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BIRDS GALAH LIFE IN THE DESERT

Birds are well-equipped Only a few types of plants and animals can survive in deserts with
for life in deserts, extremely dry climates. In some deserts a little rain falls each year –
because most can fly these deserts provide a habitat for a wide variety of plants and animals,
to find water, prey, or from tiny insects to big hunters like the coyote. In parts of other deserts
plants that have seeded rain has never been recorded.
after local rainstorms.
The ostrich cannot DESFAWLEFORTITWTEHRSEPRMIRTINAINRGNAGYAISNTPTSLOO,ATNLNHCITFEEES,
fly, but is able to walk
long distances.

ROADRUNNER

GILA The fierce great
WOODPECKER horned owl preys on
small mammals, and
may nest in a cactus

LANNER FALCON

The coyote eats The giant saguaro
fruit and insects as cactus has a pleated
well as larger prey
stem that expands
to store water

Brittlebush has
hairy leaves that
reduce water loss

OSTRICH BURROWING TURKEY
OWL VULTURE
INVERTEBRATES

Insects, spiders, and scorpions have
hard-shelled bodies that do not dry
out easily. Many can go for days without
eating at all, which helps them survive
where food is scarce.

DESERT
LOCUST

HARVESTER ANT JEWEL WASP

DOMINO
BEETLE

DESERT DARKLING
CRICKET BEETLE

MEXICAN CRAB FALSE WHIP
RED-KNEED SPIDER SCORPION
TARANTULA

Venomous The kangaroo rat Globemallow has flat
rattlesnakes catch can use its long back orange flowers that

small mammals, legs to roam widely attract butterflies and
sometimes in their in search of food bees in the summer

own burrows 149

SCORPION

Polar POLAR SEASONS LAND MAMMALS

habitats As Earth spins, most places The Arctic is the only polar
experience day and night. But region with land mammals.
In winter, there is little sunlight because of the tilt of Earth’s Some are summer visitors,
near the cold North and South axis, the polar regions are but others such as the musk
poles. In summer, the seas teem always dark in midwinter, ox live in the Arctic all
with life, which supports large and stay light in midsummer. year round. Polar
numbers of fish and other animals. This is one reason why polar bears live mainly
Many land animals live in the winters are so bitterly cold. on the sea ice.
Arctic, but only a few tiny
invertebrates live in Antarctica. NORTHERN WINTER ARCTIC
In December, the Arctic HARE
is in almost constant darkness.
COLLARED SNOWSHOE
FOOD WEB PIKA HARE

In the Antarctic, all the animals get their food from the sea.
Tiny drifting algae (phytoplankton) feed swarms of krill,
which are in turn eaten by baleen whales, seals, penguins,
and birds. Fish are eaten by seals and birds, while orcas eat
anything they can catch.

ORCA

WHERE SEAL
ON EARTH?
NORTH EUROPE ASIA ARCTIC
The polar regions consist AMERICA AFRICA OCEANIA LEMMING
of the Arctic Ocean and
nearby land, and the EQUATOR PENGUIN
continent of Antarctica
and the surrounding SOUTH ERMINE
ocean. Large areas of AMERICA
the seas in these regions
are frozen in winter. BIRD MARINE LIFE

POLAR ASIA EUROPE BALEEN SQUID Giant whales cruise the polar
REGIONS WHALE KRILL oceans, eating vast numbers of
ARCTIC krill and fish. Smaller whales
There are two OCEAN and seals hunt fish, squid,
different polar and shellfish.
regions on Earth.
The Arctic is at FISH
Earth’s North Pole,
and Antarctica at ANTARCTICA
the South Pole.
THE ARCTIC ANTARCTICA
The Arctic is an icy ocean Antarctica is an icy PHYTOPLANKTON BOWHEAD
continent, and most of its WHALE
with land all around it, animals live in the ocean.
where animals can live.

LIFE IN THE ARCTIC Arctic foxes have Ptarmigan BIRDS
thick fur coats
The Arctic has a greater diversity of life than to keep out Musk oxen dig Many land birds range over
the Antarctic, because it has many different the cold through the snow the Arctic, but all Antarctic birds,
types of land animals. Arctic seas are also to find food such as penguins, find their
rich in food and marine life. food in the ocean.
Ermine
In winter and Snowy owls
spring, polar seize lemmings Arctic
bears prowl from their runs hare
the sea ice in under the snow
search of seals
ALBATROSS
Lemmings
The walrus live and
hunts shellfish feed under
on the seabed the snow

Polar bear
cubs

The male narwhal Ringed SNOWY OWL
has a long spiral tusk. seal
Narwhals eat squid and PEREGRINE
large fish such as cod Orcas hunt seals and FALCON
big fish in the open sea

150

WOLVERINE

ARCTIC FOX

ARCTIC
WOLF

REINDEER MUSK OX POLAR BEAR

BELUGA BEARDED SEAL LEOPARD SEAL
ARCTIC TERN WALRUS
HARP
SEAL

ORCA NARWHAL GREENLAND SHARK

PLANTS

Only the toughest plants can survive the extreme cold
of a polar winter. Most are low-growing, so they are
sheltered from the wind, and there are no tall trees.
In the Arctic, all the plants flower at once when spring
arrives to make the most of the short summer.

ARCTIC SKUA SOUTH POLAR SKUA AMERICAN GOLDEN
PLOVER

LITTLE AUK PUFFIN ROCK SNOW BUNTING
PTARMIGAN

COTTONGRASS ARCTIC WILLOW

BALD EAGLE CANADA GOOSE KING PENGUIN ARCTIC POPPY PASQUE FLOWER

151

SUNLIT ZONE SUNLIT ZONE CANDY
TWILIGHT ZONE STRIPE
Near the ocean surface, sunlight FLATWORM
DARK ZONE provides vital energy that fuels the
growth of tiny organisms drifting in BOTTLENOSE
ABYSSAL ZONE the water. The algae feed swarms of DOLPHIN
small animals that are eaten by fish
HADAL ZONE and other marine life.

KILLER WHALE LONGNOSED
HAWKFISH

HERMIT CRAB FLAMBOYANT SPOTTED FLYING
CUTTLEFISH SEAHORSE GURNARD

GARFISH

SEA LION

SUNLIGHT DUGONG CLOWN TRIGGERFISH
OCTOPUS
TWILIGHT ZONE

Below 200 m (660 ft) there is only faint blue light.
Algae that need light cannot survive, so there is
not much food for small animals. Bigger
animals hunt
each other.

RED LIONFISH

SUNLIGHT SEAL LIZARDFISH
SPERM WHALE
DARK ZONE

Deeper than 1,000 m (3,300 ft),
the water is dark apart from
the eerie glow produced by
luminous animals. Life is
scarce, but some deep
divers visit from
the surface.

SUNLIGHT PELICAN FRILLED SHARK
EEL

ABYSSAL ZONE

This is the deepest part of the dark zone, and includes
the ocean floor. Most of the animals here feed on
dead algae and scraps that drift down from above.

THE ABYSSAL ZONE IS
COLD, DARK, AND THE
PRESSURE IS SO INTENSE
THAT IT WOULD CRUSH

A HUMAN

STOPLIGHT LOOSEJAW

SUNLIGHT PACIFIC GRENADIER

152

NURSE SHARK TIGER SPOTTED Ocean
PRAWN CLEANER
WHITETIP SHRIMP The oceans form the biggest environment
REEF SHARK for wildlife on the planet. Most organisms
SEAMOTH live near the sunlit surface, especially in
shallow water near land, where the water is
BLUE-SPOTTED PRICKLY PANAMIC rich in food. But some animals are able to
RIBBONTAIL RAY PACIFIC ARROW CRAB live in the ocean depths, where there is no
DRUPE light and very little to eat.

TIGER SHARK SEA
STRAWBERRY FLUTED
SOFT CORAL GIANT CLAM

WARTY
FROGFISH

ROYAL WHERE ON EARTH? ARCTIC OCEAN
ANGELFISH
HUMPBACK The five interconnected oceans cover more
GROUPER than two-thirds of the planet. The biggest
ocean is the Pacific, while the smallest is
STONEFISH BLUE the Arctic Ocean at the North Pole. The ATLANTIC PACIFIC
CHROMIS Atlantic extends all the way from the Arctic OCEAN OCEAN
SPOTTED BOXFISH BROWN TUBE SPONGE to the Southern Ocean around Antarctica. EQUATOR
All the oceans, whether cold or warm, are INDIAN
ATLANTIC teeming with life. PACIFIC OCEAN
HORSESHOE CRAB OCEAN
SOUTHERN OCEAN

ANTARCTIC
KRILL

ANIMAL RELATIONSHIPS GROUPS OF FISH

The oceans are full of dangers, so some animals Many open-water fish travel in big
join forces to improve their chances of survival. groups called shoals or schools.
Others tag along with larger animals to feast on Some contain thousands of fish.
scraps of food that their big partners ignore. Living together like this makes it
difficult for big hunters such as
CLOWNFISH sharks to pick out individual fish.
AND ANEMONE
BRITTLE STAR ORANGE The stinging
GIANT SQUID ROUGHY tentacles of a
big sea anemone
LONGNOSE do not affect the
LANCETFISH clownfish, but
they protect it
HADAL ZONE from predators.

In some places, deep MANTA RAY AND
ocean trenches plunge REMORA FISH
deeper than the ocean A sucker on its
floor. Some animals live head allows the
in this zone, but very little remora to cling
is known about them. to big fish, like
this manta ray,
as they cruise
the oceans.

BOXER CRAB
AND ANEMONES
This tiny tropical
crab holds a
stinging sea
anemone in each
claw. It uses
them for defence,
and to stun prey.

VIPERFISH CUSK EEL BLACK Erupting
SMOKERS “smoke”
COMMON FANGTOOTH ANGLERFISH Mineral
SUNLIGHT SNAILFISH In some of the deepest chimney
parts of the ocean, water
seeps into the ocean floor Animal
and is heated by hot volcanic life
rock. The hot water forms
a spring on the ocean floor, Cold
which erupts. As the hot seawater
water hits the cold sea, the
minerals turn into solid Heated
particles that build up to water
form smoking “chimneys”
up to 55 m (180 ft) high.
Amazingly, there are unique
animals, including some
tubeworms, that can
survive this extreme heat.

153

Coral reef TYPES OF REEFS BIG VISITORS

Tropical coral reefs are the most Many reefs grow around islands, forming The animals living on the reefs attract big hunters
complex of all underwater habitats. fringes of coral in the shallow water. If an such as giant groupers, sharks, and dolphins. These
They are created by simple animals island is an extinct volcano, it gradually sinks, usually hunt in the deeper channels between the
called corals that live in big colonies while the reef keeps growing upwards. This corals. Sea turtles may visit to lay their eggs in
and have hard, stony skeletons. The creates a barrier reef. Eventually, the island the coral sand of the lagoon beaches.
coral colonies shelter an amazing sinks from sight, leaving a coral atoll.
variety of marine life, including many
kinds of fish and invertebrates. FRINGING REEF TIGER
This tropical volcanic SHARK
island is surrounded
by a fringing reef. The GREY REEF SHARK GIANT
extinct volcano slowly GROUPER
starts to sink.
WHERE ARCTIC OCEAN REEF FISH
IN THE The island sinks,
WORLD? ATLANTIC PACIFIC but the coral The water around the coral is alive with small fish
OCEAN OCEAN keeps growing that may swim in shoals. Some live in crevices
Coral reefs grow in the reefs, and slip out to feed when it is safe.
in clear, shallow, EQUATOR INDIAN BARRIER REEF Most of them feed on small animals, but some
warm water near OCEAN As the island continues
tropical shores. PACIFIC to sink, the reef grows nibble seaweed.
Most of them lie in OCEAN SOUTHERN OCEAN upwards, forming a
the western Pacific barrier reef around
and Indian oceans. a ring-shaped lagoon.

Reef encloses PORCUPINE FISH
a shallow
central lagoon

ATOLL
The original island
sinks below the
waves, leaving
behind a ring of
coral – an atoll.

LIFE IN A CORAL REEF Banded sea krait SURGEON FISH
(a sea snake) FIREFISH
Reef corals have stinging cells that capture food.
They also have tiny algae living in their tissues – the Sea grass growing
coral uses some of the sugar the algae produce, and in coral sand
in return provides the algae with a safe environment
to live in. Corals also provide food for many other
types of animals – reefs swarm with colourful fish,
starfish, shrimps, crabs, and even sea snakes.

Golf ball
sponge

Royal MANTA RAY
angelfish
REEF INVERTEBRATES
Table coral – one of
the biggest types As well as corals, many other invertebrates live
of reef coral on the reefs. Sponges, sea squirts, and clams
filter the water for food, while
sea slugs, shrimps, and
crabs search for scraps
and living prey.

SCARLET CLEANER GIANT CLAM
SHRIMP

Cloth of gold CORALS
cone shell – a
venomous hunter Every coral reef is made up of many
different types of coral. They include
Finger coral brain corals, staghorn corals, and sea
fans. Each one is a colony of animals
sharing a hard, stony skeleton.

Giant grouper Tube sponge
filters water
for food MUSHROOM CORAL BRAIN CORAL

Sea slug grazing
on coral

154

BLACKTIP REEF WHALE SHARK
SHARK

HAWKSBILL TURTLE

BOTTLENOSE HAMMERHEAD ORCA
DOLPHIN SHARK

PARROTFISH GREAT BARRACUDA MANDARIN OTWFHT1OEH.R5SELLMDDOW,W(W5A.E2IRS5TFTHFSTFAEI)SAPTHHEOROIPNRHSTSOPEHEUEEIRSD
FISH
ELECTRIC
RAY BLUE-SPOTTED CLOWN TRIGGER FISH QUEEN ANGELFISH YELLOW DAMSELFISH
RIBBONTAIL RAY SHRIMP GOBY

CLOWN FISH YELLOW TANG SEAHORSE JEWELFISH LION FISH

CORAL TROUT THREADFIN
BUTTERFLY FISH

LONGNOSED
HAWKFISH

RED HERMIT
CRAB

SEA SEA SLUG SEA SPONGE
SQUIRT

SOFT CORAL

SEA FAN STAGHORN CORAL CORAL REEF
Live coral grows on top of
the stony remains of dead

coral to build the reef.



Geography

Earth MAGNETIC The solar wind is mostly Earth
FIELD deflected by Earth’s
Formed more than 4.5 billion years ago, Earth is the only magnetic shield Magnetic
place in the Universe known to support life. Its breathable With its iron core, shield
atmosphere, liquid-water oceans, and large areas of dry Earth acts like an
land support a rich diversity of living things. enormous bar Sun
magnet with north Magnetic field
and south poles.
As Earth spins,
swirling currents
occur in the molten
metal within its outer
core. This movement
generates a powerful
magnetic shield.

EARTH’S STRUCTURE INNER CORE OUTER CORE MANTLE CRUST OCEAN
The mantle is The solid outer layer Saltwater oceans cover
Earth is made up of many different This solid iron-nickel alloy core A layer of liquid iron solid but slowly of Earth is the only part almost three-quarters
layers. At its centre is a hot, metallic is boiling hot but stays solid due and nickel surrounds moves around. we can see. of Earth’s surface.
core surrounded by a thick the inner core. It is
layer of solid but slowly to the extreme pressure at in constant motion. ATMOSPHERE
moving rock, called Earth’s centre. Earth is surrounded by a
the mantle. layer of gases known as
Earth’s thin the atmosphere, which
crust sits gradually merge into space.
on top.

Over a quarter of
Earth’s surface is

land made up of
continental crust.

This is thicker
than the oceanic
crust that occurs
under the oceans

HABITATS

Plants and animals
live in natural
environments on
Earth, called habitats.
These habitats
vary, depending on
rainfall, temperature,
and location.

OCEAN CORAL REEF POLAR REGIONS GRASSLAND
The largest habitat on Earth, the Formed in clear, warm, shallow waters, With freezing temperatures, Found on every continent except
ocean is home to as many as a coral reefs are like beautiful underwater the Arctic and Antarctic are the most Antarctica, grassland covers about
million types of plants and animals. inhospitable places on Earth. one-third of Earth’s land surface.
gardens, teeming with marine life.

158

INSIDE EARTH’S KEY TECTONIC PLATES NORTH EURASIAN KEY
CRUST Oxygen 47% AMERICAN Convergent
Silicon 28% Earth’s crust is broken into PLATE Divergent
The rocky crust layer Aluminium 8% pieces, or tectonic plates, PLATE Uncertain
that makes up Earth’s Iron 5% that fit together like a jigsaw PACIFIC Transform
continents and ocean Calcium 3.5% puzzle. These plates float on the
floors contains many Sodium 3% mantle – solid but slowly moving PACIFIC AFRICAN PLATE ON THE MOVE
different chemical Potassium 2.5% rock with pockets of liquid PLATE PLATE Earth’s plates are
elements. Most of the Magnesium 2% magma. When the mantle constantly moving
crust is formed of silicon All other moves, so do the plates. SOUTH towards, away
dioxide, which consists elements 1% from, or alongside
of joined-together silicon Tectonic plate AMERICAN AUSTRALIAN one another.
and oxygen atoms. 500 km
(310 miles) PLATE PLATE
ELEMENTS IN EARTH’S CRUST
Aurora ANTARCTIC PLATE
ATMOSPHERE
80 km Plate is MOVING MANTLE
Earth is surrounded by a thick (50 miles) pushed into Heat currents rise up from
blanket of gases that make up upper mantle the lower mantle, cool near the
its atmosphere. Without it, life Meteors surface, then sink back down.
on Earth would not exist. Around Molten
20 per cent of the atmosphere outer core Currents in lower
consists of oxygen, the rest is mantle rise up
mostly nitrogen, with just small
amounts of other gases, such TYPES OF PLATE Volcano Earthquake
as carbon dioxide.
BOUNDARIES Trench
EXOSPHERE Different types of plate
This is the outer zone. Gas boundaries occur Oceanic
molecules can escape into depending on whether crust
plates are moving
space from here. together, apart, or Magma
along each other. (molten
THERMOSPHERE
In this zone, temperature Continental crust CONVERGENT rock) DIVERGENT TRANSFORM Plate
movement
increases with height.
MOUNTAIN BUILDING Valley formed
MESOSPHERE between folds
A zone where temperature Most mountains are “fold mountains” that have been created over millions
of years by the movement of tectonic plates across Earth’s surface. Many
decreases with height. mountain ranges, such as the Himalayas, are still being pushed upwards.

Rock layers are Thrust Rock layers
pushed horizontally fault continue to buckle

1 FAULT FORMS 2 SECOND FAULT FORMS 3 THIRD FAULT FORMS
As two plates meet, The plates continue to Over time, a complex of

the rock of Earth’s crust lifts converge, leading to further fractured and buckled rock

up, forming a thrust fault. faulting and folding upwards. layers form a mountain range.

STRATOSPHERE 50 km HIGHEST AND DEEPEST LIFE ON EARTH
Absorption of ultraviolet (30 miles)
sunlight adds energy to At 8,848 m (29,029 ft), the top of Mount Everest, part More than 3.5 billion years ago, life on
16 km of the Himalaya mountain range in Asia, is Earth’s Earth began. Over time, it has evolved and
the stratosphere, so (10 miles) highest point. By contrast, the Mariana Trench, in diversified to suit its natural environment.
temperature increases Aeroplane the Pacific Ocean, is the deepest, reaching 10,920 m
LAYERS OF ATMOSPHERE (35,829 ft) below sea level.
with height here.
9,000 M MT EVEREST
Weather balloon K2

TROPOSPHERE 6,000 M
All weather occurs
3,000 M
in this layer.
0M
Clouds
3,000 M ARCHAEA BACTERIA
A very early form Microscopic bacteria
6,000 M of life, consisting of live in most habitats.
Some cause diseases.
single cells.

9,000 M TONGA TRENCH
12,000 M MARIANA TRENCH

PROTISTS FUNGI
Made of single cells with Fungi get their
nuclei, some protists can nutrients from dead
organic matter.
make their own food.

DESERT RIVER AND WETLAND MOUNTAIN FOREST PLANTS ANIMALS
With sparse rain and Despite covering less than one per cent of Wildlife is plentiful on warm, lower Forests are made up of the biggest plants Plants use sunlight to Animals get their
extreme temperatures, mountain slopes, but at higher altitudes, make food, and release food from eating
little life survives here. Earth’s surface, freshwater rivers and temperatures drop, and little can survive. on Earth – trees. They provide shelter other organisms.
wetland support a lot of plants and animals. and food to a vast array of life. oxygen into the air.

159

Volcanoes WHAT IS A VOLCANO? Ash cloud

Deep inside Earth are pockets of hot, molten rock. Now A volcano is an opening in Earth’s Main opening
and then, this fluid surges up to the surface and pours out surface through which a mixture through which
in a volcanic eruption. Some volcanoes stay active over of gases and molten rock, or magma
millions of years, whereas others erupt only for a few years. magma, escapes from an escapes
underground chamber.
The outflow cools Magma is
and sets, shaping called lava
the volcano. when it flows
on the surface

HOW A VOLCANO GROWS Further More
eruptions material
A volcano builds itself up out of its own erupted needed to
materials, such as lava and ash. Red-hot when raise height
it flows out, this matter cools to form solid rock.
Cone Erosion
Molten matter builds up wears
explodes from a vent down cone

1 FIRST ERUPTION 2 RAPID GROWTH 3 LATER PHASE
Hot material bursts from Each eruption adds more The volcano grows

a vent and builds up a mound layers of material and the new more slowly and erosion

of lava, cinders, and ash. volcano grows fast. wears down its slopes.

