Picturepedia An Encyclopedia on Every Page ( PDFDrive )

PI = 3.141592653

If you divide the circumference of a circle PI SYMBOL
by its diameter, the answer is always 3 and b1
a bit, or pi (π). It is impossible to write pi
precisely, because the numbers after the
decimal point continue forever.

FINDING AREA h h hh h

The area of a two- r b b b b2 b
dimensional shape is the area = πr²
amount of space inside it. area = bh area = bh area = bh
There are formulae that
can be used to work out RECTANGLE PARALLELOGRAM RHOMBUS
how much space there The area of a rectangle Find the area of a The area of a rhombus
is inside any polygon. parallelogram by
can be found by multiplying its base can be found by
area = 1 bh multiplying its base by its vertical height. area = 1 h(b1+b2) multiplying its base
2 2 by its vertical height.
by its height.
CIRCLE TRIANGLE TRAPEZIUM

The area of a circle is To find the area of a Find the area by adding
pi (3.14) multiplied by triangle, multiply the the two parallel sides,
base by the height, then multiplying the total by the
the square of the halve your answer. height, then dividing by 2.
circle’s radius.

PYTHAGORAS’S “GGREEMEOAEMEKRAE:TNT“HGRINYAEGO”N”CDMMO“EMEMAAESENSUTIRRFNEIRAGO”M FINDING VOLUME AND SURFACE AREA
THEOREM
Volume is the amount of space enclosed within a three-dimensional (3-D)
This theory is named
after an Ancient Greek object. Surface area is the total area around the outside of a 3-D object.
mathematician called
Pythagoras. He observed Area of largest Slant Vertical
that if you draw squares square is 5² length height
from each side of a right- (or 5 × 5), of cone of cone
angled triangle, the area which is 25
of the two smaller squares s h
added together is equal
to the area of the Area of larger 4 cm 4 cm 5 cm 25 cm2 r r h, height (or
largest square. square is 4² length) of
(or 4 × 4), 16 cm2 5 cm r Radius
which is 16 of base Radius of cylinder cylinder
of cone Radius of sphere

surface area = πrs + πr² surface area = 4πr² surface area = 2πr (h+r)
volume = πr²h
USING THE THEOREM 3 cm volume = 1 πr²h volume = 4 πr²
Pythagoras’s theorem can be 3 3
used to find the length of the 9 cm2
longest side of a right-angled 3 cm CONE SPHERE CYLINDER
triangle (c), if you know the length Area of small square is 3² You can find the surface area
of the two shorter sides (a and b). (or 3 × 3), which is 9 Find the surface area of a and volume of a sphere using The surface area and
cone using the radius of its only its radius, because the volume of a cylinder can be
a² + b² = c² base, its height, and its slant other part of the equation, pi, found from its radius and
length. Find the volume using is a constant number (3.14).
height (or length).
the height and radius. Height of
cuboid
ROTATIONAL EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE Slant Vertical
SYMMETRY An equilateral triangle has rotational symmetry of order 3 – length height
when rotated, it fits its original outline in three different ways.
If a shape can be moved s h
around a centre point and
still fit its original outline 1 2 3 h
exactly, it is said to have Centre of 4
rotational symmetry. The w
order of rotational symmetry rotation
is the number of ways a Width of
shape can fit into its original l cuboid l l
outline when rotated. Length of side Length of cuboid Length of side of
base of pyramid
1
surface area = 6l² surface area = 2(lh+lw+hw) surface area = 2ls+l²
SQUARE volume = l3 volume = lwh
When rotated around Direction of rotation volume = 1 l²h
its centre, a square fits 23 3
its original outline in
four different ways – its Centre of CUBE CUBOID SQUARE PYRAMID
rotational symmetry rotation
is order 4. The surface area and The surface area or volume Find the surface area of a
volume of a cube can of a cuboid can be found if square pyramid by using the
be found by using only the you know its length, width, lengths of its slant and the side
length of its sides. No other of its base. Its volume can
information is needed. and height.
be found from its height
and the side of its base.

REFLECTIVE ISOSCELES TRIANGLE EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE TANGRAMS
SYMMETRY This is symmetrical across a central
line: the sides and angles on either An equilateral triangle has Any shape that is made of straight sides can be split into triangles.
a line of symmetry through If you were to cut up a piece of paper into triangles, for instance,
A reflection shows a shape side of the line are equal, and the line the middle of each side – you could reassemble the pieces in different ways to create new
cuts the base in half at right angles. shapes. The game of Tangrams is a puzzle that uses a square
in its mirror image, like a not just the base. shape split into seven polygons, most of which are triangles.

mountain reflection in a lake.

When a flat shape can be

divided in half so that each Line of
half is the exact mirror image symmetry
of the other, it is said to have

reflective symmetry. The

line that divides the shape

to perform the reflection is

called a line of symmetry.

TANGRAM POSSIBLE SHAPES USING TANGRAM PIECES

49

Cars HOW A CAR WORKS

The first cars were invented more than The power that turns a car’s wheels comes
130 years ago. Originally known as from the car’s internal combustion engine.
“horseless carriages”, these early models Combustion is a kind of burning that takes
were slow, open-topped vehicles, but place inside the engine when air is mixed
today’s cars are fast, stylish, and can be with petrol or diesel, compressed, and
powered by petrol, diesel, or electricity. ignited with a spark.

1. INSIDE THE ENGINE

Air and petrol (or diesel) are
sucked into cylinders inside the
engine by pistons, which then
compress the mixture. A spark
plug ignites it, providing energy.

2. IN GEAR 3. TURNING WHEELS 4. MOVING FORWARD
The gears turn rods called The wheels are much
The pistons move very fast, but a car axles. Wheels are attached to bigger than the axles, so
needs more force and less speed to these axles, so they turn too. as they turn they cover
start moving. Gears control the force a lot of ground quickly,
and speed the car receives. moving the car forward.

BESTSELLING CARS TCHAEN(T6FH2REERRMAERPECAHHSR)EI1ICNL0AO0UNFKNEDMRDSR/EHARRI MASERATI
GRANTURISMO
In 1901 only 600 cars were sold around FERRARI MC STRADALE
the world. By 2014 yearly car sales had LAFERRARI
reached 71 million. Some models have 2011
sold in huge numbers, as shown below. 2013

1 TOYOTA COROLLA SUPERCARS

The world’s bestselling car, over 40 million of Cars that are designed to
this Japanese model have been sold since 1966. be faster, sleeker, and more
powerful than normal cars are
2 FORD F-SERIES called supercars. They use cutting-
edge materials and technology, and are
Ford have sold more than very expensive. They are the cars that make
onlookers say “Wow!”.
35 million of these chunky

pick-up trucks since they

were introduced in 1948. FORD F-SERIES

3 VOLKSWAGEN GOLF 1948

Introduced in 1974, the Golf has been consistently

popular – 27.5 million have been sold.

4 VOLKSWAGEN

BEETLE

First produced in 1933, VOLKSWAGEN
23.5 million Beetles have BEETLE 1948
been sold worldwide.

5 FORD ESCORT

These family cars were produced from 1968.
Sales eventually topped 20 million.

6 HONDA CIVIC

Honda was about to stop making cars before
creating the Civic in 1972. 18.5 million have sold.

7 HONDA ACCORD

The first Japanese car produced in the USA,
Honda has sold 17.5 million Accords since 1976.

8 FORD MODEL T

The original affordable car, Ford sold 16.5
million of these between 1908 and 1927.

9 VOLKSWAGEN PASSAT

Seven generations of Passat have seen total
sales of above 15.5 million since 1973.

10 CHEVROLET IMPALA

Chevrolet have sold 14 million of these since
the car was introduced in 1958.

CHEVROLET
IMPALA 1960

1886 1901 1908 1913 1928 Bentley 1954
The Ford Model Ford operates Bentley 4½ Litre
Benz Lohner-Porsche T is the first first moving car wins Le Mercedes-Benz
Motorwagen produces the first affordable car. assembly line. Mans race. 300 SL “Gull Wing”
is the first hybrid cars, which is first production
Benz petrol-fuelled can run on an car to exceed
Motorwagen automobile. electric battery 241 km/h (150 mph).
and petrol.
1886

CARS THROUGH TIME 1893 1903 1910 1934 1948
Mercedes Simplex Jaguar XK120
The first petrol-fuelled cars reached Duryea Motor 60HP can reach First four- Citroën Traction Avant reaches 200 km/h
a top speed of 19 km/h (12 mph). Wagon is the 120 km/h (75 mph). wheel brake is first successful front- (124.6 mph).
Since then, technology has given us first successful system is wheel-drive made
affordable, faster, and safer cars with car powered patented by for the mass-market.
speeds of up to 435 km/h (270 mph). by petrol. Argyll Motors,
Scotland.

Mercedes Simplex 60HP Argyll Landaulette Citroën Traction Avant

50

OFF-ROAD ADVENTURERS WILLYS MB JEEP LAND ROVER SERIES 1 THE FUTURE IS GREEN FORD ESCAPE HYBRID
1941 1949 2009
These cars are specially built to travel along Hybrid cars have two kinds of
difficult terrain, such as muddy or energy sources: a petrol or diesel New York City, USA, is now using
very uneven roads. They are also engine and an electric motor. When more and more hybrid taxicabs.
known as “four-by-fours” because the car is using the petrol or diesel
all four wheels are powered engine, it also charges up the
by the engine. This gives each electric motor, which can then be
wheel the ability to pull the used to drive. These cars use less
vehicle out of a sticky position. energy and cause less pollution
than other cars.

MERCEDES-BENZ G300D RANGE ROVER HUMMER H3 TESLA ROADSTER BMW I8
1993 2002 2008 2007 2014

MCLAREN F1 GT BUGATTI VEYRON This car is purely electric. This hybrid sports car can reach speeds
1997 2005 of up to 250 km/h (155 mph).

KOENIGSEGG RACING DEMONS RECORD BREAKERS
AGERA RS
2015 Racing cars come in several shapes and Over the years, manufacturers have
sizes. Each one is built to suit a particular tried to outdo each other with new
kind of race, such as Formula 1, rallying, refinements. Here are some remarkable
endurance, or stock car racing. record-breaking cars.

FORMULA 1 RACING: 2008 MCLAREN-MERCEDES FIRST AFFORDABLE CAR
Driven by 2008 World Champion Lewis Hamilton.
In the early years of motoring, cars were
driven only by wealthy people. Henry
Ford changed this
in 1908, when
he produced
the affordable
Model T.

TOURING CAR RACING: 2003 MERCEDES BENZ FORD
This won nine of the ten races in Germany’s MODEL T
Touring Car Masters (DTM).
LAND SPEED RECORD

Thrust SSC (SuperSonic Car) used two
turbojets to drive faster than sound in 1997 in
the Nevada Desert, USA, reaching 1,228 km/h
(763 mph).

LAMBORGHINI ENDURANCE RACING: 2009 PEUGEOT THRUST SSC
HURACÁN Winner of Le Mans 24-hour race;
2014 driven by a team of three. SMALLEST ROADWORTHY CAR

PORSCHE 918 STOCK CAR RACING: 2009 TOYOTA CAMRY Built by Austin Colson in the USA in 2012,
SPYDER Brian Vickers won the Carfax 400 in this hybrid car. this car measures just 63.5 cm (25 in) high x
2015 65.41 cm (25.8 in) wide x 126.47 cm (50 in) long.
RALLYING: 2000 SUBARU IMPREZA It is just big enough to be allowed on roads.
Winner of the Safari Rally; driven by Richard Burns.
MOST EXPENSIVE CAR

In 2013 Lamborghini unveiled the world’s most
expensive car: the Veneno Roadster. It costs
£3.3 million (US$4.95 million) and has a top
speed of 356 km/h (221 mph). Lamborghini said
that only nine cars would ever be produced.

FASTEST PRODUCTION CAR

The fastest series production car is the
Hennessey Venom GT. It reached a speed of
435.31 km/h (270.49 mph) in 2014, and is
powered by a 7.0-litre, twin-turbo V8 engine.

Mercedes-Benz 1959 Mini 1971 1982 2014
300 SL “Gull Wing” Hennessey
The space-saving, Chrysler Imperial Bosch produces Venom does
compact Mini introduces a reliable the first fully 435 km/h
changes thinking electronic four-wheel digital electronic (270.49 mph).
about economy cars. anti-lock braking system, fuel injection
called Sure-Brake. system. 2015
Fuel injection system
2010
1958 1966 1973 1997 Bugatti Veyron
Aston Martin DB4 Lamborghini Miura Catalytic converter Toyota Prius is the 16.4 Super Sport
achieves 227 km/h reaches 275 km/h invented. first mass-produced does 434 km/h
(141 mph). (171 mph). hybrid car. (269.86 mph).

Aston Martin DB4 Lamborghini Miura Catalytic converter Toyota Prius

51

Tractors FIRST TRACTORS

A tractor is a vehicle designed to Tractors were invented in the 1860s to
pull things – especially large farm do the job of horses around the farm.
machinery. Tractors have engines They had steam engines, large metal
with a special gearbox that allows wheels, and a seat at the back.
them to use all the engine’s power
for strength, not speed. Once fuelled MOGUL 8-16 IVEL AGRICULTURAL MOTOR
by coal, they now run on diesel. 1915 1903

MODERN MACHINE ANATOMY FARM TRACTORS MOLINE UNIVERSAL MODEL D
1918
Modern tractors are very large and powerful. They have four huge wheels Petrol tractors were
with grooved tyres that allow them to travel over wet, muddy ground, and invented in the 1890s, JOHN DEERE B
reinforced cabs to keep the driver safe even if the tractor tips over. Other with wheels designed to 1935
farm machinery can be attached using linkage and pick-up hitches, and give them great pulling
powered via the tractor’s PTO (power take off) shaft. power. They were also
faster, and quickly
became indispensable ALLIS-CHALMERS MODEL U
on farms. 1933

SOCKETS HYDRAULICS
These allow the
These can be tractor to raise and
used to power lower heavy items.
things like brake
THIEMAN DAVID BROWN 850 1962
lights on 1941
machinery.

THREE-POINT PICK-UP HITCH PTO SHAFT
The driver can
LINKAGE use this to hook This takes power
Other machinery up equipment. from the tractor
can be attached to
the tractor here. to any farm
machinery
attached.

YTO 180 MASSEY FERGUSON
2013 MF941 LOADER
2013

A YEAR ON THE FARM

Farmers work with the seasons, as seeds and crops will grow only
when conditions are right. Tractors are useful at every stage of the
process, from preparing the land to harvesting the crops.

1 PLOUGHING AND
CULTIVATING

After the harvest, 2 PLANTING SEEDS FELDERMAN MINI 16 SOLIS 20
Seeds are sown on to 2014 2014
tractors are used

to pull ploughs, the fields using a tractor

preparing the seeder. Modern machines

soil for seeding. make sure that lines of CRAWLERS

seeds don’t overlap. From the 1920s farms also
began to use the “crawler”
or “caterpillar”. These have
tracks rather than wheels and
can travel safely over slippery
ground and steep hills.

