It is found in Taurus, constellation of Cancer is about three
northwest of Epsilon Pegasi, the times the diameter of the Moon.
of all the stars. near the southerly “bull horn”. constellation’s brightest star.

20

PISCES THE NORTH SKY

The centre of this map
marks the spot that would
be directly overhead if you
were standing at the North
Pole. This point is marked
by the star Polaris, also
known as the North Star.

PEGASUS

EQUULEUS ARIES

DELPHINUS ANDROMEDA
VULPECULA
TRIANGULUM
SAGITTA
CYGNUS LACERTA

CASSIOPEIA

TAURUS
Aldebaran

PERSEUS

CEPHEUS

ORION

Capella

LYRA

Vega AURIGA Betelgeuse

CAMELOPARDALIS

Polaris

HERCULES DRACO URSA
MINOR
CORONA
BOREALIS LYNX GEMINI
CANIS
URSA MINOR
MAJOR
Procyon

CANCER

BOÖTES CANES LEO MINOR
Arcturus VENATICI LEO
VIRGO
COMA
BERENICES

LOCATOR

21

Southern skies THE LOAMRIENGGEOASUTCRSETGNAATRALAUCXRLUYI ,ISSTER
CONTAINING AROUND
If you live south of the equator, you live in TEN MILLION STARS
the southern hemisphere. On a clear night, the
southern skies give a fantastic view of the Milky KEY Yellow star Magnitude Magnitude
Way, bright star clusters, constellations, colourful Red star brighter than 0.0 brighter than 3.0
nebulae – and even whole galaxies. This map shows stars Orange star
that are visible to the White star Magnitude Magnitude
THINGS TO LOOK FOR naked eye. Magnitude Blue star brighter than 1.0 brighter than 4.0
marks how bright a
The southern skies contain many star is – the lower the Magnitude Magnitude
night-sky objects that are not visible number, the brighter brighter than 2.0 brighter than 5.0
from the northern hemisphere, including the star.
the Magellanic clouds and the bright star
cluster known as the Jewel Box.

ERIDANUS

THE JEWEL BOX CLUSTER LARGE MAGELLANIC CLOUD
Shown at the bottom left here, this cluster includes a red This small galaxy orbits our own galaxy, the
supergiant and smaller blue stars. It is in the constellation Milky Way. It sits in the constellation Dorado,
Crux. The bright star in the upper right here is called Mimosa. though part of it is in the constellation Mensa.

Rigel

NGC 3603 NEBULA SiriusLEPUS
This giant nebula in the constellation Carina is CANIS
MAJOR
composed of huge glowing clouds of gas. In
its centre are thousands of hot, young stars. MONOCEROS

OMEGA CENTAURI CLUSTER ROSETTE NEBULA
This is the largest and brightest globular cluster visible This flower-shaped nebula is a star nursery – stars are being created
from Earth – it appears as a fuzzy star to the naked eye. within it – and there is a cluster of new stars at its centre. It can be seen

It is in the centre of the Centaurus constellation. with a small telescope in the constellation Monoceros.

M4 GLOBULAR CLUSTER 47 TUCANAE GLOBULAR CLUSTER CORVUS CONSTELLATION
This cluster is around 12.2 billion years This huge star cluster is around 16,700 light years from Earth, Corvus, the crow, is made up of four bright stars, shown
in the constellation of Tucana. It contains several million stars
old. It is found near the bright star in the lower-right half of this image. It sits close to the
Antares, in the constellation Scorpius. but looks like a single hazy star to the naked eye. very bright double star known as Spica (top left).

22

CETUS AQUARIUS THE SOUTH SKY

Fomalhaut The centre of this map marks the
spot that would be directly overhead
SCULPTOR PISCIS if you were standing at the South
AUSTRINUS Pole. No stars mark this centre
point but the bright constellation
GRUS of Crux is used as a main point of
reference in the southern skies.

CAPRICORNUS

AQUILA

FORNAX PHOENIX MICROSCOPIUM

INDUS

CAELUM HOROLOGIUM Achernar SAGITTARIUS SCUTUM
RETICULUM
TUCANA CORONA SERPENS
Small TELESCOPIUM AUSTRALIS CAUDA

Magellanic
Cloud

HYDRUS

DORADO PAVO

Large MENSA OCTANS
Magellanic
COLUMBA APUS ARA
Cloud

Canopus

PICTOR TRIANGULUM
AUSTRALE
CARINA CHAMAELEON
VELA
PUPPIS MUSCA
PYXIS
CIRCINUS

VOLANS

Rigel NORMA
Kentaurus
Acrux SCORPIUS OPHIUCHUS
LUPUS Antares

CRUX

LIBRA

CENTAURUS

ANTLIA

HYDRA VIRGO
SEXTANS
Spica

CRATER CORVUS

LOCATOR

23

Physics FORCE LAWS OF
MOTION
How do forces, such as gravity and A force is something that pushes or pulls
magnetism, affect matter – the stuff all objects – whenever something moves, it has All motion is caused
around us? And how does energy make been moved by a force. Forces can change by forces pushing and
that possible? The answers to these the speed of an object, alter its direction, pulling. The scientist
questions are found in physics. Physicists or change its shape. Isaac Newton described
try to unravel the rules of the Universe to three laws of motion.
explain why the world works as it does. CHANGING SPEED The first says that all
The force of the golf club hitting things will stay still or
the ball makes the ball move. move at a steady speed
The ball gains energy and takes unless a force acts on
off down the golf course. them. The second says
that when a force acts
The harder the on something it makes
ball is hit, it accelerate. The third
says that when a force
the more force operates on something
is used, and the (action), there is always
further it travels an opposing and equal
force (reaction).
GRAVITY Earth pulls Force of gravity CHANGING DIRECTION
apple down makes apple fall When a force is FIRST LAW
Gravity is the force that applied to a moving Before take-off,
keeps us held fast on the Apple pulls Earth and object like a tennis ball,
planet, even while Earth Earth up a apple pull it can move it in a the only force
spins at up to 1,670 km/h tiny amount together different direction. acting on a rocket
(1,037 mph). Gravity pulls
together all matter, FALLING APPLE Ball moves in one is gravity.
but larger things with direction towards
more mass have more SECOND LAW
gravitational force. the racket The main engines

OAGRNRBDAIINTVTITIHNTHEGYEOAKSTREOHOELEPUARSNRPEDSLAYATRSHNTTEEHETSMSUN Hitting the ball with and booster
the racket applies force, rockets create a
changing the ball’s direction huge downward

CHANGING SHAPE force that
A force may cause something accelerates the
to change shape if the force rocket upwards.
is strong enough and the
atoms inside the object
cannot resist it.

Bending a bar
rearranges the atoms
inside it, altering its shape

MASS AND Man of 75 kg MAGNETISM
WEIGHT (165 lb) mass,
weighs 12.5 kg Magnetism is a powerful invisible force that is created
The mass of (27.5 lb) on by electric currents. Magnetic objects have the power
something is the the Moon to attract other magnetic objects or push them away,
amount of matter it depending on how their ends (poles) are lined up.
contains, and mass
always stays the MOON Opposite poles South pole
same, wherever the attract. A magnetic
object is. But weight field pulls together Force is
changes depending greatest
on where an object two magnets at where lines
is, because weight is their unlike poles are closest
determined by gravity. together
Man of 75 kg
(165 lb) mass, Invisible lines of
weighs 75 kg force go from north
(165 lb) on
Earth pole to south pole

North Like poles repel. THIRD LAW
pole Magnetic fields
will push apart The exhaust gas firing
Lines of force always magnets from down (the action) makes
start and end at a pole their like poles the rocket shoot up (the
reaction). The rocket does
EARTH not push against the air:

FRICTION it moves up because
of the force of the
This force occurs when one object is
dragged over the surface of another exhaust blasting down.
object. The rougher a surface is,
the more friction it produces. Even Surface A Surface A
smooth surfaces have tiny bumps
that will produce some friction. Surface B Surface B

24 FRICTION LUBRICATION
As two rough objects Putting a slippery material
slide over one another,
their surfaces catch, such as oil between two
slowing the sliding down. surfaces lets them move
past one another more easily.

TYPES OF ENERGY SOUND ENERGY KINETIC ENERGY ELECTRICAL ENERGY HEAT AMNSODHOVEHCAEOOT–TLIIDSTTHTUTIHRSNAUIGNVASGELSGLLYSEGTAEOTCBNOOHTULOHDTTE,
Energy we can The energy objects The energy carried by
There are many different kinds of hear, made when electricity as it flows Heat is a form of energy, so
energy, and most of them can be things vibrate. have because when you heat something,
converted into other forms. For they are moving. down a wire. you are increasing its stored
example, when you burn coal it energy. Objects store heat by
changes the chemical energy jostling molecules or atoms
stored in the coal into heat energy. inside them. Even large, cold
objects can have heat energy.

LIGHT ENERGY CHEMICAL ENERGY NUCLEAR ENERGY POTENTIAL ENERGY HEAT ENERGY ICEBERGS
Energy carried in Released by a Generated by atoms Energy that is Energy stored or Icebergs are freezing
electromagnetic moved by molecules cold but they still have
reaction between splitting apart or stored and yet to jiggling around. some heat energy.
waves. different chemicals. joining together. be released.
GAMMA RAYS
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM MICROWAVES INFRARED RAYS These are made
Microwaves can be when atoms split
The Sun’s heat and light is carried to Earth by used to cook food. Infrared radiation apart in nuclear
electromagnetic waves. These are just part of a is a kind of “hot
spectrum that includes radio waves, microwaves, INFRARED light”. It shows up explosions.
and X-rays. All waves travel at the speed of light RAYS on thermal (heat-
but they vary in wavelength, frequency, and energy. sensitive) cameras.

RADIO WAVES MICROWAVES VISIBLE ULTRA- X-RAYS GAMMA RAYS
VIOLET

1 km 100 m 10 m 780 nm 380 nm 10 nm 0.01 nm 0.000001 nm
WAVELENGTH
RADIO WAVES ULTRAVIOLET X-RAYS
Radio waves carry These have enough
TV and radio signals Sunlight contains energy to pass
between giant antennas ultraviolet waves. through soft body
such as this one. They tan your skin, tissue (like skin)
but can also cause but not bone.
wrinkles and cancer.