VOLCANO TYPES

Not all volcanoes have a steep “smoking mountain” shape. Other forms include shield
volcanoes – which look like huge, upturned dinner plates – and small cindery cones.
Calderas are craters that appear when a volcano collapses.

Many thin Steep sides Very wide Cinder
lava layers crater layers

Bedrock

SHIELD STRATOVOLCANO CALDERA CINDER CONE
Gently sloping sides formed Tall, with steep sides tapering Wide, deep crater where Steep cone of loose cinders,
a volcano has collapsed.
from runny lava. to the summit crater. with a wide crater.

LARGEST ACTIVE SHIELD VOLCANOES ERUPTIONS Vast ash Small Lava flows
cloud ash from crack
LOCATION SHAPE SUMMIT MAXIMUM Volcanoes have many different cloud
HEIGHT WIDTH OF eruption styles. They may
Mauna Loa, BASE produce lava in short bursts,
Hawaii start erupting with a terrific
4,169 m 95 km bang, or pump out mushroom
(13,677 ft) (59 miles) clouds of ash.

Erta Ale, 613 m 80 km Red-hot PLINIAN STROMBOLIAN FISSURE OR ICELANDIC
Ethiopia volcanic Steady, powerful blast. Short lava showers. Erupts from crack in ground.
“bombs”
(2,011 ft) (50 miles) Ash explodes
out of sea
Sierra Negra, 1,500 m 50 km Flow or surge Underground
Galápagos (4,921 ft) (31 miles) of material water

Nyamuragira, 3,058 m 45 km VULCANIAN SURTSEYAN PELEAN PHREATIC AND
Democratic Republic (10,033 ft) (28 miles) Starts with a bang. Erupts below the Flows and surges PHREATOMAGMATIC
of Congo Molten rock meets water.
1,247 m 50 km sea surface. of gas and ash.
Kilauea, (4,091 ft) (31 miles)
Hawaii

VOLCANIC Volcanic bombs Cinders Ash cloud LAVA
FALLOUT
The red-hot flow that pours
An eruption blasts a lot from a volcano is lava – the
of dangerous material name given to molten rock,
into the air. Molten lava or magma, once it reaches
“bombs”, hot cinders, the surface. The hottest lavas
rocks, and ash fly are thin and runny, and flow
upwards then fall to a long way before cooling and
the ground. Poisonous, solidifying. Others are thick
suffocating gases are and sticky, and creep just a
also given off. short way before coming
to a stop.
160

CALDERAS Magma rises Volcanic cone Emptying Water may New LIVING NEAR A VOLCANO
falls inwards magma fill caldera eruptions
A caldera is a vast bowl chamber may begin Many people spend their lives next door to
in the ground. Calderas a volcano. They are prepared to put up with
form when a volcano the risk of danger because there are a few
comes apart during advantages, too.
an eruption, and the
surface collapses POSITIVES NEGATIVES
into the emptying
magma chamber. 1 VOLCANO ERUPTS 2 CONE COLLAPSES 3 CALDERA FORMS
Magma explodes The volcano Water sometimes fills

upwards, emptying the collapses into the a caldera to form a lake.

inner chamber. emptying chamber. A new volcano may arise.

Magma ACATTNHOITCCAKOKOLEALYVDEAOAFWRLSONW FLOWS FLOW TOURISM DEATH
erupts from COMPLETELY AND SURGES Dense currents of Sightseers bring Eruptions can kill
surface rock, ash, and gas people and ruin land.
crack Pyroclastic flows are lethal in money.
currents of hot gas, ash,
1,200°C (2,190°F) and rocks. These currents SURGE
race down a volcano, Faster and
The temperature destroying everything in more turbulent
at Earth’s their path. Just as deadly than a flow
surface of the are billowing, choking
hottest lavas. clouds called pyroclastic
surges. They contain more
gas than pyroclastic flows AGRICULTURE MUDFLOWS
and can move faster. Volcanic soil is Violent floods wash
good for growing crops. down volcanic debris.

600°C (1,112°F) VOLCANIC ISLAND CHAINS ENERGY REFUGEES
The flame Hot underground water People lose their homes
temperature Beneath some ocean floors are volcanic areas, or “hotspots”.
of a lighted If these erupt, lava builds up until it rises out of the sea as an island. is used by industry. and livelihoods.
match.
As the moving plates of Earth’s surface
100°C (212°F) pass over a hotspot, their paths
The boiling may be marked by chains
point of water of volcanic islands.
at sea level.
MOST DEADLY
Chain of previously
erupted islands These are 10 of the biggest
volcanic disasters. The worst, Tambora,
Chamber full RED-HOT Volcanic island killed more than 70,000 people. The
of molten rock, most famous is Vesuvius’s eruption
or magma Scientists are exploring ways of tapping Hotspot beneath in 79 CE.
into the huge energy produced by hot Earth’s outer shell
magma. One day, this could provide the 1 MOUNT TAMBORA, 1815
world with a big new source of power.
Sumbawa island, Indonesia. Ejected
SUPERVOLCANOES WHERE IN OLYMPUS MONS ash blocked the sun and lowered
THE WORLD? MT EVEREST global temperatures.
These are the monsters, capable of
eruptions thousands of times larger Volcanoes emerge in clusters 2 KRAKATOA, 1883
than those of any other kind of volcano. in just a few places around
Luckily, there aren’t many of them. Here the world. There are large Krakatoa island, Indonesia. Made the
are some of the most important. numbers in the area called the loudest bang ever recorded and blew
“Ring of Fire” that circles up most of the island.
YELLOWSTONE the Pacific Ocean. Iceland,
This map shows East Africa, and the Caribbean 3 MT PELEE, 1902
the vast area of are big volcanic regions, too.
North America Martinique, Caribbean Islands. Ash
affected in one IN SPACE and gas flowed at speeds of more than
of Yellowstone’s 600 kph (370 mph).
ancient eruptions. Earth is not the only body in the Solar System
to have volcanoes. Some of our neighbours 4 NEVADO DEL RUIZ, 1985
Yellowstone caldera in space have many volcanic regions.
Colombia. Gigantic mudflows overwhelmed
YELLOWSTONE CALDERA TRITON IO SLEEPING GIANT an entire town.
Volcanic eruptions on Olympus Mons, a vast volcano
Wyoming, USA. Makes up much Neptune’s biggest moon This moon on Mars, is three times as 5 MOUNT UNZEN, 1792
of Yellowstone Park. can last a whole year. of Jupiter high as Mount Everest. It is
has many not active at the moment. Japan. Created a landslide and a tsunami.
LONG VALLEY CALDERA active
volcanoes. VENUS 6 LAKI, 1783
California, USA. Recent uplifting The planet’s surface
of ground observed. Iceland. Poisonous gas killed half of Iceland’s
is made almost farm livestock.
VALLES CALDERA entirely of volcanoes.
7 KELUT, 1919
New Mexico. Hot springs are a sign
of volcanic activity. Java, Indonesia. Mudslides destroyed more
than 100 villages.
LAKE TOBA
8 SANTA MARIA, 1902
Sumatra, Indonesia. World’s largest
volcanic lake. Guatemala. Ash detected 4,000 km
(2,500 miles) away.
LAKE TAUPO
9 GALUNGGUNG, 1882
New Zealand. Has erupted 28 times.
Java, Indonesia. Destroyed 114 villages.

10 VESUVIUS, 79 ce

Italy. The cities of Herculaneum
and Pompeii were wiped out.
An eruption in 1631 caused
further deaths.

AIRA CALDERA CAST OF A POMPEII
DISASTER VICTIM
Japan. Contains a currently active volcanic cone.

NEPTUNE URANUS SATURN JUPITER MARS EARTH VENUS MERCURY

161

Earthquakes EARTHQUAKE- JAPAN
PRONE ZONES
Earth’s surface is broken up into different ITALY TURKEY
sections, called tectonic plates. These are Some countries are more
always on the move, and sometimes shift affected by earthquakes IRAN CHINA
in ways that cause violent vibrations. Such than others because they PAKISTAN
vibrations are called earthquakes. lie on the boundaries of
tectonic plates. The ten HAITI INDIA
countries shown here PERU
have the highest death INDONESIA
rates in the world due
to violent earthquakes.

WHAT CAUSES EARTHQUAKES? FAULT LINE FAULT TYPES
Line of movement
The plates on Earth’s surface move in ways that makes one plate push on Earth’s surface Faults are the boundaries between two moving tectonic
over or slide past another. If the rocky surface is not strong enough to bear between two plates. plates. They are often the sites of earthquakes. The blocks
the stress, it breaks. This sends out vibrations called “seismic waves” of rock on either side of a fault can shift and slide past
that travel outwards from the breaking point (the focus). each other in various ways.

EPICENTRE
Point on Earth’s surface
directly above the location,
or focus, where the
earthquake begins.

Plate
movement

NORMAL FAULT REVERSE FAULT
Rock on one side of the fault moves One block is pushed up relative
down, so it is lower than the rock on to the other, so it ends up at a

the other side of the fault. higher level.

FOCUS STRIKE-SLIP FAULT OBLIQUE-SLIP FAULT
The point in Earth’s The rocks on either side of the fault The rocks on either side of the
fault move sideways and up or
interior where an move in different directions,
earthquake begins. scraping side by side. down relative to each other.

SEISMIC WAVES HOW SEVERE? MAJOR EARTHQUAKES

Two types of seismic waves created by an earthquake can The Mercalli scale, below, is one way of measuring the Earthquakes can cause terrible devastation.
travel right through Earth’s interior. P-waves pass through intensity of an earthquake. For more precise estimates, The following have some of the highest-ever
both solid and liquid layers. S-waves, slower but more scientists use the “moment magnitude” scale, which measurements on the moment magnitude scale.
dangerous waves, move only through solid rock. measures the amount of energy released during a quake.
1 CHILE, 22 MAY 1960
Focus of S-waves
earthquake Registering at magnitude 9.5, this is the largest recorded
earthquake. It occurred in the Pacific Ocean and caused
Liquid a series of tsunamis that left two million people homeless.
outer core
2 PRINCE WILLIAM SOUND, ALASKA,
Rocky I–II III–IV V–VI
layer, or 28 MARCH 1964
mantle Hardly felt by Felt indoors as a Rocking motion
people, but can quick vibration that felt by people; This huge earthquake (magnitude 9.2) caused a tsunami
P-waves be measured by that rose to 67 m (220 ft) and hit Hawaii, Canada, and the
makes hanging also makes USA. In the first day there were 11 aftershocks with
instruments. objects shake. buildings tremble. magnitudes greater than 6.0.

Solid iron VII–VIII IX–XI XII 3 NORTHERN SUMATRA, 26 DECEMBER 2004
inner core
Buildings shake Buildings crack Most buildings are This ruptured the longest fault of any recorded quake,
badly, and tree and some fall; destroyed; rivers spanning 1,500 km (900 miles) in ten minutes. More than
branches break underground 227,000 people were killed by the resulting tsunami.
pipes torn apart. are forced to
and fall. change course. 4 HONSHU, JAPAN, 11 MARCH 2011

This 9.0-magnitude earthquake occurred off the coast of
Japan and reached depths of 24.4 km (15 miles). The
resulting tsunami caused more than 15,800 deaths.

5 KAMCHATKA, RUSSIA, 4 NOVEMBER 1952

Registering a magnitude of 8.2, this earthquake set off
a Pacific-wide tsunami that hit Peru, Chile, New Zealand,
many Pacific islands, and California, USA.

162

MEASURING 1855 Palmieri’s 1902 1925 AROUND 500,000
EARTHQUAKES seismometer Americans Harry Wood and EARTHQUAKES ARE
Italian physicist Luigi Italian scientist James Anderson’s seismometer
Scientists measure earthquake Palmieri designs a 1880 Giuseppe Mercalli is precise enough to be used ten RECORDED BY
vibrations with an instrument seismometer that can While working invents a scale years later for the Richter scale. INSTRUMENTS
called a seismometer. In various record the direction, in Japan, British for measuring
forms, the seismometer has been intensity, and duration geologist John earthquakes based Seismograph, EVERY YEAR
in use for thousands of years. of earthquakes too Milne develops on observation recorded 1920s
small for humans the first accurate of effects. 2015
1700 to notice. seismometer.

1703 1751 1907 1934 1979–PRESENT

French inventor Jean de Italian teacher German physicist American seismologist The moment
Hautefeuille builds a basic Andrea Bina uses Emil Wiechert Charles Richter develops magnitude scale
seismometer by filling a a pendulum with a a widely used scale that is introduced as
bowl with mercury and pointer to trace builds a machine measures the energy a more accurate
noting the amount and movement in the that records an released by an earthquake. version of the
direction of spill during sand below during Richter scale.
an earthquake. an earthquake. earthquake using
Bina’s an oscillating Wiechert’s
pendulum pendulum. pendulum

EARLY WARNING SYSTEMS EARTHQUAKE DRILL

Early warning systems act to protect people, animals, and property by One simple emergency drill has been proven to reduce injuries
alerting people of incoming seismic waves from an earthquake. This gives from earthquakes: Drop, Cover, Hold On. This is because most
people time to take cover, businesses and power stations time to make injuries come from falling objects such as lamps and glass,
equipment safe, and emergency services time to prepare for action. rather than from building collapse.

1 DROP 2 COVER 3 HOLD ON
Drop to the ground Take cover under a Hold on to the desk

1 MOVEMENT DETECTED 2 ALERT DISPATCHED immediately to protect sturdy desk or table if or table while covering
Early warning systems quickly detect the first The time between the first alert and the arrival of
yourself as much as possible; if not, move to your head and neck

signs of an earthquake, estimate the location and strong tremors is short. Warnings are transmitted to possible where you are. the corner of the room. with your arms.

magnitude, and calculate areas under threat. as many broadcasting stations as possible.

RESISTING EARTHQUAKES MASS DAMPER

While no structure can be guaranteed completely safe One way to help skyscrapers cope with an extreme ground shake is to install
from earthquake damage, the buildings listed here have a mass damper – a huge steel sphere – at the centre, suspended by cables.
proven to be very resistant to massive ground shakes. It moves back and forth to counter any motion by the building itself.

CHECHEN ITZA, MEXICO Sphere Sphere
moves to moves to
The Mayan pyramid of El Castillo at Chechen Itza is very the right
strong as it has a base much broader than its summit. to counter the left
ground to counter
TOMB OF CYRUS, IRAN Hydraulic vibration
rams to ground
Built in 400 BCE, this uses “base-isolation” to survive move vibration
shakes: its base moves independently of its foundations. sphere

YOKOHAMA LANDMARK TOWER, JAPAN

This skyscraper has a mass damper system, sits on
rollers, and is made from flexible materials.

TRANSAMERICA PYRAMID, USA Ground Ground
shakes to shakes to
Rising to 260 m (853 ft), this skyscraper in San Francisco the left the right
has foundations that reach 16 m (52 ft) into the ground.

TAIPEI 101, TAIWAN TAIPEI 101 MOVEMENT OF BUILDING COUNTER MOVEMENT OF DAMPER
During an earthquake, the entire The huge sphere moves in the
Stretching twice as high as the Transamerica Pyramid, building moves with the horizontal opposite direction to the shake
this relies on a huge mass damper to resist movement. to keep the building secure.
vibrations from the ground.

TSUNAMIS A block of In the open ocean, The top of a MAJOR TSUNAMIS
seafloor each wave is not large tsunami
When an earthquake very high and may wave usually Tsunamis are assessed according to the size of their
occurs in the seafloor, shoots up pass unnoticed forms as it waves, how many occur in one event, how far they
it can cause a part approaches come on shore, and how much damage they cause.
of the seabed to rise As the seabed the shore Sometimes
upwards, triggering a rises, the wave 1 SUMATRA, INDONESIA, 26 DECEMBER 2004
tsunami wave on the slows down and water is drawn
surface of the sea. gains in height away from the This tsunami’s waves reached 50 m (164 ft) and killed more
shore a few than 227,000 people, affecting 14 countries.
minutes before
a tsunami 2 NORTH PACIFIC COAST, JAPAN, 11 MARCH 2011
wave arrives
Travelling at 800 km/h (497 mph), the 10 m (33 ft) high waves
Powerful vibrations Tsunami waves are of this tsunami forced 450,000 people from their homes.
spread out from evenly spaced at
the epicentre in distances of up to 3 PORTUGAL, 1 NOVEMBER 1755
all directions
200 km (120 miles) Set off by an 8.5-magnitude earthquake, this tsunami hit
Epicentre (the spot on Portugal, Morocco, and Spain with waves 30 m (98 ft) high.
the seafloor above As each wave passes,
the point in Earth’s there is a circular 4 KRAKATOA, INDONESIA, 27 AUGUST 1883
interior where the movement of
rupture started) seawater under it Caused by the eruption of the Krakatoa Caldera volcano, this
tsunami created multiple waves reaching 37 m (121 ft) high.

5 ENSHUNADA SEA, JAPAN, 20 SEPTEMBER 1498

Waves from this tsunami were powerful enough to cross
a section of land separating Lake Hamana from the sea.

163

Shaping EROSION GLACIER
the land Huge ice masses
Water, wind, and ice wear down rocks called glaciers scrape
Earth’s surface changes constantly but so gradually and soil. They also move the resulting away rocks and earth
we can hardly see it. Wind, waves, moving ice, and materials to new places, and in doing as they move down
other forces wear away rocks and mountains and so change the shape of the land. The mountain valleys.
create valleys. At the same time, Earth’s plates process is called erosion. Natural
move, forming mountains and continents. forces cause most erosion but human WIND
activity, such as deforestation, A powerful erosive
also contributes. force, wind blows
away the top surface
WATER of soil and wears
Moving water erodes away rock.
coasts, cliffs, and
riverbanks, picking up
and transporting rocks,
pebbles, and soil.

EROSION AND DEPOSITION U-SHAPED VALLEY 20SRSBEIEIVDLAELIMREIOSVENENDRTTUYOMIYNNPETNAAOEBRSTOHOUEFT
Moving glacier ice
Rivers and streams mould the landscape. From erodes rock to form FLOODPLAIN
glacier beginnings, a river travels fast, picking up U-shaped valley. Sediment deposited
rocky debris and carving deep into valleys. The river by river creates
slows but continues to erode the landscape GORGE flat floodplain.
and also deposits some material along Fast-moving river or
the way. When it reaches the sea, waterfall deepens MEANDER
it drops silt to form deltas valley or gorge. River bend caused by
and beaches. erosion on one side and
silt deposits on the other.
KETTLE LAKE
Melting ice from ARCH
retreating glacier Pounding waves
forms shallow lake.
form arch in
TERMINAL MORAINE POOL headland.
Ridge of rock, gravel, Cascading water
and soil at final point
of glacier’s advance. forms pool at
base of waterfall.

GLACIERS

Icy glaciers flow through mountain valleys, reshaping them. They move
slowly, usually less than 1 m (3.3 ft) a day, but are so large they carve
out vast depressions in the rock and U-shaped valleys.

Ice forms from
compacted snow

Small glacier flows Rock debris
into larger glacier piles up

Ice collects Terminus, or BEACH
in cirque end, of glacier Beaches are created
(hollow) from eroded material
Ice melts carried by the sea.
Cirque glaciers feed forming water
into valley glaciers SAND SPIT
DELTA On the coast, sandy
Rocky mountain deposits settle and
peak eroded A delta forms where a project out into the sea.
by glacier slow-moving river

Tarn (lake-filled deposits sediment where
hollow) created it meets the sea.
by glacier
GLACIATED VALLEY WATERFALL Rapids Pool forms
FORMATION at base of
Glacier has carved Hard waterfall
out U-shaped valley A waterfall forms when rock
a river pours over a WATERFALL
Long, ribbon- rocky edge. The water Soft When a river erodes soft rock,
shaped lake flow erodes the rock, rock beyond the rapids, it carves out
creating a pool and a pool into which the water cascades.
Stream formed undermining the ledge. RAPIDS
by melted glacier Soft rock erodes more Rapids occur when the flow of a shallow
quickly than hard rock
Flat valley so the amount of erosion river is broken up by hard rock
floor that varies, as does the height projecting out of the water.
floods and flow of the water.
periodically
Flat-bottomed valley
eroded by glacier AFTER THE GLACIER

164

WATER EROSION ARCHES AND STACKS CWRAEINARCTDHEADENSBDAYWNADAMTSIETXRATCEUKRROSESAOIROFEN

Helped by strong winds, ocean waves batter against coastal As waves approach a headland, they curve around, attacking
landforms. Dislodged rocks and pebbles are ground down the sides. In a process called corrosion, stones flung up by
and rub abrasively against headlands, cliffs, and standing rocks. the waves erode the sides, causing cracks. Compressed air
brought in by waves expands, enlarging cracks and forming
arches and stacks.

1 ARCH FORMATION 2 STACK FORMATION
Waves batter the A sea stack is formed

headland from both sides, when waves continue to

damaging rock and erode the headland and

causing cracks. a pillar of rock (the

Pressure of water stack) becomes

enters cracks separated.

to form an arch.

