Functional OBET Book 8

Ü Marketing strategies help to identify products in demand.
Ü It also supports price determination process.
Ü It increases the efficiency of business.
Ü It develops trust between buyers and sellers.
Ü It helps circulate the money essential to keep the economy stable.

NOW YOUR TIME

Fill in the blanks with a suitable word in each of the following:
1. ____________ is a branch of business.
2. An act of making balance between demand and supply of prod-

ucts is called ____________.
3. Marketing strategies help to ____________ products in demand.
4. Marketing develops ____________ between buyers and sellers.
5. Marketing helps ____________ the money.

WORK FURTHER

Answer the following questions. Level of Cognition

1. What is market management? K nowledge

2. Explain the importance of market management. C omprehension
Connecting PROJECT

3. How would you use market management to help a A pplication
business in your locality to make a profit?

4. Compare and analyse the market management A nalysis
technique of any two business companies.

5. “The scope of market management depends on E valuation
the size and nature of the business.” Justify this
statement and critically analyse the current
situation.

6. How would you improve the market management S ynthesis
practises in Nepal?

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2Lesson Relationship between the
Market and Production

WHAT & WHY What ? Why ?

You’ll learn to The understanding of relationship between
the market and production is crucial for the
 define market and production. survival of any business because they are
 explain the relationship between the interconnected and one cannot exist without
the other.
market and production.

ThinTkihnrgough Experience

A market is a place where products are bought and sold. Also,
production of any products is done with a view to sell them in the
market and make a profit. However, the market in Nepal is full of
imported products than domestic products. What do you think are
the reasons for such a situation?

Do you think the products in the shop are made according to
the market? If so, make a list of products and suitability for the
market.

A market is a place that facilitates buying and selling of goods and
services together with information related to them. The production and
sale of goods is directly dependent on the situation of the market. That
is, if there is a high demand of certain goods, they can be sold in larger
quantities and at higher priceies. If the demand is low, the case will be
just reverse. However, one should have skills and knowledge to produce
such goods. The act of using skills and knowledge for producing goods
and services as a business venture is called entrepreneurship.

Since all goods produced reach the market directly or indirectly,
it is necessary for all the entrepreneurs to understand the market
situation. This brings a definite relationship between the market and
entrepreneurship. Some of them are listed below:

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Ü Entrepreneurs study market situations to decide upon the nature
of production.

Ü They buy the raw materials from and sell the products or services
to the market.

Ü Consumers benefit from the goods supplied by the entrepreneurs
through the market.

Ü The market sets a relation between producers and consumers.
Ü Producers and consumers collectively keep economic activities going.

NOW YOUR TIME

Make five “Fill in the blank” statements from the lesson above.

WORK FURTHER

Answer the following questions. Level of Cognition

1. What is a market? K nowledge

2. Explain the relationship between the market and C omprehension
production.

Connecting PROJECT

3. What examples can you find to show the A pplication
relationship between the market and production?

4. Determine the factors that affect the market and A nalysis
production.

5. “The market and production are complementary of E valuation
each other.” Justify this statement and critically
analyse the current situation.

6. What solutions would you suggest for any S ynthesis
business that produces goods without considering
the market?

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3Lesson Price Determination and
Income-Expenditure Management

WHAT & WHY What ? Why ?

You’ll learn to Price determination is important to sell the
products at a reasonable price. Similarly,
 define price. income and expenditure management is
 explain the factors to be considered in important to determine profit/loss earned
and make plans for future.
determining price.
 differentiate between income and

expenditure.

ThinTkihnrgough Experience

Economists argue that price is actually determined by market forces.
However, balancing supply and demand as well as the pricing of
products in Nepal are done randomly according to the will of the
businessmen.What do you think are the reasons behind this situation?

Make a list of price of everyday items. Will you buy them if the
price is doubled? What about others in your class?

The value of goods and services offered in a marketplace is called price.
It plays a very important role in any kind of trade and business. It is
fixed in a market under certain criteria. Price determination depends
on the cost of production, nature of goods, quality, quantity demanded,
competitors, buying capacity of consumers, etc. So, all these factors
should be taken into account to determine the price of a product. Some
of the factors involved in price determination are discussed below:

Demand Cost Competition Government
Demand intervention
Demand is the starting point
for all business activities. Income-
Demand and price of a expenditure
product are counter-related. management
This means when price is
Price Determination

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high, demand will be low and vice versa. So price should be fixed to
balance this effect.

Cost

Cost is the internal factor involved in price determination. It includes
the money required to buy raw materials, machinery and equipment,
pay wages and cost of investment. Price is determined after adding a
fair profit to these costs.

Competition

Before sending a product to the market, it must be analysed whether
other suppliers exist or not. If there are other suppliers of similar
products, price should be adjusted in such a way that it is neither too
high not being able to compete with them nor too low not being able to
balance production cost.

Government Intervention

Sometimes the government fixes the maximum price of a product on
which the producer has no control. Similarly, it changes the rate of
taxation from time to time. These factors also influence the price
determination process.

Income-expenditure Management

Amount of money or properties that come into a business is called income
and that going out from the business is called expenditure. Comparison
of income and expenditure leads to the calculation of profit and loss.
If income generated by selling goods and services is more than the
expenditure, there will be profit. If expenditure is more than income, there
will be loss in the business. So, income and expenditure management
is an important tool to evaluate the progress of any business.

To ascertain the profit or loss in a business, two types of accounts are
prepared. They are trading account and profit and loss account. These
accounts are collectively called final account. The trading account shows
the income from sales and direct costs of making those sales. It includes
the balance of stocks at the start and end of the year. It is used to
calculate gross profit and gross loss. Trading account helps to take

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decision for continuing or discontinuing a particular product. Moreover,
it can do some modification in any product to earn maximum profit or
reduce the loss.

A sample of the trading account of a business looks like this:

Debit Credit

Particulars Amount Particulars Amount

If the credit side is greater than the debit side, the difference will give
Gross Profit and if the debit side is greater than the credit side, the
difference will give Gross Loss.

Profit and loss account is the second part of the final account. It helps to
calculate the net profit or net loss.

A sample of profit and loss account is given below:

Debit Credit

Particulars Amount Particulars Amount

In profit and loss account, if the credit side is greater than debit side,
the difference will give net profit and if the debit side is greater than the
credit side, the difference will give net loss.

NOW YOUR TIME
Make a “Match the following” questions from the lesson above.

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WORK FURTHER

Answer the following questions. Level of Cognition

1. What is pricing? K nowledge

2. Explain the factors involved in price determination. C omprehension

Connecting PROJECT

3. Determine the price of any product for a local A pplication
businessman in a village.

4. Compare trading and profit and loss account of A nalysis
any two companies and write conclusions you can
draw.

5. “Intelligent pricing of a product is one of the most E valuation
important elements of any successful business”.
Justify this statement and critically analyse the
current situation.

6. Construct trading and profit & loss account for a S ynthesis
hypothetical business.

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4Lesson World Trade Organization

WHAT & WHY What ? Why ?

You’ll learn to Nepal’s entry in the World Trade
Organization (WTO) in 2004 was a
 define WTO. milestone to integrate our economy in the
 explain the functions of WTO. global market so it is necessary to have the
basic knowledge about WTO.

ThinTkihnrgough Experience

Although the membership of the WTO has entitled LDC’s1 like

Nepal with hosts of benefits, so far we have not been able to take

advantage from the opportunities made available. What do you

think are the reasons behind this situation?