LIGHT AND COLOURS SOUND Spiky sound wave Complex, even
sound wave
The light from the Sun looks white, but it is actually Sound is another form of energy
made up of lots of different colours. If you shine that travels in waves. Louder VIOLIN FLUTE
light through a prism, the whole spectrum of sounds make bigger waves,
colours appears. while high-pitched sounds When you play a A flute produces
make waves that vibrate faster. violin, the strings vibrate, sound when you
Glass prism Beam splits into The various noises we hear are blow into it, making
many colours produced by sound waves of setting the air moving waves inside the pipe.
Light bends different shapes and sizes. inside the hollow wooden The sound waves are
as it passes case. A violin’s sound wave similar to a sine wave.
from air to Smooth, even is a sharp and spiky wave.
glass as sound wave
it enters A bigger cymbal vibrates
prism a greater volume of

air so it sounds louder

Light bends as it passes TUNING FORK CYMBAL
from glass to air
A tuning fork makes one simple, Percussion instruments make sounds
regular, up-and-down sound wave when you hit them. Their sound waves
pattern called a “sine” wave. Each are more like a short burst of random
fork produces only one note. noise (white noise) than a precise wave.

TINY SCIENCE GREAT PHYSICISTS

Our whole planet and all its people are People have tried to explain our world and the Universe
made of atoms. The nucleus of an atom since ancient times. In the last 400 years, physicists have
consists of protons and neutrons, and invented theories that underpin much of what we know.
these are made of even smaller things
called quarks. It is unclear what those are ISAAC NEWTON (1643–1727)
made of, but some scientists think that they
may be vibrations of matter or energy, Newton discovered that sunlight contains all the colours of the
which scientists refer to as ”strings”. This rainbow. He also devised the laws of gravity and motion.
science is known as quantum physics.
ERNEST RUTHERFORD (1871–1937)

Rutherford proved that the atom was not solid
but contained electrically charged electrons
orbiting a nucleus.

ALBERT EINSTEIN (1879–1955)

Einstein discovered many things, but he
is most famous for his theory of relativity.

Quark RICHARD FEYNMAN
(1918–88)
Proton
Feynman is best known for introducing
the world to quantum physics.

ALBERT EINSTEIN

ATOM

25

Electricity ELECTRICITY IN NATURE

We use electricity to power all sorts of things, Electricity is not only generated in power stations – it is also found
from factories and trains to the many small in nature, from high-energy lightning strikes to inside our own
appliances in our homes. The energy it bodies. Our brains use electric signals to tell our muscles to move.
contains comes from charged electrons
that whizz around inside every atom. LIGHTNING AURORA NERVOUS SYSTEMS ELECTRIC EEL
A bolt releases as much These lights in the sky are Human nerves This eel discharges
energy as a power station communicate by electricity in water
streams of electrically electric signals. to kill fish for food.
makes in one second. charged particles.

ELECTRIC CURRENT CIRCUITS

When electrons flow down wires, they carry energy from place The path that
to place. So in a torch, electrons march around the wire from the electrons travel along
battery to the lamp, where their power lights up the bulb. is called a “circuit”. A
circuit carries power
Electrons flow Atoms stay fixed Electrons flow Atoms stay fixed from a power source
past atoms in the same place around randomly in the same place (such as a wall
socket) to something
CURRENT FLOWING NO CURRENT FLOWING that needs electricity SERIES CONNECTION PARALLEL CONNECTION
When the power is switched on, the electrons move When the power is switched off, there’s nothing to move to run (such as a All the power moves The power splits into two
along in a line, forming an electric current. the electrons in a line, so they just jig about randomly. lamp). There are two through each part of the as it reaches two lamps
types of circuit.
circuit, in a line. wired like this.

SWITCHES BATTERIES LAIGRSETHATLTANIRICNGSGEH-BSOOCCLAKTLSSE

If you attach a wire to both ends of a battery, and connect Batteries make their own electricity by using Strands of
a lightbulb to the wire at some point, the electricity would chemicals. When you connect a battery, chemical plasma
continually flow and always light the bulb. A switch is used reactions take place that generate electrons.
to break the circuit, so the bulb can be switched on and off.
Positive
terminal

If the A switch can Electrons
circuit is not be used to flowing through
broken, the make a break lamp make
in the circuit bulb light up
electricity
flows back Chemical
reactions take
into the place inside
battery the battery

Electrons The Negative Electrons
flow from the lightbulb terminal flow from the
negative end forms part negative to
of the battery of the circuit the positive end
of the battery

ELECTROMAGNETISM STATIC ELECTRICITY

When an electric current flows through a wire, it creates a Static electricity is sometimes created when
magnetic field around it. The strength of the magnetic field two things are rubbed together. The rubbing
can be increased by coiling the wire in loops, because that creates an electrical charge, which is
allows more current to flow through a smaller distance. released when it comes into contact with
something else that conducts electricity.

South pole of Loops of wire
magnetic field
GETTING A SHOCK
Magnetic field
Static shocks occur because your body builds up
static when you rub against things. The static stays
until you touch something metal, when it moves from
you through the metal to Earth, giving you a shock.

North pole of 1 CHARGED UP
magnetic field The electrical charge

you pick up from rubbing

against things is negative. It

will stay in your body as you

move around, until you touch

a positively charged object

such as a metal handle.

2 JUMPING ELECTRONS
When you touch a

Current conductor, such as a metal

handle, the static charge

jumps from you, to the handle,

Electric to Earth. As the negatively
current flows
through wire charged electrons jump

26 across, you feel a static shock.

CONDUCTORS INSULATORS SEMICONDUCTORS CONDUCTORS VOLTAGE
AND INSULATORS
RUBBER COPPER Voltage is a kind of force that makes electricity
Electricity is a flow of electrons, move through a wire. The bigger the voltage, the
so materials that do not allow more current will shoot through the wire. Bigger
the flow cannot pass along voltages and currents deliver more electrical
electricity. These are called power, but they are also more dangerous.
“insulators”. Materials that do
allow the flow of electricity are PYLONS
called “conductors”. These hold up overhead lines
that carry electricity across
WOOD SILICON WATER long distances. The largest
ones use 400,000-volt cables.
POWER TO THE HOME PROTOONDVEESIMDAMETAISNINSUEDFNTYSOETFUOOHGFREHSWAUEYONNERELALRIGDRGH’YST Cables on wooden poles use
400–11,000 volts.
Electricity is produced for homes in several ways, such as burning coal Buildings can
be fitted with ELECTRIC TRAIN CABLES
or using nuclear power. The electricity is then fed though sub-stations solar panels to Trains take power from cables
produce power above them. One train needs
to individual houses. Some houses also produce their own power less than 1,000 volts, but the
cables are about 25,000 volts.
through solar panels. This means many trains can
use the line at once.
Fossil fuel Water from a dam runs
power station through a turbine to produce ELECTRICITY AT HOME
hydroelectric power Voltage in the home differs from
country to country, but generally
Nuclear Large solar lies at 110–250 volts. Factories
power station panel “farm” need higher voltages because
they have bigger machines.
Geothermal
power station BATTERY CHARGERS
(using ground A laptop or phone charger needs
10–20 volts to charge its battery.
heat) Laptops need higher voltages than
phones because they have bigger
Wind Skyscrapers screens and circuits that use
turbine need much more energy.
more power
farm than houses

Factories require Electric trains TORCH BULBS
lots of power use power lines
Bulbs for torches and lamps are
ELECTRICITY AT HOME rated by the voltage and current
needed to operate them. The
We use electricity at home from the moment we get up (perhaps standard AA, C, and D batteries
switching on a light or using an electric toothbrush), to when we go to all deliver 1.5 volts each.
bed. Homes need energy for heat, light, cooking, and washing machines,
as well as lots of personal items, such as hairdryers and mobile phones. PIONEERS

Heat escapes Electricity has been around forever,
through windows because it exists naturally in the world.
However, some people were important
Heat escapes Computer Solar panel in finding out how to harness its power.
through the creates
chimney energy from BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (1706–90)
sunlight
Loft insulation Franklin discovered that lightning is electricity,
traps heat, helping Radiator and that there are positive and negative charges.

save energy ALESSANDRO VOLTA (1745–1827)

Ceiling Electric A professor of experimental physics, Volta
light shower invented the first battery, called the Voltaic Pile.

Hairdryer Microwave GEORG SIMON OHM (1789–1854)

Music Boiler for Ohm discovered electrical resistance. The unit
player water and of resistance – ohm – is named after him.
heating
PLASMA SPHERE TV and Coffee- MICHAEL FARADAY (1791–1867)
DVD maker
The streams of plasma here Faraday discovered that if you move a magnet near
are created by the release of Wood fire Washing wire, the wire becomes electrified. This is known
static electricity, which flows as creates machine as electromagnetic induction.
a current from the centre to the heat
Power THOMAS ALVA EDISON (1847–1931)
edge of the glass sphere. supply
Edison built the first electric power stations
and invented the lightbulb, sound recorder
(phonograph), and movie camera.

NIKOLA TESLA
(1856–1943)

Tesla discovered alternating
currents, hydroelectric power,
radio waves, and radar. He
invented transformers, a long-
distance power system, electric
motors, and X-ray machines.

ENERGY BALANCE Oven NIKOLA TESLA
There are lots of things that need

energy in the home, but also
many ways to save energy.

27

Chemistry CHEMISTRY IN ACTION HOUSEHOLD CHEMICALS

Chemists dig deep. They begin with In ancient times, people used the natural We use lots of chemicals in
the elements that make up all matter, materials around them, such as wood and our homes, from the paint
and break them down into tiny atoms. stone, to make objects. Since then, scientists on our walls to the shampoo
They analyse what the atoms are, have discovered thousands of chemicals, some for our hair.
how they change state, and how of which can be used to make new materials.
they react when they mix.
BIOCHEMISTRY ORGANIC CHEMISTRY MATERIALS SCIENCE ENGINEERING
This looks at chemical This branch of chemistry This science uses physics Engineers use their
processes inside living focuses on carbon-based and chemistry to create knowledge of materials
things or affecting them. compounds and their uses.
new materials. to design things.

INSIDE AN ATOM Neutron STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM MOLECULES

Even though an atom is tiny, Some particles in the atom are electrically Atoms of the same sort or different atoms
it has even smaller things charged. The protons in the nucleus are can clump together to make molecules.
inside it – protons, positively charged and the orbiting electrons A molecule can be as simple as just two
neutrons, and electrons. are negatively charged. There are always atoms, as in hydrogen, or lines of thousands
Protons and neutrons equal numbers of protons and electrons. of atoms, as in some plastics.
combine to form the
atom’s nucleus. Electrons
Electrons fill the
space around Protons
the nucleus.
O H

Oxygen Hydrogen
atom atom

Electron H

Neutrons

Proton CARBON ATOM WATER MOLECULE
The number of protons inside an atom determines A molecule of water is made up of two different
what kind of atom it is. For example, a carbon atom
kinds of atoms: two hydrogen (H) atoms and
has six electrons and six protons. one oxygen (O) atom.