GEORGES VIDAL VINEYARD INTERNATIONAL T20 TRAC-TRACTOR
1925 1933

4 HARVESTING
Farmers attach

special machinery,

such as combines and

forage harvesters, to

tractors to harvest the

crops (such as wheat) SPRAYING FERTILIZERS
Fertilizer spreaders are
from the fields. 3

attached to tractors to distribute

growth-enhancing fertilizer CATERPILLAR D7 JOHN DEERE MC BREDA 50TCR
1948 1950 1952
across the fields.

52

1880 TRACTOR HISTORY

Today’s powerful tractors are the
result of the gradual development
of the tractor since its invention in
the late 19th century.

MARSHALL COLONIAL INTERNATIONAL TITAN TYPE D TWIN CITY 40–65 CLAYTON & SHUTTLEWORTH 1892
CLASS A 1910 1913 DOROTHY John Froelich builds first petrol
1908 1914 engine that can move forwards
and backwards.
FOWLER BB1
1920 1896 Hornsby-
Akroyd Tractor
Roll-bars over A Hornsby-Akroyd
the cab area engine is used to
protect the power the first
driver should the petrol tractor.
tractor tip over
TITAN 10-20 GLASGOW TRACTOR SCEMIA UNIVERSAL 1908
1919 1919 1919 Thick treads,
or grooves, Australia’s
provide grip tractor industry McDonald Imperial
on muddy begins with the
ground building of the
first McDonald
Imperial.

MASSEY-HARRIS Pavesi America
101 JUNIOR 1913–17
1939 As Europe prepares for WWI,
the Pavesi company realizes the
The engine demand for military tractors to
is hidden under replace horses for pulling heavy
loads. The result is the US model
the bonnet known as Pavesi America.

1918
The Fordson Model F
becomes the first
mass-produced and
affordable tractor.

Fordson Model F

1924
International Harvester launches the
Farmall model, introducing the idea of
a general-purpose row-crop tractor.

1931
The Caterpillar 60 Atlas
is the first diesel tractor by the
Caterpillar Tractor Company.

MASSEY FERGUSON 7619 Caterpillar 60
2013 1940
Tractors capable of towing aircraft
CASE MODEL L ROADLESS CATERPILLAR D2 are supplied to the RAF in the UK
1938 1942 during WWII.

TRACK-MARSHALL MINNEAPOLIS-MOLINE MOTRAC INTERNATIONAL TD14 2015 1958
1958 1960 1944 Sir Edmund Hillary arrives at
the South Pole on a tractor.

Doe Triple-D
1964
Doe Triple-D is the first double
tractor; built by British farmer
George Pryor.

1990
JCB launches the
Fastrac, which has
a top speed of
64 km/h (40 mph).

JCB Fastrac
2013
India becomes the world’s
largest tractor producer.

53

Trucks and WHAT ARE THEY FOR? CATTLHRLEAEHDLIALOU“ENRRLGOSSEAEASDVTTETOTRRNRAAUCLICENKSS”,,
diggers
Trucks carry every kind of load. Oil and
People are often fascinated by the vehicles other liquids are transported in tankers,
they see on our roads and hard at work on while huge transporters carry other
construction sites. These machines come in vehicles. Some trucks, such as road
all shapes and sizes, and do very different jobs. gritters, refuse trucks, and ambulances,
provide vital services.

CONSTRUCTION EMERGENCY VEHICLES HAULAGE SPECIALIST
Highly specialized
Cement mixers, Specialized trucks, such Large trucks and machines, such as
diggers, and as fire engines and tankers haul their tracked diggers, do
police vans, respond heavy loads over
bulldozers are vital to emergencies. specific jobs.
for building work. long distances.
PICK-UP TRUCK
LIGHT TRUCKS MEDIUM TRUCKS WITH SMALL CRANE

While some light trucks may only be car-sized, Local delivery vehicles and
they are hardwearing, practical vehicles. These trucks providing public
trucks are useful for carrying small loads and services, such as rubbish
operating in small spaces. collection or breakdown
recovery, are usually
medium-sized.

STREET-SWEEPER VEHICLE

FORKLIFT

THREE-WHEELER SMALL
FLATBED

PICK-UP TRUCK MINI DUMPER DELIVERY TRUCK REFUSE TRUCK
MONSTER TRUCK HAULAGE TRUCK
HEAVY TRUCKS

These huge vehicles have very powerful
engines and strong structures to support
their heavy cargoes. They are often
“articulated”, meaning a tractor unit pulls
a trailer. The largest trucks are mining
dump trucks, used to shift huge loads of
earth and rocks.

TIMBER TRUCK Cars are loaded on to
CEMENT MIXER the transporter’s decks

TRANSPORTER DUMP TRUCK
BIG RIG

TANKER

54

HYDRAULICS CRANES MIGHTY MACHINES

Hydraulics means powering a machine Truck-mounted cranes Pulleys The world’s biggest dump trucks – or ultra class
move very heavy items increase haulers – stand at around 8 m (26 ft) high. These
using liquid-filled pipes. Liquids cannot around building sites. lifting force mechanical monsters are used in mines and can
The engine of this crane of winch carry a staggering 500 tonnes of debris – the weight
be squeezed into a smaller space, so powers a hydraulic of 38 elephants. At 10 m (33 ft) high, the largest
pump that lifts the Crane boom hydraulic diggers weigh around 980 tonnes. They
a pipe filled with oil Pushing the ram main crane boom can shovel nearly 1,000 tonnes of material an hour.
can be used to exert generates force up and down. Hydraulic ram

force. If the pipe is Turntable
swings the
wider at one end boom over a
large area
than the other, the Wider pipe
force is increased. increases Hydraulic
lifting force to stabilizers
raise tractor
stop the
HOW A HYDRAULIC Narrow pipe crane from
transmits force tipping over
RAM WORKS
Since the lift pipe is ULTRA CLASS HAULER HYDRAULIC EXCAVATOR
wider than the ram
pipe, the lifting force
is multiplied.

EMERGENCY AMBULANCE POLICE VAN SWAT TRUCK
VEHICLES FIRE CHIEF’S CAR
MOTOR HOME
The most important trucks
are those that save lives.
Fire engines are equipped
with ladders, water tanks,
and other tools. Armoured
SWAT trucks are used by
the military and police, while
ambulances ferry the sick
and injured to hospital.

AIRCRAFT TOW TRUCK BOMB DISPOSAL TRUCK FIRE ENGINE

Cab where DIGGERS
the driver sits
Also known as excavators, these
machines use a bucket on the BACKHOE LOADER FRONT LOADER
end of a hinged arm (boom) to dig
into the ground. Wheeled diggers
are suitable for moving across
hard surfaces, while tracked
wheels are best for mud.
Loaders are used to scoop
up loose material, such as
gravel, from the ground.

TRACKED LOADER

MINI DIGGER

WHEELED EXCAVATOR TRACKED DIGGER

SPBKEARI“CLFDKLOIEHGRDOGMOEERSPLTEODRUAAANDNTTECOSRIRNSCSGTAU”OLSLEED

55

Trains DIESEL TRAINS

In 1804 British engineer Richard Trevithick tried attaching Steam engines polluted the air and were
a steam engine to a wagon, a job that before then had been inefficient, so people began to look for better
done by horses. It easily pulled enormous weights, and the ways of powering trains. In 1892 the German
steam railway was born. Today’s trains use diesel, electricity, engineer Rudolf Diesel invented the diesel
or magnetic levitation to run fast and cleanly. engine that ran on a liquid type of fuel.

STEAM POWER 1 PISTON MOVES DOWN 2 PISTON MOVES UP BOXLEY WHITCOMB 30-DM-31
Steam moves from the boiler into cylinders. When the piston nears the bottom of the 1941
A steam engine runs on the
heat energy that is produced The steam pressure pushes pistons, which move cylinder, the valve swaps the steam flow from ENGLISH ELECTRIC DELTIC
by burning coal or other fuel. 1955
Inside the steam engine there rods to turn the wheels. The turning wheels the top to the bottom. The steam pushes the
is a fire that heats a boiler PASCSOAEHNLNALEGEMEDEABRTURTHLRRYEGAEDFIRLNIYESWINEALGS
filled with water. The steam move valves that control the flow of steam. piston up, pulling the connecting rod to turn
that is produced goes into STEAM ENGINES
cylinders and pushes pistons the wheel back to where it started.
backwards and forwards. Steam engines were the first
The pistons are connected Boiler form of locomotives. They were
to the driving wheels, and used in the UK from the early
push and pull them round. Piston pushed down Piston pushed up 1800s, spreading quickly to the

Cylinder rest of the world. The early
Valve trains were quite slow, but in
1934 a steam engine called
Firebox Flying Scotsman reached 160
Valve control rod km/h (100 mph) on a test run
between Leeds and London.
Connecting rod Wheel Wheel rotates
Lamp bracket on
buffer beam

ROCKET Wheels driven by pistons KING EDWARD II
1829 1930
MERDDIN EMRYS
TALIESIN 1879 LB&SCR B1 CLASS
1876 1882

LYR WREN NER (CLASS XL NO.66) VGN (CLASS SA NO.4) GWR HALL CLASS
1887 1902 1910 1928

MALLARD HUNSLET AUSTERITY DR (CLASS 99.73-76)
1938 1944 1954

56

BUGATTI RAILCAR DR (CLASS Kö) GHE T1 MA&PA GM EMD TYPE NWZ FASTEST TRAINS
1932/33 1934 1934 1946
An early record-setting train was Stephenson’s
Rocket, at 46 km/h (29 mph). In the 1960s,
Japan opened the world’s first high-speed
rail line, capable of carrying “bullet trains”
that travelled at around 210 km/h (130 mph).
Some trains today can travel even faster.

BALDWIN S12 SWITCHER BR CLASS 08 BR (CLASS 05) NORFOLK AND WESTERN 41 MAGLEV: SHANGHAI METRO, CHINA
1950 1953 1954 1958 UP TO 430 KM/H (267 MPH)

HARMONY CRH 380A: BEIJING TO SHANGHAI, CHINA
UP TO 380 KM/H (236 MPH)

N&W EMD GP9 CLASS DR V15 (CLASS 101) AGV ITALO: NAPLES TO MILAN, ITALY
1955 1959 360 KM/H (224 MPH)

AVE S 103: BARCELONA TO MADRID, SPAIN
350 KM/H (217 MPH)

TALGO 350: MADRID TO LLEIDA, SPAIN
350 KM/H (217 MPH)

DR V60 (CLASS 105) CONRAIL NO.2233 BR D9500 (CLASS 14) PRESTON DOCKS SENTINEL MAGNETIC TRAINS
1961 1963 1964 1968
Maglev trains use magnetic levitation to
ELECTRIC TRAINS ENGLISH ELECTRIC, 0-4-0 move trains along without having to touch
1930 the ground or any form of rail. Magnets
Electric trains run on electricity allow them to rise and then travel extremely
that is provided by an overhead fast above special rails.
line or an electrified rail. They
do not give off smoke and can READING MULTIPLE UNIT N0.800
travel very fast. 1931

DR EO4 PRR (CLASS GG1) MAGLEV TRAIN
1933 1934

BR (CLASS 92) HOW MAGLEV WORKS
1993
FRONT SIDE
JAVELIN NO.395 017 VIEW VIEW
2009
DR (CLASS 243)
1982

Magnets Track Coils in
in the Train the track
produce a
train and magnetic
track field

GATWICK ADTRANZ C-100 EUROTUNNEL LE SHUTTLE
1987 1994

1808 1829 1869 1914–18 1964 Japanese
Trevithick runs a bullet train
steam engine in Stephenson’s Rocket The transcontinental Large armies Japan
Bloomsbury, becomes the fastest railway opens, making the are moved by introduces a 2000s
London. train when it reaches USA a dominant economic train during
46 km/h (29 mph). power. Railways create big World War I. super-fast 2014
Trevithick’s business in America, driving “bullet” train. Japan’s
“Puffing Billy” the Industrial Revolution. Maglev
trains run
1800 faster than
480 km/h
1804 1812 1863 1913 1960s (300 mph).
Trevithick’s Penydarren locomotive First successful commercial use Underground Sweden uses the USA phases out
is tried in South Wales. of steam, in Yorkshire, England. railway opens steam engines. 57
in London, UK. first diesel-
TRAIN HISTORY powered main East German
London Battery shunter
Trains have changed significantly over their Underground map line trains.
300-year history. The first trains were steady 1966
and steam-powered. Modern trains are usually 1890
electric and can reach very high speeds. First use of electric
locomotives on
London’s underground.

Motorbikes FASTEST BIKES SPORT BIKES

A popular means of transport for nearly Some specially built motorcycles can These bikes are designed for
100 years, motorbikes can move faster travel at more than 560 km/h (350 mph). thrills. They have fast acceleration,
than any other road vehicles. There are Such high speeds are not allowed powerful brakes, and can take
specialized bikes for almost every purpose, on public roads. corners at high speed. Some
from town riding to fun sports and racing. models are used for road riding
TOP 1 ACK ATTACK – 605.697 KM/H (376.363 MPH) as well as racing.

SUZUKI HAYABUSA – 399 KM/H (248 MPH) HONDA VFR700F
INTERCEPTOR 1987
MTT TURBINE SUPERBIKE Y2K – 365.3 KM/H (227 MPH)
YAMAHA YZF600R
STUNTS THUNDERCAT 1998

Motorcycle stunt riding is a
sport in which riders perform
daring tricks, often making
their bikes leave the ground.
Lightweight sports bikes are
most commonly used.

STOPPIE ONE-HAND STAND-UP
STOPPIE WHEELIE

CLOTHING STANDARD BIKES CRUISERS

Riders need protective clothes that will These bikes have little or no extra Modern cruisers are powerful
help save them from injury if they fall bodywork. They let riders sit upright, luxury bikes, at their best on
off their bikes. The most vital piece of allowing them to see well ahead. open roads. They are built to
equipment is the helmet. This improves safety, especially look stylish, but many riders
in busy towns. Standard bikes are find them less comfortable
often the first choice for new riders. BMW R32 1923 than touring bikes.
NORTON INTERNATIONAL 1948
Face Helmet Low, wide
shield seat
Shoulder
padding

COVENTRY EAGLE
FLYING 8 1925

Elbow
padding

Gloves

Protective TRIUMPH TROPHY ROYAL ENFIELD
fabric TR6 1958 INTERCEPTOR 1965

Knee HONDA CB250 K4 1972 DUCATI M900 SIDECARS
padding MONSTER 1994
IVY THREE 1924 A sidecar is a small, one-wheeled vehicle that
Rigid SUNBEAM S7 attaches to the side of a bike. It usually provides
boots DE LUXE 1949 a passenger seat and some luggage space.

TOURERS

Comfortable rather than
ultra-fast, touring bikes provide
an easy ride over long distances.
They are also popular
for everyday travel.