You must have visited local shops. Make a list of products that
are made in Nepal and that are not.

The World Trade Organization (WTO) is the only global international
organization dealing with the rules of trade between nations. It was
established on 1st January 1995 as a replacement to the similar
organization called the GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and
Trade). There is a set of rules called WTO Agreements, negotiated
and signed by the bulk of the world’s trading nations and approved by
their parliaments. The goal of WTO is to help producers of goods and
services, exporters, and importers conduct their business.

As 147th member country, Nepal joined the WTO on 11th Baisakh 2061
B.S. (23rd April 2004). To benefit from this global trading practise,
Nepal has a lot of challenges. Nepal needs to produce adequate
products and goods to sell in the global market. It has to utilize its
resources to produce a competitive strength.

1 LDC: Least Developed Countries 107

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The WTO provides a forum for discussion and negotiation to
reduce obstacles to international trade and to ensure balanced trade
opportunities for all. In this way it contributes to the economic growth
and development. The WTO also provides a legal and institutional
framework for the implementation and monitoring of these agreements,
as well as for settling disputes arising from their interpretation and
application. The main functions of the WTO are:

Ü It facilitates trade negotiations by setting procedures for settling
disputes.

Ü It supports developing countries to increase their trading
opportunities.

Ü It helps to eliminate trade barriers existing between countries.
Ü It protects consumer rights while opening new markets.
Ü It provides special privileges to the poor countries for the

development of the trade and expansion of the market.

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NOW YOUR TIME Connecting
INTERNET

Visit www.wto.org. Go to “About WTO” search and watch
videos and information there. Make a summary of what you learnt
from there.

WORK FURTHER

Answer the following questions. Level of Cognition

1. What is the WTO? K nowledge

2. Explain the functions of the WTO. C omprehension
Connecting PROJECT

3. What examples can you find to support Nepal’s A pplication
membership of the WTO?

4. Outline the structure of the WTO. A nalysis

5. “ The WTO imposes threats along with benefits E valuation
for Nepal.” Justify this statement and critically
analyse the current situation.

6. Design a plan that can be implemented to take S ynthesis
advantage of opportunities provided by the WTO.

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GLANCING
THIS UNIT

A. Theoretical Revision 20

1. Fill in the blanks. 3

a. A branch of business which deals with the creation of situation where the supply

of the business is made according to the demand in the market is called ________.

b. A market is a place that facilitates buying and ____________ of goods and

services together with information related to them.

c. If credit side is greater than the debit side in trading account, the difference

will give ____________ profit.

2. Write ‘T’ for true and ‘F’ for false for the following: 2

a. World Trade Organization helps producers of goods and services, exporters

and importers conduct their business.

b. Marketing strategies help in shopping.

c. Entrepreneurs make products and the public then learn to use them.

d. Prices should be fixed by the will of businessmen.

3. Answer the following questions (any three): 5 x 3 = 15

a. What is a market? Explain the relationship between the market and production.

b. Mention any five factors that determine price?

c. “WTO’s membership alone does not guarantee improved trade.” Justify the

statement in your own words.

d. What solutions would you suggest for our business that produces goods

without considering the market?

B. Practical Revision 20

1. Do the following activities: 5 x 3 = 15

a. Talk to any three businessmen about their business and their products. Make a

report on “Determining Price of a Product” on the basis of your observations.

b. Submit the projects given in the lessons of this unit to your teacher and get them

signed by him/her. Keep a record of your submissions. Connecting
INTERNET
c. How will you put a price on a product? Decide on the basis of

information you have studied in this unit. Make a sample plan

as to how you will determine price:

• Introduction of product • Volumes manufactured Looking throughout www.symphonypub.com for cumulative revision.

• Costs of production • Demand of product

• Profit margin • Estimated sales

2. Viva-voce 5 Visit

a. Write any two reasons for Nepal not being able to take in facil-

ities of WTO as LDC.

b. What is LDC?

c. What is the relation between price and demand?

d. What do you think will happen if a business produces product

without studying the market?

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UNIT
8 VEGETABLE FARMING
Terrace Vegetable Farming
1Lesson

What ? Why ?

You’ll learn to By farming vegetables on terrace, you can
reduce time and money which otherwise is
 define terrace vegetable farming. spent on buying vegetables.
 explain the methods of vegetable
WHAT & WHY
farming on rooftops.
 grow vegetables on terrace.
 differentiate between the situation of

vegetable farming in rural areas and

that in urban areas.

ThinTkihnrgough Experience

Growing vegetables on rooftops or balconies can fulfil the need of
vegetables for a family but people in urban areas rather than
growing by themselves are ready to buy vegetables that affect human
health due to the use of insecticides. What do you think are the
reasons behind this situation?

Make a list of vegetables that can be grown in your locality and
fill up the table given below:

S.N. Planned decision Place where it Reason of growing
is grown vegetables

Vegetables are the edible plants or their parts. They are important
parts of our daily food as they provide vitamins, proteins, minerals, etc.
essential for our body. They also give taste to our food. Compared to
other food crops, growing vegetables require more intensive care. Also
they are more vulnerable to insects and diseases.

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It is somewhat easier to grow vegetables in rural areas as there is
enough land available. However in cities, due to unavailability of the
land, vegetable farming becomes very difficult, though not impossible.
This problem can be addressed by vegetable farming on terrace.
Terrace vegetable farming may not be done for commercial purpose but
is sufficient for fulfilling daily requirements of a family.

Process of Terrace Vegetable Farming
For growing vegetables on terraces, we need to follow some standard
set of methods. Some of them are listed below:
Ü We should select a roof strong enough to hold the weight of

containers, mud and vegetables.
Ü We should place wooden or earthen containers on the roof. Use of

plastic is debatable but approved size plastics and plastic bags can
be used.
Ü The space selected should receive sunlight for at least 2 to 3 hours
a day.
Ü A system to drain water should be managed.

Connectinng INTERNET

Visit www.symphony.com to learn more about terrace
farming.

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Ü A mixture of compost manure and mud having a thickness of 1 foot
should be put over the container or plastic-base.

Ü Seeds should be sown on this mixture.
Ü Saplings should be transferred to other spaces or containers.
Ü A transparent roof of plastic or glass should be made in winter.
Ü Vegetables should be harvested on time.

NOW YOUR TIME

Fill in the blanks with a suitable word in each of the following:

1. It is relatively easier to grow vegetables on ____________ areas
than ____________ areas.

2. The roof should be strong enough to hold the ______________ of
containers, soil and vegetables.

3. A mixture of compost manure and mud should have a thickness
of ____________ foot.

Advantages of Terrace Vegetable Farming

Terrace vegetable farming not only saves time and money required for
buying vegetables but also protects our health. Some advantages of this
farming are:

Ü It eliminates the need of additional farmland and helps create
cleaner environment.

Ü Vegetables can be produced year-round as the environment can be
adjusted artificially.

Ü Vegetables can be protected from weather - related problems.
Ü Controlled growing environment reduces the need of insecticides

and pesticides.
Ü It reduces the heat absorption by the building.
Ü It fulfils the need of vegetables in growing urban areas.

Precautions

Ü Vegetable seeds should be protected from birds.
Ü Effect of wind should be reduced.
Ü Plants should be watered regularly and the building should hold

the weight of the total structure.
Ü Vegetables should receive direct sunlight for more than 3 hours a day.