STATES OF MATTER MIXTURES

All matter can change state. Water, for instance, can be A mixture is
a liquid, gas (steam), or solid (ice). Its state depends upon the made when two
way its atoms move around. As a solid, its atoms lock tightly substances are
together. As a liquid, they move further apart, and as a gas combined, but no
they move freely and independently. chemical reaction
takes place. The
Atom ingredients are said
to combine, rather
than to bond.

Deposition Condensing
(gas to solid)

SOLUTION SUSPENSION COARSE MIXTURE ALLOY
An unevenly distributed A mixture of a metal with
Fruit concentrate (solute) A mixture between a liquid mixture of different types other elements that creates

dissolves in water (the and particles of a solid, of larger particles. a stronger material.

solvent) to make a drink. such as water and soil.

GAS SEPARATING MIXTURES

Sublimation Boiling The substances in a mixture are not bonded
(solid to gas) together, so they can be separated. However, the
more similar the properties of each substance are
to one another, the harder it is to separate them.

Melting

SOLID LIQUID

28 Freezing FLOATING MAGNETIZING CHROMATOGRAPHY FILTERING
Shaken together these Magnetic substances Using a substance that attracts Solid particles will collect
substances mix. Left for a will be drawn to stick
time, they separate back out. some particles more than on the filter during the
to the magnet. others separates the two. filtration process.

ACIDS AND BASES 0 12 345678 9 10 11 12 13 14
WEAK BASE
All liquids and solutions fall somewhere STRONG ACID WEAK ACID NEUTRAL e.g. baking soda STRONG BASE
on the acids and bases scale, which is e.g. gastric acid e.g. tomato juice e.g. water e.g. bleach
measured as a pH level. Those at each end PRODUCT
of the scale are very reactive and dangerous. THE pH SCALE SWIRLS AND FUMES
WOOD The product of a chemical
WHAT IS A CHEMICAL REACTANT 1 REACTANT 2 REACTION Hard, strong,
REACTION? and rigid, reaction can be very
burns readily, different from the original
In the natural world, atoms and and is a good reactants. This mix reacts
molecules are constantly joining insulator. quickly, swirling and giving
together or breaking down to form
new things. This can also be done off fumes.
in a laboratory. When scientists add
one ingredient (called a reactant)
to another, they create a chemical
reaction. The molecules of the
reactants split apart, rearrange
themselves, and then form a new
bond – the product of the reaction.

TYPES OF CHEMICAL SYNTHESIS REACTION
REACTION Two or more reactants join
together to make a new compound.
Although the product of a chemical reaction
is very different from the reactants, none of DECOMPOSITION REACTION
the atoms are destroyed – there are the same One reactant breaks apart into two
number before as after the reaction. There products to make two compounds.
are three types of chemical reaction.

THCHROAGUNRGGAHEPDHHIIETNAETTCOAADNNIDABMPEROENSDSURE REPLACEMENT REACTION
Atoms of one type swap

places with those of another
to make a new compound.

COMBUSTION MATERIALS

Car engines and power stations are powered by The materials we use for making everyday
a chemical reaction called combustion (burning). objects need to have the right properties
The reactants are fuel, such as petrol or coal, for the object’s function. For example,
and oxygen from the air. Adding heat (setting wood is robust and good for building
fire to the fuel) starts the reaction. a chair but would be a poor choice for a
frying pan, because it would catch fire.

OXYGEN HEAT

FUEL METAL PLASTIC CERAMIC
Good conductor of heat Strong, waterproof, and can Fragile if knocked
and electricity. It is strong but can withstand
be made into any shape. high temperatures.
and inflexible. Good insulator.

GREAT CHEMISTS

The discoveries of great chemists
have contributed to human progress in
everything from medicine to space travel.

ROBERT BOYLE (1627–91) GLASS SYNTHETIC FIBRE
Transparent and can be Plastic-based fibres
The author of The Sceptical Chymist was the first
to develop rigorous scientific techniques for his made into any shape. are strong and
experiments in the field of chemistry. Breaks easily if thin. waterproof.

ANTOINE LAVOISIER (1743–94) KEVLAR®

The first chemist to demonstrate that water is made High-strength
of oxygen and hydrogen, and to show that oxygen is material that
needed for combustion. withstands high
impact and
MARIE CURIE (1867–1934) LINUS extremes of
PAULING temperatures.
Twice winner of the Nobel prize,
Curie discovered radium.

LINUS PAULING (1901–94)

American scientist who worked
out how molecules bond together.

DOROTHY HODGKIN
(1910–94)

A pioneer in X-ray techniques
who discovered the atomic
structure of penicillin.

29

1 The elements WHAT IS THE
PERIODIC TABLE?
1 1.0079 The building blocks of every single thing on
Earth are pure chemical substances called Elements are listed in a chart called
1H elements. Put a few elements together by joining the periodic table. Each entry shows the
their atoms and you can get anything from element’s name, short chemical symbol,
Jupiter 2 a flea to a space rocket. Carbon-based elements atomic number, and atomic mass.
HYDROGEN are found in all living things, while water has
4 9.0122 just two elements – hydrogen and oxygen. ATOMIC NUMBER
An element’s atomic number refers to
Be THE PERIODIC TABLE the number of protons in the nucleus of
an atom of the element. Titanium has 22.
Elements with a similar atomic structure sit together in the grid,
3 6.941 Aquamarine which predicts how they will behave. Most of the 118 elements 22 47.867 ATOMIC MASS
BERYLLIUM occur in rocks or in the atmosphere, but scientists have also This is the number
2 Li built new ones by smashing smaller atoms together. Ti of protons and
12 24.305 neutrons inside
Watermelon TITANIUM an atom.
tourmaline Mg
CHEMICAL
LITHIUM SYMBOL
This scientific
11 22.990 symbol is a short
version of the
Na element’s name.

3 Peridot NAME
MAGNESIUM This is the element’s name. Titanium
Salt is a strong, light metal that is found
SODIUM 20 40.078 in abundance in Earth’s crust.

Ca 3456789

19 39.098 21 44.956 22 47.867 23 50.942 24 51.996 25 54.938 26 55.845 27 58.933

K Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co

4 SCANDIUM Benitoite Vanadinite Chrome Spessartine Iron Blue
gemstone VANADIUM tap MANGANESE horseshoe glass
Banana Cheese
POTASSIUM CALCIUM TITANIUM CHROMIUM IRON COBALT

37 85.468 38 87.62 39 88.906 40 91.224 41 92.906 42 95.94 43 (96) 44 101.07 45 102.91

5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Rocket Mo Tc Ru Rh
engine
Fireworks Strontium YTTRIUM Zircon Steel TECHNETIUM RUTHENIUM Rhodium-
RUBIDIUM STRONTIUM stone NIOBIUM girder plated buckle

56 137.33 ZIRCONIUM MOLYBDENUM RHODIUM

55 132.91 Ba 57-71 72 178.49 73 180.95 74 183.84 75 186.21 76 190.23 77 192.22

6 Cs La-Lu Hf Ta W Re Tip of fountain pen Ir
Nuclear
Caesium Crystals LANTHANIDE reactor Capacitor Filament Jet turbine Os Surgical
atomic clock BARIUM control rod TANTALUM in light bulb blades needle
OSMIUM IRIDIUM
CAESIUM 88 (226) HAFNIUM TUNGSTEN RHENIUM

87 (223) 89-103 104 (261) 105 (262) 106 (266) 107 (264) 108 (277) 109 (268)

7 Fr Ra Ac-Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt

FRANCIUM RADIUM ACTINIDE RUTHERFORDIUM DUBNIUM SEABORGIUM BOHRIUM HASSIUM MEITNERIUM

57 138.91 58 140.12 59 140.91 60 144.24 61 (145) 62 150.36

MAN-MADE ELEMENTS La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm
Elements with a higher number than
Monazite Cerium Permanent Earphones PROMETHIUM Samarskite
uranium (92) rarely occur naturally. LANTHANUM oxide magnet NEODYMIUM SAMARIUM
These transuranic elements are created CERIUM 93 (237)
89 (227) PRASEODYMIUM 92 238.03 94 (244)
in particle accelerators or nuclear 90 232.04 Np
reactors. They include plutonium, which Ac 91 231.04 U Pu
Th NEPTUNIUM
was used to make the atomic bomb. ACTINIUM Pa Nuclear Atomic bomb
THORIUM power plant PLUTONIUM
BEO9LD6HEYMYPEIDESRNRMOCTEGASN:EDONTEX,OUAYFPNGTOEDHNFNE,JUICHTASURTROMBFGAOOENNUN,R PROTACTINIUM URANIUM

30

READING THE TABLE PERIODIC TABLE KEY Rare earth metals Metalloids Halogens 18
Toxic, radioactive metals Share properties with These exist in solid,
The table has horizontal rows called periods and vertical Alkali metals often man-made. metals and non-metals. liquid, and gas forms. 2 4.0026
columns called groups. Atoms get bigger and heavier Soft reactive metals, Non-metals Unknown
towards the bottom of each group because they have more usually in compounds. Noble gases Poor solid conductors, Newly discovered He 1
protons and more electrons in the shells (rings) around Stable gases that do not brittle, with no metallic synthetic element.
them. As you move along the rows from left to right, atoms Alkaline earth metals react naturally. lustre, and gases. Helium
gain protons and electrons, and become more tightly packed. Very reactive metals not 17 balloon
found as pure elements. Other metals 16
Malleable, ductile, solid, 9 18.998
Transition metals dense metals.
Malleable, ductile metals F
that are good conductors.
Fluorite
GROUP 2 13 14 15 FLUORINE HELIUM

4 In the vertical 5 10.811 6 12.011 7 14.007 8 15.999 10 20.180
groups, a shell is
PERIOD added with each B C NO Ne 2
The elements in a period
have different chemical step down. The Soap Diamond Coffee beans Oxygen Helium-neon laser
and physical properties elements are BORON CARBON NITROGEN cylinder NEON
but all have the same
number of shells. similar because OXYGEN
they all have the
same number of
electrons in their

outer shell.