ROYAL ENFIELD CONSTELLATION HARLEY-DAVIDSON SUZUKI T500 1975 ZUNDAPP KS750
AIRFLOW 1959 FLH DUO-GLIDE 1960 WEHRMACHT
SIDECAR 1940
58

1850 HISTORY OF
MOTORBIKES

The motorbike had its beginnings
in the late 19th century, when
inventors discovered how to power
bicycles with fuel-driven engines.

NSU 18PS SPORT 1924 EXCELSIOR JAP SPEEDWAY 1949 WESLAKE HOBBIT DRAGSTER 1978

HONDA RC30 HONDA CBR900RR SUZUKI KAWASAKI ZX7R Daimler Reitwagen
1988 FIREBLADE 1992 GSX-R1100 1994 1995
1885 A gas-powered wooden bike is
KAWASAKI NINJA ZX-12R TRIUMPH DAYTONA 675 DUCATI 1098S TWEHDADEAISCUTIOTCISMOALAPANOETLDCIUIOAEI1RAFN0SILTN9FO8HLTSFEAHGE designed and built by German inventors
2000 2006 2007 Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach.

FRANCIS-BARNETT 1894 The Hildebrand
CRUISER 1933
& Wolfmüller

Motorrad is the first

real motorcycle

to come off a

production line. Hildebrand &

Wolfmüller Motorrad

1908 The first-ever motorcycle race is
held at Brooklands, Surrey, in England,
and won by a 944cc NLG Peugeot bike.

HONDA VF500C HARLEY-DAVIDSON NLG Peugeot
MAGNA 1983 XLH883 SPORTSTER 1987
1936 The first scooters
Brake disc HONDA VT 750C2
SHADOW 1998 are made in the USA.

MOTO GUZZI CALIFORNIA EV 2001 The Cushman

Auto-Glide is

produced

in 1938

and later

adapted for Auto-Glide Model 1
wartime use.

1969 Honda launches the first

superbike – the Honda CB750. It is

the first standard bike to offer

features such

as an

overhead-

camshaft

four-cylinder

engine and

front disc brake. Honda CB750

SUZUKI M1800R WARTIME TRIUMPH AMERICA 2012 Mighty Mouse
INTRUDER 2007 SPACE SAVER SCOOTER FOLDED INTO CANISTER
1977 Raced by builder Brian Chapman,
KIRBY BSA RACING During World War II, “Mighty Mouse” is the first dragster
SIDECAR 1968 the British Army used to cover 400 m (1,312 ft) in less
a lightweight bike that than nine seconds.
BMW R50 could be dropped by
COMBO 1957 parachute. Named the Triumph Thunderbird 1600
Welbike, it weighed just
34 kg (75 lb) and fitted 2010 The world’s biggest parallel-twin
into a small canister. engine appears when the Triumph
Thunderbird 1600 comes off the
WELBIKE SCOOTER 1942 2015 production line.

2011 The Triumph Rocket III Roadster
features the biggest production
motorcycle engine ever built.

59

FIGHTER PLANES FOKKER DVII FOCKE-WULF FW190 MESSERSCHMITT ME262

Small, fast, and agile, fighter planes are designed for
attacking other aircraft. The first fighters appeared
during World War I. Today’s planes have highly
sophisticated tracking and weapons systems.

SOPWITH PUP SOPWITH F.1 CAMEL BRISTOL BULLDOG P-38 LIGHTNING F-86 SABRE

NIEUPORT 17 FOKKER SUPERMARINE P-51 MUSTANG
DR.1 SPITFIRE YAKOVLEV YAK-9
F-4 PHANTOM II
ROYAL AIRCRAFT SOPWITH DOLPHIN A6M ZERO HAWKER HUNTER
FACTORY S.E.5A
DE HAVILLAND
BOMBERS AND STRIKE AIRCRAFT MOSQUITO

The role of these aircraft is to strike ground and sea
targets. Heavy bombers carry out long-range strategic
missions. Low-flying strike aircraft can attack
battlefield targets, such as tanks
and troops, with great precision.

ROYAL AIRCRAFT B-25 MITCHELL B-52 STRATOFORTRESS
FACTORY B.E.2C A-4 SKYHAWK

VICKERS VIMY AVRO LANCASTER

JUNKERS JU 87B

AVRO 698
VULCAN

B-17 FLYING FORTRESS

F-117A NIGHTHAWK

VICKERS WELLINGTON X B-58A HUSTLER

Aircraft HOW PLANES FLY

All aeroplanes have wings and an engine. In order to
fly, a plane must engage in a “tug-of-war” between
the forces of lift versus weight, and thrust versus drag.

Aviation has come a long way since the first Air flowing over the wings LIFT The engines
powered aircraft flight took place in 1903. Today, provides upward lift Flow of air provide the thrust
huge planes can carry hundreds of passengers to move forwards
halfway around the world, while supersonic
fighter jets can fly faster than the speed of sound. DRAG THRUST

Drag (wind WEIGHT The weight of the plane
resistance) works downwards due
tries to slow to gravity
the plane down

60

F-14 TOMCAT PASSENGER PLANES
AV-8B HARRIER II
The first commercial flight took place
in 1914, with just one paying passenger.
Today’s largest airliner, the Airbus A380,
can carry up to 853 passengers.

FOKKER F27 FRIENDSHIP BOEING 737-800

DOUGLAS DC3 CONCORDE

LOCKHEED L-1049 G SUPER
CONSTELLATION

F-35 LIGHTNING II DE HAVILLAND DH106 COMET 4C AIRBUS A380

PRIVATE AIRCRAFT BOEING STEARMAN AUSTER J/1
MODEL 75 AUTOCRAT
A range of light, propeller-driven
aircraft are privately flown for both CESSNA F177RG
pleasure and transport. Some CARDINAL
business travellers use private,
often luxurious jets as air taxis.

GIPSY MOTH PITTS S1-S BOMBARDIER LEARJET 45
BELL JETRANGER
B-2 SPIRIT

HELICOPTERS

The rotating blades of helicopters allow them
to take off and land vertically, hover, and fly in
all directions. These agile aircraft can land
in small spaces and reach isolated locations.

A-10 THUNDERBOLT II

WESTLAND
WS-61 SEA KING

BELL UH-1D
IROQUOIS

IT“NTSHDVTHEEIEESNSAIWIIBLGGTLONHEHRETT”LDHODAAT’IRSRWOACFBKDRIERAAWSRFTAT, S SIKORSKY UH-60 BLACK HAWK

BREAKING THE SOUND BARRIER WESTLAND WESSEX WESTLAND
LYNX
Supersonic jets flying faster than the speed of sound create
a shock wave called a “sonic boom”. To slice through the HOW HELICOPTERS FLY Tilted blade in rear
air at such incredible speed, these planes need a slim body, produces more lift
thin wings, and a sharp nose. The rotor blades on a helicopter are like spinning plane wings.
As each blade rotates, air is forced over its curved surface and
pushed down. This produces the upward force called “lift”.

Tilted blade produces Flatter blade produces Flatter blade in
more lift for takeoff less lift while landing front produces
less lift

1 SLOWER THAN SOUND 2 AT THE SPEED OF SOUND 3 FASTER THAN SOUND TAKEOFF LANDING STRAIGHT AHEAD
Ordinary planes trail As a supersonic plane nears the Shock waves trail behind
When the lift produced by The helicopter descends When the rotor is tilted
behind their own sounds so speed of sound, sound waves bunch the plane, creating a loud the tilted blades is greater when the lift produced by forwards, the resulting
than the aircraft’s weight, the flattened blades is less
you can hear them coming. together to form a shock wave. sonic boom. than the aircraft’s weight. thrust propels the
the helicopter rises. helicopter forwards.

61

The story c.200 bce c.1488 ce 1783
of flight
The wings are FIRST MANNED
From the first balloon and glider flights moved by the FLIGHT
to the launch of a solar-powered aircraft, pilot’s legs
people have always been fascinated and arms The first recorded manned
by the idea of flying. The invention of flight – lasting about 25
aircraft that can carry people was one minutes – takes place in
of the 20th century’s great triumphs, a hot-air balloon built by
and helped to shape the modern world. the Montgolfier brothers.
The balloon is made of
linen lined with paper.

KONGMING ORNITHOPTER MONTGOLFIER BROTHERS’
LANTERN HOT-AIR BALLOON
LEONARDO
The Chinese-invented DA VINCI
sky lantern (a hot-air
balloon made from An ornithopter – a wing-flapping
paper) is named the aircraft – is designed by Leonardo
Kongming lantern. It da Vinci. He also sketches flying
is used for signalling machines such as helicopters and
between military troops. parachutes (although he does not
build them), and studies airflows
and streamlined shapes.

1947 1944 1939 1932
FIRST HELICOPTER
FIRST FIRST COMBAT JET FLIGHT AMELIA EARHART
SUPERSONIC
FLIGHT In July the British Gloster Meteor Mk1 Russian-born Igor Sikorsky The first woman to fly solo across
becomes the world’s first operational makes the first flight in his the Atlantic, Amelia Earhart faces
US Air Force captain Charles “Chuck” jet fighter. It is followed closely by Nazi VS-300 helicopter, establishing strong winds and mechanical
Yeager becomes the first pilot to travel Germany’s Messerschmitt Me262s, the single main rotor and problems on her 15-hour
faster than the speed of sound in the Bell which begin attacking American smaller tail rotor layout journey from
X-1. This rocket-powered aircraft does not bombers in October the same year. that is now so familiar. Newfoundland
take off from the ground but is launched to Ireland. The
from the belly of a Boeing B-29 SRI-KWW4OHOERRRESELLKIDUYCSO’WSEPADLTAREITNRIIESR flight is made
at an altitude of 7000 m (23,000 ft). in a bright red
Lockheed
Vega 5B.

GLOSTER METEOR F MK8 AMELIA EARHART

1952 1967 1969 1976

DE HAVILLAND DH106 X-15 FIRST FASTEST JET
COMET 4C SUPERSONIC AIRCRAFT
FASTEST AIRLINER
FIRST JETLINER MANNED The Lockheed SR-71
AIRCRAFT Concorde, the world’s Blackbird sets the
The de Havilland Comet 1, first supersonic official air speed
the world’s first ever jetliner, An experimental rocket- airliner, makes its record for a manned jet
enters service. There are 36 powered aircraft, the maiden flight. The aircraft with a speed of
passengers on the maiden X-15, achieves 7273 km/h jet will enter service 3530 km/h (2193 mph).
flight between London and (4520 mph) – nearly seven in 1976, with a typical
Johannesburg, South Africa. times the speed of sound. London-to-New-York SR-71 BLACKBIRD
The journey, including stops, This remains the record journey taking just
takes 23 hours, 38 minutes, for a manned aircraft. under three and a
and the return fare costs £315. half hours. However,
Concorde’s huge
operating costs will
make the price of
tickets very expensive.

CONCORDE

62

1853 1896 1900 1903 1909
FIRST MANNED
GLIDER OTTO LILIENTHAL 1928 ZEPPELIN FIRST POWERED FIRST CHANNEL
FLIGHT CROSSING
English engineer Sir George After making over 2,000 glides FIRST AIRSHIP
Cayley is the first person to in weight-shift controlled The first controlled, powered Flying his Type XI monoplane,
understand the forces acting gliders, German pioneer Otto LZ1, the first rigid airship aeroplane flight is achieved Frenchman Louis Blériot crosses
upon an aircraft wing. In 1853 Lilienthal dies in hospital after (designed by Ferdinand, by American inventors the the English Channel for the first
he transports his coachman his glider stalls and he crashes Graf von Zeppelin), Wright brothers. It lasts time in a heavier-than-air aircraft.
across a small valley in what from a height of 15 m (50 ft). makes its initial flight just 12 seconds and covers He crash-lands in a field above the
he calls a “governable His scientific data on flight from a floating hangar 36.5 m (120 ft). cliffs of Dover on the English coast.
parachute” – the first would inspire many others. on Lake Constance
man-carrying glider. near Friedrichshafen, 1910
Germany. Carrying FIRST TAKEOFF
GAEHOTSOISFHROATGERFEREE“FNESFLCSAECIAUGATAYLHRHLTLCTELEHOR”EYD,FIS five people, it stays FROM A SHIP
airborne for 17 minutes.
1930 In November American flight
AMY JOHNSON OTTO LILIENTHAL’S WRIGHT FLYER pioneer Eugene Burton Ely
HANG-GLIDER successfully takes off from the
The first woman to fly solo 1919 1917 deck of a ship. Two months later,
from England to Australia 1927 he makes the first successful
makes the journey in a Gipsy FIRST EUGENE landing aboard a ship.
Moth named “Jason”. With FIRST TRANSATLANTIC JACQUES
only experience of flying TRANSATLANTIC FLIGHTS BULLARD PFFAOODORJEBAAFDLTIPRCYNCEBROKDYDAWOMECLATATOLLMEPERMLACHEEITTRFAERYAETILDIORCMSENEAOES,NTF
from London to Hull in SOLO FLIGHT
England, Amy Johnson In May an NC-4 commanded
makes her epic 18,000 km American pilot Charles by Albert C Read crosses the
(11,000 miles) trip in a small, Lindbergh takes 33.5 hours Atlantic in several stages from
low-powered biplane more to complete the first solo, Long Island, USA, to Portugal.
suited to club flying. nonstop, transatlantic flight, In June John Alcock and
travelling from New York to Arthur Brown fly nonstop
GIPSY MOTH Paris. Flying in a single- from Newfoundland
engine aircraft, he encounters to Ireland.
fog and icy conditions, though
his biggest challenge is FIRST BLACK
staying awake for the COMBAT PILOT
entire journey.
Georgia-born Eugene
Jacques Bullard – who was
denied entry into the US
Army Air Corps because of
his race – serves throughout
World War I in the French
Flying Corps. He is awarded
the Legion of Honour.

CURTISS NC-4

1988 1991 2005 2015

HEAVIEST AIRCRAFT F-117 NIGHTHAWK AIRBUS A380

Designed to transport the Soviet Union’s FIRST STEALTH LARGEST SOLAR
250-tonne Buran space shuttle, the six- FIGHTER MASS-PRODUCED IMPULSE 2
engined Antonov An-225 takes the record AIRCRAFT SETS OFF
for the world’s biggest and heaviest aircraft. The American Lockheed F-117
It also has the largest wingspan of any Nighthawk sees its first active The double-deck, four-engine Using only energy
aircraft in operational service. service during Operation Just Airbus A380 is launched. from the Sun, Solar
Cause in Panama. This airliner can transport Impulse 2 leaves
RETTCHHOEERADHNEF-AO2VR25IAEHSIRTOLLCIDFATSRITNGHOGE 853 passengers and can carry on an epic round-
enough fuel to fly nonstop from the-world flight. Its
Sydney, Australia, to Dallas, wingspan is larger
USA, – a distance of 13,804 km than a Boeing 747’s,
(8,577 miles). though the aircraft
weighs no more
than a small van.