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WORK FURTHER

Answer the following questions: Level of Cognition

1. What is terrace vegetable farming? K nowledge

2. Explain the methods of growing vegetables at the C omprehension
terrace.

Connecting PROJECT

3. Make a suitable place for growing vegetables on A pplication
your rooftop and grow 5 tomato plants.

4. Determine the factors that affect terrace vegetable A nalysis
farming.

5. “Terrace vegetable farming is one of the best ways E valuation
to fulfil the need of vegetables in urban areas.”
Justify this statement and critically analyse the
current situation.

6. Design a plan that can be implemented for effective S ynthesis
terrace vegetable farming in your community.

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2Lesson Intercrop Vegetable Farming

WHAT & WHY What ? Why ?

You’ll learn to By intercrop farming, you can earn more
money as well as prevent diseases and pests.
 define intercrop farming.
 explain the methods of intercrop farming.
 grow vegetables through intercrop farming.

ThinTkihnrgough Experience

Intercrop farming can significantly reduce the amount of pesticides
required in farming. As such, it can save money as well as environment.
But farmers in Nepal continue to use more pesticides and do sole
farming. What do you think are the major reasons for this?

You must have seen corn/maize fields in your locality. What
other plants are grown next to them. Write.

The process of growing two or more
crops together is called intercropping.
Most plants compete with one
another for light, space, nutrition
etc. but there are many plants which
grow better when planted together.
The most required condition for
intercropping is that each plant must
have adequate space to maximize
cooperation and minimize competition
between the crops.

To fulfil the above mentioned condition, following things should be considered:

1. spatial arrangement,
2. plant density,
3. maturity dates of the crops, and
4. plant architecture.

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Spatial Arrangement

It is the process of managing spaces for the growth of all plants and
vegetables. At least four basic spatial arrangements are used in
intercropping. Most practical systems are variations of these.

Ü Row intercropping : growing two or more crops at the same time
with at least one crop planted in rows.

Ü Strip intercropping : growing two or more crops together in
strips wide enough to permit separate crop production using
machines but close enough for the crops to interact.

Ü Mixed intercropping : growing two or more crops together in no
distinct row arrangement.

Ü Relay intercropping : planting a second crop into a standing crop
at a time when the standing crop is at its reproductive stage but
before harvesting.

Plant Density

It is the number of plants grown
per unit area of land. To optimize
plant density, the seeding rate of
each crop in the mixture is adjusted
below its full rate. If full rates of
each crop were planted, neither would yield well because of intense
overcrowding. By reducing the seeding rates, the crops have a chance
to yield well within the mixture. The challenge comes in knowing how
much to reduce the seeding rates. For example, if corn and cowpeas are
to be grown together, the corn-seeding rate should be reduced by 80%
while keeping the pea rate should be almost normal. The field should
produce near top yields of cowpeas even from the lower planting rate
and offer the advantage of corn plants for the cowpea vines to run on. If
equal yields are desired from both cowpeas and corn, then the seeding
rates would be adjusted to produce those equal yields.

Maturity Dates

Planting intercrops that feature staggered maturity dates or development
periods takes advantage of variations in peak resource demand for

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nutrients, water, and sunlight. Having one crop mature before its
companion crop lessens the competition between the two crops. An
aggressive climbing bean may pull down corn or sorghum1 growing with
it and lower the grain yield. Timing the planting of the aggressive bean
may solve the problem if the corn can be harvested before the bean begins
to climb. Selecting crops or varieties with different maturity dates can
also assist staggered harvesting and separation of grain commodities.

Plant Architecture

Plant architecture is a strategy
used to allow one member of the
mix to capture sunlight that would
not otherwise be available to the
others. Widely spaced corn plants
growing above an understory of
beans and pumpkins would be a
classic example.

Intercropping is sometimes called interplanting, and a special form
of interplanting is called companion planting. Interplanting involves
growing two different vegetables in an area at the same time. This
method of planting is another way to save space. Some gardeners
believe that certain plants perform better when grown together. This
type of interplanting is called companion planting.

Interplanting flowers and herbs among vegetables can add beauty to
a backyard vegetable garden that often looks too plain. Furthermore,
the planting of flowers and herbs in the vegetable garden may attract
beneficial insects that will help control pests.

To successfully interplant, consider plants with similar nutrient
and moisture requirements. A simple example is to plant radish and
carrot seeds at the same time. Radishes germinate and grow earlier.
They mark the rows of the carrots that take much longer to germinate
and mature. Radishes are harvested as the carrots are just getting
established. Leaf lettuce is a good crop to interplant among larger
vegetables since it tolerates shade and has few pest problems.

1 Sorghum: a cereal grass having broad cornlike leaves and a tall stem bearing the grain
called as “Junelo” in Nepali

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Advantages of intercrop vegetable farming

1. Intercropping gives higher income per unit area than sole cropping1.
2. It acts as an insurance against failure of crop in an abnormal year.
3. Intercrops maintain soil fertility as the nutrient uptake is made

from both layers.
4. It reduces soil run-off.
5. It helps to prevent insects and diseases.
6. It provides green fodder to domestic animals for a longer period of time.

NOW YOUR TIME

Make five “Fill in the blank” questions from the text above.

WORK FURTHER

Answer the following questions: Level of Cognition

1. What is intercrop farming? K nowledge
2. What does spatial arrangement refer to in intercrop

farming?

3. Explain the process of growing vegetables through C omprehension
intercrop farming.

Connecting PROJECT

4. Plant an area in the school farm following the A pplication
intercrop farming method.

5. Point out the factors that need to be taken into A nalysis
consideration for intercrop farming.

6. Summarise the methods of intercrop farming in E valuation
brief.

7. Produce two types of vegetables through intercrop S ynthesis
farming.

1 Sole cropping: method of planting only one type of crop in one season in a farm

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3Lesson Mushroom Farming

WHAT & WHY What ? Why ?

You’ll learn to By mushroom farming, you can farm
mushroom in farm to earn money by
 state steps involved in mushroom farming. utilizing areas of the field that do not
 define spawning. receive good sunlight and are useless for
 grow mushrooms in the farm. other types of plants.
 formulate ideas to market the mushroom

produced in the farm.

ThinTkihnrgough Experience

Growing mushroom is easy compared to growing other vegetables.
Mushrooms grow faster and produce more crops per unit area than
other vegetables. Mushrooms can also be grown in poorly lit and
ventilated rooms. So, this kind of farming can also be done in urban
areas. How can we promote mushroom farming in urban areas?

Have you seen mushrooms growing in your locality? What kind
of places does mushrooms grow in?

Mushrooms are spore-bearing fungi.
Mushroom farming can be done in
a very small space and with little
investment which can be highly
beneficial commercially. Mushroom
have a great nutritive value.
Mushrooms are rich in protein,
vitamins and minerals but do not
contain fat and cholesterol. Therefore, they serve as an ideal food for
people suffering from heart problems, high blood pressure, diabetes, etc.

Process of Mushroom Farming

There are mainly six steps to be followed while growing mushrooms.
They are discussed below:

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Step 1: Making mushroom compost

Compost provides nutrients needed for mushrooms to grow. Two types
of materials are generally used for mushroom compost, the most used
and least expensive being wheat straw-bedded horse manure. Synthetic
compost is usually made from hay and wheat straw when horse manure
is not available. Both types of compost usually require the addition of
nitrogen supplements and a conditioning agent, gypsum1.