Water penetrates Water pressure
through headland collapses arch
creating an arch leaving sea stack

ERODED ROCK, LOCH ARD GORGE, AUSTRALIA

LIMESTONE OXBOW LAKES
LANDSCAPES
On low-lying land, snake-like meanders may form when the course of
Deep below Earth’s a river bends and may eventually become oxbow lakes. Meanders have
surface are large cave two sets of curves: one side is formed by erosion as the river erodes
systems. Rainwater, the land, the other side forms from deposits of silt and sediment.
which is slightly acidic,
gradually dissolves the 1 LIMESTONE WEAKENS 2 CAVE SYSTEM 3 GORGE Steady bend River wears River Old loop of
limestone, creating Only rainwater can As water continues Eventually, the roof in river away land straightens river gets
cracks. Flowing water
widens the cracks, forms out cut off
channels, and eventually
creates cave systems. dissolve limestone. Over to erode the limestone, collapses, creating

centuries, the slow drip cracks widen to become sinkholes. These merge

of rainwater weakens large cavities or caves. to form large sunken

limestone, forming cracks. Rock falls help the process. regions called gorges.

INSIDE A CAVE 1 RIVER MEANDERS 2 BEND TIGHTENS 3 BEND IS CUT OFF
A river curves As the erosion and River flows through
Limestone caves are wondrous places. Over centuries, erosion has
created huge chambers, often containing many incredibly shaped pillars, slightly. Water deposits of sediment neck of meander cutting
and river-filled tunnels. Caves vary in size. Some are shallow but the
deepest, in France, lies nearly 1.5 km (1 mile) below ground. erodes the far bank and increase, the meander, it off. Sediment deposits

Stalactite and deposits sediment or curve, tightens into close ends and an oxbow
stalagmite meet to
on the inner bank. a C-shaped loop. lake is formed.
form column
Dry cave River falling Rock pillar left
without water over rock forms behind after WIND EROSION

waterfall cave collapsed Wind is a powerful erosive agent.
It blows away soil, sand, and other light
substances, depositing them at different
locations, often sculpting new landforms.
Wind erosion can be destructive,
particularly for farmers. Trees and
terraces help protect land.

Water drops Fir cone Curtain stalactite
form stalactite stalagmite

STALACTITES AND STALAGMITES CONICAL FORMATIONS, TURKEY SANDSTONE SWIRLS, USA
In some parts of the world the impact of Wind, and the sand particles it carries,
Slim, beautifully shaped stalactites hang down from the roof of a cave. Stalagmites rise wind has changed landscapes, eroding erode sedimentary rocks such as
up from the floor of the cave. Both form from a mineral in the rocks called calcite that rocks into new forms. sandstone, creating fantastic swirls.
dissolves in drops of water seeping through the roof. Over time, they form fantastic shapes.
MUSHROOM-SHAPED ROCKS, EGYPT
Desert winds fling sand about, which
causes erosion. The sand blasts against
rocks, producing strange shapes.

1 WATER SEEPS IN 2 STALACTITE FORMS 3 STALAGMITE 4 PILLAR FORMS
Mineral-saturated Water continues FORMS Over time, the

water drips through seeping. The residue Some water lands on the stalactite and

the cave roof. The builds up and a stalactite floor. It dries and leaves stalagmite continue

water dries, leaving forms, hanging down deposits that gradually forming until they join

a mineral residue. from the roof. form a stalagmite. to create a pillar.

Rocks and minerals WHAT’S THE
DIFFERENCE?
The outer layers of Earth are mostly solid rock. This is easy to
see where there are mountains or canyons, but much more rock Minerals are natural
is hidden under the soil and the sea. Rocks are made of minerals. chemical substances
They can be changed or destroyed by weather or water at the that usually form as
surface, or by heat and pressure inside Earth. solid crystals. Each
type can be recognized
by its hardness, colour,
and atomic structure.
Rocks are a mixture
of minerals locked
together. For example,
granite is made of the
minerals quartz,
feldspar, and mica.

IGNEOUS ROCKS SEDIMENTARY ROCKS MINERAL: QUARTZ

Formed from volcanic material as These rocks form mostly at the bottom LIMESTONE WITH
it cools down, igneous rocks are of of seas and lakes. They are made from FOSSILS
two types. Some, such as pegmatites, grains of sand and clay worn away
form deep underground. Others, such from older rocks by wind and water.
as andesite, form when volcanic lavas Over a very long period of time, the
cool at Earth’s surface. grains settle into layers of mud, or
sediment. These layers are buried
PUMICE ANDESITE and eventually harden into new rock. GRE Y WACKE

OBSIDIAN PINK GRANODIORITE

TOURMALINE PEGMATITE RHYOLITE PORPHYRY FLINT OIL SHALE SHALE PUDDINGSTONE

MINERALS

There are thousands of different minerals,
though only about 30 make up most rocks.
They usually form from water solutions
and molten rock, sometimes deep inside
Earth. Some, such as diamonds, are cut
and polished to make gemstones.

ENARGITE TENNANTITE

CHRYSOPRASE

COCKSCOMB ARSENOPYRITE
BARITE
MAGNETITE

HORNBLENDE BROOKITE CHALCOCITE HALITE

CHALCOPYRITE NAILHEAD CALCITE GALENA CORUNDUM SULPHUR GOLD

166

MEASURING DIAMOND HARD Glaciers carry away Rain and snow ROCK CYCLE
MINERALS cool volcanic rock fill streams
Rocks are made and
A test called the “Mohs scale” ABSOLUTE HARDNESS Volcano Streams and remade in an endless
was invented more than 200 SCALE winds carry cycle. Molten rock rises
years ago to measure a mineral’s Molten rock away rock grains from inside Earth to the
hardness. The scale is based forced up to surface. Weathering
on how scratch-resistant one Rock grains breaks down surface
mineral is compared to others. surface reach the coast rock into grains. The
TALC as sediment grains build new rocks,
GYPSUM Rock becomes which are buried and
CALCITE molten then melted by heat.
FLUORITE
Sedimentary rock Sediment sinks
APATITE changes under
ORTHOCLASE Pressure
QUARTZ heat and pressure turns sediment
into rock
TOPAZ
CORUNDUM

SOFT

ROCK: PINK GRANITE MOHS HARDNESS SCALE

METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Intense heat or pressure deep inside Earth can
change the minerals in rocks from one type to another
or may rearrange the mineral grains. This process
produces what are called metamorphic rocks.

LIMESTONE DOLOMITE CLAYSTONE
BRECCIA
SKARN

MYLONITE ECLOGITE MIGMATITE

RED MARL CHALK LOESS

IRONSTONE SANDSTONE GREEN MARBLE SERPENTINITE SLATE GNEISS

DIAMOND PURPLE FLUORITE REALGAR ROSE QUARTZ SPHALERITE AZURITE

HEMATITE NICKELINE PROUSTITE STIBNITE BOTRYOIDAL COVELLITE ORPIMENT
ARSENIC

CHRYSOBERYL BERYL
RUTILE

RHODOCHROSITE SMOKY BLUE SAPPHIRE HEMIMORPHIITE MALACHITE BORNITE
QUARTZ

167

Gems GEM SHAPES BIRTHSTONES

A gemstone, or gem, is a mineral Gemstones can be shaped in many ways. Some gemstones are traditionally associated with
that has been polished and Some shapes, or “cuts”, are very popular for certain months of the year. It is believed to be lucky
shaped by a skilled craftsperson rings, especially diamond rings. More than to wear the gem for your birth month.
in order to enhance its beauty. three-quarters of all diamonds today are cut
The most highly prized gems are into the “round brilliant” shape.
hard-wearing and rare. There
are more than 5,000 known JANUARY FEBRUARY MARCH APRIL
minerals on Earth, but fewer
than 100 are used as gemstones. ROUND BRILLIANT CUSHION SQUARE GARNET AMETHYST AQUAMARINE DIAMOND
MAY JUNE JULY AUGUST

SCISSORS PEAR STEP EMERALD PEARL RUBY PERIDOT
SEPTEMBER OCTOBER NOVEMBER DECEMBER

EMERALD HEART OVAL BRILLIANT SAPPHIRE TOURMALINE TOPAZ TURQUOISE

PRECIOUS STONES MILKY OPAL PINK AND HELIODORE YELLOW SAPPHIRE
TURQUOISE OPAL
Traditionally, gems such as opal,
emerald, sapphire, ruby, and diamond MULTICOLOURED
were named “precious” stones. This OPAL
was because their rarity made them
the most valuable. Today, gems are
valued in several different ways. The
term “precious” is outdated, although
jewellers still find it useful.

FIRE OPAL BLACK OPAL WHITE OPAL GREEN EMERALD MORGANITE GREEN SAPPHIRE

SEMI-PRECIOUS STONES GREEN FLUORITE YELLOW FLUORITE PINK TOURMALINE

Gems found in large quantities were once said
to be “semi-precious” and had a lower value
than rare stones. However, a gem’s beauty and
popularity are now also considered part of its
value. Some “semi-precious” stones sell for
more money than “precious” ones.

CLEAR FLUORITE

AMBLYGONITE BLUE APATITE YELLOW APATITE DANBURITE GREEN TOURMALINE

PINK-VIOLET KUNZITE LABRADORITE PREHNITE RHODONITE SCAPOLITE BLUE TOURMALINE GREEN-YELLOW TOURMALINE
ONYX
QUARTZ GEMS

Quartz is one of the most
common and varied
minerals on Earth. It
comes in an amazing
number of colours and
intricate patterns.

RUTILE QUARTZ

TIGER’S EYE PALE YELLOW HONEY-
COLOURED CITRINE
QUARTZ CITRINE DENDRITIC AGATE HAWK’S EYE QUARTZ SARDONYX PHANTOM QUARTZ AVENTURINE QUARTZ

168

FACETING Table facet Crown
A DIAMOND
Girdle Pavilion
When mined, gemstones often
look dull; they must be cut and 1 SELECTION 2 ROUNDED 3 “MAIN” CUTS 4 INCREASING SHINE 5 FINISHED
polished to shine. The best way A gem-quality piece The stone is rounded The 16 “main” facets Thirty two facets are BRILLIANT CUT
to maximize the beauty of a
transparent gem is to cut the of rough diamond – an on a lathe using another or planes are then cut cut into the crown (top) and The final “brilliant
surface into a series of flat,
reflective faces called facets. octahedral crystal – is diamond and the top facet, above and below the pavilion (bottom) to increase cut” emphasizes the

MINING selected for cutting. called the table, is cut. mid-point, or girdle. brilliance and shine. brightness of the gem.

Gemstones are KEY BIGGEST GEMS
found in different Diamond
areas across Emerald Gemstones can be huge. The Olympic Australis
the world. They opal weighs 3.45 kg (7.5 lb); the American Golden
are sometimes Sapphire topaz is 4.57 kg (10 lb); and the largest colourless
brought to the Ruby diamond, the Cullinan, is 10 cm (4 in) long.
Earth’s surface Aquamarine
by volcanic Topaz
eruptions. Opal

CULLINAN AMERICAN OLYMPIC
DIAMOND GOLDEN AUSTRALIS
TOPAZ
OPAL

LIGHT BLUE TOPAZ

BLUE SAPPHIRE PADPARADSCHA WHITE SAPPHIRE PINK TOPAZ SHERRY TOPAZ AQUAMARINE DIAMOND RUBY
SAPPHIRE

JASPER AZURITE GREEN PERIDOT MOONSTONE DRAVITE CUPRITE HOWLITE HEMATITE

RED GARNET TURQUOISE BLUE ZIRCON BLUE TANZANITE SPHENE SUNSTONE

KYANITE ALEXANDRITE MALACHITE MAUVE SPINEL RED SPINEL PINK SPINEL VESUVIANITE SUGILITE

ORGANIC GEMSTONES

Organic gemstones are made from animal or plant
materials. For instance, coral is formed from sea
creatures, pearls develop in certain shellfish such
as oysters, and amber is made of fossilized tree resin.

DUMORTIERITE IN QUARTZ AMETHYST

MILKY QUARTZ ROSE QUARTZ SMOKY QUARTZ YELLOW-GREY CAT’S VIOLET CORAL BLACK PEARL NEXT WHITE PEARL AMBER
EYE QUARTZ TO PEARL OYSTER

169

Water ABOUT 97 PER CENT OF WATER TEMPERATURE
on Earth
Deep-ocean water is permanently cold, but the temperature
of surface water varies. It is warmest around the equator,
where the Sun’s heat is more intense. But in the polar regions,
the Sun is less powerful, resulting in permanently cold water.

THE WORLD’S WATER 30°C 20°C 10°C 0°C Constantly warm
LIES IN THE OCEANS 90°F 70°F 50°F 30°F water temperature

Water is the most common substance on Earth’s surface – Permanently cold
it fills the colossal oceans, swirls in clouds as water vapour, water temperature
and falls as rain on land. It is vital to all life and is why
our planet is unique: water vapour and ice may exist on
other planets but only Earth has oceans of liquid water.

ARCTIC OCEAN Kara
Sea
Chukchi Beaufort Baffin Greenland Barents
Sea Sea Bay Denmark Strait Sea NorwSegeiaan Sea ASIA

vis Strait North Himalayas
Labrador Sea Bay of
Gulf of Hudson Sea Red Sea Bengal
Alaska Bay Da EUROPE

NORTH Black Sea Caspian
AMERICA Mediterranean Sea Sea

Gulf of Sargasso GPuerlfsian
Mexico Sea

AFRICA Gulf of Aden Arabian

Caribbean Sea ATLANTIC Sea
OCEAN
Great Rift Valley
PACIFIC SOUTH
OCEAN AMERICA

INDIAN
OCEAN

THE WORLD’S OCEANS Cape of
Good Hope
Oceans cover 71 per cent of the surface of our planet Cape Scotia
and have a total volume of about 1.3 billion cubic km Davis Sea
Horn Sea

(332 million cubic miles) of water. Continents divide

the global ocean into five geographical regions. Weddell

Sea

OCEAN FLOOR SALT WATER

The ocean floor is not just a featureless plain filled with water. Most of Earth’s water is salty. Over millions of years, rain pouring down
Underwater volcanoes, towering mountains, vast plains, and on the land weathered the rocks and carried dissolved minerals on its
the deepest trenches on Earth lie hidden beneath the waves. journey to the seas. The minerals included sodium chloride (common salt).
This process is still happening today.
Continent Seamount, Mid-ocean Abyssal Ocean Volcanic
plain trench island chain Clouds

an extinct ridge

volcano

Rain

Minerals Evaporation Vent

Dissolved salts

Continental Continental Underwater Oceanic Tectonic Magma beneath
crust slope plate an active volcano
plateau crust

170

WATER CYCLE Water returns Clouds blow Rising water vapour LARGEST LAKES
to land in the over land cools and forms
Powered by the Sun’s heat, form of rain clouds made of tiny Some lakes are just shallow
the water cycle circulates droplets of water pools that eventually dry out,
between sea, air, and land. or snow while others are so vast that
The Sun-warmed surface Some of the water they are like inland seas.
water is constantly Plants release Sun draws moisture evaporates and
evaporating (turning into moisture into from the ground rises into the air 1 CASPIAN SEA
water vapour). The rising the air into the air as water vapour
vapour cools and condenses, Area: 371,000 sq km (143,000 sq
forming clouds that may be miles) This lake was once part of the
carried over land. Here, it Mediterranean Sea; it was cut off
falls back as rain or snow, when sea levels fell during the last
and flows over the land ice age.
before the water finds
its way back to the sea. 2 SUPERIOR

Rain and melting ice Some of the water Rivers carry water Area: 82,414 sq km (31,820 sq miles)
feed rivers and lakes seeps into the ground back to the sea One of the five Great Lakes of North
America, and the largest freshwater
ARCTIC OCEAN East LAKE TYPES lake in the world.
Siberian Sea
Laptev Sea Lakes form in various ways, depending on how the hollow on Earth’s 3 VICTORIA
surface was created, and most contain fresh water. They are found in
a number of environments, including mountains, deserts, and plains. Area: 69,485 sq km (26,828 sq miles)
Some lakes are millions of years old but most are much younger. The waters of Lake Victoria in Africa
fill a shallow basin in the centre
Sea of of a plateau.
Okhotsk
4 HURON

Area: 59,600 sq km (23,000 sq miles)
This is the second largest of the
North American Great Lakes.

5 MICHIGAN

Area: 58,000 (22,000 sq miles)
Also one of the five Great Lakes but
located entirely within the USA.

Sea of FAULT LAKE KETTLE LAKE CALDERA LAKE MAN-MADE LAKE LONGEST RIVERS
Japan
(East Sea) Tectonic movement of Depressions left This type of lake Some lakes are Earth has some incredibly
Earth’s crust creates behind when an forms when rain fills man-made to provide long rivers that snake across
East long hollows, which fill underground block the huge crater left a reservoir of clean its surface. These are the five
China with water. These are of ice melts creating after an eruption has water for homes and longest rivers of the world.
Sea among the oldest and a steep-sided blown away the top industry, or to create
deepest lakes on Earth. 1 NILE
South Philippine circular lake. of a volcano. hydroelectricity.
China Sea Length: 6,670 km (4,145 miles)
Sea Africa’s River Nile has two major
tributaries (branches): the Blue Nile
PACIFIC RIVERS and the White Nile.
OCEAN
Most rivers begin life as small, fast-flowing streams that join 2 AMAZON
Arafura Sea up to form bigger, slower ones. They start life in higher ground,
where rainwater or melting snow collects and trickles downhill. Length: 6,450 km (4,005 miles)
AUSTRALIA Some rivers also form when lakes overflow or from springs. More water flows through South
America’s mighty Amazon than
Coral any other river.
Sea
3 YANGTZE
Fast-moving water is Mid-speed Slow-flowing MOUTH
cooler and clearer flow of water murkier water Length: 6,378 km (3,964 miles)
near the source China’s Yangtze River is the
Tasman Meander LOWER COURSE world’s deepest river as well
Sea SOURCE as the third-longest river.
MIDDLE COURSE As a river reaches lower
SOUTHERN OCEAN UPPER COURSE On flatter ground, the river ground, it widens and slows, 4 MISSISSIPPI-MISSOURI
ANTARCTICA The water at the source slows down. Winding curves
of a river is fast-flowing, called meanders form, and as then flows into a lake or a Length: 5,970 km (3,710 miles)
the flow cuts away the outside sea. The sediment carried The Mississippi and Missouri rivers
and full of gravel and of the curve, the meanders by the water is left behind combine to form North America’s
pebbles. This in turn at the mouth of the river. longest river system.
erodes and deepens become more extreme.
the stream channel. 5 YENISEI

Length: 5,539 sq km (3,445 sq
miles) The Yenisei River starts in
Mongolia and flows through Russia.

OCEAN SIZES WATER POWER HYDROELECTRIC TIDAL SURGE

This chart shows the total area covered Earth’s essential resource can move with Hydroelectric dams Tidal barrages work
by each ocean. The Pacific is the deepest considerable force, and modern techniques have are built to convert in a similar way to
and by far the largest ocean, covering been developed to harness this incredible power a river’s kinetic hydroelectric dams,
almost half the Earth. The Arctic is the into energy. energy (energy generating power
smallest, coldest, and shallowest ocean. of movement) into from rising and
electrical power. falling tides.

SOUTHERN 6% ARCTIC 4.2% HYDROELECTRIC Reservoir Dam Generator Turbine Power line Water
ENERGY flows out
Hydroelectric power Power station
stations use the force of dam
of moving water to
produce electrical Penstock
energy. The amount
INDIAN PACIFIC of energy created is
20.4% 46.4% determined by the
flow of water.
ATLANTIC 1 WATER IS RELEASED 2 WATER PRESSURE 3 ELECTRICITY IS PRODUCED
23% Water is stored in a reservoir The force of the water spins Power lines carry away

and released into giant tubes the blades of the turbines, which are electricity, while the water flows off

(penstocks) inside the dam. connected to electricity generators. downstream, away from the dam.

171

Climate WHAT IS CLIMATE? WEATHER SYSTEMS

A climate is the average weather pattern Local air masses have their own
in an area, influenced by factors such as temperature, moisture content,
the region’s distance from the equator. density, and pressure. A weather
front occurs when one air mass
and weather meets another.

Sunshine, air, and water interact to create the TEMPERATURE PRECIPITATION WARM FRONT COLD FRONT
constantly changing conditions we call weather. Places tend to be colder There are zones of
Weather can change fast within a day and slowly the further they are from high and low rainfall Cold air is replaced Cold air pushes into
from season to season. The average weather around the Earth. by warm air, which warm air, forcing it
pattern in one place is what makes up its climate. the equator. slowly rises to form upwards to create
clouds and then rain storm clouds and
as the air cools. heavy rain.

ATMOSPHERIC Polar easterlies
CIRCULATION blow away from
the North Pole
Air is always on the move, and this creates
WORLD’S CLIMATE the circulation of the atmosphere around the Polar-front jet
globe. Hot air close to the equator is carried stream moves in
The world is divided into climate zones, each one with a pattern of to high latitudes, and cool air is returned different seasons
temperature and rainfall, and distinct vegetation. They range from a to the tropics. In each hemisphere, three
hot and wet climate near the equator to a cold and dry one at the poles. “cells” with separate circulations create
winds that blow from specific
Hot, with rain all year directions. These in turn
Hot, with a dry and a wet season produce surface currents
Hot, with one rainy season in the oceans.
Hot desert
EQUATOR Cool coastal climate Subtropical
Warm, with winter rain jet stream flows
Cold, with warm summers
Very cold and dry at about 30°N
Mountain climate all year round

SEASONS Spring

Seasons differ in the northern and Earth’s spin
southern hemispheres due to a tilt axis is tilted
in Earth’s spin axis. In summer, the
hemisphere tilted towards at 23.4°
the Sun has longer,
warmer days.