ANTONOV AN-225

63

Bicycles HOW A BIKE WORKS CHAIN FRONT DERAILLEUR PEDAL
Transfers power from Shifts the chain Connects
Millions of people around the world A bike converts 90 per cent of energy the pedals to the rear the rider to
use bicycles as an efficient means from pedalling into forward motion. between different- the bicycle.
of transport. Cheap to buy, they are Changing gear – moving the chain wheel, via the cogs. sized chainrings.
easy to run and produce no pollution. from one cog to the other – makes
Cyclists can select special types of pedalling more energy-efficient.
bikes for different terrains or tracks.
FREEWHEEL REAR DERAILLEUR CHAINRING
Holds the cogs and allows the Derails the chain
rear wheel to rotate when the Drives the
from one gear and chain via the
pedals are not being turned. moves it to another. cogs, thereby
powering the
rear wheel.

OFF-ROADERS FAT CHANCE TREK 6000 TREK 8900 PRO DMR TRAILSTAR
Handlebars
These hardy bikes are built
to withstand tough, off-road Gear cable
conditions. They have a Suspension fork
strong frame, knobbly
tyres for extra grip on
rough ground, and are
usually equipped with
a good range of gears.

Saddle

Seat post Stem
Top tube

MARIN PALISADES TRAIL STUMPJUMPER FSR PRO Seat post
Cassette quick release

ROCKY MOUNTAIN VERTEX TEAM Down tube
Pedal

KONA STAB PRIMO Chainring MARIN MOUNT
VISION
SPECIALIST BIKES Rear
derailleur
Like any great invention, the bicycle has
been adapted over the years. Recumbent Pedals
bikes enable the cyclist to lean back in assisted by
a more efficient and comfortable riding an electric
position. Tandem cycling is a good way for motor
people of different abilities to ride together.

SINCLAIR C5 WINDCHEETAH SL MARK VI VELOCAR

KINGCYCLE BEAN KINGCYCLE DAWES GALAXY TWIN

64

EARLY BIKES BUVMECPLAYOLCTLOIEPDERD“IDBEOES,NWTEHESERHYEAWSKOEERRSE” Smaller front
wheel than the
The very first bicycles were wooden and had Iron-rimmed Penny Farthing
no brakes. In 1863 the first successful pedal wheel
bicycle, the velocipede, appeared. During the made it safer
1880s a chain, rubber tyres, and wheels of
roughly the same size greatly
improved bicycle design.

SWIFT SAFETY BICYCLE
1887

DANDY HORSE MICHAUX VELOCIPEDE (BONESHAKER) PENNY FARTHING Huge front wheel FACILE DWARF SAFETY BICYCLE
1817 1869 1871 increased speed 1888

ROAD AND ROSSIN TIME TRIAL WINDCHEETAH CARBON CANTILEVER CERVELO P5 LOTUS TYPE 108
TRACK BIKES Saddle Handlebars

Ideal for speedy cycling on hard,
smooth surfaces, road bikes have
lightweight frames and narrow tyres.
Track bikes are built for speed. They
usually have just one gear and no
brakes – the rider slows down by
pushing against the pedals.

Stem

Seat post Top tube

Fork

LITESPEED SIRIUS ISAAC FORCE COUGAR

Down tube
Chain

DEDACCIAI STRADA PINARELLO
ASSOLUTO PRINCE

Pedal

Bottom
bracket

Chainring

CANNONDALE ST1000 TREK 1000 Aerodynamic Carbon-fibre
disc wheel spokes

CORIMA

BOUEDRSWWUEWRIDETIRANHOERGN8,ATT-RDMAHAANAEIPLDNTSTEEECMRCDRAOTECCNWOYKDCSBSLEES BROMPTON FOLDING BICYCLE

Made from more than 1,200 parts, this small-wheeled
bike folds up into a compact, portable package. It is
ideal for commuters travelling by train or bus, and
for people who have limited storage space at home.

UNICYCLE

Drop
handlebars

1 FOLDED 2 UNFOLDED
The bike can be folded in less All models have a full-sized frame, made mainly

than 20 seconds, and is carried from steel. The Brompton provides an upright riding

by grasping the saddle or frame. position, and is designed to be light, agile, and speedy.

SANTANA TRIPLET

65



Nature

Marsupials Whales

(Includes mammals Dugongs and Bats
with pouches) manatees

Hedgehogs Even-toed hoofed
animals

Egg-laying Elephants
mammals
Rhinos and
MAMMALS tapirs

Turtles Squid and octopus
Lizards
Snakes Armadillos and Snails Carnivores
anteaters
(Meat-eaters)
Sharks
and rays Primates Rodents Clams and
oysters
Ray-finned (Apes – including Rabbits and
fish humans – monkeys, relatives

(For example perch) and others)

Echinoderms Earthworms MOLLUSCS

(For example starfish and (Animals with a soft
sea urchins) unsegmented body and

FISH sometimes a shell)

SNSIMOEAPOBNLRSREEPAGSROIATVNNNOA,GSUNNE,SOISAMSDNAAYIDRGSLESTENT,SEOWHTMIEIVTEH

REPTILES VERTEBRATES ARTHROPODS

(Animals with (Animals with an Centipedes
a backbone) outer skeleton)

AMPHIBIANS Spiders and
scorpions

SPONGES

Frogs
and toads

INVERTEBRATES Insects Crustaceans

Newts and (Animals without a backbone) (Crabs and lobsters)
salamanders

Crocodiles ANIMALS Mushrooms

Lichens

(Organisms composed
of a fungus and
an alga)

Birds BRANCHING OUT

For well over two centuries, scientists have been using FUNGI
diagrams similar to this one to explain how life evolved.
By following the “branches”, we can trace the relationships FLOWERING
of the main groups of animals, plants, and fungi to the PLANTS
earliest types of life. Only living species are shown here.
Extinct animals, such as dinosaurs, are not included. Gingko
trees
Yeasts
Conifers
ESTIMATED NUMBER OF SPECIES PLANTS ARCHAEA
300,000
FUNGI Ferns
611,000 PROTISTS Mosses
64,000

PLANTS

ANIMALS BACTERIA
7,770,000

PROTISTS

(Single-celled

organisms

and algae)

HOW MANY SPECIES THE SIX KINGDOMS

There are far more species of animals than there are The tree of life is divided into six main branches, which scientists call
of plants, fungi, and protists added together. No one kingdoms. Three kingdoms are mainly made up of tiny single-celled
could possibly count up all the bacteria and archaea organisms. The others are fungi, plants, and animals.
because there are simply too many millions of them.
BEGINNING ARCHAEA PROTISTS PLANTS
Tree of life OF LIFE:
Early life, made Single cells From tiny mosses
The first living things that appeared on SINGLE-CELLED of one cell. Can with a nucleus. to big trees, all
Earth, billions of years ago, were tiny ORGANISMS live in extreme Some make their plants use sunlight
organisms made of just one cell. This habitats, such as own food; others to make food and
“tree” shows how such simple beginnings those that are must feed on release oxygen into
led to the development of the wonderful very hot or salty. other organisms. the air.
variety of life we know today.
BACTERIA FUNGI ANIMALS

Cells similar to Some are single- These eat other
archaea but not celled, but the organisms. Most
suited to their best known are use their senses for
extreme habitats. mushrooms. finding food. Some
Many are vital They break down have backbones.
to life; others organic matter.
cause diseases.

CLASSIFICATION OF LIFE divided into classes, classes are split into orders,
and so on. Shown below is how a tiger (scientific
Starting with the kingdoms, all living things are arranged, name Panthera tigris) is classified.
or classified, into further groups according to how they are
related. This works in stages: the group called a phylum is

KINGDOM PHYLUM CLASS ORDER FAMILY GENUS SPECIES

1 ANIMALS 2 CHORDATES 3 MAMMALS 4 CARNIVORES 5 CATS 6 BIG CATS (PANTHERA) 7 TIGER (TIGRIS)
Multi-celled living Animals with a rod-like Warm-blooded Mostly mammals that Agile, specialized The largest and most The largest and

things that feed on other structure in their bodies. vertebrates with hair hunt other animals for food hunters. Many have powerful members of the heaviest of the forest-

organisms. Most are able Includes vertebrates, which whose females feed their and have special teeth for sheathed toes into which cat family, including lions, dwelling big cats, with

to move around. have a backbone. young on milk. cutting through meat. their claws can disappear. tigers, and leopards. distinctively striped fur.

How life DIVISION OF TIME 4.6 BYA–541 MYA 541–485 MYA
began
Earth’s geological history can PRE-CAMBRIAN CAMBRIAN
The very first life forms appeared be divided into blocks of time.
on Earth around 3.5 billion years An era represents several This represents 80 per cent of Many types of marine life
ago. Fossils preserved in rock help hundred million years and is total geological time. Volcanic
us chart the story of life from split into smaller periods. Earth activity on the new Earth evolved in the so-called
the first single-celled bacteria is currently in the Quaternary produced water. Simple
to the modern humans who roam Period of the Cenozoic Era. lifeforms appeared, and “Cambrian explosion”.
Earth today. some produced oxygen.
PRE-CAMBRIAN They included
4.6 BYA–541 MYA
molluscs, sponges,

and animals with

jointed legs

(arthropods). TRILOBITE

PALAEOZOIC ERA
541–252 MYA

MESOZOIC ERA
252–65 MYA

CENOZOIC ERA
65 MYA–PRESENT DAY

BYA = Billion years ago VOLCANIC EARTH ECHMATOCRINUS
MYA = Million years ago

252–201 MYA OLIGOCARPIA TUBICAULIS
(FERN) (FERN)
TRIASSIC

The mass extinction of the late
Permian meant that different types
of life evolved. The first mammals,
flying reptiles, and dinosaurs such as the
long-necked Plateosaurus appeared.

DICROIDIUM (PLANT) AMMONITE MORGANUCODON SCUTOSAURUS AMMONITE
(MAMMAL) (REPTILE)

PLATEOSAURUS PTEROSAUR (REPTILE) HEXAGONOCAULON (PLANT) CRINOID (MARINE ANIMAL) DIMETRODON
(DINOSAUR) (REPTILE)

PTERODACTYL (REPTILE) 201–145 MYA 145–65 MYA

JURASSIC CRETACEOUS

Reptiles began to dominate the The climate was mostly warm,
land and sea, and some took to but cooled towards the end of the
the air. Many different dinosaurs period. Flowering plants spread.
roamed Earth, from giant plant- The period ended with the mass
eaters to fierce predators. extinction of the big dinosaurs.

CONFUCIUSORNIS ARCHAEANTHUS ARCHELON
(BIRD) (PLANT) (TURTLE)

EOMAIA (MAMMAL)

EOCAECILIA (AMPHIBIAN) DAKOSAURUS VEGAVIS (BIRD) HOPLOPTERYX (FISH)
(REPTILE)

WILLIAMSONIA KENTROSAURUS PROTOSTEGA (TURTLE) SCAPHITES (AMMONITE) CARCHARODONTOSAURUS
(PLANT) (DINOSAUR) (DINOSAUR)

70

SPONGE 485–443 MYA 443–419 MYA 419–358 MYA

ORDOVICIAN SILURIAN DEVONIAN

The first fish appeared, Plants, such as the leafless Cooksonia, Many new types of fish evolved,
such as the scaly, jawless grew on land. In the seas, there were such as the Tiktaalik. This was
Astraspis. Molluscs and more fish, and spiny animals called a lobe-finned fish belonging
corals dominated the echinoderms thrived. Early scorpions to the group from which the
oceans. The period ended may have left the oceans for land. amphibians eventually evolved.
with mass extinctions.
TRILOBITE TIKTAALIK (FISH)

MARRELLA

BRACHIOPOD (SHELL) FALSE MUSSEL COOKSONIA (PLANT) ECHINODERM SOLICLYMENIA (AMMONITE) DISCALIS (PLANT)

HALLUCIGENIA SEA MAT ASTRASPIS (FISH) CORAL LOGANELLIA (FISH) STENACANTHUS (SHARK)
ECHINODERM
298–252 MYA 358–298 MYA

PERMIAN CARBONIFEROUS

The hot, dry conditions of this As lush swamp forests grew,
period favoured reptiles, life on Earth flourished.
such as Dimetrodon. At
the end of this period a Reptiles such as Spinoaequalis
and Ophiacodon evolved.
catastrophic mass extinction
wiped out 70 per cent of land ODONTOPTERIS (FERN)

species and 90 per cent of
marine life.

SPINOAEQUALIS (REPTILE)

CORAL

CLUB MOSS

EOTHYRIS OPHIACODON (REPTILE) AMPHIBAMUS (AMPHIBIAN) COCKROACH
(REPTILE)
CHAMA AND XENOPHORA (MOLLUSCS) 23–2 MYA 2 MYA–PRESENT DAY
65–23 MYA
NEOGENE QUATERNARY
PALEOGENE
The first humans, or hominins, Ice ages with warmer phases
With the dinosaurs extinct, evolved in this era. More in between have dominated the
mammals and birds evolved modern types of mammals, last two million years. Modern
rapidly. Most of the main such as kangaroos and humans (Homo sapiens) arose
groups of mammals had their giraffes, appeared. in eastern Africa and spread
beginnings in this period. across the world.

AMMONITE

ICARONYCTERIS
(BAT)

OSMUNDA (FERN) NEPTUNEA
(SEA SNAIL)

THYLACOSMILUS (MAMMAL)

ROTULARIA (WORMS) UINTATHERIUM (MAMMAL) CARCHARODON HUMAN MAMMOTH
(SHARK) ANCESTOR

71

Fossils HOW FOSSILS
FORM
Fossils are clues preserved
in rocks, amber (tree resin), Fossils form when a
tar, or ice. They show us what plant or animal is buried
plants and animals looked like quickly and deeply after
thousands or millions of years it dies. The sediment
ago and can sometimes tell us that surrounds the
where and how they lived. animal gradually
turns its body into
rock over thousands
of years. This is
called fossilization.

1 AFTER DEATH 2 BARE BONES 3 BONE TO 4 TIME PASSES
The body of an The bones and MINERAL The minerals

ancient land animal other hard parts Minerals from the crystallize and the

falls into a lake or of the body become sediment replace sediment around

is buried by soil and covered by sediment, the minerals in the them solidifies into

begins to decompose. such as mud or sand. animal’s bones. rock, forming fossils.

PLANTS INVERTEBRATES

Fossil plants are usually fossils of Fossils of animals without
parts of the plant, rather than the backbones have been found
whole thing. They include leaves, in large numbers and from
flowers, cones, bark, and wood. a wide range of animal types.