Composting is initiated by mixing and wetting the ingredients as they
are stacked in a rectangular pile with tight sides and a loose centre.
Normally, the bulk ingredients are put through a compost turner.
Water is sprayed onto the horse manure or synthetic compost as these
materials move through the turner. Nitrogen supplements and gypsum
are spread over the top of the bulk ingredients and are thoroughly mixed
by the turner. Once the pile is wetted and formed, aerobic fermentation
(composting) commences as a result of the growth and reproduction of
micro-organisms, which occur naturally in
the bulk ingredients. Heat, ammonia, and
carbon dioxide are released as by-products
during this process.

Step 2: Finishing the compost

There are two major purposes to Phase II
composting. Pasteurization2 is necessary to
kill any insects, nematodes3, pest fungi, or
other pests that may be present in the compost.
And second, it is necessary to remove the
ammonia which formed during Phase I
composting. This is done by cleaning the
place of cultivation using formalin with 2%
concentration and making a compost bed
with bamboo or wood in the form of a rack.

1 Gypsum: a very common mineral, hydrated calcium sulfate, CaSO 4 -2H 2 O

2 Pasteurization: the process of heating foods to destroy harmful microorganisms by the appli-

cation of controlled heat or cooling

3 Nematode: any un-segmented worm of phylum Nematoda, having an elongated cylin-

drical body

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Step 3: Spawning

Mushrooms grow from a small, thin, thread-like structure called
mycelium1. These mycelia are grown over a mixture of grains of wheat
or millet, water and chalk. When these grains are colonized by mycelia,
they are called spawns. These spawns are thoroughly mixed with the
compost and left at a temperature around 22°C to 25°C with appropriate
humidity to avoid drying.

Step 4: Casing

Casing is a top-dressing applied to the spawn-run compost on which
the mushrooms eventually form. Clay-loam field soil, with ground
limestone can be used as casing. Casing does not need nutrients since
casing acts as a water reservoir and a place where mushrooms start
to form. Casing should be pasteurized to eliminate any insects and
pathogens2 it may be carrying. Also, it is important that the casing
should be distributed
in such a way that the
depth is uniform over the
surface of the compost.
Such uniformity allows
the spawn to move into
and through the casing
at the same rate and,
ultimately, for mushrooms
to develop at the same
time. Casing should be
able to hold moisture
since it is essential for
the development of a
firm mushroom.

Step 5: Pinning

Mushroom initials develop after rhizomorphs (Structures formed
by growth of mycelium) have formed in the casing. The initials are

1 mycelium: the mass of hyphae that form the vegetative part of a fungus.
2 pathogens: any disease-producing agent, especially a virus, bacterium, or other microorganism.

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extremely small but can be seen as outgrowths on a rhizomorph. Once
an initial quadruples in size, the structure is a pin. Pins continue to
expand and grow larger through the button stage, and ultimately a
button enlarges to a mushroom. Harvestable mushrooms appear after
18 to 21 days of casing. Pins develop when the carbon dioxide content of
room air is lowered to 0.08 percent or lower, depending on the cultivar,
by introducing fresh air into the growing room. Outside air has a carbon
dioxide content of about 0.04 percent.

Step 6: Cropping

Cropping is a cyclic process of harvesting mushrooms. Mushrooms are
harvested at an interval of 3 to 5 days continuously for 5 to 6 weeks.
Temperature should be kept low while cropping. 15° to 20°C is desir-
able. With cropping a 15-week long mushroom cultivation is over and
the steps are repeated for another cycle.

NOW YOUR TIME

Fill in the blanks with a suitable word in each of the following:
1. Mushrooms are _____________ bearing fungi.
2. Mushrooms grow from a small, thin, thread-like structure called

____________.
3. Structures formed by the growth of mycelium are called ________.
4. Pins develop when CO2 content is less than _________.
5. Cyclic process of harvesting mushroom is called ___________.

WORK FURTHER Level of Cognition
K nowledge
Answer the following questions:
1. What is spawning? C omprehension
2. How can you do casing?
3. What are the requirements for pinning?

4. Explain the process of cropping.

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Connecting PROJECT A pplication
A nalysis
5. Make a suitable place for growing mushrooms at
your farm. E valuation
S ynthesis
6. Determine the factors that affect profits from
mushroom farming.

7. “Mushroom farming is one of the best ways to
reduce food problems in the country.” Justify this
statement.

8. Produce 10kg of mushroom at your home and
prepare to sell it in a store.

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4Lesson Vegetable Storage
according to Weather

WHAT & WHY What ? Why ?

You’ll learn to By storing vegetables properly, you can
preserve vegetables and sell them,
 list methods of storing vegetables. minimizing wastage of vegetables, any time
 explain the methods of storage. throughout the year.
 preserve vegetables.
 differentiate between drying and cold

storage.

ThinTkihnrgough Experience

Many Himalayan districts like Dolpa and Manang suffer from food
and vegetable shortages while in some parts of the Terai we can
produce excess of vegetables, which are wasted due to rotting.
Similarly, production of vegetables in other regions is wasted due
to overproduction during the season. What do you think is the most
effective way of supplying food to the areas of chronic food scarcity?

You must have experienced different techniques of preventing
spoillage of vegetables at your home. Make a list of few techniques.

Since most of the vegetables are seasonal, they are produced in large
quantities in one season and cannot be consumed or sold at a time. So,
vegetables should be stored for the future purpose so that they can be
used or sold when demand is high. This can be done at a higher price,
too.

Process of Vegetable Storage

Some important techniques of storing vegetables are given below:

Vegetables can be preserved in a variety of ways specific to the type
of fruits or vegetables one is trying to store. The main vegetable
storage methods include: freezing, dehydration, canning, cold storage,
and chemical treatment.

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Freezing

Freezing is probably the most common food storage technique utilized
today. Most produce requires blanching (heating vegetables in boiling
water or with steam, then submerging them in ice water for cooling)
before they are frozen. Blanching helps preserve colour and nutrients
in frozen veggies but blanching time is specific to each type. A general
rule is that when the produce colour intensifies, it is ready to be
removed from the boiling water or steam. Peppers, tomatoes, onions
and most fruits do not require blanching.

Some fruits will darken when frozen.
This can be prevented by dipping
fruits into ascerbic acid syrup (or
lemon juice) before freezing.

Frozen produce will generally last at
least for 12 months and some times
much longer. We should always
use airtight containers to prevent
moisture loss and freezer burn. While
freezing produce, like all other food storage methods, we should always
save the best produce for storing, as it will keep longer and not go bad
as quickly.

There are two drawbacks of freezing. First, it is energy-intensive.
Second, when the power is cut off, for example during load shedding or
storm, food will spoil if it gets warm. During a power outage, refrigerator
and freezer should be kept at its coldest by not opening the door unless
absolutely necessary.

Dehydration 125

Drying food has some great
advantages. Dried foods take up
less space than frozen, canned or
stored produce. They are ideal for
snacks, or to take on camping or
hiking trips.

Also, if drying in the sun, this

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method uses the least amount of energy. Similar to other preservation
methods, dehydrating fruits and vegetables slows down the chemical
and micro-biotic decomposition processes. Perhaps the oldest food
preservation technique, dehydration can be accomplished using electric
or solar powered food dehydrators, ovens and most simply by laying food
out to dry in the sun. Using electric dehydrators is the fastest method of
drying vegetables and fruits, that takes about six hours.