THE RUSSIAN SCIENTIST 13 26.982 14 28.086 15 30.974 16 32.065 17 35.453 18 39.948
DMITRI MENDELEEV
INVENTED THE Al Si P S Cl Ar 3
PERIODIC TABLE IN 1869
Silicon Matchbox Sulphur Light
Foil chip Carnallite bulb

10 11 12 ALUMINIUM SILICON PHOSPHORUS SULPHUR CHLORINE ARGON

28 58.693 29 63.546 30 65.39 31 69.723 32 72.64 33 74.922 34 78.96 35 79.904 36 83.80

Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr 4

Spoon Wire Sphalerite Solar thermal Camera lens Arsenic SELENIUM Bromine Fluorescent
NICKEL COPPER ZINC panel GERMANIUM ARSENIC BROMINE lamp

GALLIUM KRYPTON

46 106.42 47 107.87 48 113 49 114.82 50 118.71 51 121.76 52 127.60 53 126.90 54 131.29

Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe Arc 5
Light lamp
Catalytic Silver emitting Tin-plated Bullet Compact disc (CD) Liquid
converter pendant Yellow diode (LED) can ANTIMONY TELLURIUM iodine XENON
paint
PALLADIUM SILVER INDIUM TIN IODINE 86 (222)
CADMIUM
Rn 6
78 195.08 79 196.97 80 201 81 204.38 82 207.2 83 208.96 84 (209) 85 (210)
RADON
PtRing Necklace Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At
118 294
PLATINUM Au Thermometer Rat poison Lead Crystal POLONIUM ASTATINE
MERCURY THALLIUM battery BISMUTH
GOLD
LEAD

110 (281) 111 (272) 112 285 113 284 114 289 115 288 116 293 117 294

Ds Rg Cn Uut Uuq Uup Uuh Uus Uuo 7

DARMSTADTIUM ROENTGENIUM COPERNICUM UNUNTRIUM UNUNQUADIUM UNUNPENTIUM UNUNHEXIUM UNUNSEPTIUM UNUNOCTIUM

63 151.96 64 157.25 65 158.93 66 162.50 67 164.93 68 167.26 69 168.93 70 173.04 71 174.97

Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Atomic clock Lu
Green
Xenotime GADOLINIUM fluorescent Fergusonite Gadolinite Fibre optic cable THULIUM Yb LUTETIUM
EUROPIUM crystals HOLMIUM ERBIUM
96 (247) lamp YTTERBIUM
95 (243) TERBIUM DYSPROSIUM 99 (252)
100 (257) 101 (258) 102 (259) 103 (262)
97 231.04 98 (251)

Smoke detector Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

Am CURIUM BERKELIUM CALIFORNIUM EINSTEINIUM FERMIUM MENDELEVIUM NOBELIUM LAWRENCIUM

AMERICIUM

31

Biology NEEDED FOR LIFE NEEADLETLSHOSEERSNGATAMINAEILSSBMAISNSIC
ORDER TO LIVE
Biology is the science of all life, from All life forms need the same essentials
microscopic bacteria that cannot be seen to survive. Few forms of life can exist
with the naked eye to enormous animals without most of these basic necessities.
such as elephants and whales. It includes
their form and function, origin and WATER ENERGY SOURCE OXYGEN ESSENTIAL THE RIGHT
growth, and evolution and distribution.
All living things Life forms need Oxygen in air CHEMICALS TEMPERATURE
are made of energy to grow and or water is The chemicals Few living things
cells, which necessary for hydrogen, nitrogen,
need water to move around. and carbon are can exist
Plants use sunlight all life. essential for life. Plants in extremely
exist – most life get them from soil, hot or cold
forms are mainly to make energy. while animals absorb temperatures.
made up of water. Animals get energy them from food.
by eating plants or

each other.

WHAT IS A CELL? Vacuoles Ribosomes CHROMOSOMES
store nutrients are the protein
Cells are the building blocks of life. or waste builders of the cell Within the nucleus of each
The cells of all living things except cell there are chromosomes
archaea and bacteria contain a nucleus, that carry DNA. DNA Each chromosome
mitochondria, and other organelles. contains genes that is made up of
Cells can be specialized to perform determine how an tightly coiled DNA
different functions – for example, we organism looks
have nerve, muscle, and bone cells. and functions.
The human body has around 75 trillion Humans have
cells, whereas less complex organisms 46 chromosomes
may have only one. (23 pairs).

Inner membrane Each gene is
where chemical a section of the
reactions occur DNA molecule

Outer DNA is a
membrane long molecule
arranged in a
MITOCHONDRION double-helix shape
This is the part of the cell that
releases energy from food GENES
molecules within the body.
Our genes are inherited from our parents – half
ANIMAL CELL from mum and half from dad – and they dictate
things like eye colour. Each person has two
An animal cell contains lots versions of each gene, called alleles, which
of “machines” called organelles together make up their genotype. One allele is
that perform special jobs (such often dominant over another, which means that
that feature is the one seen in the person.
as the mitochondrion).
KEY
Nucleus
b The recessive allele. A child must

have two b alleles to have blue eyes.

B The dominant allele – a child with one

or two B alleles will have brown eyes.

Chloroplasts Large vacuole A jelly-like fluid called Each parent
convert sunlight filled with cell sap cytoplasm fills the space carries a
different
into energy PLANT CELL between the organelles combination
These have much in common of genes for
Rigid cell wall with animal cells, but they The nucleus is the cell’s eye colour
also have rigid cell walls control centre. It sends
and chloroplasts. chemical instructions to Parents’
other parts of the cell genes

CELL DIVISION Cell splits into two BLUE-EYED BROWN-EYED Possible gene
daughter cells, FATHER MOTHER combinations
Organisms develop from a single cell, which divides of children
again and again. Over the organism’s lifetime, its cells each with a full set bb Bb
are continually replaced in a process called mitosis. of chromosomes
bB bb Bb b b
Doubled
Chromosomes Chromosomes chromosomes Children’s
duplicate are pulled possible
apart eye colours

1 FIRST STAGE 2 CHROMOSOMES 3 SEPARATION 4 “DAUGHTER” GENETICS IN ACTION
The cell contains ALIGN AND COPY The doubled CELLS FORM
The mother here has one recessive and one
chromosomes that can The wall of the nucleus breaks chromosome is pulled in half, Cell splits into two dominant allele. The father has two recessive
alleles. This means it is equally likely that they
be copied to make new down and chromosomes line so one chromosome moves identical cells and the
have a brown- or blue-eyed child.
identical chromosomes. up in the middle of the cell. to each end of the cell. nuclear wall reforms.

32

CLASSIFICATION OF LIFE LIFE ASOONBNIIDLLEL1CIT2OOE0NNA,0TSB0APA0IOCNFOTUSNENOROGNIAIFE GREAT BIOLOGISTS

All living things shared a common ancestor All living things are Biologists study living things and their
in the distant past. Over time, many organisms composed of cells. relationship to each other and the world.
have evolved and become extinct. Today, there Their discoveries and inventions have
are six kingdoms of life – bacteria, archaea, Eukaryota – mainly ARCHAEA changed the way we live.
and four eukaryotic groups – animals, fungi, multicellular organisms with
protists, and plants. Single-celled life forms ARISTOTLE (384–322 bce)
cells that have nuclei. without nuclei that can exist
BACTERIA This Ancient Greek philosopher was the
in extreme environments. first to classify the kingdom of life.
Single-celled life forms
that do not have a nucleus CHARLES DARWIN (1809–82)

and can evolve fast. This British naturalist suggested the theory of
evolution in his book On the Origin of Species.
ANIMALS FUNGI PROTISTS PLANTS
GREGOR MENDEL (1822–84)
Get their food by eating Obtain their food Most are single-celled. Some get Turn light into
organisms, such as from other energy from light, others eat energy for fuel. An Austrian scientist and monk, Mendel showed
organisms. other organisms. how traits are inherited.
plants and other animals.
LOUIS PASTEUR (1822–95)

Pasteur proved that bacteria can spoil food and
then went on to invent pasteurization – a method
of killing bacteria in food such as milk and cheese.

LOUIS LEAKEY (1903–72)

A Kenyan scientist who found evidence
of early humans in Olduvai Gorge, Kenya, and
suggested humans first evolved in Africa.

FOOD WEB POLAR BEAR ARCTIC TERN
This bear hunts
Plants use sunlight to create on the surface of These migrate
energy. Animals eat plants to the frozen sea. between the North
get energy. Many animals are
eaten in turn by other animals. and South Poles
When an animal or plant each year.
dies, its remains are
eaten by other animals RINGED SEAL
or fungi. Its nutrients
are returned to the ORCA Each arrow shows the ARCTIC COD
soil where they are This is the top direction of energy in
used by plants. predator in the HARBOUR SEAL
water; it can even the food web
ARCTIC OCEAN prey on sharks.
The Arctic has a HARP SEAL ZOOPLANKTON
ARCTIC CHAR Tiny animals
rich food web. that are eaten
Phytoplankton, by many fish.
including algae,
produce the energy, PHYTOPLANKTON
and orcas are the Microscopic algae that
top predators. create energy from light.

CAPELIN

EVOLUTION FISH ON LAND EXTINCTION
Over time, lobe-finned fish evolved in
Individuals that are best a way that allowed them to move out The dying out of a species
suited to the environment is known as “extinction”.
in which they live are of the water and live on the land. Scientists believe that we are
the ones most likely to now undergoing the biggest
survive and reproduce. wave of extinctions since the CLIMATE CHANGE
They then pass on the dinosaurs disappeared.
genes that favour their Only animals that suit their
existence to their WATER ONTO LAND LAND environments survive. Smilodon
offspring. Over time, LOBE FIN became extinct when the climate
this leads to change. LEG-LIKE FORELIMB WITH
This process is known FIN HAND changed 11,000 years ago.
as evolution by
natural selection.

ADAPTATION Probing bill for GEOLOGICAL EVENTS HUNTED TO DEATH
eating leaves
Animals adapt to suit their Meteor strikes and volcanic eruptions Overhunting by humans can cause
environment, and birds’ can cause extinctions. Dinosaurs are animals to become extinct. This
beaks, or bills, are a thought to have been wiped out by a happened to the easily caught and
perfect example of this. very tasty dodo of Mauritius.
The birds pictured here meteor or volcanic activity.
have all evolved from
the same ancestor, but Pointed bill Hooked bill
their bills have become is used to slices into soft
perfectly adapted to help peck insects fruits and buds
them catch and eat food from leaves
in different habitats.
Ancestor cracked HABITAT DESTRUCTION POACHING
seeds with thick bill Overbite is useful Habitat destruction and fragmentation The tiger is threatened due to use
for digging up grubs has led to species such as the panda
Grasping bill lets bird of its body parts in traditional
use stick to dig prey being in danger of extinction. Chinese medicine.
out from under bark

33

HUMAN ANATOMY The brain does all the thinking. The human
It sends electrical messages body
The “anatomy” of something shows through the nervous system
its structure, so a diagram of human to other parts of the body
anatomy shows the internal structure
of a person. This diagram shows Blood vessels carry blood The human body is a complex machine,
how the different systems in the containing oxygen and made up of tissues and organs. These work
body fit together. nutrients around the body together through joined-up systems that
communicate with each other through
The heart pumps blood Bones such as the electrical messages, which travel to and
around the body humerus in the upper from the brain.
arm provide a strong
The lungs fill with oxygen framework inside the body
when we breathe in and
release carbon dioxide
when we breathe out

WHAT IS THE BUILDING A BODY
BODY MADE OF?
Microscopes show that everything in the
More than half of the body’s weight human body is made up of tiny cells, which
is water. The rest is made up of are different depending on where they are
different kinds of tissue, from the and what they do. They grow in the right way
soft tissue that lines our intestines for their tasks because they all contain DNA,
to the hard tissue that forms which is like an internal instruction manual.
our bones. Water and tissues
themselves are made up of
around six elements, as shown
in the diagram below.