CALCIFIED ALGAE STEM BRYOZOAN

AMMONITE

LEPIDODENDRON TREE TRUNK

HORN CORAL

CRETACEOUS CONE SPIDER TRAPPED IN AMBER ACTINOCYATHUS LITHOSTROTION SEA PEN
CORAL CORAL

LIQUIDAMBAR
LEAF

BRAIN CORAL TRILOBITE COCKROACH CLAM SHELL

MONKEY SEA SNAIL HEART
PUZZLE CONE SHELL URCHIN

FRAGMENT

PTERIDOSPERM
SEEDS

PECOPTERIS SEA LILY
MILTONI FROND
LACE
TECTOCARYA CORAL
SEEDS
SEED FERN LEAFLETS

PUTTING IT TOGETHER Narrow Triangular Ischium (part
skull back plates of the pelvis)
Dinosaur bones can be found scattered over a large
area and scientists then work out how they are pieced Neck plates with
together. Dinosaur skeletons are very like bird and rounded tops
reptile skeletons, which helps to work out which bone
goes where. Horny beak

Carnivorous Tibia
jaws
Pedal
Two pairs of phalanges
spikes on tail (toe bones)

Large back Clawed Ribcage
legs for toes TUOJIANGOSAURUS

bipedalism HERRERASAURUS

72

5 SURFACE EROSION 6 EXCAVATION FOSSIL KEY FOSSIL TYPES
Fossilized remains Fossils are SITES Green river, USA
Joggins, Canada Fossils may be formed
of creatures begin to excavated by being Some parts of the Santana, Brazil Karoo, South Africa from the remains of
world are especially Jurassic coast, UK Gobi desert, Mongolia plants or animals, or
be revealed as the land carefully freed from rich in fossils. This Gogo formation, Australia from traces of their
map shows some Kolyma river, Russia activities during life.
is eroded slowly over the rock that has long areas where lots
of fossils have TRACE FOSSIL
thousands of years. surrounded them. been discovered.
These are fossils showing
VERTEBRATES PLIOSAUR animal activity, such as
SKULL footprints, burrows, or nests.
Fossils of vertebrate
animals are some of MAMMAL-LIKE SHARK TOOTH IMPRESSIONS
the most exciting fossils REPTILE SKULL
ever found. They reveal These are fossils where
PARADOXIDES species – such as the animal or plant body has
dinosaurs and flying decayed completely but left an
reptiles – that existed impression in the sediment.
millions of years ago.

DINOSAUR JAW OF FOOT SKELETON
VERTEBRA THECODONTOSAURUS OF PLATEOSAURUS

CONSTELLARIA

UPPER CHEEK GALLIMIMUS SKULL
TOOTH OF A
MAMMOTH PRIMITIVE
FROG
REMAINS OF HOMOEOSAURAS PETRIFICATION

DINOSAUR This type of fossil is formed
VERTEBRA when minerals crystallize
inside the body cells,
preserving them in stone.

PANTHERA LOWER JAW

AMMONITE BONY RAY-FINNED FISH

Cervical vertebrae OVIRAPTOR THUMB CLAW NATURAL CAST
Manual phalanges PHILOCERATOPS EGG OF BARYONYX
(finger bones) In cast fossils, sediment
THEROPOD hardens in natural gaps inside
Very long tail an animal, such as the inside
of a shell.

Mandible INDBCIENLEEOUVNSDEADRINYUISGRCCAOOFONVNSETTSRAINIERLDECSNTOHTINCA, AVE
(jaw bone)

Large,
bony frill

Ribcage Femur

Scapula

Ilium

Tail vertebrae

Ribcage

Long, powerful Long, thin
legs hand claws

TYRANNOSAURUS STRUTHIOMIMUS TRICERATOPS
REX

73

Plant-eating HERBIVORE ANATOMY
dinosaurs
Many herbivorous (plant-eating) dinosaurs were quadrupeds – they
Plant-eating dinosaurs roamed Earth for walked on all fours. The largest herbivores had powerful muscles
more than 140 million years. There were and strong bones to support their weight. Their digestive systems were
many different kinds, and they included some adapted for eating plants, which are more difficult to digest than meat.

of the largest land creatures the world Lungs Heart Small intestine is
has ever seen. long to digest plants

Long tail
can help with
defence

Large intestine Powerful muscles
EUOPLOCEPHALUS support heavy body

ANCHISAURUS SAUROPODS AND
PROSAUROPODS

Palaeontologists – people who study fossils –
divide dinosaurs into various types. Sauropods, such
as Diplodocus, had long necks and tails and tiny heads,
with small brains. Their ancestors, prosauropods, were
often able to walk on two legs and included Plateosaurus.

APATOSAURUS

VULCANODON MAMENCHISAURUS
ISANOSAURUS
EFRAASIA CAMARASAURUS

LUFENGOSAURUS

GIRAFFATITAN About 15 elongated
vertebrae support

the long neck

SALTASAURUS ARGENTINOSAURUS DIPLODOCUS SHUNOSAURUS
STYRACOSAURUS
STEGOSAURS Brightly coloured CERATOPSIANS
dorsal plates AND RELATIVES
Large and slow-moving, stegosaurs had spiky tails and strange
bony plates running along their backs. These were embedded Many ceratopsians, such as
into the dinosaur’s skin, not the bone. Stegosaurs appeared Triceratops, had distinctive bony
during the Jurassic period (201–145 million years ago). frills on the top of their head
and huge horns. They also had
“beaks” and rows of grinding
teeth for feeding on tough plants.
Like many herbivores today, they
probably travelled in herds.

HUAYANGOSAURUS

Tail spikes

KENTROSAURUS STEGOSAURUS PENTACERATOPS TRICERATOPS

74

SELF-DEFENCE THEWHEORRENASNOAFMTARIZCIENRGATOPS HEAVYWEIGHTS
1 M (3 FT) IN LENGTH
Even the largest plant-eating dinosaurs risked being hunted and Like humans, elephants, and other animals, dinosaurs
killed by meat-eating dinosaurs. Over time herbivores developed were vertebrates: they had an internal skeleton with
specialized body defences for survival. These included horns, spikes, a backbone to support their bodies. Many, though,
spines, and heavy tails that could inflict terrible injuries. were much heavier. At 70 tonnes, Argentinosaurus
was 15 times heavier than an elephant.
BONY PLATES SPINY SKULL SHARP HORNS
DIPLODOCUS
Covering the head of A thick skull topped Huge plant-eater (23 TONNES)
Euplocephalus, these with spines protected Triceratops had
bony plates provided a Sauropelta’s extremely long, sharp
protection against the vulnerable brain. horns, which it used
jaws and teeth of meat- to fight off predators,
eating dinosaurs. such as the giant meat-
eating Tyrannosaurus.

TAIL CLUB SPIKY TAIL WHIP-LIKE TAIL ARGENTINOSAURUS AFRICAN ELEPHANT
Some plant-eaters, (70 TONNES) (4.6 TONNES)
particularly ankylosaurs, The Stegosaurus had It is suggested that
had heavy, club-like very sharp spikes on the the mighty Diplodocus HUMAN
tails made of fused end of its tail that could used its long tail like (80 KG/176 LB)
bone that could break inflict terrible injuries a whip to defend itself
a predator’s leg. on an opponent. against attackers.

TITANOSAURUS ORNITHOPODS

Ornithopods, including Iguanodon,

lived 145–66 million years ago.

They could stand on two legs

to reach into trees and could

chew plants very efficiently.

Corythosaurus, for instance,

had hundreds of teeth for

grinding plants. HYPSILOPHODON MUTTABURRASAURUS

CORYTHOSAURUS

LESOTHOSAURUS LEAELLYNASAURA HETERODONTOSAURUS DRYOSAURUS

BARAPASAURUS

IGUANODON

PLATEOSAURUS

PARASAUROLOPHUS

DICRAEOSAURUS EDMONTOSAURUS TENONTOSAURUS MAIASAURA
GASTONIA
ANKYLOSAURS AND RELATIVES

Looking rather like prehistoric armoured tanks or armadillos, ankylosaurs
had bony plates over their head and shoulders to protect them from
predators. They had short, thick legs to support their heavy bodies.

GARGOYLEOSAURUS

PSITTACOSAURUS

PROTOCERATOPS

MINMI EUOPLOCEPHALUS

SAUROPELTA ANKYLOSAURUS EDMONTONIA

75

Meat-eating CARNIVORE ANATOMY Fearsome jaws
dinosaurs for ripping flesh
Meat-eaters evolved into highly efficient
Dinosaurs appeared on Earth about 245 million predators, able to hunt and digest their Heart
years ago. They spread to every continent and prey. Large dinosaurs could tackle large
dominated Earth for millions of years before herbivorous dinosaurs, such as Triceratops.
dying out. Many were powerful meat-eating Smaller dinosaurs hunted smaller prey, or
predators, with bodies built for attack. hunted together in groups.

Powerful Tyrannosaurus
thigh muscles had tiny but
strong forearms

Short digestive tract relies
on powerful stomach acids
to break down meat

TYRANNOSAURUS REX

THEROPODS

Carnivorous (meat-eating) dinosaurs
belong to a group known as theropods.
Meaning “beast-footed”, theropods stood
on their hind legs. They ranged from
huge carnivores such as Allosaurus to the
smaller feathery Citipati and Alxasaurus.

EORAPTOR

CERATOSAURUS BARYONYX

SINOSAUROPTERYX THERIZONOSAURUS GALLIMIMUS

VELOCIRAPTOR CAUDIPTERYX

COELOPHYSIS ALXASAURUS DEINONYCHUS

SPINOSAURUS SUCHOMIMUS

CITIPATI STRUTHIOMIMUS MONOLOPHOSAURUS

GASOSAURUS AUCASAURUS LILIENSTERNUS CRYOLOPHOSAURUS IRRITATOR

76

DIET INSECTS FISH TEETH SHARP POINTS PACK HUNTING
Insects evolved Oceans and Baryonyx and other fish-eating
Theropods were more than 350 rivers teemed Scientists can learn theropods had pointed needle-like A pack of Deinonychus attacks a large
the most powerful million years ago. about dinosaurs from plant-eating Tenontosaurus. Evidence
predators on land. with fish. their fossilized skulls and teeth that pierced fish skin. from fossilized dinosaur footprints
They fed on insects, teeth, which are often suggests that some dinosaurs hunted
fish, other dinosaurs, the only remaining parts. in packs. Probably they did not herd
small mammals, and Carnivorous dinosaurs prey but worked together to bring
bird-like creatures. had lethal claws and down larger dinosaurs.
sharp teeth.

DINOSAURS EARLY MAMMALS EARLY BIRDS KNIFE-LIKE CRUSHING BONES
Plant-eating Rodent-like Birds evolved from Theropods such as Allosaurus The large teeth of
had sharp teeth that they used Tyrannosaurus rex crushed
dinosaurs mammals existed earlier theropod to slice meat from the bone. straight through bone.
provided food. with dinosaurs. dinosaurs.

DUBREUILLOSAURUS CARCHARODONTOSAURUS

Stiff, pointed tail
counterbalances
huge head and
allows dinosaur
to turn quickly

ALBERTOSAURUS

Powerful legs FRTORMHICAITENVRYDEFAREOTABEOSEPNSPENBSINLIOTBIFZSEOOEASNUDUENRSDUS
with four clawed
toes, only three

of which are
weight-bearing

ALLOSAURUS TYRANNOSAURUS REX

77

Prehistoric TYPES OF INVERTEBRATES
animals PREHISTORIC ANIMALS
This squid-like
The first signs of life appeared more than 3.5 billion We use the term “prehistoric” for creatures belemnite lived in the
years ago when tiny single-celled organisms evolved that existed before recorded history. They prehistoric oceans some
in the oceans. Over millions of years, other organisms were very diverse. The dinosaurs are probably 200 million years ago.
evolved, moved on to land, and even took to the air. the best known and most familiar, but there
were also fish, invertebrates (animals without
backbones), reptiles, amphibians, and mammals.

ECIATUSHOOCSEFRIEREPDENARRAETNUHIMSAPITSTSATSITSNOETSGRRHEIOVICXNIODTAKLINCSNTTAICHMRNTAIAIOKTOLEENSS

IN THE AIR ON LAND

Many prehistoric creatures took to the air. They Plant life developed on land
included pterosaurs, such as Dimorphodon and about 472 million years ago.
Eudimorphodon, which were flying reptiles. As time Creatures crawled out of
passed, birds and flying mammals also appeared. the seas to become
amphibians, reptiles,
ANUROGNATHUS RHAMPHORYNCHUS and dinosaurs.

OPHIACODON

PETEINOSAURUS DIMORPHODON DIMETRODON ROBERTIA
EUDIMORPHODON ORNITHOCHEIRUS
EUPARKERIA LYSTROSAURUS
PTERODAUSTRO SIMOSUCHUS
DINOSAUR
IBEROMESORNIS (HERRERASAURUS)

STAGONOLEPIS

ICARONYCTERIS ARGENTAVIS TERATORNIS ORNITHOSUCHUS PLACERIAS
SHONISAURUS
IN THE WATER LIOPLEURODON
ICHTHYOSAURUS
Prehistoric seas were full of life. Early
organisms such as Wiwaxia, Opabinia, TEMNODONTOSAURUS
and Anomalocaris seem very strange
to us. However, later fossil fish such
as Megalodon and Hybodus look a lot
like the fish and sharks around today.

WIWA XIA OPABINIAI

ANOMALOCARIS GONIATITES ENCRINUS

DITOMOPYGE HAIKOUICHTHYS ASTRASPIS PLACODUS MIXOSAURUS LARIOSAURUS NOTHOSAURUS GEOSAURUS

78

TRANSITION TO Short tapir- Unlike modern elephants,
MODERN ANIMALS like trunk curved tusks point downwards

About 65 million years ago a huge Tusks for digging
catastrophe wiped out many up vegetation
prehistoric creatures. Birds and some
FISH AMPHIBIANS animals survived. Later, new animals
emerged, including the ancestors of
The very first Like frogs today, the mammals we know today.
vertebrates (animals prehistoric amphibians
with backbones) to could breathe air but

evolve were fish. bred in fresh water.

REPTILES MAMMALS MOERITHERIUM PHIOMIA DEINOTHERIUM ELEPHANT

The earliest reptiles The first mammals This pig-sized relative of the Appeared around 35 million Standing 4.5 m (14.8 ft) high, The modern elephant, the largest
evolved from amphibians appeared on Earth elephant family lived in African years ago. Like modern Deinotherium roamed Africa, living land animal, has features
about 315 million years about 220 million swamps and woodlands more elephants, it had air-filled spaces Asia, and Europe around 24 in common with its prehistoric
ago. They had scaly skin. than 35 million years ago. in its skull to reduce its weight. million years ago. ancestors, including its trunk.
years ago.

PROTOSUCHUS

SPHENOSUCHUS PLIOHIPPUS

NEMEGTBA ATAR UINTATHERIUM

SMILODON

DIRE WOLF

WOOLLY
MAMMOTH

GLYPTODON WOOLLY
RHINOCEROS
HYBODUS
ISCHYODUS

PLIOPLATECARPUS LEEDSICHTHYS

MOSASAURUS

KRONOSAURUS ELASMOSAURUS MEGALODON

79

Plants NON-FLOWERING
PLANTS
There are around 400,000 species of plants on
Earth. Plants make their food using sunlight, These evergreen plants
water, and carbon dioxide, and they are an tend to like damp, shady
important food source for all land animals. They places. They reproduce
also produce oxygen, which is vital to all life. by releasing spores.
Spores from coniferous
plants are carried by the
wind to special cones,
where seeds develop.