Summer

Northern hemisphere Sun
tilted towards the Sun Winter

Autumn

SEASONS IN THE Direction
NORTHERN HEMISPHERE of Earth’s
rotation
CLIMATE CHANGE Volcanoes release Clouds Clearing
particles that release forests and
Climate is made up of interactions between burning
the land, ocean, and atmosphere. Human reflect solar energy rain vegetation
activity can also alter these interactions and back into space releases
cause climate change. CO²

Melting land Plants and soil FTUSFHHIREEIRRORICEUOEKASISRNFOIIGNFUTGSTIIHEFXSOTW,RIAETINNSIEDDASSR, E Cool air subsides
and sea ice absorb CO² at the South Pole
affects ocean
circulation Evaporation from
land and sea
Oceans store creates clouds
and release Factories release CO²
carbon
dioxide (CO²)

CLIMATE
FACTORS

172

STATIONARY FRONT Lines PRECIPITATION SNOW RECORD-BREAKING
called Snowflakes are WEATHER
This occurs where isobars All precipitation is simply clusters of frozen
air masses push join points falling moisture. Whether water droplets. Some places have extreme
against one another with the water falls from a cloud as climates, or weather events
without moving. Can same rain, hail, or snow depends HAIL that are talked about for years.
cause heavy rain. pressure on how cold the air is. Ice pellets form
from crystals WINDIEST
OCCLUDED FRONT An area RAIN in storm clouds.
with low Droplets in clouds The fastest wind speed in a tornado
Fast-moving cold air pressure fall when they are was 450 km/h (280 mph), recorded
overtakes a warm is called a too heavy to float. at Wichita Falls, USA, in 1958.
front, and lifts the depression
warm air mass. It HOTTEST
can rain for days. A WEATHER MAP
The hottest land-surface temperature
POLAR CELL SLEET FOG ever recorded (by satellite
Cold air at the Sleet is a mix of Fog forms when measurement) was 70.7°C (159.3°F)
pole flows south snow and rain in warm, moist air in the Lut Desert, Iran, in 2005.
then returns. air above freezing. hits cold ground.
COLDEST
Winds produced by
Ferrel Cells flow The coldest recorded temperature
from the west was –93°C (–136°F), measured in
Antarctica’s eastern highlands in 2010.
Northeasterly WIND
trade winds WETTEST
Air moving between high and low pressure areas
is called wind. Wind speed – from still air to a The highest rainfall recorded in one
hurricane – is measured on the Beaufort scale. day was 18.25 cm (71.9 in) in Foc-Foc,
Reunion Island, in the Indian Ocean
CALM in 1966, during a tropical cyclone.
LIGHT AIR
LIGHT BREEZE DRIEST
GENTLE BREEZE
MODERATE BREEZE Arica, Chile is the populated area with
FRESH BREEZE the lowest average annual rainfall in
STRONG BREEZE the world at 0.76 mm (0.03 in).
NEAR GALE
HADLEY CELL
GALE
Moist air rises STRONG GALE
at the equator
and subsides at STORM
the subtropics. VIOLENT STORM

HURRICANE

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 ARICA, CHILE
BEAUFORT SCALE

CLOUDS CLOUD NAMES
Clouds are named
All clouds fall into three main groups, although each type according to their
has many different shapes. Cumulus form pillowy heaps; size, shape, and height.
stratus have flat layers; and cirrus are wispy streaks.

CIRRUS CIRROCUMULUS 10,000 M
CIRROSTRATUS (33,000 FT)

ALTOCUMULUS 8,000 M
(26,000 FT)
ALTOSTRATUS
6,000 M
STRATOCUMULUS CUMULUS NIMBOSTRATUS CUMULONIMBUS (19,500 FT)

STRATUS 4,000 M
(13,000 FT)

2,000 M
(6,500 FT)

HOW CLOUDS FORM

1 MOISTURE 2 VAPOUR CONDENSES 3 CLOUDS RISE
When the Sun shines, As the vapour rises and cools, During cloud formation, heat

moisture in the ground and sea it condenses and forms clouds is released into the surrounding

FERREL CELL rises into the air as water vapour. made of tiny water droplets. air and lifts the cloud higher.

Air rises high WATCHING
then divides – THE WEATHER
some flowing
to the poles and Weather stations are at work
some towards all over the world, gathering
the equator. information about local and
global weather patterns. They
Southeasterly use a range of instruments from DOPPLER RADAR WEATHER BALLOON SATELLITE
trade winds simple thermometers and rain This type of radar uses Helium-filled balloons Satellites orbit from
gauges to weather balloons and carry sensors high into
Roaring satellites, which use sensors to microwaves to track pole to pole or sit
forties wind monitor Earth’s atmosphere. moving bands of rain. the atmosphere. above one region.

173

Extreme weather CAUSES OF GLOBAL WARMING
EXTREME
Tornadoes, hurricanes, and flash floods destroy homes and WEATHER Since 1970 global
countryside. Long dry spells cause water shortages and parched temperatures have
crops. There have always been episodes of extreme weather, The Sun’s heat is a key factor,
but now it seems likely that the increase in freak events all creating excessively high and risen by 0.5˚C
around the world is due to climate change. low atmospheric pressure that (0.9˚F), adding heat
can lead to extreme weather
conditions. Dust from that may alter
volcanoes can cause major weather patterns.
disturbance, and global
warming may play a part.

WHAT IS EXTREME THUNDERSTORM MONSOON FLOOD TORNADO HURRICANE
WEATHER?
Thunderclouds form in These torrential rains Too much rain in a short These twisting The Earth’s most
Many parts of the world experience wide hot, humid weather and that last for weeks are time may cause flash columns of wind can powerful weather
variations in their weather, so when does it bring heavy rain, hail, just seasonal weather flatten houses and systems bring huge
become extreme? In India torrential monsoons lightning, and thunder. in subtropical regions. floods in valleys and near
are normal, as is a big freeze in the far North. rivers and the sea. pick up vehicles. winds and rain.
Put simply, extreme weather is weather that
is windier, hotter, colder, wetter, or more
destructive than usual.

TOTRANHBAEODUUOTSEA1S,H0I0AN0STETHVHEEERWYMOYORESLATDR–

DUST STORM HEATWAVE DROUGHT SEVERE FOG HAILSTORM SNOWSTORM COLD WAVE

In very dry places, sand During a heatwave, If there is high pressure The thickest fogs occur Showers of large A snowstorm is a rapid This dramatic dip in
and soil is picked up in temperatures soar, for long periods, no in polluted areas. Tiny hailstones can break fall of snow, 15 cm (6 in) temperature to well
the wind that grows into reservoirs dry up, and droplets of water settle below freezing can
a suffocating dust storm. water is in short supply. clouds form and there is on particles in the air. glass and leave deep or more, that
no rain. Vital crops fail. drifts of ice. disrupts daily life. threaten lives.

MONSOON THUNDERSTORMS Huge cumulonimbus cloud Up- and Thermals
has an anvil-shaped top downdraughts begin to
Massive monsoon winds bring In hot, humid weather, an create a die down
torrential rain to subtropical enormous cloud called a Warm, humid violent storm
regions in summer. This rain is cumulonimbus can rapidly air rises from Downdraughts
essential for crops to grow. The build up. This towering cloud the ground block warm air.
winds change direction in winter brings gusty winds, torrential The rain stops
to bring dry, cooler weather. rain, hail, and lightning.
Flashes of lightning happen 1 CLOUDS BUILD 2 MATURE STAGE 3 ON THE WANE
INDIA after droplets, ice crystals, Humid air is An updraught The strong
and hail in the cloud
become electrically pulls more warm downdraught
charged. The flashes
superheat the air, heated on the surface air upwards. High takes over. Cool
creating claps of thunder.
and causes thermal in the sky the drops air spills over

currents. As these cool become rain, hail, the surface of the

down they produce or snow and fall cloud and it begins

a towering cloud. in a downdraught. to disappear.

SUMMER LIGHTNING
The South Asian monsoon STROKES
blows from the Indian Ocean,
bringing rain across India. It takes a huge voltage of
electricity to overcome the
INDIA resistance of the air, but
once the process starts,
strokes of lightning zig-
zag towards the ground.
When a leader stroke
makes contact with a high
point like a tree, it lights
up with a brighter stroke
called the return stroke.

WINTER CLOUD-TO-CLOUD LIGHTNING CLOUD TO GROUND RIBBON LIGHTNING SHEET LIGHTNING
Fine, dry weather spreads This most common type of Electricity in the Return strokes flowing Lightning flashing
across India when the South back up the first stroke inside a cloud looks
Asian monsoon reverses. lightning flashes from cloud to lightning joins currents create a ribbon effect. like a sheet of light.
cloud then disappears in the air. rising from the ground.

174

SOLAR HEAT AIR PRESSURE EXCITING WEATHER KATABATIC WINDS GIANT HAILSTONE
PHENOMENA
The intensity of the Low atmospheric These winds occur at night on This whopper fell in Vivian, South Dakota,
Sun fluctuates day- pressure causes Weather can produce some mountain slopes. Dense, cold air is USA, during a July storm in 2010. Hailstones
to-day and its heat storms and strong amazing phenomena and pushed down the slope by gravity. can gather ice layers as winds in storm clouds
causes changes in winds. Prolonged rare sights. whip them upwards
high pressure can NONAQUEOUS RAIN again and again.
atmospheric cause drought. SPRITES, ELVES, AND JETS
pressure. Spiders, frogs, and even jellyfish can RECORD HAILSTONE
Sprites and elves are dancing red be whipped up in strong winds and This hailstone weighed 1 kg (2.2 lb) and was 20 cm
lightning flashes in the sky. Jets are then fall as rain. (8 in) across – three times the size of a tennis ball.
cones of blue light on thunderclouds.
ST ELMO’S FIRE GAIHNRSULIOMRSMR’AOIELCRSAA,BNROOEERYSNSEUA’VSMNEUANEADMFLOEALYSOFTDBHEUSARTVE
BALL LIGHTNING
This electric spark is like the glow in
This glowing orb lasts for only seconds. It a plasma ball but it occurs naturally
may be caused when elements in the soil on things like masts and lampposts
vaporize and react with oxygen in the air. during thunderstorms.

HURRICANES AIRFLOWS
Warm air on the top spirals out from
Hurricanes are violent tropical storms that
develop over a warm ocean. Up to 4,000 km the eye, then cools and descends.
(2,500 miles) across, with winds of
more than 300 km/h (185 mph),
they can leave a
trail of destruction
across islands and
coastal regions.

SPIRAL EYE
This calm area of sinking
RAIN BANDS
Rising warm air air is usually 32–48 km
(20–30 miles) wide.
creates long,
curved bands of
thunderstorms.

WARM, MOIST AIR
Heated by the ocean,
air picks up water
and rises upwards.

1 THUNDERSTORMS 2 DEPRESSION 3 TROPICAL STORM 4 HURRICANE
At first, clusters of A depression develops, As the winds spin faster, When they hit speeds of more than

thunderstorms form high drawing in warm surface clouds rise high and produce 120 km/h (74 mph), the winds and clouds

above the warm ocean. winds that start to rotate. torrential rain. form a spiral around a calmer central eye.

TORNADOES 1 STEADY SPIN 2 FUNNEL GROWS 3 PEAK PROGRESS 4 COLUMN DIES
As warm air rises from When the funnel reaches At its peak, the column can After a while the column
These spinning columns of air
reach from the clouds down to the ground it starts to spin. The the ground it draws in more hot be several kilometres wide and spins more slowly. It narrows
the ground. They are shaped like
a funnel with a core of air that can
spin at anything up to 480 km/h
(300 mph). Nicknamed “twisters”
in the USA, they form during
summer storms and can
destroy crops and buildings.

base of a cloud forms a funnel. air and begins to spin faster. destroy everything in its path. and is drawn up into the cloud.

175

Environment MOUNTAINS
The air and streams are much
in danger
cleaner in the mountains.
Pollution, deforestation, and the burning of
fossil fuels are all changing the environment and ACID RAIN
making it difficult for many species of plants Some pollutant gases
and animals to survive. However, there are plenty
of ways to slow down these harmful effects on acidify water in the
the environment, from thinking carefully atmosphere. Rain
about what can be recycled to finding formed from this water
new, greener sources of energy. can destroy trees.

PESTICIDES
Chemicals used by
farmers on their crops
can wash off fields and
into nearby water sources.

GREENHOUSE Released CLEANING RUBBISH
EFFECT energy Most rubbish is buried
CHEMICALS in the ground in landfill
Some gases, such as Chemicals are sites. It can release
carbon dioxide, make released into water dangerous chemicals
the atmosphere behave from household and gases.
like the glass of a cleaning products.
greenhouse, trapping FUEL
solar heat. This Cars powered by
process, which keeps fossil fuels release
Earth at a comfortable greenhouse gases
temperature, is called from their exhausts.
the “greenhouse effect”.
Atmosphere and
greenhouse
gases

Trapped energy

GLOBAL WARMING
Burning fossil fuels like coal and oil releases
more greenhouse gases into the atmosphere,

warming the planet.

GLOBAL WARMING SOOT
Soot, caused
The warming up of the Earth may sound like a good thing at by burning coal
first, but it actually has severe consequences. Even a tiny shift or oil, pollutes
of one or two degrees in temperature can change the balance
of the planet and eventually lead to the loss of wildlife habitats, the air.
farmland, and even human lives.
GAS EMISSIONS
SEA-LEVEL RISES OCEAN BECOMES MORE ACIDIC As well as non-polluting
As the ice in polar regions melts Sea creatures, including coral steam, many power stations
and sea levels rise, coastal land produce invisible gases that
reefs, are dying as their contribute to the greenhouse
and homes will be lost. environment changes. effect and global warming.

CHEMICALS
Chemicals from industrial
processes can make their
way into rivers and the sea.

SEWAGE
Some waste from sewage

plants is dumped in the
sea, harming marine life.

MARINE LIFE
If plants on the seabed are
killed by pollution, there is little
for other marine life to eat.

EXTREME WEATHER DESERTS EXPAND POLLUTION HAZARDOUS
Global warming leads to destructive An increase in global temperature
Human activities cause extensive WASTE
storms, floods, and droughts. will lead to more desert areas, pollution around the world every day. Waste dumped in
destroying habitats and farmland. The environment may be affected the sea or buried
176 on a small scale, or pollution may can leak harmful
contribute to wider problems, like the
greenhouse effect. Pollution affects all pollutants.
forms of life on the planet, from animals
on the land to plant life in the sea.

EUROPE

NORTH
AMERICA

ASIA

DES1T8ROTAMOFHPYIFELPEOLRDWIROOEEOXNVSRITMELARDACAYRTRAYEEORSLEUEYANRD DEFORESTATION SOUTH AFRICA OCEANIA
AMERICA
The effects of deforestation for KEY
farming, logging, and living are Frontier forest – undisturbed by humans
huge. Deforestation accounts Degraded forest – disturbed by humans
for much of the world’s Frontier forest 8,000 years ago
greenhouse gas emissions; it
reduces biodiversity, disrupts
Earth’s natural water cycle,
and speeds up erosion.

ENDANGERED WAYS TO HELP
SPECIES THE PLANET

Habitat loss, disease, There are things we can all do
to help reduce our impact on the
and hunting cause planet. If everyone takes a few
small steps, it can have a greatly
hundreds, or potentially positive effect overall.

thousands, of species SWITCH OFF

to become extinct PLANTS REPTILES AMPHIBIANS BIRDS FISH MAMMALS Save electricity by turning off lights and
every year. There are more than About half of all Around 43 per cent About 13 per cent Millions of sharks Around 26 per cent computers when they are not in use.
10,000 endangered turtle species are of amphibians are of bird species are are killed for their of mammal species
TRAVEL SMART
plant species. endangered. threatened. vulnerable. fins each year. are threatened.
Try to walk, cycle, or use public
EVERYDAY COTTON BATTERIES PLASTIC BAGS GADGETS THE INTERNET transport, instead of cars.
CONSUMERS Cotton is treated with
pesticides and harmful Batteries can release Millions of marine Fifty million tonnes The internet produces SAVE WATER
There are many things people dangerous chemicals animals die each year
use every day that can have a big chemicals. of electrical waste is about 300 million Ban baths, take shorter showers, and
impact on the environment. Using if they are not from swallowing turn off the tap when brushing teeth.
one plastic bag in a shop might disposed of safely. plastic bags. thrown out every year. tonnes of carbon
seem small, but if other people AVOID WASTE
around the world do this also, the dioxide each year.
effects on the planet can be huge. Buy products with less packaging, so
MEAT CHOCOLATE WATER BOTTLES it is not wasted.
OIL
Spills from tankers Around 18 per cent About 25,000 litres Around 50 billion RECYCLE
and oil rigs are life- of all greenhouse of water is needed plastic water bottles
threatening to sea gas emissions to make just 1 kg (2.2 lb) are used each year Many things can be recycled, including
creatures. comes from of chocolate. in the USA. paper, glass, and plastic.
producing meat.
REUSE WASTE
RECYCLING PLASTIC GLASS PAPER ALUMINIUM
Create compost from food waste.
Materials like plastic and Plastic can be Recycling 1 tonne Recycling paper Recycling aluminium
glass can take hundreds recycled into park of glass releases uses 70 per cent uses just 5 per cent DON’T LITTER
or thousands of years to 315 kg (695 lb) less less energy than of the energy needed
break down in a landfill site. benches, drain carbon dioxide than producing it from Littering harms animals, and litter
Recycling these items can pipes, or even the production of raw materials. to make new can end up in the sea, where it stays
save resources and energy, fleece jackets. aluminium. for a very long time.
while also being healthier new glass.
for the environment. PLANT A TREE

Trees and plants absorb carbon
dioxide, a greenhouse gas.

WATCH WHAT YOU EAT

Buy local and seasonal food. Eat
less meat.

SPREAD THE WORD

Encourage your friends and family
to help the environment.

SHIPWRECK RENEWABLE WIND SOLAR TIDAL HYDROELECTRIC GEOTHERMAL BIOFUELS WOOD
Objects like sunken ships on ENERGY
the seabed can release harmful Wind can power Energy from the As tides rise and When water is Cool water Fuel can be Specially grown
material from their cargo. Fossil fuels provide most of turbines that Sun is caught by fall, they move channelled is pumped produced from wood can be
the world’s energy, but this solar panels and turbines that underground organic matter,
has serious environmental convert the wind through a dam, through pipes, like plants, which burned for heat
impacts and these fuels will energy into turned into convert the turbines are to absorb the are burned to and light. Trees
become more scarce. There electricity. electricity. movement turned, which Earth’s heat. provide energy.
are other sources of cleaner, into energy. must be
renewable energy that can creates energy. replanted.
be used instead.