Apricots, peaches, grapes, plums, apples, cherries, bananas, mangoes,
peppers, tomatoes, shell peas and beans are among the most popular
fruits and vegetables to dry. Most vegetables need to be blanched
before they are dried. Dehydrated food will store from 6 to 32 months
depending on the type.

Canning

Tomatoes, tomato sauces, salsas,
peppers, peaches and pears are
the most commonly canned foods.
Among all food preservation
techniques, canning requires the
use of more pieces of equipment and
has a typical process. There are two
main methods for canning: water
bath canning for high acidity foods (ph of 4.6 or lower) and pressure
canning for low acidity foods. Boiling the jars both seals pressure and
kills bacteria. Both methods of canning require large pots (or a pressure
canner for the latter), canning jars, rings and lids, and jar lifter tongs.

For low acidity foods, a temperature of 240° F (well above boiling) is
required to kill any dangerous micro-organisms.

Canned foods should be stored at 50°-70° F in a dry and dark place.

Cold Storage

Much of the produce from our garden will keep for quite a long time
if harvested at the right time and stored correctly. In most cases, we
should not wash the fruits and vegetables before we store them. We
should store only mature, damage-free vegetables.

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Green vegetables decay faster in a warm environment than in a cold
one. Rate of decaying depends on the rate of respiration, which increases
with temperature. At low temperature, bacteria and fungi, which
play a major role in decaying, remain inactive and vegetables can be
preserved for longer time.

Following the temperature and
humidity requirement is crucial.
Keeping things cool is essential.
We should select a cool spot in our
basement or other unheated space
which does not freeze. A root cellar
is ideal and not difficult to construct.

Treatment with Chemicals

Treating vegetables with some chemicals helps to kill micro-organisms,
maintain the level of ethylene gas and reduce the effect of high
temperature. Some such chemicals are:

Ü Fungicides like sulphur dioxide, streptomycin,
Ü Antitranspirants like wax,
Ü Chlorinating agents like calcium hypochlorite, and
Ü Ethylene absorbent like salt, charcoal, etc.

Some of these chemical substances used in storage of vegetables are
not good for human health. So, proper care should be taken while using
these chemicals.

NOW YOUR TIME

Fill in the blanks with a suitable word in each of the following:

1. Heating vegetables in boiling water or steam and then submerging
in ice water is called ____________.

2. Adding_________acid syrup or lemon juice before freezing will
prevent darkening of vegetable when frozen.

3. Canning of low acidity foods requires ___________.
4. Dehydration is the process of __________ in the sun or by heat for

preservation of food.

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WORK FURTHER

Answer the following questions: Level of Cognition

1. What is canning of vegetables? K nowledge

2. Explain the methods of preserving vegetables C omprehension
through freezing. A pplication
Connecting PROJECT

3. Make a suitable place for cold storage of potatoes.

4. Determine the factors that affect drying of A nalysis
vegetables.

5. “Canning vegetables is the most effective way of E valuation
selling Nepal’s agricultural produce to foreign
markets.” Justify the statement.

6. Design a plan for proper storage of radish. S ynthesis

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5Lesson Production and
Storage of Vegetable Seeds

WHAT & WHY What ? Why ?

You’ll learn to By producing and properly storing of seeds,
you do not have to depend on expensive seeds
 list things to be taken into consideration from the market or suffer from the shortage
for proper storage of seeds. of quality of seeds during plantation season.

 explain the process of storing seeds.

ThinTkihnrgough Experience

Farmers depend on good quality of seeds during the plantation
season but our country suffers from chronic shortage of good seeds
at that time. One way of ensuring sufficient supply of seeds is that
farmers should know how to produce and store seeds till plantation
season. What do you think farmers will need if they are to produce
and store seeds on their own?

You must have seen seeds of many vegetables. Collect seeds
from any five different vegetables and store them.

The quality and quantity of production of any vegetable is dependent on
the seeds of that particular vegetable. Therefore, production and selection
of proper seeds is necessary for vegetable farming. Producing seeds is
a technical business. One should have enough knowledge, skills, land
and time for producing seeds. It takes about 3 months for producing
vegetables whereas it takes about 9 months for producing seeds of the same
vegetables. Many farmers as well as government and non-government
agencies are working throughout the country to produce seeds.

Some important points that should be taken into consideration for
producing seeds are:

Ü Vegetables which are to be grown for seeds should be isolated and
planted in well-prepared land.

Ü Necessary fertilizers should be added and the vegetables timely
irrigated. The plants should be controlled from weeds.

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Ü The vegetables should be protected from pests and diseases.
Ü Seeds should be taken only after they get fully matured.
Ü The grains should be cleaned and treated to get rid of any airborne

or soil-borne diseases.
Ü The seeds should be dried and tested in lab for verification.
Ü The seeds should be packaged and labelled.

Storage of Seeds

Seeds once produced are used for 3 to
12 years depending upon the type of
vegetables. They are also transported
from one place to another. So storage
and proper packaging of seeds are
essential parts of seed technology.
Seeds are highly vulnerable to
infection by fungi. So, proper
fungicides should be used to store seeds. They should be stored in cool,
dry and dark places as far as possible. The packaging of seeds should be
done in such a way that it fulfils these conditions of seed storage.

NOW YOUR TIME

Make “Match the following” questions from the lesson above.

WORK FURTHER

Answer the following questions. Level of Cognition

1. What is production and storage of seeds? K nowledge

2. Explain the factors to be considered for storage of C omprehension
seeds.

Connecting PROJECT

3. Choose any five plants and discuss how you A pplication
produced their seeds and stored them.

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4. Compare seed production and storage techniques A nalysis
adopted by farmers in a village. E valuation
S ynthesis
5. “The length of successful storage of seeds depends
on the vegetable and the storage conditions”.
Justify this statement and critically analyse the
current situation.

6. How would you improve production and seeds
storage of seasonal vegetables in Nepal?

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6Lesson Organic Fertilizers

WHAT & WHY What ? Why ?

You’ll learn to By composting, the organic waste
management problems can be alleviated.
 define organic fertilizers and compost. Available and affordable natural fertilizer
 explain the different ways of making such as compost fulfils the existing need.

compost.

ThinTkihnrgough Experience

Fertilizers from organic waste are more effective for the health of soil.
Compost maintains the fertility of the soil as well as of humans and
therefore benefits the farmers as well as the consumers. At present, Nepalese
farmers invest a lot of money and time buying and using chemical
fertilizers. What do you think are the reasons behind this situation?

You must have seen fertilizers used in your garden. What kind
of fertilizer do you use and in what amount?

Organic fertilizers are derived from plants, animals and minerals. Any
combination of organic fertilizer will feed soil organisms which produce
plant food that can be easily absorbed by plants. Organic fertilizers may
be in solid or liquid form. Examples of organic fertilizers are:

Ü Plant fertilizer - sea kelp (seaweed), alfalfa1 meal, corn gluten meal
and cotton seed meal;

Ü Green manure - living cover of crop plants turned into the soil;
Ü Natural fertilizer from animals - blood meal, bone meal, fish meal,

and composted chicken manure;
Ü Mined natural fertilizer - limestone, soft rock, phosphate and gypsum.