AUSTRIAN
PINE

HOW PLANTS GROW PHOTOSYNTHESIS

In spring, seeds get warm, absorb Plants make their own food (glucose) through a
water, and start to sprout (germinate). process called photosynthesis. They soak up water
Roots begin to grow downwards to from the soil and take in carbon dioxide from the air.
get water and nutrients from the They then use the Sun’s energy to produce glucose.
soil, while shoots grow upwards,
towards the light.

Outer coat 1 GERMINATION GOLDEN
Seed sprouts A small pore LARCH
EUROPEAN YEW CALIFORNIA NUTMEG
(the micropyle)
FLOWERING PLANTS
in the seed coat
The colourful and often fragrant
takes in water and flowers of these plants attract
insects. The insects pick up pollen
the seed swells. and transport it to other plants of the
same type, helping it to reproduce.
A green pigment
in leaves called

chlorophyll
absorbs sunlight

2 NEW PLANT Oxygen is released
The plant starts as a waste product

to grow beneath the of photosynthesis BOTTLEBRUSH

ground, shooting in Leaves
also absorb
two directions. carbon dioxide

MAGNOLIA WINTER’S BARK

Leaves are
the plant’s
food source

TULIP TREE CAROLINA ALLSPICE ARROWHEAD PEARL OF THE
POOL WATER LILY

Roots ADAPTABLE PLANTS
draw up
Plants cannot protect themselves from animals or
water harsh weather conditions by moving, so they have
from other adaptations that help them survive. Plants in
the soil hot deserts can live with very little water, for instance,
while those near the sea are very salt-tolerant.
3 ABOVE GROUND
The shoot

straightens. Two

green leaves start

to photosynthesize,

fuelling more growth.

SEED DISPERSAL BY BURSTING BY WIND CACTI

Plants need to spread their When the Some seeds Cacti live in very hot
seeds as far away from seeds are ripe, have shapes places, so they have
themselves as possible, they burst out, that make small spines instead
so they do not end up away from the them fly easily of leaves, which do not
overcrowded. There are parent plant. in the wind. allow so much water to
different ways that seeds evaporate. Their stems
can be dispersed.
also store water.

BY WATER BY ANIMALS BY HUMANS CONIFERS MANGROVES

Some fruits Seeds can be Humans discard Coniferous plants stay These grow near the sea,
(seeds) are eaten and seeds after green all year round. They but their leaves are able
waterproof and excreted, or eating fruit or have long, thin needles that to get rid of (secrete)
can float, such carried on carry them on need less water and can excess salt. If the salt
as the coconut. animal coats. their clothes. withstand freezing weather. levels become too high,
the leaves just fall off.

80

ALPINE SOHSOVCAMEIVEREEN3SBT5PEI0SEECTMNISIEOLTSLNHIOOIEFNNAKFRYETTREHHANARSFTSOR
WOODFERN
EASTERN CAPE SILVER LIP
TONGALAND CYCAD BLUE CYCAD FERN

MEXICAN SPHAGNUM
HORNCONE

MOORE’S MACROZAMIA CYCAD FLOATING FERN HORSETAIL ADDER’S GINKGO COMMON HORNWORT
TONGUE FERN LIVERWORT

PANSY DAFFODIL

HIBISCUS DAHLIA

BIRD-OF-PARADISE

ROUND- GLADIOLUS DYER’S
HEADED TILLANDSIA
AMARYLLIS POPPY AFRICAN HOLLYHOCK TULIP
LILY LEEK ENGLISH
CARNIVOROUS BLUEBELL
PLANTS BUTTERWORT PITCHER
This plant’s leaves are POISONOUS
Some plants grow in covered with an insect- PLANT PLANTS
soil that does not have trapping sap. Small This tropical
many nutrients, so they insects, such as plant has cups Some plants use poison as a protective
get additional nutrients gnats, get stuck, (pitchers) that device, so that people and animals do
from animal prey, such and their struggle hang from trees not eat them. These plants are among
as insects. Many attract releases the plant’s and contain the deadliest to humans.
their prey using colour water to attract
and smell and then trap digestive juices. prey. Thirsty OLEANDER
it. The plant’s digestive insects fall in –
juices break down the prey COBRA LILY and become The whole oleander plant is poisonous. Even
so it can be absorbed. The traps on this plant look like plant food. smoke from burning oleander is highly toxic.
snake heads. It contains cells that
CATCHING PREY give off light and attractive smells WATER HEMLOCK
to tempt hungry insects.
The Venus flytrap The most deadly plant in North America,
catches its insect prey 1 PRIMED 2 TRIGGERED 3 SHUT a tiny dose of this plant can be lethal if eaten.
very fast – it snaps shut The plant has A landing insect The plant lobes One species also occurs in Europe.
in a tenth of a second.
If an insect lands on sensory hairs on touches the hairs and snap together, trapping ROSARY PEA
the plant and touches
sensory hairs, the plant These bright red seeds contain the most
snaps into action. deadly plant poison known to humankind.

the inside ready sends electrical signals the insect. Digestive DEADLY NIGHTSHADE

for its prey. to the plant cells. juices are released. All parts of this plant contain deadly toxins.
The roots are the most dangerous part.

CASTOR BEAN

These contain ricin, one of the deadliest plant
toxins. It is more toxic when inhaled than eaten.

81

Flowers STRUCTURE Petal Pollinating
OF A FLOWER insect
Flowers, often colourful and scented, Stigma
play a vital role in a plant’s life cycle. The parts of a flower are Style (links
They contain organs that produce pollen centred around the task Anther filled with stigma to
and seeds. Pollen is taken from one of reproduction. Flower pollen grains ovary)
flower to another in various ways. petals surround an ovary Sepals
The flower receiving the pollen is that produces eggs, and Stem
fertilized (pollinated) and then a stigma that is ready
forms seeds to make new plants. to accept pollen. When LILY
eggs and pollen meet,
MONOCOTS they create seeds.

This group of flowers has several Filament
features in common: their petals Ovary
are always in multiples of three;
they have one main stem, which
has very few leaves; and their
stems contain veins that run
in parallel lines.

HUME’S ROSCOEA

TORCH IRIS HYACINTH CHINESE YELLOW BANANA LIPPEROSE DARK-RED QUEEN’S BOG
LILY MOTH ORCHID HELLEBORINE SPIDERWORT ASPHODEL

CLUSTER GREEN FLOWERS
FLOWERS
Plants with green flowers use wind
Some plants have a cluster pollination, as they are less attractive
of flowers on each stem to insects. The flowers also tend to be
called an inflorescence. small and not always easy to see. Their
Such clusters are found in pollen-containing parts are positioned
both monocots and eudicots. to catch the breeze.
The flowers may branch out
at intervals from the main
stem or group together on
the tip.

BARBADOS BRITISH
PRIDE BLUEBELL

COMMON GLADIOLUS RED CLOVER WILD DAISY WHITE WILLOW STINKING HELLEBORE FAT HEN
HOGWEED

82

POLLINATION ANIMAL WIND WATER SELF

Flowers reproduce by Many flowers Some plants, A small number Some plants self-
pollination – pollen contain nectar that such as grasses, of aquatic plants pollinate by either
being taken from one attracts animals rely on wind for are pollinated by transferring pollen
flower to another. Some such as bees. While pollination. They water. Pollen is from the anther to
plants self-pollinate, drinking the nectar produce lots of released into the the stigma of the
but animals, wind, and the animal gets pollen to increase water and carried same flower, or to
water often play a part. coated with pollen, the chances of it to other plants by another flower on
which it carries to landing in the water currents. the same plant.
other flowers. right places.

FRUITS 1 SEEDS AT BASE 2 OVARY SWELLS 3 SMALL FRUIT 4 RIPENING 5 MATURE FRUIT
After pollination, The flower petals The skin Over the growing The melon is ripe.
Fruits are the parts of a plant that contain
seeds. Some fruits change colour and become
juicy when ripe, which makes them attractive
to animals. If a fruit is eaten, its seeds pass
through the animal’s digestive tract and are
dispersed in its droppings. Some types of fruit
have wings or hooks and are carried on the
wind or stuck in an animal’s fur.

seeds form in this fall away and the hardens; the ovary season, the fruit gets If an animal eats it the

melon flower’s ovary. ovary begins to swell. is now a small fruit. bigger and ripens. seeds will be dispersed.

EUDICOTS

These complex flowers have
flower petals in multiples of
four or five. They also have
lots of branches coming
off the main stem, and their
leaves have branching veins.

BUT TERFLY WEED BERMUDA
BUTTERCUP

BRAZILIAN SWEET
SPIDER FLOWER PEA

PELARGONIUM WOOD MATUCANA RED LUPIN SNAPDRAGON ROSE CAPE DAISY
ANEMONE RITTERI

LOBFTETLCSCOIPAMOAWLUEFUASESSNPEREOOTSTLFOSHALFTWEERHYHNEIETAAPAYHYRTMEOFGACADERERVUJEROEECTRRNEAIN THE GREAT RAFFLESIA
PRETENDERS This is also known as the “corpse flower” because it smells
like a rotten carcass. It has no roots or leaves, and lives off
Some flowers have evolved in other plants, taking their nutrients and water.
ways that would make them at
home in fairy tales. Among them
are flowers that look like insects.
Others smell of bad meat or the
foul scent sprayed by skunks.
Such strange adaptations have
a good reason – they are tricks
to attract pollinators.

GREEN BRISTLEGRASS GRASS FLOWERS SEA BEET NAVELWORT BEE ORCHID WESTERN SKUNK CABBAGE STINK LILY

This flower has petals that look The tiny flowers are surrounded The long black spike (spadix)
like a bee. Real bees are fooled by a vivid yellow structure called on this plant stinks of rotten
into trying to mate with it, so they a “spathe”. Some insects love meat – which attracts flies
pick up and disperse the pollen. the skunky smell of this plant. hoping for a meal.

83

Trees TREE SHAPES

The shape of a tree is called its habit. Typical habits
include widely spreading branches, narrow columns, and
neat cones. Tree species can often be recognized by their
habit, even if leafless in winter.

The largest plants on Earth, trees have been CONICAL COLUMNAR SPREADING SHRUB
here for millions of years. They are vital to FLAKY
the planet’s survival. Their leaves absorb
harmful substances from the atmosphere
and produce oxygen. Trees keep the air
moist, which helps to create rainfall,
and provide homes and food for wildlife.

WHAT IS A TREE? Leaves Crown TYPES OF BARK

A tree is a tall plant with, Bark is the outer layer of a tree. It protects SMOOTH
usually, a woody stem called the trunk and branches from damage and
a trunk that divides into ever- keeps in water. The colour and texture of
smaller, leaf-bearing branches. bark, and the way it flakes or peels, can
A network of roots anchors the help with the identification of a tree. The
tree to the ground and draws appearance of bark can change as a tree
up water and nutrients gets older.
from the soil.

PEELING PEELING UNEVEN RIDGES AND
HORIZONTALLY VERTICALLY CRACKS FURROWS

Branches

Roots LEAF SHAPES

Trunk In cold, dry regions, leaves on
native trees – such as firs and
pines – tend to be needle-shaped
or formed like tiny scales. Trees
in warmer, wetter areas usually
have broader leaves with a
greater variety of shapes.

LANCE-SHAPED NEEDLE-LIKE STRAIGHT- SCALE-LIKE OBLONG
SIDED

LANCE-SHAPED, OVAL HEART-SHAPED ROUNDED
POINTED AT BASE
STATUE OF
TREE RINGS FOUR SEASONS 1 SPRING TALLEST LIBERTY
Trees produce TREES
Every year that a tree grows it adds a new Many types of trees have new leaves and 93 m (305 ft)
layer of wood beneath its bark. If the tree is cut The evergreen trees
down, these layers can be seen as dark and a cycle of growth that pollen-bearing known as Coastal
light rings. By counting the dark rings, it is Redwoods grow
possible to work out the age of the tree. follows seasonal flowers. taller than any other
species of tree. They
weather changes. grow naturally only
along the Pacific
They produce leaves 2 SUMMER coast of northern
and flowers in spring, Green leaves California, USA. The
then seeds through the very tallest redwood
Rings in summer. As the hours use energy from is an amazing 116 m
cut trunk (380 ft) high. Named
Bark sunlight to make Hyperion, its exact
location is secret.
of daylight shorten in food for the tree.
autumn, the trees stop Seeds develop. HYPERION
REDWOOD
growing and drop their 4 WINTER 116 m (380 ft)
To save energy
leaves. In winter, the
and water, the tree
trees have a period
of rest. Leafless sheds its leaves.
branches

LEAF CHANGE Leaves 3 AUTUMN
turn red With less sunlight,
In autumn, leaves change
appearance. The green vanishes, the leaves stop making
and reds, yellows, and browns
make woodlands glow with colour. food and change colour.

84

DECIDUOUS TREES

Trees that lose all their leaves for part of the
year – for example, oaks and beeches – are called
deciduous. They have flat leaves of many shapes
that are usually shed in cold or dry seasons. The
tree remains bare until warmer weather returns,
when new leaves grow. Deciduous trees are
found in many regions of the world.

COMMON ALDER SILVER BIRCH COMMON HORNBEAM SWEET CHESTNUT COMMON BEECH

MANNA ASH TAMARACK SUGAR MAPLE QUAKING ASPEN CHERRY WHITE WILLOW ROWAN ENGLISH ELM

WHITE MULBERRY ENGLISH OAK QUINCE JUDAS TREE COMMON FIG TURPENTINE TREE

EVERGREEN TREES THPEINIAWSENDOACIARNIBYTLERCDEENIAAD’STSLRTATIMSLFTREOOOEC4RESL,O7NDTN8I9AE ,

These trees have leaves all year
round. Although old leaves fall off,
they are constantly replaced by new
ones. Evergreens include firs, pines,
cedars, and spruces. Many grow in
northern regions, where they thrive
in harsh, cold climates.

SILVER FIR GIANT FIR MONKEY PUZZLE YLANG YLANG ITALIAN
CYPRESS

BLUE GUM MAGELLAN’S BEECH STRAWBERRY TREE LEMON TREE CEDAR OF LEBANON WELLINGTONIA

NORWAY SPRUCE BLUE SPRUCE

COCOA TREE CHINESE EVERGREEN COMMON MANGO COMMON JUNIPER SCOTS PINE COMMON YEW EASTERN HEMLOCK
MAGNOLIA GINKGO

ANCIENT TREES TREE FERNS BONSAI JAPANESE MAPLE DWARF CRAB APPLE

The first tree-like plants that grew on Earth, The ancient oriental art of bonsai creates
about 380 million years ago, were spore trees. tiny replicas of large trees. Techniques
These reproduced not from seeds but from cells such as wiring roots and branches stop
called spores on the underside of their leaves. the tree from reaching its full growth.
The only spore trees living today are the tree Bonsai can be used on any type of tree
ferns. Another ancient tree is the Ginkgo, a to produce a miniature version small
survivor from before the age of dinosaurs. enough to keep in a pot.