177

Our physical LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE

The equator is an imaginary line that divides the Earth
into northern and southern hemispheres. Latitude
shows how far north or south a location is in relation

world to the equator. Longitude gives the east/west position

from the prime meridian, which runs between the KEY
North and South Poles through London, England.
ELEVATION
North Pole
4,000 m

75°N 2,000 m

Most of Earth’s surface is covered in water. 60°N 1,000 m
500 m
45°N COORDINATESPRIME MERIDIAN
The rest is occupied by seven vast landmasses, Combining latitude 250 m

30°N and longitude gives 100 m
Below sea

called continents: Europe, Africa, North 90°W 15°N 45°E every location a Sea level level
America, South America, Asia, Australasia/ 30°E coordinate. New
75°E 15°E York City, for 250 m
60°W 45°W 15°W example, is 40.7° 2,000 m
4,000 m
30°W EQUATOR

Oceania, and Antarctica. The tilt of Earth’s axis 15°S N, 74°W. Mountain
Lowest point
30°S

45°S

and its orbit of the Sun means that some places 150°W 120°W 90°W 60°W

are much hotter and drier than others. Chukchi Sea Beaufort Sea Victoria Baffin Is Baffin
Island Bay
Arctic Circle
Mount McKinley land
SURFACE AREA Bering Strait (Denali) ser Antilles Hudson
60°N 6,194 m
The entire surface of the Earth is 510,066,000 sq km d s R O C K Y M O U N T A I NSSierra Madre Labrador
tian Is l an Gulf of Bay Laurentian Sea
(196,937,000 sq miles). Water makes up more than 70% of Alaska NORTH
Ale u Mountains

the surface area, most of which is salt water in the oceans. Vancouver Island Great Lakes Newfoundland

Coast Ranges ountains Grand Banks of
Newfoundland
Gr

Mississippi
M
A MERICA
ains
P l
Appalachian
29.2% eat

A T L A N T I CLAND
70.8% WATER 30°N

Tropic of Cancer IHslaanwdasi’ia Gulf of West O C E A N
Mexico Indies

4A0TR,0HO7OUE5FNCKTDIMRHTCE(HU2E4EMA,9EFR0QET1RUHEMANTICLOEERSI)S Hawai’i ns PYeunciantsaunlGar e a t e r Antilles Les

CONTINENT SIZES PACIFIC Caribbean Sea

Tens of millions of years ago, all land on Earth o Line OCEAN rinoco O
was joined together in one huge continent called P
Pangea. Over time, this broke apart and the Guiana Gran Chaco
continents we know today gradually moved Equator Islands Galapagos
to their present locations. Islands Highlands Brazilian Highlands
Phoenix y
Oceania Islands l A m a z o n ABmaazsoni n
8,525,989 sq km
(3,291,903 sq miles) Marquesas D SOUTH
AMERICA
Europe e Islands N
10,498,000 sq km nCook A Planalto de
(4,053,309 sq miles) Samoa SociTeutyaImsloatnudIsslan Peru Mato Grosso
Basin
Antarctica Tonga Trench Island i Pitcairn
14,000,000 sq km s ds
(5,405,430 sq miles)
Tropic of Capricorn Pampas
South America
17,819,000 sq km a Islands Easter ES
(6,879,000 sq miles) Island

30°S Southwest Juan Mount
Pacific Fernandez Aconcagua
Asia Basin 6,959 m
43,608,000 Islands
sq km Patago n ia
(16,838,365 Argentine
sq miles) Basin

Falkland
Tierra del Islands

Fuego Cape Horn s s a g e

60°S Drake Pa
Antarctic Circle

North America Africa 150°W 120°W 90°W 60°W
24,247,000 sq km 30,335,000 sq km
(9,361,791 sq miles) (11,712,434 sq miles)

178

EXTREME PLACES TALLEST MOUNTAINS

The place with the hottest average Slow, but gigantic, movements in Earth’s crust form mountains.
temperature on Earth is Dallol in The tallest mountain range is the Himalayas in Asia, which contains the
Ethiopia, at 24.4°C (93.9°F). The ten highest mountains in the world. The longest mountain range is
place with the coldest average the Andes in South America, stretching for 7,200 km (4,500 miles).
temperature, measuring –58.3°C
(–72.9°F), is the highest point on DRIEST PLACE: DRY WETTEST PLACE:
the East Antarctic Ice Sheet, called VALLEYS, ANTARCTICA MAWSYNRAM, INDIA
Dome A. Mawsynram in India is the
wettest place in the world, with an
average annual rainfall of 1,187 cm
(467 in). The driest place is the Dry
Valleys in Antarctica, which receive
no rain, snow, or hail.

HOTTEST PLACE: COLDEST PLACE: MT EVEREST K2 KANGCHENJUNGA LHOTSE 1 MAKALU 1
DALLOL, ETHIOPIA DOME A, ANTARCTICA 8,848 m 8,611 m 8,586 m 8,485 m 8462 m
(29,029 ft) (28,251 ft) (28,169 ft) (27,838 ft) (27,766 ft)

TOP FIVE TALLEST MOUNTAINS

30°W 0° 30°E 60°E 90°E 120°E 150°E
Barents Laptev Sea East Siberian Sea
Greenland A R C T I C O C E A N Sea Lena
Scandinavia Arctic Circle
Denmark Strait M oUurnatla i n s Caspian Sea West
North Siberian Ob’ S i b e r i a Kamchatka
Iceland Sea 60°N
Plain r
British River Sea of
Amu Okhotsk
A S I AIsles E U R O P E
Nile dTuDKTieeHhAusnaeslthrrDIaStKiMheMuGacancnAnoalguueonPLnsnfltaaTAMtiM8ine,b8Yooas4ueuuBL8ntAntaamEkitGkveaSeaYiroleenlslsbtowainMgtzPaeCGlnPahcrlihaiennauinatorifa(nCESEJSahaeaseaiptasnaSotanfeKa)yuHsHhJouoaknkpsahiaudno
Mont Blanc A L P S Danube Black SCeaaucasus Volga Aral
4,807 m Sea
Indus Hin
Azores M e d i t Eastern GhatsElbrus
Madeira ins 5,642 m
Y
Canary MAotulnatsa e r r a n e a n Se a M o uZnatgarionss

-423 m Dead 30°N
Sea
S a h a r aIslands PerGsiaunlf PACIFIC
Ahaggar Red Sea
Tropic of Cancer
Niger
Tibesti Arabian Arabian Western Ghats Taiwan riana Trench OCEAN
Peninsula Sea Philippine
AFRICA Bay of
Mekong Sea Mariana M
Cape S a h e l Ethiopian Bengal Philippine Islands icron
Verde es
Islands Highlands Horn of Islands Challenger
South Deep
Adamawa Africa Sri China -11,200 m Ma
Highlands Lanka Malay S e a
Maldive Peninsula
Islands Me lan ia

Congo Great Lake Sumatra Borneo e Equator
Basin Victoria
Celebes New s
C Kilimanjaro Guinea
E a s t Solomon
Lake 5,895 m n d i e
Tanganyika Seychelles

l Lake
Nyasa
Ascension Prime Meridian Rift Java Sea s Islands a
Island i
ongo Va l INDIAN Java I
St Helena OCEAN
sberg Timor Se Arafura
Sea
MMaozdaamgbiaqsuce aCrhanneley a OCEANIA
Namib Desert D Great Barrier Reef
Zambezi at Dividing Range Coral New Fiji
Sea Caledonia
Mauritius Great Sandy

Kalahari Réunion Desert Tropic of Capricorn

Desert Great Victoria
Desert
Orange NullGarrbeaotr Plain arling 30°S

Tristan RiDverraken Austalian Gre m a n Sea
da Cunha Bight T
Cape of a s New
Good Hope Tasmania Zealand

Crozet Aoraki
Islands (Mount Cook)

Kerguelen 3,75 4 m

Bouvet South Indian Basin 60°S
Island
OCEAN Antarctic Circle
S O UT H E R N

A NT AR C TI CA 150°E

30°W 0° 30°E 60°E 90°E 120°E

179

Our political TIME ZONES 165°W 180°E 165°E
world 150°W 150°E
The world is divided into more
than 24 time zones. From the 135°W 135°E
prime meridian (0º longitude), 12 MIDNIGHT 11 PM
which runs through Greenwich, 120°W 4 AM 10 PM 8 PM 120°E
London, for every 15º you move 105°W 5 AM 1 AM 9 PM 7 PM 105°E
west or east, you generally lose 2 AM
or gain an hour. At the equator 3 AM
a day is about 12 hours year

There are 196 independent countries in the world round. Moving away from the 090°W 6 AM 6 PM 090°E
today, all differing from each other in size, shape, equator, the day can increase
population, language, government, and culture. to 24 hours or decrease to zero, 075°W 7 AM 4 5 PM 075°E
depending on the time of year. PM PM
Countries on similar latitudes 060°W 8 AM AM10 AM 3
have the same day lengths. 045°W 9 11 AM 060°E
12 NOON
2 PM 045°E
1 PM
030°W 030°E
The size of a country, its boundaries, and natural COUNTING TIME
015°W 000° 015°E

resources, such as oil and gas, are just some The time zone change is counted
at 15º intervals, because Earth

rotates 15º each hour. 150°W 120°W 90°W 60°W

elements that affect both its internal organization

and its relationship with other countries. ARCTIC OCEAN Baffin

Arctic Circle Bay

Alaska
(to USA)
POPULATION
60°N CANADA
There are more than 7 billion people in the world today. United
Nations’ estimates of what the population will be in 2040 Aleutian Islands (to USA) Great St Pierre
range from about 8 to 9.7 billion. Some areas of the world are Lakes
more populated than others because of their climate, terrain, PACIFIC & Miquelon
and natural and economic resources. Over half the world’s OCEAN UNITED STATES (to France)
population live in cities, most in Asia, as a result of mass OF AMERICA
migration from rural areas in search of jobs.

ATLANTIC

Bermuda OCEAN
(to UK)

North America Oceania 30°N MEXICO Gulf of
533 million 38.3 million Midway Islands
(to USA )
South Mexico BAHAMAS
America Tropic of Cancer
CUBA DOMINICAN
389.86 Hawaii HAITI REPUBLIC
million
(to USA)
Europe BELIZE JAMAICA
742.5
GUATEMALA HONDURAS Caribbean BARBADOS
million EL SALVADOR Sea

NICARAGUA

Africa COSTA RICA TRINIDAD & TOBAGO
1.1 billion PANAMA
VENEZUELA
Asia GUYANA French Guiana
4.4 billion (to France)
COLOMBIA
SURINAM

Equator Galapagos Islands ECUADOR
(to Ecuador)
Wallis &
POPULATION CHART Futuna
(to France)
PACIFIC PERU BRAZIL
KIRIBATI

Tokelau OCEAN
(to NZ) Cook

Islands
SAMOA (to NZ)

MEGACITIES American French Polynesia BOLIVIA
Samoa PARAGUAY
A megacity is an urban area with (to US) (to France)
more than 10 million inhabitants.
The top five megacities by TONGA Niue
population are in Asia. (to NZ)

1 TOKYO Tropic of Capricorn

Japan: 37,843,000 Pitcairn CHILE
Islands ARGENTINA
2 JAKARTA (to UK)

Indonesia: 30,539,000 30°S

URUGUAY

3 NEW DELHI 60°S S O UT H E R N Falkland
Islands
India: 24,998,000 Antarctic Circle (to UK)

4 MANILA OCEAN

Philippines: 24,123,000

5 SEOUL

South Korea: 23,480,000

150°W 120°W 90°W 60°W

180

Faeroe Islands NORWAY SWEDE N FINLAND BIGGEST AND SMALLEST COUNTRIES
(to Denmark) RUSSIAN
Covering a vast expanse of land, the Russian Federation is the world’s largest country. It has
North ESTONIA FEDERATION 11 time zones and shares land borders with 14 other countries. Vatican City, the centre of the
Catholic Church, is located within the Italian city of Rome and is the world’s smallest country.
UNITED S e a DENMARK LATVIA
KINGDOM
RUSS. LITHUANIA
FED.

IRELAND NETHERLANDS POLAND BELARUS BIGGEST COUNTRIES SMALLEST COUNTRIES

GERMANY 1 RUSSIAN FEDERATION 1 VATICAN CITY
BELGIUM
CZECH REPUBLIC UKRAINE 17,098,242 sq km (6,601,668 sq miles) 0.44 sq km (0.17 sq miles)
Channel
Islands FLLURIESXCAWEHMNITTBECZONEUESSRRTALGNEAINNMDARINOAUSLSOTHBVROEEINRSACNZIRAEIOASGHAL&OTUOVISNVAINEAGRRAKAOBIRIAMABYUANLGIAARMIOALDCOaVspAian 2 CANADA 2 MONACO
(to UK)
9,984,670 sq km (3,855,103 sq miles) 2 sq km (0.7 sq miles)
ANDORRAPORTUGAL M Corsica VAMCTIIOTCYNAINTTEANLEGYROALKBOMASANOCVIEAOD(OdiNspIuAtTed)U Sea Y
RKE 3 UNITED STATES 3 NAURU
SPAIN SWEDENSardinia
rranean GREECE 9,629.091 sq km (3,717,813 sq miles) 21 sq km (8 sq miles)
Gibraltar edite Sea
(to UK) 4 CHINA 4 TUVALU
MOROCCO ALGERIA TUNISIA MALTA CYPRUS
9,598,094 sq km (3,705,845 sq miles) 26 sq km (10 sq miles)

5 BRAZIL 5 SAN MARINO

8,514,877 sq km (3,287,612 sq miles) 61 sq km (24 sq miles)

EUROPE

30°W 0° Svalbard 30°E 60°E 90°E 120°E 150°E

Greenland A R C T I (to Norway) A N

(to Denmark) C OCE

ICELAND NORWAY FINLAND Arctic Circle

See inset map RUSSIAN FEDERATION 60°N
for details

IRELAND GERMANY BELARUS

FRANCE UKRAINE KAZ AKHSTAN MONGOLIA
ROMANIA

MeditTIeTUrrANaLInSYeIaGAnRSEeEaBCUELLGETIABSRARUINAAEROGLNAEKROSMERYEGRYNIIIRAAIAAQAZETRIUBRRAKIUJMAAZENBNANEFISKGTIAHSNTAANNITSTAAJIKNKYISRTGAYNZSTAN
SPAIN N A NORTH JAPAN PACIFIC
PORTUGAL KOREA OCEAN
SOUTH
C H ICCO KOREA

ITANIA MORO JORDAN AKISTAN 30°N
CONGO CAMENRIOGOENRIA
Canary KUWAIT NEPAL
Islands BHUTAN
(to Spain) A L G E R I A L I B Y A EGYPT BAHRAIN P Tropic of Cancer
QATAR BANGLADESH
UAE TAIWAN

SAUDI OMAN I N D I A BURMA

CAPE MAUR ARABIA Arabian (MYANMAR) ETNAMVI Northern
VERDE Sea LAOS Mariana
MALI NIGER SUDAN Islands
SENEGAL CHAD ERITREA YEMEN THAILAND
PHILIPPINES (to USA)
GAMBIA BURKINA DJIBOUTI Socotra
CAMBODIA Guam
GUINEA- GUINEA MARSHALL
BISSAU BENIN (to USA)

IVORY CENTRAL ETHIOPIA (to Yemen) ISLANDS
COAST AFRICAN SOUTH MICRONESIA
SIERRA LEONE OMALIA SRI LANKA BRUNEI PALAU

LIBERIA REPUBLIC SUDAN

GHANA TOGO UGANDA S MALDIVES MALAYSIA Equator
EQUATORIAL GUINEA
KENYA INDIAN SINGAPORE NAURU
SAO TOME GABON OCEAN KIRIBATI
DEMOCRATIC RWANDA I N D O N E S I A PAPUA
& PRINCIPE REPUBLIC TUVALU
BURUNDI SEYCHELLES NEW SOLOMON
Cabinda GUINEA
(to Angola) OF CONGO TANZANIA EAST TIMOR ISLANDS

COMOROS

ATLANTIC ANGOLA MALAWI Mayotte (to France)

St Helena ZAMBIA MOZAMBIQUE VANUATU F I J I
(to UK) MADAGASCAR New
ZIMBABWE MAURITIUS Caledonia
OCEAN NAMIBIA
(to France)

BOTSWANA Réunion (to France) Tropic of Capricorn

SWAZILAND AU S T R A L I A

LESOTHO 30°S

SOUTH
AFRICA

NEW
ZEALAND

60°S

Antarctic Circle

A N TA R C T I C A

30°W 0° 30°E 60°E 90°E 120°E 150°E

181

Asia

The largest of Earth’s seven continents, Asia 80˚ 50˚ 60˚ 70˚ 80˚ 90˚
occupies one-third of the world’s total landmass.
It claims both the lowest and the highest points ARCTIC
on the planet’s surface. More than 4 billion people
live here and it is home to the world’s two most 50˚
populous countries, China and India.
Kara
Sea

70˚

Arctic Circle Noril’sk

PETRA, JORDAN IMMENSE CARVING ns
The Monastery at P Ob’
Once a thriving trading Petra is beautifully E
centre, this unique city carved and so huge 60˚ R U S S I A S
was carved into the pink that even the doorway Mountai N
sandstone rock face more is several stories high. Yenisey
than 2,000 years ago. O We s t
Rediscovered in 1812, 30˚ R 50˚
the entrance today is E U50˚ Ural Yekaterinburg Si b e r i a n m
through the Siq, a long, 40˚ Istanbul B l a c k 40˚ Ural’sk ChelyabinskIrtysh P l a i n Chuly
narrow gorge flanked by
high cliffs. Omsk

Rudnyy Novosibirsk

TURKEY Sea Ural ASTANA

ANGKOR WAT, I N D I A3300˚D˚ T2e-r04Jao˚pEd2NiIcC3RSSoILefmUYCRGJCaEeBPSaOAadnBEARzcESdeaAILSUDrILRaNAEySUAeMOAJrSTsOdNiRePaARaAArAnDnenSYMtaARDUAaArnEMINASAtNaBY(ioYMMAArDAEAnblRNNADmRIiEIiaKsSKIuHApACauAUINbtUyRRY‘WnlMBMSAEAaQaAAaRRQAAloIsuENZTMQArKsBaViEauTAghArrEARGliAMtaGNNBDKeRElA.rHiIOUTO)QABDaHWRSbAoAAAGUBhrmHOAiTDIiMAAIzTrRIZBAAlKaEfMUAIBzEURLISURIANCSBITPDANIArAElHGTaTaIHuNnAJMtUlfARseiBRoaaaNAIfAKsunSONkhutMmharauDaEndAHNasoeArIrKgSSASSaaAuTetHraKKUzebaaAFrQaGaZaliNGnABcaAuPdhHBaenZAihtAAtAaaTKrhSANymrIKPIDFaTSSHeadaArsTHTiyahTSySsbKhaaAAudHawalySre(aNrKzldNaKriabyDntDTaErlAeaobUeNoBdBrAsafdNeSTUITdcraKHSaotDNALrnHYAmDtJNENIrRLBIKNoaSLLKaealEaGdL)EBHkllagaWIkhAYKeEhpSaIKiLZMoTushauSHArBABrKAr(ecTcaTalNh2ABklJmAlageko8inAganmiTNa,paKnro6gDiseeatahia1dwdcsuyk1lNhnabDanlmyCamEbC(lKAenIyhuhPnMsSd(oAIinedMmCnnAkTÜrihaaPdauTiKMtoL,aH)niVaksaralucluia)oaürslaoacMnati7uteluirntm8mnmkre,AaGn,Ee4t8alaednHtNqtv3a4duataen9bai8eDari)ygsenommesiUafsstCaspian Sea
CAMBODIA

The temple of Angkor Wat

is covered with exquisite a

carvings. Part of a vast EKAImSuTADNarya

complex of sacred

monuments spread over

400 sq km (155 sq miles), T
Euphrates
it was constructed between

the 9th and 14th centuries.

Parts of the complex are HINDU COSMOS Red Sea Zagros
now grown over by trees.
The temple is an earthly representation of the Hindu AFRICA s
cosmos. Its five towers, shaped like lotus buds, form
a pyramidal structure symbolizing the mythical Mountain
Mount Meru, home of the Hindu gods.
Gu
RIVER GANGES, INDIA KEY Persian

Starting in the Himalayas and finishing ELEVATION
at the Bay of Bengal, the River Ganges
is worshipped by Hindus as the goddess Sea level 4,000 m Indus
Ganga. The river is a lifeline for the 2,000 m
people who live alongside it, but it has 250 m 1,000 m Easte Dec
become heavily polluted by human 2,000 m 500 m
and industrial waste. 4,000 m 250 m ts
100 m
Below sea
level

40˚ Aden Mumbai Pune Goda Gha
(Bombay) Hyderabad
Gulf of Aden Socotra K vari Bay of
Mountain (to Yemen) 60˚ I N D I A N
Lowest point We s t e r n rishna r n
50˚

POPULATION

Capital city OCEAN BangaloreGhats
Over 1 million Chennai
500,000 to 1 million 10˚
100,000 to 500,000 Mysore (Madras)
below 100,000
Kochi Jaffna

TAJ MAHAL 70˚ SRI LANKA

The Taj Mahal was COLOMBO
commissioned by
Mughal emperor MALDIVES SRI JAYEWARDENAPURA
Shah Jahan in 1632 KOTTE 80˚
to house the tomb MALÉ
of his beloved wife
Mumtaz Mahal. TCORAIBMTFUTTOIOSLRMDOE KTETNHH2A2EANYTNAED2AJ0AMR,0RSA0TA0HISNAADLNS

HOLY BATHING MARBLE MONUMENT
Pilgrims gather to bathe in the River Ganges at Haridwar,
the “Gateway to God”. It is one of the seven holiest places Made of white marble,
for Hindus. the colour of the building
appears to change depending
on the time of day.

182

80˚ 70˚ CHERRY BLOSSOM, THE GREAT WALL
JAPAN OF CHINA
140˚150˚160˚17108˚0˚ East Bering 170˚
Siberian Sea 60˚ Spring is celebrated in Japan with Built to protect against raids from the
180˚ the arrival of the cherry blossom, north, the Great Wall of China is made up of
Sea Anadyr’ a symbol of hope and renewal. different sections, built by various Chinese
Japanese people get together to dynasties. The longest structure ever built,
120˚130˚ N I Arctic Circle marvel at these brilliant, fragrant much of the wall was constructed in the
displays of colour. It is thought that 14th century during the Ming Dynasty.
EA the blossoms help us to remember
O C Kolyma Kolyma Range 170˚ P that lives should be lived to the full.
Laptev ndigirka
A
Sea Yan
Lena
Kamchatka C
Olenëk
a I

KChetae n t r a l a Magadan 160˚ F
i Aldan
r Yakutsk ON Petropavlovsk- I
Kamchatskiy
Siberian L C OCE
Sea of
Plateau e RATI Okhotsk Kurile Islands

ib S
ena Amur

FEDE 50˚akhalin BLOSSOMING SOUTH TO NORTH BIG BUILD
150˚ The outside of the wall was built with stones

Vitim The cherry blossom season begins in and fired bricks and the inside filled with
Amur Okinawa in January and moves northwards stones and mud. Sections were up to 7.5 m (25 ft)
Angara Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk A to Kyoto and Tokyo at the end of March. wide and stretched for thousands of kilometres.