Compost is the organic matter that has been decomposed and
recycled as a fertilizer and soil quality improviser. The Compost is a key

1 Alfalfa: a flowering plant in the pea family, the seed coats of this plant is used to make fer-
tilizer called alfalfa meal

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ingredient in organic farming. At the simplest level, the process of
composting simply requires making a heap of wetted organic matter
known as green waste (leaves, food waste) and waiting for the materials
to break down into humus after a period of weeks or months. Compost
can be rich in nutrients. It is used in gardens, landscaping, horticulture,
and agriculture.

Types of Composting

There are mainly five different types of composting. They are discussed
below:

1. Backyard or Onsite Composting

Backyard or onsite composting can
be conducted by residents and other
small-quantity generators of organic
waste on their own farm or premises.
By composting these materials onsite,
we can significantly reduce the
amount of waste that needs to be
disposed of and thereby save money
by avoiding disposal costs.

Climatic effects

Climate and seasonal variations do not pose major challenges to
backyard or onsite composting because this method typically involves
small quantities of organic waste. When conditions change, the process
can be adjusted accordingly without many complications.

Environmental concerns

Improper management of food scraps can cause odours and attract
unwanted attention to insects or animals.

Results

The conversion of organic materials to compost can take up to the period
of two years, but manual turning can hasten the process considerably
(e.g. 3 to 6 months). The resulting natural fertilizer can be applied to

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lawns and gardens to help condition the soil and replenish nutrients.
Compost, however, should not be used as potting soil for houseplants
because of the presence of weed and grass seeds.

2. Vermicomposting

Through this method, red worms,
not nightcrawlers or field worms
found in gardens are placed in
bins with organic matter in order
to break it down into high-value
compost called castings. Worm bins
are easy to construct. They are also
commercially available and can be
adapted to accommodate the volume
of food scraps generated.

Climatic effects

Worms are sensitive to variations in climate. Extreme temperatures
and direct sunlight do not suit to the worms. The optimal temperatures
for vermicomposting range from 55° F to 77° F. In hot, arid areas, the
bin should be placed under the shade. By vermicomposting indoors,
however, one can avoid most of the problems posed by hot or cold
climates. The primary responsibility is to keep the worms alive and
healthy by providing the proper conditions and sufficient food.

Requirements

Vermicomposting has only a few basic requirements. They are worms,
worm bedding (e.g. shredded newspaper, cardboard), and a bin to contain
the worms and organic matter. Maintenance procedures include preparing
bedding, burying garbage, and separating worms from their castings.

Results

One pound of mature worms (approximately 800-1,000 worms) can eat
up to half a pound of organic material per day. It typically takes three
to four months for these worms to produce harvestable castings, which
can be used as potting soil. Vermicomposting also produces compost or
worm tea, a high-quality liquid fertilizer for house plants or gardens.

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3. Aerated Windrow Composting

Organic waste is formed into rows of
long piles called windrows and aerated
by turning the pile periodically by
either manual or mechanical means.
The ideal pile height, which is
between 4 and 8 feet, allows for a pile
large enough to generate sufficient
heat and maintain temperatures, yet
it is small enough to allow oxygen to flow to the core of windrows. The
ideal pile width is between 14 and 16 feet.

Climatic effects

In a warm and arid climate, windrows are sometimes covered or placed
under a shelter to prevent water from evapourating. In rainy seasons,
the shapes of the pile can be adjusted so that water runs off the top
of the pile rather than being absorbed into the pile. Also, windrow
composting can work in cold climates. Often the outside of the pile might
freeze, but in its core, a windrow can reach 140° F.

Environmental concerns

Leachate is a kind of liquid released during the composting process.
This can contaminate the local ground-water and surface-water
supplies. Therefore, it should be collected and treated. In addition,
windrow composting is a large scale operation and might be subject to
the regulatory enforcement. Samples of the compost should be tested in
a laboratory for bacterial and heavy metal content. Odours also need to
be controlled. The public should be informed of the operation and have a
method to address any complaints about animals or bad odours. Other
concerns might include zoning and siting requirements.

Requirements

Windrow composting often requires large tracts of land, sturdy
equipment, a continual supply of labour to maintain and operate the
facility, and patience to experiment with various materials, mixtures
and turning frequencies.

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Results

This method will yield a significant amount of compost, which might
require assistance to market the end-product.

4. Aerated Static Pile Composting

In aerated static pile composting, organic waste is mixed together in
one large pile instead of rows. To aerate the pile, layers of loosely piled
bulking agents (e.g. wood chips, shredded newspapers) are added so
that air can pass from the bottom to the top of the pile. The piles can
also be placed over a network of pipes that deliver air into or draw air
out of the pile.

Climatic effects

Like windrow composting in a warm and arid climate, aerated static piles
are sometimes covered or placed under a shelter to prevent the water
from evapourating. In the cold, the core of the pile will retain its warm
temperature, but aeration might be more difficult in the cold because this
method involves passive air flowing rather than active turning. Some
aerated static piles are placed indoors with proper ventilation.

Environmental concerns

Since there is no physical turning, this method requires careful
monitoring to ensure that the outside of the pile heats up as much as
the core. One way to alleviate bad odours is to apply a thick layer of
finished compost over the pile, which can help maintain high temperature
throughout the pile. Another way to deal with odour, provided that the
air blower draws air out of the pile, is to filter this air through a bio-filter
made from finished compost.

Results

This method produces compost within 3 to 6 months

5. In-Vessel Composting

Organic materials are fed into a drum, silo, concrete-lined trench, or
similar equipment where the environmental conditions including
temperature, moisture, and aeration are closely controlled. The apparatus

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usually has a mechanism to turn
or agitate the material for proper
aeration. In-vessel composters vary
in size and capacity.

Climatic effects

In-vessel composting can be used
year-round virtually in any climate
because the environment is carefully controlled, often by electronic
means. This method can even be used in extremely cold weather if the
equipment is insulated or the processing takes place indoors.

Environmental concerns

In-vessel composting produces very little odour and minimal leachate.

Requirements

In-vessel composters are expensive and might require technical
assistance to operate properly, but this method uses much less land and
manual labour than windrow composting.

Results

Conversion of organic material to compost can take as little as a few
weeks. Once the compost comes out of the vessel, however, it still
requires a few more weeks or months for the microbial activity to
stabilize and cool the pile.

NOW YOUR TIME

Fill in the blanks with a suitable word in each of the following.

1. Organic fertilizers are fertilizers that are prepared from _______
waste.

2. Organic matter that has been decomposed and recycled as a
fertilizer is called as _____________.

3. Living leaves or plants that cover soil and act as a fertilizer for
plant is called as __________.

4. Worms break down organic matter in the high value compost
called _________.

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WORK FURTHER

Answer the following questions. Level of Cognition

1. How would you describe organic fertilizers? K nowledge

2. Explain any two types of composting. C omprehension

Connecting PROJECT

3. Make a suitable place for making compost and A pplication
produce it following at least two methods.

4. Compare the types of making compost. Which A nalysis
approach do you think is the best? Why?

5. “Composting is the natural and environment- E valuation
friendly method of solving our waste management S ynthesis
problem.” Justify this statement and critically
analyse the current situation.

6. What solutions do you suggest the farmers to
increase the use of organic fertilizers instead of
chemical fertilizers?

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7Lesson Vermiculture and
Vermicomposting

WHAT & WHY What ? Why ?