Carbon
(18%)

Hydrogen DNA CELL
(10%) Cells contain spirals of There are more than
DNA, which tell them
Nitrogen 37 trillion cells in
(3%) how to grow. a human body.

Oxygen (65%) Calcium
(2%)

Others (2%);
mainly phosphorus

EVERY ELEMENT IN TISSUE ORGANS
THE BODY COMES Cells form into Tissue forms into
tissue, such as organs, such as the
FROM STARDUST muscle tissue. heart (shown here).

THE SKIN Skin hairs rise The outer layer, the epidermis,
to keep the is tough and protective
The skin is a protective layer body warm
that goes all around the body.
It is tough but flexible and it
is very sensitive, sending
messages back to the brain.
It also helps the body stay at
a constant temperature.

The dermis has
touch sensors

The third layer of skin
is made up of fat

Blood vessels widen to help
heat escape, or narrow to
keep heat in the body

Each finger BODY
has three bones SYSTEMS
(phalanges) and
each thumb has Inside the body,
two bones complex systems of
tissues and organs
Bones connect work together to help
to one another the body perform.
through special Each system has a
kinds of joints. particular task, such
The knee is the as digesting food or
body’s largest joint fighting off disease.
There are 11 different
The skin forms systems in the body.
a protective
The legs have several
layer around the muscles that enable them
outside of the body to move in many directions

Each foot has SKELETAL MUSCULAR NERVOUS
26 bones to The bones and joints The muscles allow the
give the body its basic bones and organs of This is a messaging
give it strength system between the
and flexibility framework. the body to move. brain and other parts

of the body.

RESPIRATORY CARDIOVASCULAR LYMPHATIC AND DIGESTIVE
This is the system Blood runs through Food is broken down
that allows us to this system, all around IMMUNE
breathe in and out. This helps us fight off into vital nutrients
the body. disease and infection. by this system.

The shinbone, or
tibia, is the lower
leg’s main bone

COHCTNTOUHHTNME1RET0MAOBER0NLUUV,A0STSEBC0CHRIOT0ELYEDSTAEYTEDISRMYAOI–TNEEYUHTSSTHNAAHTEDRYEE FEMALE MALE

URINARY REPRODUCTIVE ENDOCRINE

This system allows This is the system that allows This produces
the body to filter people to produce children chemicals called
out the waste and together. It is different in hormones, which can
men and women. affect other systems.
water it doesn’t need.

The skull is made up MBOOMRTNBEAHAAETDSESBHEIAFTEAUUHDSNSPEUAEYL3ORTT0FGEO0SR2,BGKO0BOEE6WURTLBTNHEOTTEWNORHENIETSIHRI.S The neck’s pivot Parietal bone
of 22 different bones, joint enables its Occipital bone
The jawbone, or mandible, bones to rotate Temporal bone
most of them fused is connected to the skull
together. It houses the by a hinge joint. It contains The shoulder blade, or
brain, eyes, and ears. the lower teeth scapula, connects the
upper arm and collar bone
The upper teeth are
found in the upper jaw This triangular bone,
the sacrum, is made
The spine stretches up of five vertebrae
from the base of the fused together

skull to the coccyx.
It is formed of 33

round bones, called
vertebrae, which are

stacked together

The collarbone, or clavicle,
helps support the shoulder
and arm. It is the body’s
only horizontal bone

The breastbone, or
sternum, helps to protect
the heart and lungs
Humerus
(upper arm)

The ribs are joined to
the middle of the chest
by bars of stretchy
cartilage that allow
the chest to expand

Twelve pairs of ribs
form a cage around
the heart and lungs

Ulna (outer
lower arm)

Radius (inner
lower arm)

Each finger is
made of three

bones called
phalanges. The

hands contain
about 54 bones

The pelvis protects some The coccyx, or
of the body’s internal organs. tailbone, is the
It is made up of six bones final segment of
that form a bowl shape the spinal column

The thigh bone, or femur,
is the longest and strongest
bone in the body. It typically
makes up around a quarter
of a person’s height

The kneecap or The knee joint is the
patella, covers and largest joint in

protects the knee the body. It works
joint like a shield like a hinge but can

also twist slightly

The lower leg has two Tibia
bones: a large tibia
and a smaller fibula

Fibula The fibula is more
slender than the tibia
and runs next to it

The ankle Five bones called
is made up of metatarsals connect the
three joints and toes to the rest of the foot.
seven bones Each foot contains 26 bones
called tarsals

The toes are made SKELETAL SYSTEM The heel,
up of bones called or calcaneus,
phalanges. The big The skeletal system is made up of all the bones is the largest
and joints in the body. There are 206 bones and bone in the foot
toes have two six different types of joints. Our bones are made
phalanges each, all
the others have three of living tissue, blood vessels, and nerves.

FRONT BACK

Skeleton WHAT IS A JOINT? SYNOVIAL JOINTS

The skeleton is the body’s scaffolding – it gives us shape Where bones meet, they are held together Synovial joints are the most common type of joints.
and support. It has other important functions, too. by joints, tissues that allow them to There are six types of synovial joints, each allowing
Along with muscles, it enables us to move around. It also move. Without joints we wouldn’t be able a different range of movement, depending on how
protects our inner organs and produces red blood cells. to move our bodies. The movement a joint the bones fit together.
allows depends on the shape of the bones.

Bone marrow Spongy bone

Tough PIVOT SADDLE GLIDING
ligaments JOINT JOINT JOINT

INSIDE A BONE Spongy bone Compact bone hold the Stretchy
Bone marrow bones tissue
Inside the solid outer bone Fibrous outer called
is lighter, honeycomb-like covering together cartilage
spongy bone. In big bones coats the
the centre is filled with Fluid ends of
jelly-like marrow, which keeps the bones
makes red blood cells. the joint
flexible

INSIDE ELLIPSOIDAL HINGE BALL AND
A JOINT JOINT JOINT SOCKET JOINT

ANTERIOR (FRONT) POSTERIOR (BACK)

There are 43 muscles in OWMNHILUILNEMIADOACINVHNIHDOBAUOFIADTRLYSHEMOHFNAUISSVTCEHITLEES
the face. They allow us to
open and close our mouth

and eyes and to make
facial expressions

The platysma tenses the Rhomboid Trapezius Latissimus
neck, helping to create dorsi
facial expressions
Short scapular
Trapezius muscles

Pectoralis major Deltoid

Pectoralis
minor

The deltoid muscle Erector spinae
in the shoulder Serratus anterior
raises the arm

Extensor compartment
of the arm, containing
the triceps, which
straightens the elbow

Flexor compartment
of the arm, containing
biceps, or brachii,
which bend the elbow

Intercostal
muscles help lift
the ribs upwards

and outwards

Rectus
abdominus
muscles,
or “abs”

Flexor
compartment
of the forearm –
these muscles
flex the fingers
and thumb

Iliopsoas Piriformis Gluteus maximus

Sartorius, the Thigh adductor compartment Adductor
body’s longest contains muscles that compartment
bring the thighs together
muscle of the thigh

Patella, or kneecap Flexor compartment of the
thigh contains muscles
Tough bands of fibrous
tissue called tendons that bend or flex the knee.
anchor muscles to the These muscles are also
bones beneath them
known as the hamstrings

Quadriceps – Extensor compartment Flexor compartment Flexor compartment
a group of four of the leg includes of the leg includes of the leg, contains
large muscles muscles that move the gastrocnemius
that control the the foot at the ankle muscles that let the muscle, which
and the toes body stand on tiptoe lifts the heel and
movement of bends the knee
the knee joint
Fibularis brevis
Calf muscles turns the foot
outwards

MUSCULAR SYSTEM Calcaneus tendon,
also known as the
The human body has 640 different skeletal Achilles tendon
muscles, which fit around the skeleton in
layers. The bottom layer is known as deep
muscle and the upper layers are called
superficial muscle. Skeletal muscles work
together in groups called compartments.
Flexor compartments bend joints, while
extensor compartments straighten them.
SUPERFICIAL
(TOP) MUSCLES
DEEP
MUSCLES
DEEP
MUSCLES
SUPERFICIAL
(TOP) MUSCLES

Muscles Biceps
contracts to
Every movement we make, from blinking an eye to running bend the arm
a race, is powered by muscles. Even the movements we
are not aware of, such as the beating of our heart or the WHAT IS Triceps contracts
digestion of food, are actually controlled by muscles. A MUSCLE? to straighten
the arm
A muscle is a band or bundle of
living, stretchy fibres, which are MUSCLE POWER
designed to shorten or contract.
Thousands, or even tens of thousands,
of fibres make up each muscle.

MUSCLE SKELETAL MUSCLE SMOOTH MUSCLE CARDIAC MUSCLE MUSCLE MULTIPENNATE UNIPENNATE TRIANGULAR STRAP CIRCULAR
TYPES Also called striped or This muscle is found Makes the heart SHAPES (SHOULDER) (INNER THIGH) (MOUTH)
striated muscle, this is beat by contracting
Skeletal muscles move connected to the bones. in the intestines There are many
the body’s bones in and other organs. rhythmically. different shapes of
response to conscious skeletal muscle in
messages from the our bodies. They vary (FINGER) (CHEST)
brain. Cardiac and in size and structure
smooth muscles depending on their
work without specific function.
conscious thought.
FUSIFORM
(BICEPS)

The brain PLANNING

The brain is the most complex organ in the body. Safely encased THINKING
inside the skull, it controls our actions and all the body functions
that keep us alive. It also monitors the world around us, stores
our memories, and enables us to plan for the future.

NERVOUS SYSTEM JUDGING
FEELING
The brain is linked to the rest of the body through a network of nerves, known as the nervous system.
This network acts as a kind of information highway, carrying messages between the brain and the body.
Part of the system, known as the autonomic nervous system (ANS), makes sure all our “automatic” body
actions, such as breathing, keep functioning correctly.

FIGHT OR FLIGHT REST AND DIGEST SPEECH

The sympathetic half of the The parasympathetic part
ANS reacts to prepare the body reacts to prepare the body
for stressful situations such as for restful situations, such
as taking a nap.
running away from danger.