Khabarovsk Hokkaido N MOUNT EVEREST, NEPAL
Sapporo 40˚
Krasnoyarsk Lake Argun At 8,848 m (29,029 ft) high, this is the
Baikal

Irkutsk Qiqihar Harbin highest mountain in the world. In 1953
climbers Edmund Hillary from New Zealand
Vladivostok and Nepalese Sherpa Tenzing Norgay
became the first people to reach the
Erdenet ULAN BATOR Jilin Sea of Japan Sendai summit of Everest.
M
M O N G O L I Ao ongolia (East Sea) J A PA N

Yellow Riverunlttaai NORTH Honshu TOKYO TOUGH CLIMB
i PYONGYANG KOREA To date, more than 4,000 people have
A Osaka Yokohama climbed Mount Everest. Climbers have
M n s Gobi I n n e r BEIJING Dalian SEOUL SOUTH 140˚ to face avalanches, freezing temperatures,
KOREA storms, altitude sickness, and a lack
Hiroshima of oxygen.
Datong Tianjin SEJONG CITY Busan
Fukuoka 30˚ NEW HEIGHTS
Jinan Qingdao Ye l l o w Kagoshima

Zhengzhou Xuzhou S e a With the movement of tectonic plates,
Lanzhou Taiwan Strait Everest continues to increase in
Nanjing Shanghai E a s t Ryukyu Islands height by approximately 4 mm
Xi’an (0.16 in) every year.
Hefei China
CHINA FAST FACTS
Yangtze Wuhan Hangzhou S e a Tropic of Cancer
Tibet More than half the world’s
Chengdu Chongqing Nanchang ORANGUTANS, BORNEO population lives in Asia.
(Much of Arunachal Pradesh The biggest cities are
also found here.
is claimed by China) Leshan Changsha Fuzhou TAIPEI Borneo is one of only two remaining natural
Brahmaputra Guiyang Shantou habitats for orangutans. An endangered AREA:
TAIWAN 20˚ species, they live in the tropical canopy, eating
yas fruit and sleeping in nests made of branches. 43,608,000 sq km
Guangzhou Gaoxiong (16,838,365 sq miles)
THIMPHU
BHUTAN POPULATION:
Kunming
Hong Kong 4,426,683,000
Nanning (Xianggang)
BANGLADESH NUMBER OF COUNTRIES:
Philippine
DHAKA B U R M A 49
HANOI Hai Phong Luzon Sea
(MYANMAR) LARGEST COUNTRY
Baguio SWING TIME BY AREA:
Chittagong NAY PYI TAW LAOS V Hainan MANILA Orangutans have
I Dao long arms and a Russian Federation 17,075,400
NAM Legazpi City sq km (6,592,846 sq miles)
T 10˚
E MekongChiang Da Nang S o u t h strong grip. LARGEST COUNTRY
IrrawaddyMai China BY POPULATION:
VIENTIANE Sea PHILIPPINES
China 1,340,000,000
Rangoon THAILAND Cebu
Bengal LARGEST CITY
Mindanao BY POPULATION:
BANGKOK CAMBODIA Palawan S u l u Davao 140E˚quator 0˚
Sea Tokyo, Japan 38,000,000
Andaman PHNOM PENH Ho Chi General Santos
Islands Minh City Zamboanga HIGHEST POINT:

(to India) Jayapura Mount Everest 8,848 m (29,029 ft)
Andaman
Sea Gulf of BANDAR SERI Celebes Halmahera New Guinea LOWEST POINT:
Sea
Nicobar Thailand BEGAWAN Manado Papua Dead Sea, Israel –413 m (–1,378 ft)
Islands (Irian Jaya)
MALAYS BRUNEI LONGEST RIVER:
(to India)
90˚ KUALA LUMPUR IA Moluccas Yangtze, China 6,299 km
(3,915 miles)
Medan Borneo

PUTRAJAYA SINGAPORE Balikpapan Celebes Ambon
Su Pontianak DILI

SINGAPORE EAST TIMOR

t r a Jambi
I N D O N E S I A0˚ m
Equator a

Padang Banjarmasin Makassar Sea 140˚

Palembang Java Sea Flores

Semarang Surabaya Flores Timor OCEANIA
JAKARTA Timor Sea
100˚ Java Malang 120˚
Bandung
130˚

110˚

183

North America FAST FACTS

North America is the third largest of the continents. It is a hugely North America is bordered by three
diverse land with mountains, plains, deserts, and ice. To the north oceans – the Arctic, Pacific, and
is Greenland, the world’s largest island. To the southeast are the Atlantic. There are cities all along
tropical islands of the Caribbean and central American rainforests. the coast and inland.

AREA:

24,247,000 sq km (9,361,791 sq miles)

POPULATION:

533,000,000

NUMBER OF COUNTRIES:

23

DENALI NATIONAL PARK NIAGARA FALLS LARGEST COUNTRY:

This national park in Alaska is 19,187 sq km (7,408 sq miles) Three waterfalls on the Canada 9,984,670 sq km
of tranquil wilderness with taiga forest, alpine tundra, and border of the United States (3,854,082 sq miles)
snowy mountains. Grizzly and black bears roam, and more and Canada are known as
than 100 bird species call the park home for the summer. the Niagara Falls. They are LARGEST COUNTRY BY
renowned for their majestic POPULATION:
beauty, and millions of FANTASTIC FALLS
people visit them every year. USA c.315,000,000
The combined force of their Around 567,811
power is also a valuable litres (150,000 LARGEST CITY BY
source of hydroelectricity. US gallons) of POPULATION:
water flow over
Niagara Falls Mexico City, Mexico 8,700,000
every second.
HIGHEST POINT:

Mount McKinley, Alaska 6,194 m (20,320 ft)

LONGEST RIVER:

Mississippi 3,969 km (2,466 miles)

MOUNT MCKINLEY LARGEST LAKE:

Situated near the Pacific Ocean 80˚ Lake Superior, Canada, USA
82,103 sq km (31,700 sq miles)
and the Arctic Circle, Mount 30˚
McKinley, known locally as O C E A N150˚ 120˚ 90˚ 60˚
Denali, has some of the harshest GRIZZLY 80˚ 70˚ KEY
weather conditions in the world. BEAR 20˚
70˚ B r o o k ELEVATION
ASIA
ARCTIC Ellesmere Greenland 4,000 m
Island 2,000 m
Bering Strait (to Denmark) 1,000 m
500 m
30˚ Sea level 250 m
100 m
Beaufort 250 m Below sea
Sea 2,000 m level
4,000 m
60˚Bering s Victoria Island Baffin
170˚
A l Se a UNITED STATES Range Bay D avis Mountain
I s OF AMERICA Baffin Islan Lowest point
ia n
e u t ds (Alaska) POPULATION
l a n
Mount McKinley St 40˚ 60˚ Capital city
(Denali) 6,194 m NUUK Over 1 million
Mackenzie rait 500,000 to 1 million
160˚ A l e u t i a n R a n g e Anchorage 100,000 to 500,000
Mackenzie d below 100,000
Foxe
Iqaluit L a b r a d o r
150˚ G u l f o f Great Bear Basin (Frobisher Bay)
A l a s k a 140˚ Lake
Whitehorse Mountains Hudson Strait S e a 50˚
Yellowknife

PAC I F I C Juneau R ocky Great Slave Hudson Labrador 50˚
Lake Bay
Queen A Laurentian St.John’s
Charlotte Lake AD Mountains Newfoundland
Athabasca Alb
Islands St. Lawrence
Reindeer Lake
50˚ OCEAN
CAN

Edmonton any St Pierre & Miquelon

Vancouver Vancouver o Calgary Saskatoon Lake Winnipeg (to France)
130˚ Island Seattle M Regina
Winnipeg Halifax
Québec

Missouri Lake Superior Montréal 60˚
O T TAWA
untains

OCEAN
Mount Rainier 4,392 m Thunder Bay
Portland
YELLOWSTONE
Coast Ranges Lake Huron Lake Ontario
This national park is best Mississippi Boston
known for its collection of Columbia Saint Paul Lake Michigan Toronto Albany
thermal features, more than Colo alachian Mountains Hartford 40˚
500 of which are geysers, U N I T E D S T A T E SBoise Detroit Lake Erie
and the active super-volcano ATLANTIC New York
the Yellowstone Caldera. It is 40˚ Chicago Cleveland
also home to grizzly bears, Great Salt Plains Philadelphia
bison, and elk. Reno Des Moines
Lake rado Baltimore
LIKE CLOCKWORK Indianapolis
Old Faithful ejects hot water and Oakland Sacramento Salt Lake A Lincoln Columbus WASHINGTON DC
steam every 35 to 120 minutes City
for 1.5 to 5 minutes at a time. It is San Francisco Denver 70˚
the park’s biggest regular geyser. San Jose Kansas City Ohio Richmond
ME Saint Louis
GRAND O FDeath Valley -86 m Las Vegas Raleigh
CANYON RICA Nashville

Carved by the Colorado Los Angeles G Arkansas Oklahoma Memphis App Atlanta Columbia
River, the immense and reat City
dramatic Grand Canyon is San Diego Phoenix Albuquerque Little Rock Montgomery
446 km (277 miles) long, up Tijuana Mexicali Jackson
to 29 km (18 miles) wide, El Paso
and 1.6 km (1 mile) deep. 30˚ Lower Dallas 30˚

120˚ Si Ciudad Juárez Baton Rouge Jacksonville

Hermosillo er Austin New Orleans

ra Mad ChihuahuaSie Houston Tampa Turks & Caicos British Virgin
Gulf Mississippi Islands (to UK) Islands 20˚
Cal Rio San Antonio 60˚
Delta (to UK)
Grande NASSAU Virgin Islands (to US)
re Miami Anguilla (to UK)
rra Madre
of G u l f o f W e s t I n d i e sMonterrey
if
tal
C Occiden aJUATMtHPBOAEeIRACTBGAr-uAAaUnH(tKta-oPnAIUaNRAMmSIG)oNASBHnCTaSDyEAOOItNRTMEIiDPINUOSl(ItABMoCNALlNAIIrTNeNuCPtOeGhbu(.aeO)tSrosSTtAoUNMKRSIJo)TiUcnToAtLSAsNe&enrrsSNatTstEieL(VltrUoIlSCUeIAKsAN) TGIDGuTGOaMURdRMAIaePENTSrl&IoNOTtNHIiBuDAnBRVIEpACDiAAITqeGRNADR-AuOBR(CBte&AoEEFU1(DNNF-0tTDSo˚rOATOaPAFDnSABr&caIIeAnNN)GcEeO)S
o

alifo Oriental HAVANA C
rni

GOLDEN GATE rn
a
One of the top construction M E X I C O M e x i c oGuadalajara
achievements of the 20th ia
century, the Golden Gate
Bridge opened in San 20˚ León Mérida Gre
Francisco in 1937. It is 110˚ Querétaro Yucatan
2.7 km (1.7 miles) long and Cayman Islands
took four years to build.
Volcán Pico Peninsula (to UK)
de Orìzaba 5,700 m

Puebla
C a r i b b e a nMEXICO CITY
Acapulco BELIZE Bonaire
BELMOPAN
100˚ (to Neth.)
G UAT E M A L A HONDURAS Sea Curaçao
60˚
GUATEMALA CITY TEGUCIGALPA (to Neth.)

SAN SALVADOR NICARAGUA SOUTH

SUPER EL SALVADOR Lake Nicaragua AMERICA
MANAGUA
SUSPENSION SAN JOSÉ PANAMA CITY 70˚
The Golden 90˚ 10˚
Gate Bridge is
a suspension COSTA RICA PANAMA

bridge with 80˚

cables between

towers to carry

its weight.

CHICHEN ITZA COSTA RICA RAINFOREST FLORIDA EVERGLADES

The native American Maya people built In the Costa Rica rainforest in central America, tall trees The Everglades are a vast area of semi-tropical
temples and monumental cities, such as covered with orchids, vines, ferns and moss rise into the sky. wetland, home to mangrove, mahogany, bay,
Chichen Itza, in the jungles of the Yucatán The rainforest teems with life and is home to many exotic and eucalyptus trees. The swampy conditions
Peninsula in Mexico from c.200 CE. animal and plant species. are perfect for alligators and crocodiles.

EL CASTILLO TREE FROG
This pyramid The red-eyed tree frog is one of
temple stands 133 species of frogs and toads
in the centre that are found in Costa Rica.
of Chichen Itza.
IN THE PINK WILDLIFE WATCHING
STTKHHILEELYSSMOCWALOYAEUARR’LESEDSACEOLSVITAPERSDNOEVSNPARONEMCDIEICCDATL Flamingos turn pink from Alligators, turtles, and
the colour pigments in the egrets are just some of the
algae and shrimp they eat. wildlife that can be seen.

NATURAL WONDER ORCHIDS BUTTERFLIES AMERICAN
Erosion has exposed many The Costa Rica rainforest supports a huge The country has an assortment of CROCODILE
colourful rock layers, creating collection of orchids. There are more species butterflies including this beautifully
an inspirational landscape. here than anywhere else on Earth. coloured Metalmark butterfly.

South America FAST FACTS

Most of the continent of South America lies south of Most of the population of South
America live around the coast.
The wild inland areas are
sparsely populated.

the equator. Its different climates and habitats mean AREA:
it is home to many unique animal species.
17,819,000 sq km (6,879,000 sq miles)

POPULATION:

389,860,000

NUMBER OF COUNTRIES:

GALAPAGOS ISLANDS ANGEL FALLS 12 independent countries
3 dependent territories

The 19 islands of the Galápagos were Angel Falls is the world’s highest LARGEST COUNTRY:
formed by volcanoes on the ocean uninterrupted waterfall at 979 m
floor. They are now strictly controlled (3,212 ft). The falls lie on the Gauja Brazil 8,511,965 sq km
(3,286,469 sq miles)

to protect the many animal and bird GIANT TORTOISE LAND IGUANA River, in the Canaima National Park LARGEST COUNTRY BY
species that live on them. These huge reptiles can weigh as The Galápagos land iguana in Venezuela. The indigenous name POPULATION:
much as 300 kg (660 lb) and grow may look ferocious, but it is for the falls is Kerepakupai Vená,
FRIGATEBIRD up to 1.2 m (4 ft) in length. actually a herbivore. which means “waterfalls of the Brazil 195,632,000
Male frigatebirds deepest place”.
have impressive LARGEST CITY BY
red throat BEAUTY SPOT POPULATION:
pouches, which Angel Falls is one
they inflate to of Venezuela’s top São Paulo, Brazil 11,821,873
attract females. tourist attractions.
HIGHEST POINT:
C a70˚ r i b b e a n S e a60˚ AT
Cerro Aconcagua, Andes Mountains,
80˚ Barranquilla VGenuelfzuoef la Valencia CARACAS L10˚ Argentina 6,959 m (22,833 ft)
Cartagena A
Maracaibo Maracay Cumaná LONGEST RIVER:

10˚ Gulf of Lake Barquisimeto Venezuelan N Amazon 6,439 km (4,001 miles)
Darien Maracaibo territorial T
NORTH Ciudad Guayana LARGEST LAKE:
AMERICA Gulf of Montería claim
n o sSan Cristóbal Orinoco Lake Titicaca, Bolivia/Peru
Cúcuta 8,340 sq km (3,220 sq miles)

I CGUYANA 50˚ O
V E N E Z U E L APanama Cauca GEORGETOWN C
Magdalena E
Medellín A
Bucaramanga l a PARAMARIBO N

Pereira L Guiana SURINAM CAYENNE

BOGOTÁ Boa Vista French
Guiana
Surinamese
territorial (to France)
Cali Río Negro H i g claims
h
COLOMBIA l a n ds

Esmeraldas Pasto Branco Macapá

Galápagos 0˚ Equator QUITO Caqueta Represa Amazon Belém Equator 0˚ 40˚
Islands Balbina Santarém
E C UA D O R A m a z o nGuayaquil Cotopaxi 5,897 m Represa São Luís
(to Ecuador) B a s i nMachala Manaus Sobradinho
Putumayo Amazon Tocantins
Chimborazo ruá Purus
6,310 m Amazon pajós
Iquitos Ma
deira Fortaleza
Ta

PACIFIC Marañón Ju Xingu Teresina

Piura bo

Ucayali Serra do Cachim Natal

A RA Planalto da
Borborema
Trujillo P E R U Porto Velho Araguaia
Tocantins Recife
Nevado Huascarán n Rio Branco B Palmas
6,768 m Maceió
ZI Juazeiro 10˚
10˚ Represa de Aracaju

dCallao LIMA L Sobradinho

O Cusco Planalto de sco Salvador

n

Paraguaye Franc
omayo
Arequipa Lake ia
AltiplanoTiticaca ds

A Arica
E
C
O
BOLIVIA Cuiabá Mato Grosso BRASÍLIA iBgrhalzainl
s LA PAZ do Caiapó
LAKE TITICACA São
Cochabamba
Situated between Peru and Bolivia, Goiânia
Lake Titicaca is the world’s highest Lago Santa Cruz
navigable lake, lying at a height of N P H
3,812 m (12,507 ft) above sea level. Poopó
80˚ Serra
SUCRE

Iquique AE t a c a m a D e s e r t Pilc P A R A G U A Y Campo Grande Belo Horizonte

20˚ Tropic of Capricorn es Ribeirão Preto Vitória 20˚

Antofagasta an Chaco araná Campinas Nova Iguaçu
Londrina Osasco
Rio de Janeiro
Salta ASUNCIÓN Serra do Ma r São Paulo
Tropic of Capricorn
Santos
40˚
Gr Ciudad del Este Curitiba

KEY

PACIFIC OCEAN Cerro Ojos del Salado Resistencia ELEVATION
6,880 m
A Posadas 4,000 m
2,000 m
Paraná Florianópolis 1,000 m
500 m
La Rioja amia Santa Maria 250 m
Mendoza 100 m
t Porto Alegre Below sea
level
Coquimbo L o 30˚

30˚ d p

Cerro Aconcagua IN o
6,959 m
Córdoba s Sea level
SANTIAGO
e 250 m
Concepción 2,000 m
FLOATING HOMES ParanáM Tacuarembó CEAN 4,000 m
The Uros people live on the lake on
floating islands made out of reeds. Rosario Uruguay URUGUAY Mountain
Lowest point
SALT PLAINS
HI SaladoN T BUENOS AIRES Río MONTEVIDEO POPULATION
The Salar de Uyuni is the world’s largest salt La Plata
pan, an area of ground that is crusty and An Pampas de la Plata Capital city
covered in salt and minerals. It is located O Over 1 million
in the Altiplano plateau in Bolivia. 500,000 to 1 million
50˚ 100,000 to 500,000
below 100,000
IC
Colorado Bahía Blanca Mar del Plata
Río Negro AMAZON RAINFOREST
E 40˚ T
More than 55 million years old, the
Valdivia N
Amazon rainforest accounts for

40˚ A approximately 50 per cent of the
T world’s total rainforest. It contains
Puerto Montt L
C A
P a t Aa g oRChicon iG a one in ten of every known plant and

Rawson animal species in the world.
Lago
Colhué Huapí

BATTERY POWER Gulf of ARGENTINE BEEF
As well as providing salt, the Salar de Uyuni is also the DesSeaadno Jorge
source of more than 50 per cent of the world’s lithium, Rearing cattle for beef production is
which is used to power batteries and other devices. Golfo de Laguna del Carbón a major industry in Argentina. The
Penas -105 m country has the second-highest
THE ANDES MOUNTAINS consumption of beef, and is the third-
50˚ largest exporter of beef in the world.
Running through seven countries in South
America for 7,250 km (4,505 miles), the Andes Punta Arenas Bahía Falkland 50˚ PRIZE WINNERS LONGEST RIVER
form the longest continental mountain range in Grande Islands Producing the best The Amazon River carries more water than
the world. They contain the world’s Río Gallegos STANLEY cattle is a competitive any other river and can be seen from space.
highest volcanoes. (to UK) business in Argentina.
of Magellan TOP PREDATOR
Strait Jaguars are some of
the most fearsome
Ushuaia 60˚ predators in the
Amazon. Their spots
WOOLLY WONDERS DRY LAND Beagle Channel GAUCHOS help to camouflage
70˚ Cape Horn them against the
There are many herds of alpacas in The Atacama Desert lies in In Argentina, jungle around them.
the Andes. They are bred for their a plateau west of the Andes HAUPMAPMTARHENOERXSIFICEMIAXRASIDSTTTAEEITLNVYEGIS9D0IBEN0AN0CSCbOKEcUTeOTOFH cattle herders,
wool, which is made into blankets, and is the driest non-polar or gauchos, live ENORMOUS SNAKE
sweaters, and other clothes. desert in the world. on the Pampas Anacondas keep
grasslands and
look after the growing their
herds of cattle. whole lives.
They can reach
lengths of up
to 6.5 m (21 ft).

Europe

The continent of Europe is rich in cultural diversity, with a 50˚
history of wealth, industry, and empire building. There are
23 official languages spoken across the 47 European countries.