You’ll learn to Vermiculture helps to reduce pollution by
turning organic waste into compost and
 define vermiculture & vermicomposting. saves money spent on buying fertilizers.
 explain the process of setting up earthworm

farm.
 learn the process of making vermicompost.
 describe the advantages of vermicompost.

ThinTkihnrgough Experience

Though vermicompost produces high population of beneficial micro-
organisms whose application to the cultivated land increases soil
fertility, yet farmers are still reluctant to produce and use vermicompost.
What do you think are the reasons behind this situation?

You must have seen worms in your garden/field. Write some
advantages of such worms.

Plants grow healthier bearing good fruits and flowers if soil is rich with
nutrients. Nutrients are added to the soil with compost. Compost is an
organic matter that has been decomposed and recycled as a fertilizer
and soil improvement. Compost is a key ingredient in organic farming
with rich nutrients. Worms play a vital role in making compost and
earthworms are one of them. They are now recognized as highly
effective natural agents for soil improvement. They are especially
helpful in loosening and aerating the ground. The worms also eat soil
and organic debris and their droppings or “castings” are a valuable
fertilizer in finely granulated form.

Vermiculture, or worm farming, is the utilization of some species of
worms to make vermicompost which is a nutrient-rich, natural fertilizer
and soil conditioner. Vermiculture is useful in developing countries like
Nepal, where fertilizer is harder to obtain. It can be used to convert
animal waste, food scraps, and other dead organic matters into a

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nutrient-rich fertilizer. ‘Vermiculture’ literally means worm growing or
worm farming

Vermicomposting means using earthworms for the production of compost.
Similarly, vermicomposting means using earthworms to recycle food
scraps and other organic materials into a valuable soil improvement
called vermicompost. Earthworms eat food scraps, which become
compost as they pass through the worm’s body. Compost exits the worm
through its’ tail end. This compost can then be used to grow plants.
Vermicompost is good for plants because earthworms eat nutrient-rich
fruit and vegetable scraps, and turn them into nutrient-rich compost.

Earthworms are of different kinds in
terms of their size, colour, qualities,
etc.Eiseniafoetide,Eudrilluseugineal,
Perionyxexcavatus and Lumbricus-
rubellus are the earthworm species
most commonly used in vermiculture.
They are referred to by a variety of
common names, including red worms,
red wigglers, and manure worms.

Steps for Setting up Earthworm Farm

1. Provide the optimum temperature and environment

A warm, dark and dry environment is best; however, worms can
withstand temperature in the range of 40o - 80o F (4o - 27o C). Although
the bedding should be moist, it should not be too damp, so be sure to
keep them out of the rain. Keep them out of the hot, direct sunlight.
Insulate the container well enough. They can survive in colder
temperatures but you must not neglect their care.

2. Build a container

Wood is an optimal material because it absorbs some of the moisture.
Unlike plastic which tends to get the compost pretty wet it, is a good
insulator. Anything that holds a lot of bedding will do. You should
drill drain holes at the bottom to make sure that moisture is able to
pass through. Worms will drown easily if the water is not drained off
properly.

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3. Select mixture of bedding materials to fill up your worm bin
Shredded newspapers are excellent; shredded cardboard, leaves and
other waste is also very good with some soil. Worms need some dirt to
process their food. Using a variety of bedding material will yield a lot of
worm food. Use organic and non-toxic material for bedding. Get it wet
and wring it out so that it is just damp, but not dripping. Fill your bin
about 3/4 full of the stuff and keep it fluffed so that there is plenty of
oxygen for the worms to live.

4. Choose worm types
Red worms are excellent for making the compost that green gardeners
consider the gold standard of fertilization.

5. Correct the ratio of worms
Worms should be placed in such a quantity that they weigh roughly
double of the food. So bins should be large enough to accommodate this
many residents.

6. Feed worms
Any kind of food will work, except for meat, onions, dairy product, overly
oily foods or grains. These become really stinky and attract flies. It is
always better to mash up the kitchen scraps before feeding the worms.
These are items that would normally fill up a dump, so you are really
helping the environment and getting some good fertilizer in return.
Fruit and vegetable peels and scraps are other good choices. Some soil
or sand is also needed in the worms’ diet, to act as a grinding.

7. Place the food for worm
Place the food in a single spot so that they will come and eat it. No need
to spread it all around. When the tub is nearly full of poop and good old
compost, you can move the worms to a new tub and start over.

Methods of Making Vermicompost
Vermicompost can be made by using the following methods:

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1. By heaping materials

For a ton of compost, 3 parts cow dung, 1 part dry leaves and plants and
1 part husk is to be gathered. Make a heap after wetting them. Place
200 earthworms per cubic feet after the heap is dry. 600 earthworms
per cubic feet are enough and vermicompost is ready after 2 months.

2. By composting pit

Make a pit of 10×6×2 ft. in length, breadth and depth respectively. Fill
half of the pit with cow dungs, dry leaves, husks and organic waste. The
materials should be kept loosely for air passing. Place 200 earthworms per
cubic feet. The size of the pit can be changed according to the requirement.

3. By making tanks

Make a pit of 10×6×3 ft. Place bricks and stones on the floor. Place rotten
dungs, vegetable waste, paddy husks. Place different materials useful for
composting in layers. Then place 200 earthworms per cubic feet. Sprinkle
some water in the top layer, which will slowly penetrate inside the layers
to keep it moisten. Stop sprinkling water after the materials are 90%
decomposed. When the compost is ready, separate it from earthworms.

Advantages of Vermicompost

a. It is nutrient-rich fertilizer compared to other organic matters.
b. It has more water collecting qualities which helps in controlling

landslides.
c. It is environment-friendly as organic waste and scraps are used.
d. Earthworms can be used as food for chickens and ducks if they are

in a manageable size.
e. It does not contain harmful materials and seeds of unnecessary

grasses and weeds.
f. It helps in encouraging farmers for the use of organic farming and

reduces the need of chemical fertilizers.
g. It reduces the amount of waste materials that needs to be collected

and managed and the cost of solid waste management.
h. It helps in increasing the recycling rates.
i. It facilitates in separating organic waste from compost at the household

level. It ensures that the remaining waste is clean and easier to recycle.

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j. It is a simple practise that anyone can do at home with minimum
resources.

NOW YOUR TIME

Fill in the blanks with a suitable word in each of the following:
1. Utilization of worms for making compost is called ____________.
2. ____________ are also of different types differing in size, colour,

qualities, etc.
3. ____________ is an optimal material because it absorbs some of

the moisture and is a good insulator, unlike plastic which tends
to get the compost pretty wet.
4. ____________ worms are excellent for making the compost that
green gardeners consider the gold standard of fertilization.
5. Vermicomposting is environment-friendly as organic __________
and scraps are used.

WORK FURTHER

Answer the following questions. Level of Cognition

1. What is vermicompost? K nowledge

2. Explain the steps in setting earthworm farm. C omprehension

Connecting PROJECT

3. Make a suitable place for making vermicompost on A pplication
your rooftop and use it to grow 5 cabbage plants.

4. What are the advantages of using vermicompost in A nalysis
the soil?

5. “Nepal has potential for vermicomposting.” Justify E valuation
this statement and critically analyse the current
situation.

6. What could be done to maximize the use of S ynthesis
vermicompost in our country?

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8Lesson Organic Farming

WHAT & WHY What ? Why ?