Dilates pupils so Constricts pupils so
you can see more less light comes in

Dilates the airways to Constricts the airways TASTE
give you more oxygen as breathing slows SMELL

Speeds up Promotes Slows BRAIN JOBS
heartbeat storage of heartbeat
glucose The brain allows you
Stimulates to sense, think, learn,
production of glucose Stimulates remember, and much more.
digestion Different areas of the brain
to increase energy have different jobs.

Reduces production
of digestive
chemicals

Prompts secretion Stimulates pancreas to SENSES LANGUAGE
of adrenaline release digestive enzymes
There are five main One part of the brain known
Slows the kidneys’ Speeds up sense areas in the as Broca’s area controls your
urine output transit of brain. They process speech. Two other parts, known
food through the signals from the as Geschwind’s territory and
intestines sense organs – eyes, Wernicke’s area, help you to
ears, skin, tongue, learn and understand language.
and nose.

Relaxes Contracts MEMORIES MOVEMENT
the bladder the bladder
The hippocampus This part of the brain is called
Slows down is where your brain the motor cortex and it sends
food moving makes and stores signals to your muscles to tell
through memories. them to move your body.
intestines
Narrows blood Spinal cord (runs up THOUGHTS
vessels to move the inside of the spine)
blood faster around The large area known as the prefrontal cortex
processes your thoughts. It turns them into
the system plans, judgements, and ideas, and also helps you
to understand other people’s feelings.

HOW NERVES SEND MESSAGES Signal passes Axon of neuron BRAIN AREAS
from one neuron sending signal
The nervous system is made up of billions of cells called to another The human brain has many different parts, but it
neurons. These odd-looking cells have branches called axons Electrical impulse can be divided into three main areas. The large
that carry electric messages, or impulses, down to lots of (the message) cerebrum deals with thoughts, language, and
behaviour. The limbic system processes emotions,
smaller branches. These pass the message on The message takes and the cerebellum coordinates movement.
to another neuron. chemical form
Cerebellum Cerebrum
Signal travels Chemicals move
onwards towards across to the Limbic
other neuron system
another neuron
Receiving
Axon neuron HUMAN BRAIN

TRANSMITTING MESSAGES The human brain has lots of wrinkles,
There is a gap between neurons called which hold all its information. If the
the synapse. The electrical impulses surface of your brain was unfolded,
it would be more than twice as big.
convert to a chemical form to travel
across the gap.

NEURON Dendrites

40

MOVEMENT LOOKING
AT THE BRAIN

The brain is inside the skull,
so it can only be seen using
special scanning machines.
These can be used to show
the physical make-up of the
brain, or to highlight the parts
of the brain that are working
at any moment.

TOUCH SPATIAL AWARENESS THEWBDORURARKINIINNIGGS,SAELLVEWEEPNAYS

MRI SCAN
An MRI scan uses magnetism
to produce images of different

sections of the brain.

UNDERSTANDING MAKING MEMORIES
AND LEARNING
The brain absorbs information from the senses, processes all of it
LANGUAGE into an image or thought, and then stores that image or thought as
a memory. Memories can be short-term, such as a phone number
SOUND
you use once, which is held for just as long as you need it, or long-
VISUAL term, such as your first day at school, which you may remember
PROCESSING for many years.

REHEARSAL

RETRIEVAL

TRANSFER

EMOTION RECOGNITION SENSORY SENSORY SHORT-TERM LONG-TERM
INPUT MEMORY MEMORY MEMORY

MEMORY TRUE OR SOME UNUSUAL
FALSE? BRAINS
VISION
The brain is so complex When parts of the brain do not
PERCEPTION CO-ORDINATION that we are only beginning function or function differently,
Usually your to understand how it works. it can affect the way that
brain will send CO-ORDINATION There are many popular beliefs individuals make sense of
signals from more The cerebellum at the base of your brain helps to about the brain – some are true the world.
than one sense organ coordinate your muscles, so that they work together. and some are false.
at the same time. For AMNESIA
example, when you watch WE ONLY USE 10 PER
a movie you are seeing and CENT OF OUR BRAINS This is a loss of memory due to
hearing it. This huge area at The truth is that we use all a physical or emotional trauma.
the back of your brain helps of our brains to complete
you to make sense of the signals. normal daily tasks. SYNAESTHESIA
This is known as perception.
30,000 NEURONS WOULD People with this disorder experience
EMOTIONS FIT ON THE HEAD OF A PIN mixed-up senses. For example,
The amygdala is where the brain turns This is true, and the brain some people see colours when they
the information it receives into emotions. contains around 100 billion read or hear numbers.
neurons in total.
EMOTIONS Smooth Raised inner Brows DEMENTIA
brow brows lowered THE BRAIN DOES NOT
The brain processes our FEEL PAIN This is a set of problems, including
Teeth The brain does not have difficulties with thinking, memory,
showing pain receptors, so it cannot problem-solving, and language.
feel pain. It usually affects older adults.

EINSTEIN’S BRAIN WAS OBSESSIVE–COMPULSIVE
BIGGER THAN AVERAGE DISORDER (OCD)
Einstein’s brain was a bit
smaller than average. This is a disorder where people
Size does not affect worry about things all the time and
intelligence. repeat actions over and over again.

feelings. As it does so,

signals move through Raised Lowered
the body so that those mouth mouth
feelings become visible corners

to other people. There TRICKS OF THE MIND

are six primary emotions, Sometimes you cannot believe your
eyes – or more accurately, you cannot
and they all show on the HAPPINESS SADNESS ANGER believe what your brain thinks it is
seeing. The brain can be fooled.
face in a particular way. Arched Mouth Arched
These facial expressions brows curled brows
are the same in everyone –

a smile means the same Jaw Nose
thing whether you live dropped wrinkled
in the Sahara desert or

New York City. WHICH LINE IS LONGER? WHICH IS BIGGER?
Do you see one of these lines as The red dot on the right looks bigger,
SURPRISE DISGUST FEAR longer? This is a visual illusion – the
lines are both the same length. but it is not. Your brain judges it in
relation to the blue dots around it.

41

Computers c.2000 BCE 1666
The Chinese Samuel Morland
Computers are electronic machines that we can invent the invents a machine
use to do many different things, just by changing abacus, the
the programs they are running. Today, computers world’s first that can add
have become indispensable because they are used counting and subtract.
to run our world – from global air traffic control to machine. Morland’s
personal mobile phones. calculating
Abacus machine

2000 bce Pascaline

COMPUTER HISTORY 1642

The first calculating machines Blaise Pascal
were invented to add numbers, invents the
which was important for buying Pascaline, a
and selling goods. They were mechanical
continually improved, until we and automatic
arrived at the modern computer. calculator.

HOW COMPUTERS WORK PROCESSOR CHIP SOFTWARE

Computers work by processing information: they take A computer’s processor Software is the name for ready-made programs
in information (data), store it (memory), process it in is like the brain of the we use to make one computer do many things.
whichever way they have been programmed to do, computer. It uses a chip Software allows us to write, edit photos, use the
then display the result (output). – a piece of silicon that internet, and so on, without having to program a
can hold billions of computer ourselves.
KEYBOARD components – to perform
The keyboard and mouse are both its computing tasks.
input units – they are ways of getting
1 BINARY CODE
information into the computer. Computers

only understand

binary code, which is

made up of 0s and 1s.

MOUSE MEMORY SCREEN 2 PROGRAMMING
Computers use two different kinds of Computers have LCD screens to LANGUAGE
INPUT memory: ROM (read-only memory), and display the result of the processing
Programming
SHRINKING RAM (memory you can change). that has taken place.
SIZES languages are used
STORAGE AND PROCESSING OUTPUT
The 1949 EDSAC computer to lay out sets of
took up a whole room and
was arranged over 12 racks. instructions for
Today’s personal computers
(PCs) perform calculations computers to follow.
millions of times faster,
but they can sit easily on CTOHMMEPIWLULTOIMERRLEDTIS’RSJEUSCSMUTABOLELNDEEST 3 SOFTWARE
someone’s desk or lap. Programming

languages are used

to write computer

programs (software).

EARLY COMPUTER DESKTOP LAPTOP TABLET
1949 COMPUTER COMPUTER 1993

1980 1983

NETWORKS SUPERCOMPUTERS

A network is a number of things connected in some way. Some scientific problems are so vast that they need huge amounts of
There are three main forms of computer networks, which processing power, delivered by “supercomputers”. Some of these have
can connect computers and peripherals, such as printers. tens of thousands of processors all working on one thing at the same time.

Network server 3. Each processor gets 4. Each small problem
to work on one of is processed separately
BUS NETWORK
the smaller problems 5. The supercomputer
This simple network uses puts all the
one cable to connect all 2. The computer breaks results together
the devices in a line. One the problem into lots of
computer acts as the server.
smaller problems

6. The
final result
appears in
one place

STAR NETWORK

Here, each computer is connected to
a central hub, using an individual cable
for each computer. If one device fails,
the others are not affected.

RING NETWORK 1. The supercomputer HOW SUPERCOMPUTERS WORK
is given a huge
Here, the computers are connected in problem to solve Most supercomputers work by
a circular pattern, and the information breaking down a big problem
travels in one direction. Each computer into smaller parts, and solving
is connected to the next one. these with separate processors.

42

1801 1906 1943 1946 1962 1995
Joseph Jacquard’s The vacuum
loom uses a tube, an essential British engineer ENIAC is created – Computer Microchip A USB is used for the
program (run by part of modern Thomas Flowers the world’s first company IBM first time to connect
punched cards) computers, builds Colossus: general-purpose sets up SABRE,
to weave fabric. is invented. the first electronic, electronic computer. a system that other devices
digital computer. It weighs 100 tonnes connects up
1822 Vacuum tube and contains 18,000 1,500 computer 1971 to a computer.
Charles Babbage’s electronic switches. terminals.
engine has an Intel 404, the
input, a memory,
and a number- first single-chip
cruncher
(processor). microprocessor,

Babbage is invented. USB
Engine
1886 1941 1947 1976 1981 1991 2015
Herman Hollerith The transistor is The world’s first
builds the first German Konrad invented. It would supercomputer, IBM launches The World 2014
punched-card Zuse designs the allow electronic CRAY–1, is built. a PC that Wide Web The first
tabulating Z3, the world’s devices to become uses MS- is made 8-terabyte
and sorting first working, much smaller. DOS as an publicly hard drive
machine. programmable, operating available. is released.
fully automatic Transistor system.
Herman digital computer.
Hollerith

THE INTERNET 3. Separate packets travel across 4. Pieces are
different routes over the Internet reassembled
The Internet is a computer
network that stretches 2. Each packet is at the end
around the world, linking labelled with the IP
most computers on the destination address 5. Receiver sees
planet. Every computer the final picture
has its own Internet or exactly as sent
IP address, so that
digital things (such
as email) can be
sent to or
from it.