FAST FACTS Den 20˚ 30˚ 40˚
20˚
Europe is the second smallest ark Strait
continent. It contains the m

world’s smallest country, REYKJAVÍK C E L A N DArctic Circle 70˚ Y
Vatican City, with a population 10˚ A
of only 800. I

AREA: 10˚ Murmansk

10,498,000 sq km 20˚ W N D Kola
(4,053,309 sq miles) Peninsula
Norwegian
POPULATION: White
Faroe Islands Sea N Sea
742,452,000
(to Denmark) 0˚
NUMBER OF COUNTRIES:
O R E
47 C
E a
LARGEST COUNTRY BY A
AREA: N A

60˚ thni

Trondheim L

Russian Federation 3,960,000 sq o FE
km (1,528,560 sq miles)
N E of B
O D Lake
N Onega

LARGEST COUNTRY BY Shetland Islands I Lake
POPULATION: Orkney Islands Bergen
f
Russian Federation 110,000,000
Outer Gul
Hebrides
F

LARGEST CITY BY SCOTLAND Stavanger OSLO Turku HELSINKI Ladoga
POPULATION: Aberdeen STOCKHOLM TALLINN St Petersburg
W Örebro
Istanbul, Turkey (14,377,000)

HIGHEST POINT: NORTHERN Glasgow Vänern ESTONIA
IRELAND
Mount El’brus, Russian Federation AT L A NTIC Edinburgh Gothenburg Vättern Gotland
5,642 m (18,510 ft)
Belfast North
S
LONGEST RIVER: I R E L A N D Isle Sea L AT V I A
of Man ea
Volga, Russian Federation DUBLIN U N I T E D DENMARK RIGA Wester n
3,690 km (2,293 miles) (to UK) S
K I N G D O MManchester THUA IA
LARGEST LAKE: COPENHAGEN Malmö L I N Dvina
G E R M A N Y P O L A N D50˚ altic
Lake Ladoga, Russian Federation 10˚ Poznan Vitsyebsk
18,390 sq km (7,100 sq miles) WA L E S Birmingham RUSS. FED.
B
Cardiff ENGLAND Groningen Hamburg (Kaliningrad) VILNIUS
AMSTERDAM
NETH. HanoveErlbe Kaliningrad MINSK
BERLIN
HAGUE
LONDON Oder

UM BELARUS

Seine Homyel’
Channel English THE Düsseldorf Vistula WARSAW
Islands ChannBeRl USSELBSELGI
Brest
(to UK)

le Havre Dresden

LUXEMBOURG Frankfurt Wroclaw

PARIS KIEV
MDAuDerVoRaIllDadolBBiZdaairsaySEgcBbtoia-loNzbBAyaafoaNozradDiPeraOeuyRxrTReoAnuloeueLsALseCoANMirDeVeLnaEMOMimLstRoLasorRnArigatOAsfeBelsrillLalénlayecno4sn,L81UNS0BWiXScmEteErIRaTMlsNMbZBoOEpuONRrTgUALsuCMARrOGiNGBinPlZeoDainuslnMoaorgiaacnuShmLatnLPFuIiolEJtMcoUtChrgVeBHaaneirLncTSntCeiJAAEcDAeNRNaUNnSOuATbBSSeAVELRITTIORNEAIVTENRCAEIPNPZNSIUR&IALEZAAAABACBGVHGLHHAOUIRECESERU.BZN.
Krakow
U K R A10˚
Rhône Carpathian L’viv
F R A N C EA Coruña
A
Porto Rhine

40˚

R O M A N I A10˚

LISBON
SLOVAKIA Chernivtsi Dniester
MOLDO
BUDAPEST VA

G A R Y Cluj-Napoca Mountains
CHISINAU Odesa

KEY PORTUGAL

ELEVATION ro Brasov

4,000 m Adriatic S BELGRADE Constanta
2,000 m BUCHAREST
1,000 m I
500 m S P A I N TBarcelona MARINO SARAJEVO S E R B I A Danube Ruse
250 m ea Mostar
100 m Corsica KOSOVO BUL G A R IA B
Below sea ASeville MONTENEGRO
level VATICAN PODGORICA (disputed) SOFIA Burgas 30˚
CITY
Sea level Valencia Majorca PRISHTINË
L YGibraltar
250 m Ibiza Minorca ROME SKOPJE Istanbul
2,000 m M e d i t e r r G R E E C E(to UK) Palma Sardinia Ty r r h MACEDONIA
4,000 m Málaga Murcia Bale nds Naples Bari
c Isla Cagliari
Ceuta a r i enian TIRANA Tu r k ey
Palermo
Mountain (to Spain) ALBANIA Salonica 40˚
Lowest point
Melilla Larisa Aegean
POPULATION Sea Sea
(to Spain)
Capital city
Over 1 million a n e Sicily
500,000 to 1 million 0˚ 10˚ Messina
100,000 to 500,000
below 100,000 Mount Etna 3,263 m ATHENS

Ionian
a n Sea
MALTA VALLETTA
S e a188 20˚

Irákleio

Crete

˚ 60˚ Kara 70˚ NORWAY’S FJORDS THE ALPS
Sea
Novaya Norway’s fjords (steep-sided The highest mountain range
Zemlya waterways) were created by the entirely within Europe is
movement of ice and rock during 1,200 km (750 miles) long.
Barents successive ice ages. When the The Alps formed millions
Sea glaciers retreated, seawater of years ago when two
flooded these U-shaped valleys. tectonic plates collided.
RUS Norway has the highest Mont Blanc, on the French–
concentration of fjords in Italian border, is the Alps’
the world. highest mountain at
4,810 m (15,781 ft).
Vorkuta DRAMATIC VIEW
Norway’s fjords offer views of ALPINE FUN
The Alps are a popular winter
snow-capped mountains, destination for skiing, with lots
ancient glaciers, and remote
of ski slopes and resorts.
fishing villages.
Ural Arctic Circle
RIVER DANUBE
SIA N
The River Danube is the second
longest river in Europe. It starts
in the Black Forest mountains
of Germany and flows 2,850 km
(1,770 miles) to the Black Sea,
passing through ten countries
on the way.

Archangel Mountains 60˚ RIVERSIDE CITIES GREAT WHITE
ern Dvina PELICAN
North The Danube flows through More than 50 per
D E R AT I O N four capital cities: Vienna, cent of Eurasian
Bratislava, Budapest (shown great white
pelicans live in
here), and Belgrade. the Danube delta.

Perm’ EIFFEL TOWER, FRANCE ROME, ITALY

Kirov The Eiffel Tower was built as part of Once the centre of the vast Roman Empire, Rome is one
the 1889 World Fair, to celebrate 100 of Europe’s most historical cities. With classical ruins,
Vologda Ufa years since the French Revolution. An Renaissance buildings, and Baroque sculptures, the
engineering achievement, it has become city is a showcase for many amazing engineering and
Yaroslavl’ a cultural icon of Paris and France. artistic achievements.
It is 324 m (1,063 ft) high.
Kazan’

Nizhniy Novgorod

MOSCOW Ul’yanovsk Tol’yatti Orenburg 50
Samara 6

Central

Tula

Voronezh Russian

Saratov

Upland

RECORD-HOLDER

Kharkiv Volgograd The tower was the

INE Volga world’s tallest

man-made

Dnipropetrovs’k Astrakhan’ S structure for 41
Caspian
Rostov-na-Donu 50˚ years until the DRAMATIC SETTING
Chrysler Building The Colosseum was built as an arena for all kinds of
Donets’k -28 m
in New York City Roman entertainment: combats between gladiators,

r was built in 1930. re-enactments of battles, and even executions.

niepe
Sea of Stavropol’ THE
D Azov THE ACROPOLIS, GREECE MEDITERRANEAN

Simferopol’ CNovorossiysk a u Groznyy u s ea The ancient ruins of the Acropolis sit above the This sea separates Europe
city of Athens and are visited by millions of people from Africa. It has been
cas a focal point for empires
and civilizations, which
(annexed by Russia, 2014) El’brus 5,642 m each year. The Acropolis is said to symbolize is reflected in the diverse
cultures of the people
the greatest achievements of the Ancient Greeks. living in this coastal region.

lack Sea

40˚

AGFPRETRUEEIERNRKOCTPMEHESYESWTBEHAEUOASRULNOOTAPGIAMFYUIENLD TEMPLE TO ATHENA BEACH LIFE

The Parthenon – one of the Acropolis’s most famous With hot, dry summers and
buildings – was a temple built to honour Athena, the calm, blue sparkling sea, the
goddess of wisdom and knowledge. It once contained Mediterranean region is a hugely
a huge statue of her.
popular tourist destination.

189

Africa FAST FACTS

The world’s second largest continent, Africa is rich in history, Africa makes up around
language, culture, and geographic diversity. With a stunning 20 per cent of Earth’s land mass.
collection of animals, reptiles, birds, and insects, it is also where It contains the world’s longest
human beings first appeared on Earth. river – the Nile.

AREA:

30,335,000 sq km (11,712,434 sq miles)

POPULATION:

1,136,239,000

NUMBER OF COUNTRIES:

54

PYRAMIDS SAHARA DESERT LARGEST COUNTRY:
AT GIZA
The Sahara covers much of North Algeria 2,381,741 sq km
During the 4th Dynasty Africa and is the world’s largest (919,595 sq miles)
(2613–2494 BCE), Giza became hot desert. Constantly shaped by
a royal burial ground for the the wind, around 25 per cent of LARGEST COUNTRY BY
Ancient Egyptians. Three the desert is sand dunes. The POPULATION:
pyramid complexes serve as rest is made up of a barren, rocky
tombs for their dead kings. landscape with very little water. The Nigeria 177,155,754
The Sphinx was added to highest peak is Emi Koussi (3,145 m/
guard the pyramids, and each 11,294 ft) in the Tibesti Mountains. LARGEST CITY BY
king’s royal family and courts POPULATION:
were buried nearby. SAHARA TRANSPORT
Camels’ feet allow them to move quickly Lagos, Nigeria 21,000,000
BUILDING BLOCKS and easily through sand. Camels can last
The construction methods of the Pyramids are HIGHEST POINT:
unknown. More than 2 million blocks of stone were up to 17 days without food or water.
used just to make the largest, the Great Pyramid. Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania
5,895 m (19,336 ft)

LONGEST RIVER:

Nile River 6,695 km (4,160 miles)

EUROPE LARGEST LAKE:

10˚ 0˚ 10˚ Lake Victoria, Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania
68,880 sq km (26,560 sq miles)

Medit e
r
Tanger ALGIERS Annaba 20˚
Oran TUNIS Kairouanr a n
THE SPHINX ea 30˚ KEY
Batna
The Sphinx is Sea
modelled on a

TUNISIAmythical animal

with the head of

M O R O C C Oa human and the

body of a lion.
20˚ Madeira RABAT Fès Oujda a i n s Chott 40˚ ELEVATION
(to Portugal) 30˚
Casablanca sM ount el Jerid Gabès n 4,000 m
30˚ ASIA 2,000 m
TRIPOLI 1,000 m
Canary Islands Tropic of Cancer 500 m
(to Spain) Marrakech l a iental Misrátah Gulf of Benghazi Alexandria Port Said 250 m
Sirte 100 m
Jbel Toubkal t Below sea
4,167 m A Grand Erg Or Qattara CAIRO level

Depression Giza Suez Canal
Great WDee ss te er rt
Sand n Eas Sea level
Sea
Western Sahara A L G E R I A L I B Y A E G Y P TTropic of Cancer (Occupied by Morocco)LAÂYOUNE te 250 m
2,000 m
Libyan Des rn Deser 4,000 m
Nile
Luxor Mountain
t Red Sea Lowest point
Erg Chech
Aswan

S a h20˚ A h a g g a r e r t Lake Nasser POPULATION

a Tibesti r a Nubian (Hala’ib 20˚ Capital city
MAURITANIA Desert Triangle) Over 1 million
R D 500,000 to 1 million
CAPE Taou d enn i CHA Nile Port Sudan 100,000 to 500,000
VERDE Basin below 100,000
Lake Chad
MNOUAKCHOTT A L I NI GE S U D A N ERITREA 50˚

Senegal Zinder

SENEGAL Niger T O G O Omdurman Kassala ASMARA
KHARTOUM Ras Dashen
PRAIA DAKAR Kaolack fur Gulf of Aden

GAMBIA BANJUL BAMAKO Niger NIAMEY Niger El Obeid Blue Nile 4,550 m
WNhiitlee
BURKINA Dar Lake Assal DJIBOUTI
GUINEA- BISSAU OUAGADOUGOU Sokoto
Kano NDJAMENA Lake Tana -155 m DJIBOUTI
BISSAU GUINEA FASO
10˚ BENIN Kaduna Maiduguri 10˚
Bobo-Dioulasso
Ethiopian
SIFERCREOERNTAAOMKWLORENYNORONKVLEoIIAidBu1E0Y˚RAMIC(AOIÔVUTOSSEROYDUAKC’bIRViOdOOjAanISRGTE)HAVLoNalAtkaeCACRLAOMOPÉyOoRLTNaOgOo-NsMgIbOAoVGLmOAoBsOEhAoBURDAJdAHoauiICmgahlaAalAwaYMnaAdOEsURGNOaDroOuÉa Hargeysa
Sarh dMe saBs soinf g ADDIS ABABA OMALIA
o Dire Dawa
ENTRA L AFRICAN Sudd Hi g h l a n d s Horn of Africa
REP UBLIC

BANGUI Ubangi
E T H I O P I A S20˚ C
N SOUTH SUDAN Shebe
li
Elemi Triangle
Lake Turkana
JUBA (Lake Rudolf)

A SAO TOME & EQUATORIAL CONGO Congo Lake Albert UGANDA MOGADISHU
T PRINCIPE GUINEA
MAASAI MARA SÃO TOMÉ C o n g o Kisangani Va l l e y KAMPALA K E N Y A Equator
0˚ Equator LIBREVILLE
Between July and October, wildebeest migrate Kirinyaga 0˚
to the Maasai Mara nature reserve in Kenya 0˚ ANTIC Port-Gentil G A B O N Mbandaka B a s i n Lake Va l l e y 5,200 m Kismaayo
from Tanzania’s Serengeti. They are hunted L VICTORIA
by lions, cheetahs, leopards, and hyenas. The D E M . R E P. RWANDA Victoria NAIROBI
plains are also full of zebras, impalas, giraffes, KIGALI
hippos, and gazelles. Many tourists visit to view Bukavu
the wildlife. CONGO
BRAZZAVILLE Lualaba Rift BUJUMBURA Kilimanjaro 5,895 m
KINSHASA Ilebo Kalemie Mombasa
ANGOLA BURUNDI Rift
(Cabinda) DODOMA Zanzibar
Lake
LUANDA
Tanganyika

Mbuji-Mayi Great TA N Z A N I A Dar es Salaam

Great SEYCHELLES

OCEAN 10˚ A N G O L A MALAWILubumbashi COMOROS OCEAN 10˚

Bié Z Lake Nyasa IQU E MORONI

Zambez
WILDEBEEST Plateau Kitwe Mayotte
A type of antelope,
Lubango ZAMBIA Nacala (to France) R
wildebeest keep LILONGWE
together in huge herds. Namibe LUSAKA Blantyre nel A
Mahajanga
They eat constantly. ambezi a n C
Bi
HIPPOPOTAMUS HARARE Ch S
Hippos spend most of the
ZEBRA day in the water, so they M10˚ Mozambique A Toamasina
No two zebras don’t get too hot in the Sun.
have the same N A M I B I A Okavango ZIMBABWE M O ZA Beira G ANTANANARIVO PORT
Delta LOUIS
pattern of
stripes. 20˚ Bulawayo A
Namib Desert
OKAVANGO DELTA Walvis WINDHOEK BKOa lTa hSaWr iANMAahalapyeLimpopo D Fianarantsoa 20˚ MAURITIUS
Tropic of Capricorn Bay
Starting in the mountains of Desert A Réunion
Angola, the Okavango River flows (to France)
into the Kalahari desert, forming
a great inland wetland that is Tropic of Capricorn
home to a variety of wildlife. M
Seasonal flooding swells the GABORONE PRETORIA N
size of the delta, attracting
animals from far away to this Luderitz Johannesburg MAPUTO
oasis. It is a perfect wildlife-
viewing destination: herds of 30˚ Ora n g e River Kimberley MBABANE SWAZILAND A
antelopes, zebras, buffaloes,
elephants, crocodiles, BLOEMFONTEIN Welkom I
hippopotamuses, lions, and MASERU
cheetahs all thrive here.
LESOTHO Pietermaritzburg D 50˚
LIFE SUPPORT N 30˚
Situated in region of Botswana that is SOUTH Drakensberg I
AFRICA
dry for much of the year, this large East London
inland delta attracts lots of wildlife. CAPE TOWN 40˚
Port Elizabeth
Cape of

Good Hope

CATTLE HERDERS
20˚ 30˚ Living in Kenya, the Samburu people are
traditionally cattle herders, and may also
6M5%DIFNIROAEOFRMMTAOHLANERFDWIRCSIHCOCA,ROALMDBEO’SUT keep sheep, goats, and camels. Cattle are
highly prized, and ownership determines
status and wealth.

NOMADIC HERDERS
The Samburu often graze their herds far from

settlements in order to find water and vegetation.

CAPE TOWN VICTORIA FALLS MOUNT KILIMANJARO

One of the most popular African cities for tourists to Forming the border between The highest peak in Africa, and the tallest free-standing mountain
visit, Cape Town is famous for its huge harbour. The Zambia and Zimbabwe, the in the world, Mount Kilimanjaro rises to 5,895 m (19,336 ft). It is a
big, flat-topped Table Mountain overlooks the city. Zambezi River is transformed dormant volcano with three volcanic cones. Around 25,000 visitors
into a ferocious torrent as it trek up its slopes each year.
thunders over a wide, basalt
cliff, forming Victoria Falls.
Columns of spray can be
seen from miles away as
the river plummets over the
edge into a gorge over 108 m
(360 ft) below.

ACTIVE HARBOUR GIANT FALLS AFRICA’S PEAK
Cape Town harbour is one of the busiest ports
in South Africa. The combination of its great The snow-capped
height and enormous width make summit of Mount
Victoria Falls the world’s largest Kilimanjaro is
surrounded by dry,
sheet of falling water. flat scrubland.

Oceania PACIFIC ISLANDS

Oceania is the collective name for There are more than 20,000 islands
Australia, New Zealand, and the island in the Pacific Ocean. These palm-
covered paradises are either
volcanic or part of natural reefs.
While they may look similar, they
are quite diverse in human culture.

groups in the Pacific Ocean, including

Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. ISLAND PARADISE
Australia dominates the region in size, The Fijian archipelago (group of

islands) is made up of more
than 330 beautiful islands.

population, and economic strength. 140˚ 150˚ 160˚

Wake
Island

20˚ (to US)
Mariana Islands
ABORIGINAL CULTURE Northern

Aboriginal people have been living in Australia for more Mariana
than 50,000 years. They have a tribal culture of storytelling
and art, and a strong spiritual belief tying them to the land. Islands
Many still live in the Australian outback, where rocks feature
their paintings. Philippine (to US)

Saipan

M i c r130˚ S e a Guam Bikini Atoll

(to US)

HAGÅTÑA o

n

10˚ Yap C a r o l i n Chuuk Pohnpei PALIKIR e
e Is
MELEKEOK l ands
Babeldaob Kosrae
MICRONESIA

PAL AU

M e l a ne NAURU

0˚ Equator PAPUA NEW GUINEA s

Bismarck New Ireland i

Ne w G u i n e aWewak Sea New Rabaul Solo mon Isl
Britain
ROCK ART ULURU Bougainville HONIARA
Some of the oldest Aboriginal paintings are Particularly sacred to the Anangu Aboriginal Mount Wilhelm 4509m Island
more than 20,000 years old. people, this massive red monolith dominates Mount
the surrounding landscape. Hagen Lae Solomon New a n
Sea Georgia
Islands d s Santa Cruz
Islands
Guadalcanal
PORT MORESBY
SOLOMON
SYDNEY OPERA HOUSE A r a f u r a S e a Torres Strait ISLANDS

The Sydney Opera House is a performing arts centre 10˚ Cape C o r a l
designed by Danish architect Jorn Utzon in 1957. It Arnhem York R
opened in 1973, and today is visited by more than T i m o r Darwin Land Great Barrier Sea
seven million people every year. S e a Joseph Gulf of Peninsula
Katherine Coral Sea Islands
LIVING SCULPTURE Bonaparte Carpentaria Cairns
The unusual roofs, designed to (to Australia)
resemble sails, are covered with Gulf
one million white and cream tiles. New Caledonia
INDIAN120˚ Normanton e
OCEAN (to France)
Wyndham TownsvilleG ef
Darlin NOUMÉA
onKimberleyMount Isare
Barcaldine PA
Plateau a t Mackay

Derby Tennant Creek D Rockhampton
i
Broome Tanami

Desert viding Range

Great Sandy
A U S T R A L I A110˚
Desert Alice Springs Simpson Charleville Miles Brisbane
Desert
Port Hedland Toowoomba

Grafton

20˚ Hamersley Range Gibson Lake Eyre -16m Barw Lord Howe
Desert North g Bourke Island
SURFING Tropic of Capricorn
Great Victoria Lake Torrens Newcastle (to Australia)
Australia is a first-class surfing destination, famous for both the Carnavon
quality and the variety of its waves. The coastline has plenty of Lake Gairdner Port Augusta Wollongong Sydney
beach, reef, and point breaks to challenge the experienced surfer,
and easy rolling swells for beginners. Desert

Mount Magnet Nullarbor Plain Ceduna Whyalla Murray Wagga Wagga CANBERRA
Geraldton DarlinKalgoorlie Mount Kosciuszko 2228m
Great Adelaide Bendigo
Australian Tas man
Kangaroo Melbourne

g Range Bight Island Geelong ait Sea
Mount Gambier ass St Launceston
Perth r
Esperance
30˚ Albany B

Tasmania

Hobart

110˚ 130˚ 140˚ 150˚

SURF CULTURE 160
With its world-renowned
beaches, surfing and beach 40˚ 120˚
culture is a popular part
of Australian life.