You’ll learn to With the increase in education and
awareness, organic farming is regarded as
 define organic farming. alternative way of farming which benefits
 explain the situation of transportation both health and ecosystem.

of vegetables in Nepal.
 make accounts for organic farming.

ThinTkihnrgough Experience

The health benefits of organic farming can be achieved only if they
are made available for the consumers both in good quality and
required time but organic farmers of Nepal are unable to provide
their produce in required quality and quantity. What do you think
are the reasons behind this situation?

You must have seen farmers cultivating plants without using
chemicals. Make a list of things that you can use as fertilizer
and pesticide.

Organic farming is the production
of vegetables and livestock using
natural resources of nutrients
such as compost, crop residue,
manure and natural methods
of weed control instead of using
synthetic chemicals. It is also
called low input farming. Organic
farming works in harmony with
nature rather than against it. It
involves using techniques to achieve
good crop yields without harming
the natural environment.

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Organic Vegetable Production

For organic vegetable production, the field should be ploughed properly
and cow dung, green manure, compost are spread in that area. A raised
bed is made onto the land for sowing seeds and planting seedlings.
Raised beds are also useful for growing vegetables. These ridges
between two raised beds can be used for draining and channeling
water. The raised bed should be made by adding ample amount of
organic fertilizer such as compost.

Organic fertilizer should be used if soil rich in organic matter more
than 5 % is to be made. Cow dungs are collected and used along with
plants like asuro, titepati, dhaicha. Therefore, organic matters in soil
can be increased with the help of organic fertilizers.

In organic farming, seedlings are planted and organic fertilizers are
used after tilling. Herbicides, insecticides and pesticides made from
organic matters only are used. In organic vegetable production only
organic methods and materials are used from the start of vegetable
production to the reaping of vegetables.

Transportation, Selling and Distribution of Vegetables

Farmers transport their vegetables to the market with any means of
transport available. In Nepal, vegetables are generally kept on the roof of
buses or trucks and transported to the market. Asses horses, bulld carts
are also used in some areas. Vegetables with different transportation
needs are transported at the same time and by the same means of
transport in Nepal, which is the major drawback. There is no means
of transport with cold storage facilities. It is also necessary for organic
producers to educate the consumers on the principles of organic farming
and the benefit of using organic vegetables.

Accounts Management

The recording and calculation of production and marketing cost of
vegetables and profit/loss obtained is called accounts management of
organic farming. Factors to be considered while keeping accounts are
as follows:

i. Production expenses: Labour cost of people, animals involved,
cost of machines used, seeds, seedlings and other costs should be

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recorded. Cost incurred in the purchase and repairs of tillers, water
pumps, harrows and other agricultural tools needed should also be
recorded along with the cost of organic pesticides and insecticides.
ii. Management expenses: Salaries of employees, telephone bill, office
equipment, rent, electricity charges, etc. fall under the management
expenses.
iii. Selling and distribution expenses: Marketing of vegetables on
radios, television, newspapers, etc. is advertising cost. Similarly,
packaging, labelling, salesman commission, transportation,
storage expenses are selling and distribution expenses.
iv. Other expenses: Expenses on guests, tea, interest, social donation ,
etc. fall under this category.

All the above mentioned expenses are recorded in separate forms. A
sample of recording expenses form is given below:

Table for recording expenses Total Price (Rs.) Notes

Name of the vegetable:
Area covered:
Species:

S.N. Raw materials Units Rate (Rs.)

Table for recoding incomes

S.N. Name of Unit Production Rate Total in- Net prof- Notes

vegetables (Metric Ton) (Rs.) come (Rs.) it (Rs.)

Total income = Total production × price per unit
Net profit = Total income – production cost

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In organic vegetable production, focus should not be only on total
production and profit. Farmers should also be informative themselves
about the nature of different vegetables, soil condition, needs for each
type of vegetables, disease and pest control, condition needed for
vegetables. Farming vegetables with knowledge of all these related
information helps farmers in better understanding of vegetables and, in
turn, be able to grow them efficiently and profitably.

NOW YOUR TIME

Make “Fill in the blank” questions from the lesson.

WORK FURTHER

Answer the following questions. Level of Cognition

1. What is organic farming? K nowledge

2. Explain the factors to be considered while keeping C omprehension
accounts of organic farming.

Connecting PROJECT

3. Make a suitable place and grow vegetables there A pplication
using organic farming methods.

4. Survey on the market for fruits and vegetables A nalysis
produced using organic farming.

5. “Organic farming is the most widely recognized E valuation
alternative farming system for sustainable
production without seriously harming the
environment and ecology.” Justify this statement
and critically analyse the current situation.

6. Design a plan that can be implemented for encour- S ynthesis
aging farmers to involve themselves in organic
farming.

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9Lesson Integrated Pest Management

WHAT & WHY What ? Why ?

You’ll learn to Integrated pest management techniques
result in greater crop yields, household food
 define integrated pest management. security and farm sustainability.
 explain the principles of integrated pest

management.
 learn methods of controlling pests.

ThinTkihnrgough Experience

Integrated pest management increases economic benefits, empowers
farmers and provides safer foods for consumption. However, it is not
being used by the large number of farmers. What do you think are
the reasons behind this situation?

You must have seen different pests or plants that destroy
vegetables. Make a list of such insects/plants.

Pests such as insects, plant diseases and weeds together destroy any type
of plants. Vegetables are no exception. Pests destroy about 35% of all crops
worldwide during plantation. Even after food grain is harvested, pests
such as birds, fungus, bacteria and insects destroy around 15 to 20% food.
As a result, about half of the produced food grain is damaged by pests.
Therefore, controlling pests is one of the major activities in any farm.

Various methods have been used to control pests in farms. Chemicals
that are used to kill pests are called pesticides. Chemicals that kill
weeds are called herbicides or weedicides, chemicals that kill fungus are
called fungicides, and chemicals that kill insects are called insecticides.
Most of these chemicals are long lasting synthetic chemicals that affect
not only the pests but also other organisms including people. Because
of the excessive use of pesticides, wildlife and environment is also being
adversely affected.

In 1962, Rachel Carson, American biologist wrote a book called The

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Silent spring, questioning the use of chemical pesticides and its threat for
birds and other living creatures. This book raised public awareness and
increased concern for the preservation of environment. This has recently
developed a new kind of technology for pest control that aims to reduce
pests and the use of pesticides. This technology uses variou combinations
of chemical, biological and physical means. In the past, pesticides were
used in excess, but with this integrated pest management, the natural
predators or parasites of pests are used along the farms to reduce the need
of pesticides which reduces harm to environment as well as people.

Principles of Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
There are six principles of IPM. They are mentioned below:

i. Acceptable pest levels

IPM emphasizes on control, not
eradication. This means that killing all
pests is not possible as it is expensive
and harmful. Instead, farmers should
focus on maintaining the acceptable
level of pests. They should use pesticides
only when pests exceed the level.

ii. Preventive practises

Selecting healthy and good varieties of crops is the first line of defense
against pests. In this method, healthy seeds of different vegetable
breeds are selected and diseased plants are removed.

iii. Monitoring

Regular observation is important to monitor the level of pests. Keeping
the record and having a thorough knowledge of life cycle of the pests is
important in controlling them.

iv. Mechanical control

If a pest reaches unacceptable level, mechanical methods are the first
option. This method includes hand picking of the pests, covering plants
with nets or plastic, putting up traps or tillage to disrupt breeding.

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