1. Sender’s SENDING A PHOTO
computer breaks
When you send something
photo into many like a photo by email, the
tiny digital pieces, Internet breaks it into small
pieces then reassembles it.
or “packets”

WHAT WE EMAIL GAMES SHOPPING SOCIAL NETWORKING
DO ONLINE? Emails are an
instant way to send We can play games We can buy things Groups of people
We now use the a digital letter.
Internet for all sorts with distant friends online from anywhere can communicate
of activities where we
want to connect with
someone else –
either for fun or
for business.

via the Internet. in the world. easily online.

COMPUTERS
EVERYWHERE

Computers are used in all sorts of
devices, from personal music players
and phones to microwave ovens and
surveillance cameras.

PORTABLE GPS PORTABLE MEDIA SMARTPHONE
PLAYER

DIGITAL DIGITAL RADIO SURVEILLANCE
TELESCOPE CAMERA

MICROWAVE OVEN CYCLE COMPUTER NAO ROBOT

DIGITAL CLOCK

43

Inventions 1,760,000 bce 35,000 bce 17,500 bce
SPEAR
The work of inventors is all around you. FLINT HAND AXE ANCIENT
Not just your phone and games console – The problem with hand-held EGYPTIAN
the chair you are sitting on, the car HAND AXE weapons was that hunters had JAR
outside, even the light bulb above your to stand very close to their prey,
head was invented by somebody. Some Flint is a special kind of which was dangerous. The POTTERY
early inventions, like the wheel, will be rock because it breaks invention of the spear solved this
used for ever. Others, such as the spear, into sharp pieces. Stone- problem. The hunter could stand Chinese inventors realized
have been replaced by newer, more Age people discovered back some distance, take aim, they could dig clay from
effective models. that its hard, sharp and throw the weapon. Early the ground, shape it into
edges made it very spears had flint heads. Later pots, and harden them in
useful as a tool. Shaped ones used metal heads, shaped hot ashes. The pots were
into an axe, it could be into long, thin blades. watertight so they could
used for cutting meat, be used to carry or heat
scraping skins (to make SHORT SPEARS up water and food.
clothes), chopping wood,
and as a weapon.

1876 1862 1834 1759 1712
PLASTIC
ROTARY PHONE REFRIGERATOR OPTICAL
British inventor Alexander SEXTANT
TELEPHONE Parkes was trying to create Until 1834 people kept food cool in
a synthetic material that insulated boxes filled with ice, which
Early in the 19th century people could be easily shaped when was delivered to their door. Then
found they could send signals hot, but would be hard when Jacob Perkins of Philadelphia, USA,
through wires, but it was not until cold. In 1862 he exhibited invented a water-freezing machine
the invention of the telephone by Parkesine, the world’s first that led to the first domestic fridge.
type of plastic.
Alexander Graham Bell in 1876 1950S REFRIGERATOR SEXTANT 1923
that voices could be sent along MODERN PLASTIC BOTTLES
1895 As explorers continued their TV SET FROM THE 1950S
wires at long distance. This 1886 long journeys across oceans,
invention revolutionized CAR CABINET there was a need for accurate TELEVISION
the ways in which we WIRELESS instruments for navigation.
communicate. Karl Benz of Germany built RADIO, 1932 In 1759 British instrument John Logie Baird, from
the first stationary petrol maker John Bird perfected Scotland, was the first
1878 engine in 1879, and decided to RADIO the sextant, which is still kept person to transmit a TV
work out how to use this in a COMMUNICATION on ships today as a back-up picture in 1923. In 1927
EDISON’S LAMP “horseless carriage”. By 1885 device in case GPS (satnav) American Philip
he had invented a two-seater In 1895 Italian inventor Guglielmo navigation fails. Farnsworth created
LIGHT BULB vehicle with a compact, Marconi managed to send Morse the first form of
single-cylinder engine. The code signals using radio waves 1903 electronic television.
Scientists across the world patent for this car, filed in instead of wires. The instrument he
experimented with lamps 1886, is seen as the “birth used became known as the radio. AEROPLANE
and light in the 19th century, certificate” of the motor car.
but it was Thomas Edison Orville Wright from the
in the USA, who created a 1900 BENZ IDEAL USA first took to the skies
light bulb that could last with an aeroplane powered
for more than 1,200 hours. by a small petrol engine in
Light bulbs have since North Carolina in 1903. He
been redesigned to use flew for 12 seconds over a
less energy. distance of 37 m (120 ft). He
44 and his brother Wilbur had
spent five years in their
workshop in Ohio designing
machines that were strong,
light, and had enough
balance and control to fly.

MODEL OF THE WRIGHTS’ 1903 FLYER

8000 bce 6000 bce 3500 bce 900 ce
WHEEL
BOAT MODEL OF FIJIAN BATTLE CANOE WOODEN PLOUGH GUNPOWDER
The first wheels were solid BURNING
Early people needed some form of floating raft to take them PLOUGH wooden discs with a hole
through the centre. People GUNPOWDER
fishing and from one island to another. The earliest boats People hunted for food until needed sharp metal tools
around 8500 BCE when they to chisel the round shape, Chinese alchemists (early chemists)
were wooden logs or bamboo trunks tied together, but by began to farm the land to which explains why this had been experimenting with
grow grains, such as wheat. major invention took a while chemicals for centuries when a group
around 3000 BCE, people had developed metal tools to cut Wooden ploughs were to arrive. The wheels were discovered that a mix of saltpetre,
invented to make use of connected by a rod called sulphur, and charcoal exploded into
tree trunks into wooden planks to build the first ships. animal power. Ploughs an axle. flame. The mix was used in fireworks
could be joined to oxen and to scare away evil spirits and later
used to dig up much bigger WOODEN WHEEL in weapons. The recipe was kept
areas of land. from the rest of the world
until the 13th century.

STEAM ENGINE 1590 1300
COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
The first steam machine was designed EYE
by Spanish inventor Jerónimo de Ayanz Zacharias Janssen, the son of a spectacles GLASSES
in 1606 to push water out of mines. maker in Holland, invented the
microscope using a long tube and EYE GLASSES
Other machines followed, but it a mix of curved lenses. In 1665
was not until Scotsman James the Englishman Robert Hooke Early peoples such as the Vikings
Watt added a condenser (for improved the design and used rock crystals to act as lenses
cooling the steam back added an oil lamp to light up and increase their viewing power.
to water) and gears (for the specimens. Microscopes Wearable lenses in the form of eye
making the engine have been used by glasses were invented in the 14th
faster) that the steam scientists ever since. century – probably in Italy, where
engine became glassblowing techniques were
a useful form of REPLICA OF advanced. These early spectacles
power for factories, ROBERT HOOKE’S were made of two magnifying
mines, farming, MICROSCOPE lenses set into bone, metal, or
and transport. leather mountings, and were
balanced on the nose.
REPLICA OF
JAMES WATT’S
STEAM ENGINE

1928 1946 1957 1973 1989 2010
COMPUTER SPACE
ANTIBIOTIC PILLS SATELLITE 1990S MOBILE PHONE WORLD 3-D BODY
Developed for the US WIDE WEB PARTS
ANTIBIOTIC government, the world’s The Soviet Union put the MOBILE PHONE
first electronic general- first satellite into space In the 1970s Vinton Cerf Invented in the USA, 3-D
Alexander Fleming’s purpose computer was on 4 October 1957. Called Martin Cooper, working developed a system that printing has been used
discovery that a mould called ENIAC: Electronic Sputnik 1, it was the size at Motorola in the USA, allowed mini-networks of since the 1980s to build
juice (now known as Numerical Integrator of a beach ball, and took developed and demonstrated computers all over the up three-dimensional
penicillin) could kill a and Computer. This 98 minutes to orbit Earth. the first mobile phone. It world to send files to each objects in layers from
wide range of bacteria huge computer led the This marked the beginning was the size of a brick and other. Then in 1991 Tim digital information. More
changed the course of way for smaller and of the Space Age. would not be sold to the Berners-Lee introduced recently, scientists have
modern medicine. more powerful general public for another a World Wide Web of been developing 3-D
Today, there are many computers in the SPUTNIK 1 ten years, but it marked the information that anyone printers to make human
types of antibiotics, decades to come. start of mobile personal with an online computer organs and body tissue.
targeting bacteria, communication systems. could access, and helped
fungi, and parasites. COMMODORE (PERSONAL) to create the Internet we
COMPUTER FROM 1977 know and use today.

2.4 BILLION OF THE
7 BILLION PEOPLE

ON EARTH USE
THE INTERNET

45

Numbers NUMBER SYMBOLS

Numbers are symbols that are used to Many ancient civilizations used some form of number system. The modern Hindu-
represent a quantity of something. They have Arabic system is the simplest and most useful for mathematical calculations.
been used for thousands of years to answer
the question “how many?”. At first people only Modern 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
used whole numbers (integers), but then came Hindu-Arabic
the idea of fractions and negative numbers.
Mayan

Ancient
Chinese

Ancient
Rome

Ancient
Egypt

Babylonian

ADDITION Sign for 3 Equals sign 4 SUBTRACTION 4 Sign for Equals
addition leads to subtraction sign leads
Numbers can be NUMBER answer TOTAL, RESULT, Subtraction is a FIRST to answer
added together to find + TO ADD OR SUM mathematical way of NUMBER –
the total of two or more = working out how many =
quantities. Additions are + are left if you take some –3
written as equations by = of an original quantity NUMBER TO =1
placing “+” between the away. It uses the “–” sign. SUBTRACT
TOTAL, RESULT,
1numbers being added.
FIRST OR SUM
NUMBER

MULTIPLICATION 9 × 13 10 ÷ 3 5

Multiplication is useful for repeated Sign for Division sign 4
addition. To find the total people multiplication 3 10
in 9 rows, for instance, where DIVIDEND 9
each row has 13 people, This is the number that 2 7
you could add 9 to 1 8÷
itself 13 times, is being divided by (or
or calculate shared out among) 6
9 x 13. another number.
3 = 3 1remainder
÷

10
9 rows 1 12 13 DIVISION Sign for 3
of people 2 11 division 3
3 10 Division is used to divide up a total 3
4 9 number of things into several equal DIVISOR
5 bundles, or amounts. This example The number that is 1
6 8 shows how to divide ten sweets among used to divide the first
7 three people. It is not possible to do this number (the dividend).
8 7 evenly, so after giving the three people
9 three sweets each, there is still one left QUOTIENT
13 people 6 over (known as the “remainder”). The result of
in each row the division.
5 The total, or
4 product, of 9
3 times 13 is 117
2

1

9×13 =13+13+13+13+13+13+13+13+13 =117

POWERS One example NUMBER SEQUENCES Each number in
of 52 would be this sequence is
A “power” is the number of times a number is multiplied by 5 rows with A sequence of numbers is a series of numbers that follow 2 higher than the
5 units in one another according to a pattern, such as each number number before it
itself. So “5 x 5 x 5 x 5” is said to be “five to the power of each row being two higher than the previous term.
four” which is written mathematically as 54.