85

Wart

BAY CUP LEMON DISCO

GREEN YELLOWING
ELFCUP CUP

Cap

Gills (spore-carrying Cup carries Deeply LEMON PEEL FUNGUS
tissues) spores cup-shaped

CAP-AND-STEM fruiting body
MUSHROOM

COMMON TOOTHED
EARTH-CUP CUP

Stem or ORANGE PEEL FUNGUS ANEMONE JELLY EAR
“stipe” CUP

Base Ring (remains of BLISTERED Spore-producing
tissue that covered CUP tissue
Root-like baby mushroom)
threads
CUP-LIKE LARGE PURPLE DROP SCARLET ELFCUP BEECH JELLYDISC
FRUITING BODY
There are many varieties of
The mushroom seen growing in mushrooms shaped like cups
grass or woodland is called a “fruiting or discs. The inner surface
body”. Another part of the fungus is of the cup carries the spores.
hidden underground. The best-known These fungi grow from the
mushrooms have a rounded cap with a ground or on damp wood.
central stem. Under the cap are thin, flat
tissues known as gills, where spores – Spores sit on the
tiny reproductive cells – are produced. inner surface

BALL-SHAPED

Some fungi are round like balls. They range in size
from tiny ones clustering on stems to giants as
large as a football. The type called puffballs split
open to release the spores stored inside.

GREY PESTLE-SHAPED

PUFFBALL PUFFBALL CRAMP BALLS

COMMON EARTHBALL STUMP PUFFBALL SPINY PUFFBALL MEADOW PUFFBALL SUMMER TRUFFLE GIANT RED
PUFFBALL CAGE

CAP-AND-STEM MEADOW
WA XCAP
The most easily recognized fungi are the “umbrella”
or cap-and-stem type. They come in all shapes and
sizes. Some are small and spindly, others have fat
stems and thick, fleshy caps.

AMETHYST
DECEIVER

Bun-shaped
cap

FALSE SPLENDID WEBCAP SCARLET VIOLET SICKENER CONIFER TUFT FLY AGARIC PANTHERCAP LILAC
MOREL WA XCAP WEBCAP FIELD BLEWIT BONNET

86

Mushrooms DANGEROUS
MUSHROOMS
Although they look like plants, mushrooms are quite different and
belong to a separate scientific group – the fungi. They come in many Some poisonous mushrooms
shapes and colours, and all of them feed on organic matter. Some look very like the ones used in
mushrooms are edible but others are deadly poisonous. cooking. No one should pick
a mushroom without being
quite sure what type it is.

DEATHCAP

One of the deadliest fungi in
the world, the deathcap can
be fatal if eaten.

LIFECYCLE OF A MUSHROOM WHERE FUNGI GROW BROWN ROLLRIM

The real growth of a fungus takes place out of sight. Beneath the ground, a web Finding and identifying fungi means The poison in the rollrim can
of fine threads develops from the mushroom’s spores (reproductive cells) and knowing the right places to look. For damage red blood cells and
spreads to produce more mushrooms. example, some fungi grow by certain trees. lead to kidney and liver failure.

Cap rolls
inwards

Short
stem

Spores FALLEN BRANCHES FIR CONES JEWELLED AMANITA
carried away The common brown cup The earpick fungus
by wind mushroom grows on oak bark. grows directly out of This cream-coloured or yellow
decaying fir cones. mushroom can cause sickness and
Spore stomach pains less than an hour after
being eaten.
1 SPORES FALL OUT LEAVES
The underside of the Redleg club fungi appear FUNERAL BELL
on the ribs and stalks of ash,
mushroom cap releases spores. maple, or alder leaves. Found on rotting wood, the yellowish-
brown funeral bell contains a poison
5 STARTING AGAIN 2 THREADS DEVELOP that causes liver damage and, without
Fully grown, the mushroom The spores form fast treatment, death.

is ready to release its spores. a web of threads DEADLY WEBCAP

underground. This is very dangerous because it looks
like the edible chanterelle mushroom.
If eaten, the webcap damages the liver
and kidneys.

4 NEW CAP 3 MUSHROOM SPROUTS UNDER TREES ON OTHER MUSHROOMS
EMERGES The threads stick The hazel bolete mushroom Silky piggyback mushrooms
grows in leaf beds under hazel grow on the rotting bodies
The young mushroom and hornbeam trees. of other fungi.

appears above together, forming a small

the ground. knot – a new mushroom.

BRACKET-LIKE DWARF STAR-SHAPED
EARTHSTAR
These types of fungi are found In these fungi, the spores are
on trees or dead wood. They grow DEVIL’S held in a round case. To release
like shelves, sometimes forming FINGERS the spores, the outer layer
row on top of row. Bracket fungi of the case splits open like
can eventually kill living trees a many-pointed star.
by attacking their tissues.

BEE SWA X CHICKEN OF
BRACKET THE WOODS

OYSTER MUSHROOM OAK MAZEGILL TOOTHED JELLY JELLY ROT COLLARED EARTHSTAR

Conical CLUB-SHAPED CORAL-LIKE
cap
With their upright shapes and no Often brightly coloured, the
noticeable cap, club fungi can be clustered, branching stalks of
hard to recognize as mushrooms. coral fungi look very similar to
Some types grow in clumps. the corals found in tropical seas.

SILKY ROSEGILL CAESAR’S YELLOW
AMANITA CLUB

Raised dome SCARLET BOG PIPE
on cap CLUB

CATERPILLAR CLUB BEACON CANDLESNUFF
FUNGUS
VIOLET DOMECAP SCALY EARTHTONGUE DEAD MAN’S FINGERS UPRIGHT ROSSO CORAL YELLOW STAGSHORN
CORAL
87

SPIDERS DADDY LONG-LEGS NORTH AMERICAN GIANT HOUSE WATER SPIDER
SPIDER TRAPDOOR SPIDER SPIDER
There are about 4,200
species of spiders. They
have eight legs, and six or
eight eyes. Most spiders can
live for up to one year, if they
avoid disease and predators.
Some big spiders, such as
the tarantula, can live for
up to 20 years.

NURSERY
WEB SPIDER

CAVE
SPIDER

NORTHERN SPITTING AMERICAN GOLDEN CHACO
SPIDER SILK ORB-WEAVER TARANTULA

BROWN JUMPING SPIDER NORTHERN BLACK FUNNEL-WEB EUROPEAN
WIDOW SPIDER SPIDER WOLF SPIDER

Spiders and ANATOMY OF A SPIDER

scorpions A spider’s body is divided into two parts. The first part
includes the eyes, fangs, stomach, and legs, while the
second part contains the silk glands, known as spinnerets.
Spiders have four pairs of legs, and use the hairs on these
to pick up smells, sounds, and vibrations.

Digestive glands

Heart

Spiders and scorpions are part of the Intestine Eye
arachnid family – invertebrate animals
with eight legs. They are alike in many Ovary

ways, but a scorpion has a venomous Silk gland, or
stinger in its tail, while spiders have spinneret, for
making webs
venomous fangs.
Book lung Fang with
venom canal

SCORPLINGS

Young scorpions develop inside their mother’s body.
After birth, they climb on to her back until their external
skeleton moults for the first time.

SCORPIONS Scorplings External
skeleton will
A scorpion’s body is encased be shed five
in a tough shell-like covering. to seven
Claws near the head are times before
used to seize prey and fight adulthood
predators, while its tail ends
in a venomous stinger. YELLOW THICK- IMPERIAL CHILEAN
TAIL SCORPION SCORPION BURROWING
88
SCORPION

CRAB-LIKE SPINY OTHER ARACHNIDS
ORB-WEAVER
The arachnid family includes other
animals such as mites, ticks, and
harvestmen. They are often mistaken for
insects, but they are not, mainly because
they all have eight legs, not six, and two
body segments, instead of three.

ORANGE
BABOON
TARANTULA

WHIP
SPIDER

MEXICAN RED-KNEED COMMON
TARANTULA HARVESTMAN

RAFT BROAD-HEADED
SPIDER PSEUDOSCORPION

WEB TYPES BUILDING A WEB SPIDER SIZES

Different species of spider produce different Orb spiders produce a strong silk “thread” The world’s smallest
types of webs. Orb spiders produce the most from their abdomen, which they use for spider, the Patu Digua,
widely recognized web. spinning webs. The finished web is sticky, has a body about the
so that it can trap insects that pass by for size of a pin head.
the spider to eat. The largest spider,
the Goliath Birdeater
1 FRAMEWORK Tarantula, has a leg PATU DIGUA GOLIATH BIRDEATER
The spider lets out a span of 28 cm (11 in). SPIDER TARANTULA

thread, which catches on FEEDING

a twig. It then attaches the Spiders use fangs to kill their
prey. Many also “spit” digestive
other end to another twig. fluids over the prey, to turn it DANGEROUS
to liquid, and then suck it up. SPIDERS
Next, it attaches a looser All spiders eat insects, but some
big spiders also eat lizards, frogs, Only a small number of spiders are
thread to the same spot and and even fish. a danger to humans.

ORB WEB TRIANGULAR WEB then suspends itself from BRAZILIAN WANDERING
SPIDER
Spun by orb web This type is spun by a third thread in the middle.
spiders, this type of non-venomous The world’s most poisonous spider
web needs repairing cribellate orb wanders across jungle floors at night
weaver spiders. in search of food.
every day.
SYDNEY FUNNEL-WEB
2 SPIRAL THREADS
Once the third When prey comes into contact with its web,
this spider rushes out and delivers lots of
thread is attached, bites, very quickly.

the spider spins spiral BROWN RECLUSE

threads to complete the Also known as “violin spiders”, these bite with
flesh-eating venom for which there is no cure.
web. These threads are
BLACK WIDOW SPIDER
not sticky.
This spider’s venom is very poisonous,
COBWEB FUNNEL-WEB 3 STICKY THREADS but its bite is small.
This tubular style Finally, the
Also known as is built by funnel-
a “tangled web”,
this type is made by web spiders.
house spiders.

ISYATEH1A1ER0-O-OMLLDIDLELSFIOTOSNWS-IELB spider replaces the

spiral threads with sticky

threads, ready to catch

its prey. It then eats the

non-sticky threads.

89

Crustaceans CRABS WARTY BOX
CRAB
The animals called crustaceans are a varied group that All but a few crabs live in the sea.
includes crabs, lobsters, prawns, and shrimps. Most of Most of them have flat bodies and SPLENDID
them live in water. Among the few found on land are a wide shell. The soft-bellied hermit ROUND CRAB
tiny woodlice. Crustaceans have an outer skeleton that crabs protect themselves by living in the
does not grow when their bodies do, so they shed it empty shells of other marine animals.
regularly to allow a new, larger one to develop. Crabs move by walking sideways.

EDIBLE CRAB

THE BODY OF A CRUSTACEAN Eye Antenna
Nerve cord Claw
Lobsters and crabs have three body regions: the head,
the thorax or mid-section, and the abdomen. They have
five pairs of legs, which in some species form pincers.

Heart Digestive gland

Stomach

Eye Antenna Gills
Claw

Swimmeret Walking leg Walking leg Heart
Tail fan
Swimming leg
LOBSTER Nerve cluster CRAB

LIFECYCLE OF A CRAB SURVIVAL TACTICS SPINY SPIDER
CRAB
Like most crustaceans, newly hatched crabs look very Crabs are a tasty meal for many other sea
different from their parents. They develop into adults creatures. They often dodge predators by
through several stages. A female crab lays millions hiding under rocks or in a tangle of seaweed.
of eggs, of which only a handful survive. If cornered a long way from shelter, a crab
uses different tactics to get out of trouble.

1 EGGS MOCK ATTACK
After mating, the
The crab rears up
female crab produces and waves its pincers,
trying to make itself
her eggs, which she look as large
as possible.
carries attached to

her abdomen. MASKED GHOST
CRAB CRAB

4 ADULTHOOD CROUCH LOBSTERS AND
With each change of shell OTHER FAMILIES
Another trick the crab
the junior crabs become more may try is to crouch Like most crabs, lobsters live in the sea.
down low, so that it These large animals have a hard upper shell
like the adults. They gradually is seen less easily and powerful tails. Smaller crustaceans
by the waiting include numerous shrimps, both marine
reach maturity. predator. and freshwater. Sea slaters and woodlice
belong to a large family whose members
are found on land as well as in water. VERNAL
POOL
2 YOUNG HATCH ESCAPE
The eggs TADPOLE
With luck, the SHRIMP
crab confuses the
hatch into young attacker and has
time to scuttle
that look like tiny off to safety.

shrimps. These

3 INFANTS DEVELOP float and feed in BROAD LOBSTER AESOP
The young moult (shed SHRIMP
ocean currents.

their shells) several times,

and settle on the seabed.

DEADLY BUBBLE 1 CLAW OPENS 2 CLAW SHUTS 3 PREY STUNNED
The shrimp The claw The sound of the
The 5 cm (2 in) long pistol
shrimp makes a big noise opens its hinged snaps shut, bubble bursting stuns
for its size. Meeting prey, the
shrimp opens the larger of its claw wide. creating a bubble. the prey. COMMON EUROPEAN
claws and snaps it shut at LOBSTER
lightning speed. The snap
creates an air bubble, which
bursts with a bang loud
enough to stun the victim.

90

Eyestalk

RED LAND FURROWED ANEMONE
CRAB CRAB HERMIT CRAB

Tiny hairs act COMMON HERMIT
as sensors CRAB

DUNGENESS CRAB Empty shell
used as a
portable home

WHITE-SPOTTED
HERMIT CRAB

VELVET PANAMIC
SWIMMING CRAB ARROW CRAB

PORCELAIN RED REEF HERMIT CRAB ORANGE COMMON EUROPEAN ATLANTIC
ANEMONE CRAB FIDDLER CRAB CRAB BLUE CRAB

SCULPTURED
SLIPPER
LOBSTER

PEACOCK MANTIS NORWAY
SHRIMP LOBSTER

COMMON MARBLE MORETON BAY
SHRIMP BUG LOBSTER

COMMON SHRIMP WHITE-CLAWED CRAYFISH

HAIRY SQUAT SEA SLATER ANTARCTIC
LOBSTER KRILL

STRIPED-LEG PILL WOODLOUSE
SPINY LOBSTER
SPINY SQUAT
LOBSTER

TIGER PRAWN

91

RECOGNIZING Insects
AN INSECT
Out of all the animals
Insects come in many forms. Most have on Earth, insects are the
wings, and there are other features that biggest success story. There
make them easier to recognize, too. are greater numbers, living
in more places, than any
other type of creature. More Abdomen contains
than a million insect species some internal organs
have been identified – and
THREE BODY OFTEN HAVE WINGS there may be millions still JUNGLE
SEGMENTS to discover. NYMPH

OUTER SKELETON COMPOUND Thorax carries
EYES legs and wings

FEELERS SIX JOINTED LEGS THE BODY OF Head contains brain,
AN INSECT eyes, and mouthparts
F4IIN0R0SSEMTCIATLNSLIIWOMNEARYLESEATTHROSEFALYG,O Feelers Compound eye
Insects have three main body are used (has many lenses) Mouthparts
segments: the head; the thorax, or to taste specially
midsection, to which the legs, and and smell designed
maybe wings, are attached; and the for chewing
abdomen or belly. All these parts are leaves
protected by a hard outer skeleton.
LONGHORN
BEETLES CHAFER GOLD BEETLE BEETLE
BEETLE
About one in every three insects
is a beetle. At least 370,000
species are known. They all have
hard front wings that fold shut
to form a protective case.