192

WILDLIFE TASMANIAN DEVIL KOALA FAST FACTS
Australia Australia
The islands of Oceania A widespread area, there
are a long way from other EMU are 28 languages spoken
landmasses, so they contain Australia across Oceania.
a diverse range of animals
and birds, many of which AREA:
are not found anywhere
else in the world. Some birds, 8,525,989 sq km (3,291,903 sq
like the emu and kiwi, evolved miles)
into flightless specivvves due
to the lack of predators. POPULATION:

170˚ PLATYPUS 38,304,000
20˚ Australia
NUMBER OF COUNTRIES:
180˚ SATAJTOYOESPYTOIEN(BUNAICTMBHSYOFMNKOOTARTHNUHSGPEARR’SOO) KANGAROO
Australia 14
160˚
KIWI 10˚ LARGEST COUNTRY BY
New Zealand AREA:
OCEAN
MARSHALL 170˚ Australia 7,617,930 sq km
(2,941,283 sq miles)
Ralik I S L A N D S
LARGEST COUNTRY BY
P A C I F I CChain Ratak Chain POPULATION:

MAJURO Kingman Reef Palmyra Atoll Australia 23,788,274
(to US) (to US)
LARGEST CITY BY
ngaru Teraina POPULATION:
Tabuarean
a Sydney, Australia 4,576,433
i K I R I B AT I 150˚
s Equator 0˚ HIGHEST POINT:
BAIRIKI Baker & Howland Kiritimati ine
Tu Islands Jarvis Island L Mount Wilhelm, Papua New
Guinea 4,509 m (14,795 ft)
YAREN (to US) (to US)
LONGEST RIVER:

Murray-Darling, Australia
2,520 km (1,570 miles)

LARGEST LAKE:

Lake Eyre, Australia 8,884 sq km
(3,430 sq miles)

K I R I B AT I KEY

Phoenix Islands Islands ELEVATION

a Malden Island 140˚ 4,000 m
T U VA L U Starbuck Island 2,000 m
1,000 m
FONGAFALE Tokelau 500 m
(to NZ) 250 m
Northern Cook Islands Penrhyn 100 m
Southern Al Below sea
Wallis and Manihiki Millennium Island Sea level level
e Futuna Flint Island
s (to France) SAMOA American Cook 10˚ 250 m
ia APIA Samoa Islands 2,000 m
Banks (to US) 4,000 m
Islands (to NZ)
PAGO PAGO
Vanua Mountain
T u Lowest point
VANUATU Levu Labasa la a m o t
Society Is u
TONGA PAPEETE Islands POPULATION
Lautoka SUVA
PORT-VILA Lau Group Niue Southern Cook nds Capital city
Erromango Viti (to NZ) AVARUA Over 1 million
Levu NUKU'ALOFA 500,000 to 1 million
100,000 to 500,000
Îles FIJI Islands Tahiti below 100,000
Loyauté
French

Rarotonga P o l y n e s i a 20˚

Îles A u (to France)
es
s t r a Tropic

CIFIC OCEAN l of Capricorn ROTORUA

n Rotorua on New Zealand’s North
Island is a natural theme park full
Norfolk Island Kermadec Islands y of steam clouds, bubbling mud
(to Australia) (to NZ) pools, and soothing hot springs
to bathe in. It is an area of great
PNorth o l geothermal activity, where Earth’s
inner heat rises to the surface.
Island 160˚ 150˚
Bay of 30˚
Auckland Plenty GREAT BARRIER 140˚
REEF
Hamilton Rotorua 170˚
The world’s largest coral reef
New Plymouth Strait Hastings 40˚ is made up of around 3,000
Cook Palmerston North individual reefs and hundreds
of islands. It supports lots of
WELLINGTON marine life, including more
than 1,500 species of fish.
South ps
HUGE REEF
Island Aoraki Christchurch Chatham Islands The Great Barrier Reef is so
big it can be seen from space.
(Mount Cook) 3754m (to NZ)

InvercargillN E WFovSetaeuwxarSttrait
Dunedin

ZEALANDIsland

0˚ 170˚ 180˚ CHAMPAGNE POOL
Tiny bubbles of carbon dioxide rising
Auckland Islands from the Earth make this hot spring
(to NZ) look like a warm glass of champagne.

193

Antarctica

The continent of Antarctica sits under huge masses of ice called ice sheets.

This ice holds 90 per cent of Earth’s fresh water. Beneath it lies a continent

of valleys, mountains, and lakes but only about 2 per cent is visible above

the ice. The only people in Antarctica are scientists and staff working

in research stations, and tourists. Orcadas 60° 10°
(Argentina)
EARLY EXPEDITIONS South Orkney S O U T H E R N20°
Islands Georg von Neumayer
By the late 19th century, Antarctica remained the last unexplored continent, and (Germany)
the race was on to reach the most remote spot on Earth – the South Pole. In 1909 Signy (UK)
Ernest Shackleton got within 180 km (111 miles) of the Pole before having to turn 30°
back. It was finally reached by explorers Roald Amundsen and Robert Scott 50°
in 1911 and 1912.
Passage i a S e a Limit of summer pack ice
Bransfield StrSaitc o t
65°

General Bernardo O’Higgins (Chile) 40°

60°

Drake Capitán Gr Esperanza (Argentina)
Arturo Prat Marambio (Argentina)

(Chile) James Ross Island

ANTARCTICA South ah Halley
Shetland (UK)
SOUTH POLE a

KEY 60° Islands mL Coats

Amundsen’s route A
Scott’s route WPalmer (US)
Ice shelves e d d e l l S e aVernadsky
RACE TO THE POLE an Larsen Land
The Norwegian Roald Amundsen Ice Shelf
beat the Englishman Robert Falcon n
Scott by 33 days, to reach the South
Pole on 15 December 1911. d

t

Limit of winter pack ice (Ukraine) a rct Belgrano II MTohuenrtoanins
(Argentina)
ic Pe
Adelaide n i n Limit of ice shelf Filchner
San Martín Ice Shelf
SHACKLETON’S 70° Island s ula Berkner Recovery Glacier
HOOD Island
Rothera (Argentina) P a l m e r Land
(UK)

Fossil Bluff (UK)
Ronne IceAlexander
65° Island Shelf Orville Coast
Antarctic Circle English Coast SupporGt la
Charcot Island Sky-Blu (UK) Henry Ice Pensacola cierForce
Rise
Latady Island Korff Ice
80° Smyley Island Rise T rMountains

Bellingshausen

A75° Na nT
KEY Sea Vinson Massif untai n s 85° s a
4,897m
COMPASS, SCOTT’S ELEVATION 70° Mo 80°
EXPEDITION 90° Ellsworth
Limit of summer pack ice Walgree n Co a s t
BANJO, Ellsworth
SHACKLETON’S Eights Coast
Sea level 4,000 m Thurston Land
EXPEDITION 2,000 m Island
250 m 1,000 m Mount Seelig W h i t m o r e
ICY FEATURES 2,000 m 500 m 100° 3,022m M o u n t a i n s
4,000 m 250 m
Antarctica is covered in ice. It has huge masses of glacial ice that 100 m We s t
are known as ice sheets. Where the ice sheets meet the ocean Below sea A n t a r c t i c aMoHunortlaiicnks
floating areas of ice form, which are called ice shelves. The edges level
of these shelves can break away, forming smaller lumps of
floating ice called icebergs. Mountain Amundsen Marie Byrd Land C oSa si p let
Lowest point
Sea Mount Sidley
Research station 4,181m
Carney Island
110° Hobbs Co Shirase Coast

Lim Rockefeller

70° Plateau Roosevelt
120° ast Island
Saunders Coast
S Mount Siple
O 3,100m
U T H E R N R o s sit
of 130° Sulzberger
Bay
summer
pack
ice 140°
150°
OC

170°

COLLAPSE ICEBERGS 160°
Impressive crevasses from the Immense flat-topped icebergs are formed 170°
glacier of the melting Larsen B ice when blocks of ice break away from the
shelf, which collapsed in 2002. main ice shelf.

194

COALDNAEDNSTHT,AIODGRNRHCIETEESSIACTTRA,CTWOIHSNINTTDHINIEEESNTT, GETTING AROUND WILDLIFE

Working and living in Antarctica is a The Antarctic continent is quite inhospitable to
tough experience, as it is one of the life. The sea, rather than the land, supports the
most extreme environments on the most wildlife. The Antarctic is the true home for
planet. Most residents stay on the Emperor and Adélie penguins, and three
Antarctica for the summer only, other types breed on the northern tip of the
from November to March or April. Antarctic Peninsula.

SOU DRIVING CONDITIONS EMPEROR
Vehicles built to withstand extreme PENGUIN

65° 30° TH temperatures over long distances are ADELIE
20° Antarctic Circle used in Antarctica. PENGUIN

0° 10° E GENTOO
PENGUIN
OCEAN R40°
FUR SEAL
Sanae 70° Maitri (India)
(South
Africa) Prinsesse Novolazarevskaya (Russian Federation) Limit of summer pack ice CEAN
O
Astrid Kyst Prins Harald N Mawson Coast
Prinsesse Ragnhild
Fimbulheimen 50°
Asuka (Japan)
D r o nning M a u d Kyst Syowa Molodezhnaya
(Japan) (Russian

Land Th o g i cafjella K y st Kr o nKpFyresidtnersation)
Dronning Ola v
75° r s B e l
h
a v Fabiolafjella
n
h e 2,588m Enderby Mount Elkins
i ane Land 60°
Dismal 2,300m

Mountains

80° Kemp Mawson
Land (Australia)

85° Mac. Robertson 70°
80°
Land LaPmrbienrEtcM3PGe,l3olriaC5uzic5nniahemtrcbaMereseltIsenhnszigAeMrsmidoeuCrnyhrtIiacsteiennSsshenelZCfhMongashBcDakanave(yinCs (zhAiinueast)ralia)
oast
Land
West Ice
Shelf

ARCT I C A East

85° 80° 75° 70° 65°

South Amundsen-Scott (US) Antarctica Wilhelm II 90°
Land
n t Pole Mirny Davis
(Russian
ar Federation) Sea ORCA

c t Vostok x Coast
(Russian Federation) Shackleton Ice Shelf
Queen M i c South Geomagnetic Pole

M o uaudDMuofuekn85tCa°BioneGaassltradcmiK4eMo,ri5rroe2kup8nmattrick 100°

n Kno
Vincennes Bay
Ross Ice tai n s Wilkes
Shelf Land Casey
Vi (Australia)
FAST FACTS
ShacCkoleatsotn 110°
No one country owns Antarctica. The
80° rina Coast international Antarctic Treaty provides
agreement for the care and use of
c the continent.

Mount Lister t AREA:
4,026m
o Sab 14,000,000 sq km (5,405,430 sq miles)
Scott Base (NZ) McMurdo Base (US)
ria L Te r r e Coastkes B anzar 120° POPULATION:
Ross Island Adélie e Coast
Mount Erebus Scott Coast Porpoise No permanent residents
Limit of summer pack ice
3,794m Bay HIGHEST POINT:

Sea Vinson Massif, 4,897 m (16,066 ft)

75° LONGEST RIVER:
a
B o rCcohagsrte v i n k Onyx 40 km (25 miles)
n George V Wil
LARGEST KNOWN LAKE:
d
Lake Vostok, 15,690 sq km (6,100 sq miles)
EAN Oates Land Land Adélie Coast i l l e Sea 130°
Cape Adare
70° Mount Minto George V Coast Dum Dumont d’Urville
4,163m (France)

Leningradskaya ont d'Urv
(Russian Federation)

Antarctic Circle 140°

Balleny Islands

150° 195
160°
170°

180°

Flags ANCIENT SYMBOLS

Every country in the world has a unique flag. Each nation picks its Flags have been displayed since
own patterns and colours, which are usually of historical or political ancient times as symbols of loyalty
significance. A flag is a powerful symbol. It fosters pride in a to a country or person. In battle, a
country or cause and unites people in times of war and peace. flag rallied the troops. Early flags
were made of wood or metal.
TYPES OF FLAGS SALTIRE QUARTERED SCANDINAVIAN CANTON CROSS Cloth was first used by
CROSS BICOLOUR BORDERED the Romans.
Variations on common flag
patterns such as stripes and TRICOLOUR TRIANGLE TRIBAR Decorative
crosses turn up again and again shape for
all over the world. Often, the only carrying
difference between one flag and
another is its colour. These are legion’s badge
some of the common patterns.
Symbol
of legion

Silver
ornaments

ROMAN FLAG
This is a modern copy of a flag
once carried by a Roman legion.

NORTH AMERICA

CANADA UNITED STATES MEXICO BELIZE COSTA RICA EL SALVADOR GUATEMALA HONDURAS NORTH EUROPE
OF AMERICA AMERICA AFRICA

NICARAGUA PANAMA ANTIGUA AND BAHAMAS BARBADOS CUBA DOMINICA DOMINICAN
BARBUDA REPUBLIC

THE STUDY SOUTH
OF FLAGS AMERICA
IS CALLED
GRENADA HAITI JAMAICA ST KITTS SAINT LUCIA ST VINCENT & TRINIDAD &
& NEVIS VEXILLOLOGY
THE GRENADINES TOBAGO

SOUTH AMERICA

COLOMBIA GUYANA SURINAME VENEZUELA BOLIVIA ECUADOR PERU BRAZIL ARGENTINA URUGUAY CHILE

AFRICA

PARAGUAY

ALGERIA LIBYA MOROCCO TUNISIA BURUNDI DJIBOUTI EGYPT ERITREA ETHIOPIA KENYA

RWANDA SOMALIA SOUTH SUDAN SUDAN TANZANIA UGANDA BENIN BURKINA CAPE VERDE IVORY GAMBIA
FASO COAST

GHANA GUINEA GUINEA-BISSAU LIBERIA MALI MAURITANIA NIGER NIGERIA SENEGAL SIERRA LEONE TOGO

CAMEROON CENTRAL AFRICAN CHAD CONGO DEMOCRATIC EQUATORIAL GABON SAO TOME & PRINCIPE ANGOLA BOTSWANA COMOROS
REPUBLIC
REPUBLIC OF CONGO GUINEA

LESOTHO MADAGASCAR MALAWI MAURITIUS MOZAMBIQUE NAMIBIA SEYCHELLES SOUTH AFRICA SWAZILAND ZAMBIA ZIMBABWE

196

THE JOLLY ROGER FLAG SIGNALS ATOMHNEETRRHEICEAAMRNEOFSOLINAXGS THE MOON

The pirate flag known as the “Jolly Roger” Before modern technology, ships at sea PLANTING In 1969 the first
was used widely in the 18th century. “talked” to one another by signalling with FLAGS men on the Moon,
With its ghoulish designs, it was meant to flags. They used semaphore, a code in astronauts Neil
terrorize a victim into handing over his ship which flags are held in different patterns For centuries, flags Armstrong and
without a fight. The flags belonging to four to represent letters and numbers. have been used by Buzz Aldrin, planted
famous pirates are shown here. explorers to claim the US flag at their
ownership of new landing site.
land. The national flags
SIGNAL “H” SIGNAL “E” SIGNAL “L” SIGNAL “P” planted at such places SOUTH POLE
as the South Pole, the
HENRY EVERY “BLACK SAM” summit of Mount Norwegian
BELLAMY Everest, and even explorer Roald
on the Moon all Amundsen
“CALICO JACK” BLACKBEARD ANSWERING ERROR END OF NUMBERS proclaimed “We led the first MOUNT EVEREST
RACKHAM SIGN SIGNAL SIGNAL WORD FOLLOW were here first”. expedition to
SIGNAL SIGNAL reach the South In 1953 Edmund Hillary and
Pole in 1911. He Tenzing Norgay, the first men
left his country’s to stand on top of Mt Everest,
planted the flags of the
flag on the top United Kingdom, United
of a tent. Nations, Nepal, and India.

EUROPE

ASIA ICELAND DENMARK FINLAND NORWAY SWEDEN BELGIUM LUXEMBOURG NETHERLANDS IRELAND

UNITED KINGDOM FRANCE MONACO ANDORRA PORTUGAL SPAIN AUSTRIA GERMANY LIECHTENSTEIN

OCEANIA

SLOVENIA SWITZERLAND ITALY MALTA SAN MARINO VATICAN CITY CZECH REPUBLIC HUNGARY POLAND

SLOVAKIA ALBANIA BOSNIA & CROATIA KOSOVO MACEDONIA MONTENEGRO SERBIA CYPRUS
HERZEGOVINA

BULGARIA GREECE BELARUS ESTONIA LATVIA LITHUANIA MOLDOVA ROMANIA UKRAINE RUSSIAN
FEDERATION
ASIA

OCEANIA

K A Z AKHSTAN ARMENIA AZERBAIJAN GEORGIA TURKEY ISRAEL JORDAN LEBANON

FIJI KIRIBATI MARSHALL

ISLANDS

SYRIA BAHRAIN IRAN IRAQ KUWAIT OMAN QATAR SAUDI
ARABIA

MICRONESIA NAURU PALAU

UNITED ARAB YEMEN AFGHANISTAN KYRGYZSTAN TAJIKISTAN TURKMENISTAN UZBEKISTAN CHINA
EMIRATES

PAPUA NEW SAMOA SOLOMON
GUINEA ISLANDS
MONGOLIA NORTH KOREA SOUTH KOREA TAIWAN JAPAN INDIA SRI LANKA MALDIVES

TONGA TUVALU VANUATU PAKISTAN BANGLADESH BHUTAN NEPAL CAMBODIA LAOS MYANMAR THAILAND

AUSTRALIA NEW ZEALAND VIETNAM BRUNEI EAST TIMOR INDONESIA MALAYSIA PHILIPPINES SINGAPORE

197

Where food CANADA

comes from Although Canada is the second
largest country in the world by
Long ago, people only ate what could be grown area, only 6.8 per cent is used
locally. Today, with modern transportation, people for agriculture.
in richer countries can find food from all around
the world – such as coffee from Brazil, rice from NORTH AMERICA
India, and olives from Italy – in supermarkets.
Tropical places export crops such as mangoes SPAIN
and bananas, while countries with huge farmlands
supply the world with cereals. Spain is so dry
that only 10 per
cent of the land
under cultivation
is of high quality.

COLOMBIA

BASIC FOOD CROPS CEREALS USA MEXICO

Crops like rapeseed and sugar cane are grown in vast Plants producing grains used as food Nearly $300
amounts because they can be used in many different are called cereals. Most grains are billion worth
ways, not just as foods, but also for products such as ground into flour or turned into flakes, of crops and
fuel. After they are harvested they are usually processed which are then used to make food such livestock are
and sent to manufacturers to make other foods or goods. as muesli and porridge, or bread, cakes, produced each
and biscuits. Many are ingredients of year in the USA.
what we call breakfast cereals. SOUTH AMERICA

BRAZIL

In Brazil, approximately
275,373,000 hectares

(680,500,000 acres) are
used for agriculture.

RICE WHEAT MAIZE (CORN)

SUGAR CANE SUGAR BEET SOYA BEANS MILLET OATS TRITICALE DAIRY

After sugar cane is The sugar syrup A great source of The most popular COW’S MILK MOZZARELLA
harvested, it is extracted from sugar protein and vitamins, milk produced (FROM WATER
beet is used in many around the world BUFFALO MILK)
processed to extract products, including soya beans can be is cow’s milk. It is
sucrose (ordinary used to make milk, used in drinks and
sugar). It can be drinks, feed for textured vegetable in cooking and also
eaten as it is but animals, and even protein, tofu, and to produce cheese,
butter, ghee, and
more often is used to fuels known flavourings such yogurt. Water buffalo
sweeten other foods. as biofuels. as soy sauce. milk, used in Italy
to make mozzarella
cheese, is the CHEESE
second most popular
milk globally.

SORGHUM BARLEY RYE

VEGETABLES POTATOES CASSAVA SWEET POTATOES CABBAGES AND
PEAS OTHER BRASSICAS
Although many people
RAPESEED PALM OIL SUNFLOWER SEEDS like to grow vegetables in
their garden, most of us
Fields of yellow rape Palm oil is semi- We can snack on buy them in greengrocer
produce rapeseed, solid at room raw sunflower seeds shops and supermarkets.
but most of the crop Potatoes are popular in
which is usually temperature. It is many parts of the world
turned into oil for used in everything is processed to because they can be used
cooking or used in from ice-cream to produce oil for in many ways. Vegetables
food products. It is pizza dough, as well cooking or to be like cassava and yams
also used in animal as in products like turned into spreads are part of a traditional
feed and biofuels. soap and cosmetics. like margarine. diet in Africa but are now
exported to countries with
multicultural populations.

LETTUCE BEANS SPINACH GARLIC

198