53 This is the power, which shows A BASIC +2 +2 +2 +2
how many times to multiply the
number (53 means 5 × 5 × 5) SEQUENCE
The rule for this
This is the number 5 1 sequence is Fifth
that the power 4 2 that each number
relates to 3 3 number equals is 10
2 4 the previous
1 5 number plus 2. 2 , 4 , 6 , 8 , 10 , . . .

1 SQUARED NUMBER First number is Dots show
2 2, so the next sequence
3 5 × 5 = 52 will be 2+2 continues
4
5 =25 5² is called FIBONACCI 1+1 Each number in this sequence is the
“5 squared” sum of the two numbers before it
5 rows of 5 units, SEQUENCE
stacked 5 high This is a very 1+2 2+3 3+5 5+8
famous number
46 5 block units sequence that
appears in
5 1 CUBED NUMBER lots of natural 1, 2, 3, 5, 8,...
4 2 formations
3 3 5 × 5 × 5 = 53 such as flower
2 4
1 5 =125 1 ,petals and

spiral galaxies.

5³ is called Sequence Sequence continues in same way indefinitely
“5 cubed” starts with 1

POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE NUMBERS DECIMALS

Positive numbers count up from zero; negative numbers count down from zero. Decimals are a way of expressing parts of things or
This means they are less than zero. If you had £5 in your bank account and
withdrew £10 from a cash machine, your bank balance would show as –£5. numbers as tenths or hundredths of a whole number.

–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1234 5 The number to the left The decimal The numbers to the right
of the decimal point is point of the decimal point are
NEGATIVE NUMBERS POSITIVE NUMBERS a whole number (here parts of a number; here 5
tenths and 6 hundredths
it is 1,234)

1,234 . 56

FRACTIONS ONE QUARTER (¼) PERCENTAGES 100% In a class of 100
¼ (one quarter) is 1 part out of 4 children, 100%
Fractions are a way of expressing parts of an object or equal parts that make up a whole. Percentages are another way = 100 children
number. If you cut a cake, for instance, into 2 equal of talking about parts of an
parts, each piece is now 1 of 2 parts; this is written as 1 object or number. Here, the
1 over 2, like this: “½“. 4 whole (such as the whole of
a school class) is said to be
EIGHTH (1⁄8) 1 1 100 per cent, or 100%. Half the
1⁄8 (one eighth) is 1 8 2 class is therefore half that:
part out of 8 equal 50%. The whole can be
broken into very fine
parts that make parts up to 100%.
up a whole.
1 1
SIXTEENTH (1⁄16) 16
1⁄16 (one sixteenth) is
1 part out of 16 equal 32 1 1
64 64
parts that make
up a whole. ONE SIXTY-FOURTH (1⁄64) ONE HALF (½) 50% 1%
1⁄64 (one sixty-fourth) is In a class of 100 children, In a class of 100
ONE THIRTY- If you divide a cake into 2 equal parts,
SECOND (1⁄32) 1 part out of 64 equal parts each piece is 1 of 2 parts. This is 50% = 50 children children, 1% = 1 child
1⁄32 (one thirty- that make up a whole. written mathematically as ½.
second) is 1 part out SAYDPIINFFERFGREACTRCDEHENTENEICTOTSAIMNAWGSAMEA,SLEAYSANST, RHDOEIFNG
of 32 equal parts that
make up a whole.

DECIMALS, 0.75 100% 1 1
FRACTIONS, AND DECIMAL 3
PERCENTAGES A decimal shows a
number as tenths and 75% 0.75 4
These are all ways of talking hundredths of a whole.

about parts of a number, or

something that is less than COMMON NUMBERS

a whole (such as half a cake, 75% PERCENTAGE The table below shows some commonly
50% of a class, or 0.5 of a DECIMAL
metre). We can “translate” FRACTION used fractions, decimals, and percentages.
fractions, decimals, or
percentages into each other. Decimal Fraction % Decimal Fraction %

For instance, ¾ is the same PERCENTAGE FRACTION 0.1 ¹/10 10% 0.625 5/8 62.5%
as 75% or 0.75. A percentage shows A fraction shows 0.125 ¹/8 12.5% 0.666 66.7%
0.25 ¼ 25% ²/3 70%
a number as a 3a number as part 0.333 33.3% 0.7 75%
proportion of 100. of an equally 0.4 ¹/3 40% 0.75 7/10 80%
divided whole. 0.5 ²/5 50% 0.8 100%
½ ¾
4 1
4/5
1

PRIME NUMBERS ALGEBRA VARIABLE =8
An unknown number or
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10These are special numbers that When mathematicians quantity represented by a letter
2 23 2 3 25 are trying to work out a is known as the “variable”.
missing number in an
cannot be divided by any other equation, they use a 2+
symbol to represent the
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20number except themselves and missing number. In this
1. For example, 13 cannot be 23 27 35 2 23 25 example, we know that 2
plus something (here
divided by any number other 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 called “b”) equals 8.
than 13 or 1. Numbers that can 37 2 23 5 2 3 27 235 The answer is:
be divided by others are known
as “composite numbers”. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 EXPRESSION b=6
An expression is a statement written in
KEY TO TABLE 2 3 2 57 23 2 3 25
algebraic form, such as 2 + b = 8.
17
42 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 AVERAGES
23 7 237 2 35 2 23 7 25 Shortest person There are 5 people Tallest person
An average is the is 130 cm (51 in) tall in the group is 160 cm (63 in) tall
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 middle value of a set 160
32 23 5 27 3 2 235 of data. The most For this group of people, the mean height is: 130
common type of (130 + 140 + 150 + 160 + 160) ÷ 5 = 148 cm
PRIME COMPOSITE 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 average is the mean, 0
NUMBER NUMBER which is found by
adding up a set of
A green box A blue box indicates 2 37 2 5 23 2 3 237 numbers then HEIGHT (CM)
dividing the total
on the table that a number is a by the amount of
numbers in the set.
71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80indicates that composite number.
the number is a The numbers it is 23 2 35 2 7 23 25

prime number. divisible by are
given as smaller

81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90numbers below it
32 237 232 235
(2, 3, 7 in the

example above). 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
7 2 3 2 5 23 27 3 25

47

Geometry COMMON ANGLES 0/360°

Geometry is the part of maths that If you draw a line out from a centre 45º
looks at lines, angles, shapes, and point and move it around 360°, it will
space. It is used to work out distances, return to the starting point. So the 270º 90º Angle less
areas, and volumes in a wide range angles surrounding a point make up than 90°
of tasks from building houses a whole turn, and they add up to 360°.
to astronomy. The angles on a straight line make ACUTE ANGLE
up a half turn and add up to 180°. Angle greater
than 180° but
180º less than 360°
WHOLE TURN
REFLEX ANGLE
Angle greater
than 90° but
less than 180°

90°

RIGHT ANGLE OBTUSE ANGLE

TRIANGLES Equal sides are Equal angles The hypotenuse Angle
shown by a dash are shown by is the longest side greater
Shapes made of straight lines are or double-dash an arc or of a right-angled than 90º
called polygons. Triangles are the on the line double arc triangle
simplest polygons, because they
are made from three straight lines EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE ISOSCELES TRIANGLE RIGHT-ANGLED TRIANGLE OBTUSE TRIANGLE SCALENE TRIANGLE
joined at three corners. All three This triangle has three This triangle has two equal This triangle has one angle This triangle has one angle This triangle has sides of
angles inside a triangle always add equal sides and three sides. The angles opposite that is 90º (a right angle). different lengths and three
up to 180º. There are several equal angles (each 60º). that is greater than 90º
different types of triangles. these sides are equal. It also has a hypotenuse. (more than a right angle). different-sized angles.

QUADRILATERALS Parallel
sides
Shapes that are made from
four straight lines are called SQUARE RECTANGLE RHOMBUS PARALLELOGRAM TRAPEZIUM KITE
quadrilaterals. They have four
vertices (points where the sides This quadrilateral has four This is like a long version of the This quadrilateral has This has two pairs of A trapezium (or A kite has two pairs of
meet) – each of these is called equal sides and four equal square: it has four right angles four sides of equal equal-length sides and trapezoid) has one pair adjacent sides (sides that
a vertex. The interior angles angles (right angles). The and two pairs of sides, but one two pairs of equal angles. of opposite sides that are next to each other) that
of a quadrilateral always add opposite sides of a square length, and two pairs are equal in length, and one
up to a total of 360º. There pair is longer than the other. of opposite angles that The opposite sides are parallel but not
are several different types are parallel. Opposite sides are parallel. are parallel. equal in length. pair of equal angles.
of quadrilaterals. are also equal.

POLYGONS TRIANGLE SQUARE PENTAGON HEXAGON HEPTAGON OCTAGON
3 sides and angles 4 sides and angles 5 sides and angles 6 sides and angles 7 sides and angles 8 sides and angles
A polygon is a closed two-
dimensional shape that has DECAGON HENDECAGON DODECAGON
three or more sides. It is 10 sides and angles 11 sides and angles 12 sides and angles
usually named according to
how many sides it has. For
example, hexa is Greek for
“six”, so a hexagon is a polygon
with six sides. Every type of
polygon has the same number
of sides as it has angles. The
shapes may be regular – with
equal length sides and angles
– or irregular, with unequal
sides and angles.

NONAGON PENTADECAGON ICOSAGON
9 sides and angles 15 sides and angles 20 sides and angles

CIRCLES Arc Segment
Sector Chord
A circle is a closed
curved line surrounding RADIUS DIAMETER CIRCUMFERENCE ARC AND SECTOR CHORD AND SEGMENT AREA
a central point, where
every point along the A straight line A straight line The circumference A sector is a space A chord is a straight line The total amount
curved line is the same that runs from that runs from is the total length enclosed by two radii linking two points on a of space inside
distance from the the centre point one side of a (the plural of radius). circle’s circumference.
centre point. In maths, of a circle to any of the outside An arc is a section of A segment is the area a circle’s
the parts of a circle all point on its edge. circle to the edge of a circle. the circumference. between a chord and circumference.
have their own names. other, through
the centre point. the arc of the circle.
48