RED GIRAFFE GREEN JUNE JEWELLED FROG
BEETLE
WEEVIL BEETLE

SCARLET LILY
BEETLE

CLICK TWENTY-TWO HERCULES GOLIATH GREAT DIVING WALLACE’S JEWEL
BEETLE BEETLE BEETLE LONGHORN BEETLE BEETLE
BEETLE SPOT LADYBIRD WEEVIL STAG BEETLE

TRUE BUGS Large head shaped PEANUT-HEADED
like a peanut shell BUG
Not all so-called bugs are true bugs. These are a
group of insects with long beak-like mouthparts
made for piercing and sucking juices
from plants and animals.

BED FIREBUG THORN BUG HAWTHORN WATER GIANT WART-HEADED BUG WHITE SPOTTED
BUG SHIELD BUG SCORPION WATER BUG ASSASSIN BUG

GRASSHOPPERS AND CRICKETS

A grasshopper makes its loud chirp by rubbing its
hindlegs against its wings. Crickets “sing” by rubbing
their wings together. Both types of insect fly and jump.

COMMON BLACK
CRICKET

OAK BUSH SPECKLED DESERT STRIPE-WINGED COMMON FIELD
CRICKET BUSH CRICKET LOCUST GRASSHOPPER GRASSHOPPER

92

ANTS, BEES, FLIES
AND WASPS
There are thousands of
These groups of insects include species of flies around
many that sting. Ants and nearly the world. Although some
all types of bees and wasps live types are disease-carrying
in organized colonies. pests, many are useful as
pollinators of plants.

WOOD ANT ARMY ANT COMMON WASP ASIAN TAWNY BLUEBOTTLE TIMBER FLY HOUSE FLY GIANT BLUE
CARPENTER BEE MINING BEE ROBBER FLY

DRAGONFLIES AND BUTTERFLIES
DAMSELFLIES AND MOTHS

Slender bodies and large wings Often colourful, butterflies are
make these the flying aces of the daytime flyers. Moths are usually
insect world. They are skilful duller and most fly at night. Both
predators, darting through the have tiny scales on their wings.
air to catch other insects.

PLAINS CLUBTAIL COMET
DARNER

MEDITERRANEAN FLAME TWIN-SPOTTED
DAMSELFLY SKIMMER SPIKETAIL

ORANGE OAKLEAF BUTTERFLY

Transparent GRAY Appendages at PRINCE BROAD-BODIED MONARCH BUTTERFLY
wings PETALTAIL end of abdomen BASKETTAIL CHASER
GARDEN
AZURE Compound eyes TIGER MOTH
DAMSELFLY

EMPEROR SOUTHERN HAWKER ILLINOIS RIVER BANDED GIANT HAWKER WHITE-LEGGED MADAGASCAN SUNSET MOTH
DRAGONFLY DRAGONFLY CRUISER DEMOISELLE DAMSELFLY

LIFECYCLE 1 EGGS 2 LARVA 3 SKIN CHANGES 4 PUPA 5 ADULT
The female may lay Each egg hatches The larva eats and grows, When the larva is full Inside a tight wrapping,
All insects start life as an egg.
Once they hatch out, their bodies hundreds of eggs over the into a larva (young, shedding its skin multiple times size, its skin splits to reveal the pupa changes, and an
go through changes as they grow
into adults. The lifecycle of the
ladybird, shown here, is how
many beetles develop.

spring and early summer. undeveloped insect). over several weeks. the pupa (non-feeding stage). adult ladybird emerges.

ALL-ROUND Large
VISION compound
eyes are very
Insects have compound sensitive to
eyes. While a human eye movement
has one lens, a compound
TITAN LONGHORN BEETLE FAIRYFLY eye has hundreds or
thousands of lenses. This
16.7 CM (6.5 IN) 0.139 MM (0.005 IN) allows insects to look in
many directions at once.
BIGGEST AND SMALLEST
HORSEFLY
One of the largest insects in the world is the South American
Titan Longhorn Beetle, which can fill the palm of a hand. The tiniest
insects are fairyflies, barely visible without a magnifying glass.

93

Butterflies WHAT’S THE DIFFERENCE?
and moths
Most butterflies fly by day and are brightly coloured. At rest, they usually
With their delicate shape and often stunning fold their wings upright. Moths fly largely at night and most have duller
colours, butterflies and moths are beautiful colouring. They have furry bodies and feathery antennae. When resting,
insects. All have four wings covered in tiny moths either hold their wings apart or fold them close to the body.
scales that create a mosaic of exquisite patterns.
Most butterflies and moths feed on nectar from Noticeable Rounded tip Feathery Furry body
flowers and are important for pollinating plants. veins in to antennae antennae and head
wings

Long, narrow Muted
wings colours

BUTTERFLY Scalloped MOTH
edge to wings

BUTTERFLIES WESTERN ADONIS
PYGMY BLUE BLUE
There are butterflies nearly everywhere in the
world. The biggest wings and boldest patterns LARGE COPPER BROWN-VEINED
are seen mostly in species from tropical WHITE
regions. A butterfly’s colours not only attract
mates but also provide protection. To a
predator, bright wings are a warning that
the prey could be poisonous to eat.

ORANGE-BARRED IMPERIAL WHITE LEAFWING BLUE NIGHT
GIANT SULPHUR BUTTERFLY

REGENT SKIPPER MOORLAND CLOUDED YELLOW MECHANITIS QUEEN
MIMIC ALE X ANDR A’S

BIRDWING

BRAZILIAN TIGER BLUE TRIANGLE PEACOCK APOLLO
DYNASTOR SWALLOWTAIL BUTTERFLY
ORIZABA
MOTHS ORNATE MOTH SILKMOTH

There are many more moths INFANT MOTH
than butterflies. Most are less
eye-catching, but spectacular
species do occur. The gigantic
moon moths can have wingspans
of up to 30 cm (12 in).

PROVENCE BURNET MADAGASCAN GOLDEN SMOOTH
SUNSET MOTH EMPEROR EMERALD
94

LIFECYCLE OF 2 CATERPILLAR LARGEST AND
A BUTTERFLY A caterpillar hatches from SMALLEST

Butterflies and moths change the egg. It eats and eats and sheds The female Queen Alexandra’s
from caterpillars to adults in a Birdwing is the world’s biggest
process called metamorphosis. its skin (moults) several times butterfly with a wingspan of up to
Their life stages vary according 28 cm (11 in). The Western Pygmy
to species. Some as its body gets bigger. Blue has a wingspan of less than
caterpillars change 2 cm (0.5 in), making it one of the
inside a silk cocoon world’s smallest. WESTERN QUEEN ALEXANDRA’S
rather than the hard PYGMY BLUE BIRDWING
case shown here.
CATERPILLAR MOVEMENT
1 EGG 3 CHRYSALIS Two pairs of
A butterfly begins The final moult Caterpillars have three pairs of legs at the front false legs
and between two and five pairs of false legs,
life as an egg the size reveals a hard case, or which provide grip, at the hind end. They move Three pairs
with a wave-like motion. of walking legs
of a pin head. Butterfly chrysalis, inside which

eggs may be laid singly the caterpillar stays as

or in clusters. its body changes.

4 ADULT BUTTERFLY 1 FRONT MOVES 2 REAR CATCHES UP 3 FRONT MOVES AGAIN
A colourful butterfly The caterpillar moves It draws its hind end It then moves its

emerges out of the chrysalis. its front part forwards, forwards while holding on front again, gripping with

In turn, it will lay its own eggs. leaving the rear anchored. with the front legs. the false legs at the back.

COMMON HEWITSON’S LARGE BLUE PURPLE CATERPILLARS
CLUBTAIL BLUE HAIRSTREAK
Different species of caterpillars vary
HAIRSTREAK greatly in appearance, but all are big
eaters. Most feed on plants, often of
one type only. Less usual foods include
wool and the horns of dead cattle.

DEATH’S HEAD HAWK-MOTH

OAK LEAFROLLER

MARBLED WHITE PIRATE PUSS MOTH
BUTTERFLY POSTMAN BUTTERFLY
GUAVA SKIPPER BHUTAN GLORY SWALLOWTAIL
JULIA GRIZZLED
PAINTED LADY SKIPPER

EUROPEAN MAP EIGHTY-EIGHT
BUTTERFLY BUTTERFLY

TIGER MOTH

CHINESE OAK
SILK MOTH

MONARCH CATTLE HEART SWALLOWTAIL MALACHITE

COMMON LIME
EPICOMA MOTH HAWK-MOTH

ELEPHANT HARTIG’S
HAWK-MOTH BRAHMAEA

AFRICAN MOON GREEN SILVER-LINES MOTH GIANT LEOPARD MOTH LARGE MAPLE BASKER
MOTH SPANWORM MOTH

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LAND SLUGS SEA SLUGS ELEGANT SEA SLUG

With no shell to retreat into, slugs have to hide, emerging As wobbly as jelly and often as
at night to feed. Some live underground. Although seen as brightly coloured, sea slugs creep
pests for devouring garden plants and farm crops, slugs over seabeds and corals. Some
play a useful part in breaking down rotting vegetation. can swim in a clumsy fashion. They
carry gills, or breathing organs, such
as feathers or spikes on their backs.

COMMON GARDEN SLUG Gills

VARICOSE SPANISH DANCER
SEA SLUG

KERRY
SPOTTED

SLUG

BLACK SLUG ANNA’S SEA SLUG HEADSHIELD SLUG OPALESCENT SEA SLUG Smell or
taste organs
LAND SNAILS ARSOEOENHVMWUEENNOTTROYEMTPRHESSS,ETSROHLSFUANSGTANSPIA,LRAISELNYSD BROWN-LIPPED
SNAIL ROMAN SNAIL
Among the best-known animals on Earth, land snails range from
species no bigger than a pinhead to the giant African land snail,
which can reach 30 cm (15.5 in) long and weigh up to 900 g (2 lb).
Their shells are more than portable homes. The colours and
patterns provide camouflage by blending
into the snail’s habitat.

Eye at the end HAIRY SNAIL
of the tentacle

Sensory
tentacles

MANUS ISLAND
SNAIL

WHITE-LIPPED
SNAIL

COMMON GARDEN SNAIL ROSY WOLFSNAIL GIANT AFRICAN LAND SNAIL

Slugs and snails WHAT’S THE DIFFERENCE?

Leaving pathways of shining slime made by their The bodies of slugs and snails look very alike, but a telltale
own bodies, land slugs and snails are familiar in feature lies beneath a snail’s shell. This is a small hump
damp places almost all over the world. Less often containing most of the snail’s internal organs. Some slugs
seen, except sometimes as aquarium pets, are slugs have a tiny internal shell that serves as a calcium store.
and snails that live in water. Many of these, especially
species from warm oceans, are vividly coloured or Shell
have fantastically shaped shells.
Breathing pore
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SNAIL SLUG

SURPRISING RELATIVES

The octopus seems an unlikely relative of slugs and snails, but it
is in the same major scientific group – the molluscs. Many other
animals, perhaps just as unexpected, also belong to this group.
Some of them are shown here.

SPOTTED SEA
HARE

LETTUCE SEA SLUG BLACK-MARGINED SEA SLUG VARIABLE NEON
SEA SLUG
AQUATIC SNAILS SMALL GIANT CLAM
APPLE SNAIL
Some of these snails live in the DOG WHELK
sea, others in fresh water. Sea
snails are often highly colourful.
Many have spectacular spiralling
shells, like the huge Triton’s
trumpet snail, a predator that
injects poison into its prey.

AUSTRALIAN GIANT GEODUCK CLAM
CUTTLEFISH
PACIFIC THORNY
OYSTER

GREAT POND SNAIL COMMON CUTTLEFISH
Shell up to 50 cm
(20 in) long MARBLED
CHITON
RAMSHORN SNAIL

COMMON OCTOPUS

COMMON WHELK TRITON’S TRUMPET BIGFIN REEF SQUID NAUTILUS

BONELESS BODIES SHELL SHAPES HABITATS

Slugs and snails have no bones. Their soft bodies consist Most snails have spiral shells, which come in many shapes and There are tens of thousands of different slugs
of a head, a central part containing the organs, and an sizes. More unusual types of shells usually belong to sea snails. and snails living in a wide variety of habitats.
underside, or “foot”, that they use for moving. The head Among the variations are elegantly twisted cones, irregular They are found on mountains and seabeds,
carries one or two pairs of tentacles that contain eyes and shapes bristling with spikes, and flat shells like caps. and in rivers, forests, and gardens.
other sense organs.

Eyes at end Shell
of tentacle

Rasp-like Stomach SPINDLE SHAPE IRREGULAR SPIRAL SHAPE SEA FRESH WATER LAND
tongue and other
scrapes vital organs Many slugs and Ponds, lakes, Few snails can
up food inside shell snails live on
coral reefs and streams, and survive in a dry
in warm seas.
A few occur at rivers are habitat. Most,
great depths.
all common like slugs,

habitats for thrive only in

CLUB SHAPE PEAR SHAPE CAP SHAPE EGG SHAPE freshwater snails. damp places.

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SALTWATER FISH HARLEQUIN CROWNED BUTTERFLY FOXFACE
TUSKFISH SQUIRRELFISH BLENNY
Fish that live in the sea are
known as saltwater, or marine,
fish. There are around 16,000
marine species.

TURBOT BANDED COMMON BLUESTRIPE CLOWN TRIGGERFISH
ARCHER FISH SNAPPER

SEAHORSE BLUEFISH ATLANTIC
RED MULLET MACKEREL
EUROPEAN PLAICE
SPOTTED BOXFISH
ROCKLING JOHN DORY

VARIEGATED LONG-SPINED
LIZARDFISH SEA SCORPION

MEDITERRANEAN WEEDY LONG-SPINE BLUE-SPOTTED
PARROTFISH SEADRAGON PUFFERFISH SEA BREAM

BROWN MEAGRE ROYAL
GRAMMA
COMMON SOLE
EMPEROR
FLYING ANGELFISH
GURNARD
HARLEQUIN
SWEETLIPS

RED BANDFISH

STONEFISH TASSELLED SCORPIONFISH CLOWN ANEMONEFISH TIGER SHARK

Fish ANATOMY Front KNOKWOTNIHCTAAONRLP2IV0H0EAYVFEOEARBREMSEONRE
dorsal fin
Most fish have streamlined bodies,
Fish can be found in nearly every so they can move easily through the Skeleton Second
type of watery environment, from water. They are covered in scales dorsal fin
mountain streams to the deepest and breathe through gills – organs
oceans. They range from 12 mm on each side of the head that
(0.5 in) to 16 m (53 ft) in length, and collect oxygen from water.
there are more than 30,000 species.
Scales

Brain

Gills

Heart Kidney Stomach Intestine Tail fin
Swim bladder Pelvic fin
Anal fin

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