Children's Illustrated Encyclopedia

CIllhuisltdrraetned’s

Encyclopedia

25 year anniversary edition



CIllhuisltdrraetned’s

Encyclopedia

First edition 1991

Senior Editor Ann Kramer
Senior Art Editor Miranda Kennedy
Editors Christiane Gunzi, Susan McKeever, Richard Platt, Clifford Rosney
Art Editors Muffy Dodson, Debra Lee, Christian Sévigny, Val Wright

Picture Research Anne Lyons
Additional Research Anna Kunst, Deborah Murrell

Picture Manager Kate Fox
Production Manager Teresa Solomon

Editorial Director Sue Unstead

Eighth edition 2016

DK Delhi DK London

Senior Editor Sreshtha Bhattacharya Project Editor Sarah MacLeod
Project Editor Virien Chopra Project Art Editor Mary Sandberg

Assistant Art Editor Nidhi Rastogi US Editor Christine Heilman
Picture Researcher Sumedha Chopra Jacket Editor Claire Gell
Senior DTP Designer Harish Aggarwal
Jacket Designer Natalie Godwin
DTP Designer Bimlesh Tiwary Jacket Design Development Manager Sophia MTT
Jacket Designer Surabhi Wadhwa
Managing Jackets Editor Saloni Singh Producer, Pre-production Nikoleta Parasaki
Pre-production Manager Balwant Singh Producer Mary Slater
Production Manager Pankaj Sharma
Managing Editor Kingshuk Ghoshal Managing Editor Paula Regan
Managing Art Editor Govind Mittal Managing Art Editor Owen Peyton Jones

Publisher Andrew Macintyre
Associate Publishing Director Liz Wheeler

Art Director Karen Self
Design Director Stuart Jackman
Publishing Director Jonathan Metcalf

First American Edition, 1991
This edition published in the United States in 2016
by DK Publishing, 345 Hudson Street, New York, New York 10014
Copyright © 1991, 1993, 1996, 1998, 2000, 2006, 2010, 2016 Dorling Kindersley

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Published in Great Britain by Dorling Kindersley Limited.
First published in the United States under the title

The Random House Children’s Encyclopedia by Random House in 1991.
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

ISBN: 978-1-4654-5169-9
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ContEnts

A Brain and nerves 78 D Gas 228
Brazil 79-81 Genetics 229-230
Abolitionist movement 8 Bridges 82 Dams 151
Aboriginal Australians 9 Dance 152 Geology 231
Bronze Age 83 Darwin, Charles 153 Germany 232-235
Africa 10-13 Buddhism 84 Declaration of Glaciers and ice caps 236
Africa, history of 14-15 Butterflies and moths Independence 154 Glass and ceramics 237
African Americans 16 Deep-sea wildlife 155-156 Government and politics
85-86 Democracy 157
Aircraft 17-18 Byzantine Empire 87 Depression of 238-240
Alexander the Great 19 the 1930s 158 Grassland wildlife 241-242
C Desert wildlife 159-160
Alphabets 20 Gravity 243
American Revolution 21-22 Caesar, Julius 88 Digestion 161 Greece 244
Cameras 89 Dinosaurs 162-163 Greece, Ancient 245-246
Animals 23-24
Animal senses 25-26 Camouflage, animal 90 Disease 164 H•I
Canada 91-93 Dogs, wolves, and foxes
Antarctica 27-28 Habsburgs 247
Ants and termites 29 Canada, history of 94 165-166 Health and fitness 248-249
Archaeology 30-31 Caribbean 95-96 Drugs 167
Architecture 32-33 Cars 97-98 Heart and blood 250
Castles 99-100 E Heat 251-252
Arctic 34-35 Cats 101-102
Argentina 36-37 Ears 168 Helicopters 253
Caucasus Republics 103 Earth 169-170 Hibernation 254
Armor 38 Caves 104 Earthquakes 171
Asia 39-42 Celts 105 East Africa 172-174 Hinduism 255
Asia, history of 43-44 Ecology and food webs Hispanic Americans 256
Assyrians 45 Central Africa
Astronauts and 106-107 175-176 Hockey 257
space travel 46 Edison, Thomas 177 Holidays 258
Astronomy 47-48 Central America 108-109 Egypt, Ancient 178-179 Holocaust 259
Atlantic Ocean 49-50 Central Asia 110-111 Einstein, Albert 180 Horses, zebras, and asses
Atmosphere 51 Charlemagne 112 Electricity 181-182
Atoms and molecules 52 Chemistry 113 260-261
Australia 53-56 China 114-117 Electronics 183 Human body 262-263
Australia, history of 57-58 Christianity 118-119 Elephants 184
Austria 59 Churchill, Sir Winston Elizabeth I 185 Human rights 264
Aztecs 60 120
Cities 121 Energy 186 Immigration 265-266
B Civil rights 122 Engines 187-188 Incas 267
Civil War 123-124 English Civil War 189
Babylonians 61 Climates 125 Europe 190-193 India and subcontinent
Baltic States and Belarus 62 European Union 194 268-271
Clocks and watches 126 Europe, history of 195-196
Barbarians 63 Coal 127 Evolution 197-198 Indian Ocean 272-273
Barton, Clara 64 Explorers 199-200 Industrial Revolution
Cold War 128-129
Baseball 65 Colombia 130 Eyes 201 274-275
Basketball 66 Indus Valley civilization 276
Colonial America 131 F•G
Bats 67 Color 132 Information technology
Bears and pandas 68 Farm animals 202-203 277-278
Columbus, Christopher Farming 204
Bees and wasps 69 133 Insects 279-280
Beetles 70 Farming, history of 205 Internet 281
Comets and meteors 134 Fish 206-207 Inuits 282
Benin Kingdom 71 Communism 135 Iran 283
Big Bang 72 Fishing industry 208
Biology 73 Composers 136-137 Flies and mosquitoes 209
Birds 74-75 Computers 138-139
Flight, animal 210-211
Black Death 76 Congress 140 Flowers and herbs 212-213
Black holes 77 Conquistadors 141
Conservation and Football 214
endangered species Force and motion 215
Forest wildlife 216-217
142-143
Constitution 144 Fossils 218
Continents 145 France 219-222
Cook, James 146 Franklin, Benjamin 223
Corals, anemones, and French Revolution 224
Frogs and other
jellyfish 147 amphibians 225
Crabs and other Fruits and seeds 226-227
crustaceans 148
Crocodiles and

alligators 149
Crusades 150

Ireland 284-285 Muhammad 361 Prehistoric life 422-423 T
Iron Age 286 Muscles and movement 362 Prehistoric peoples 424
Technology 513-514
Iron and steel 287 Mushrooms, toadstools, Presidency 425 Teeth 515
Islam 288 and other fungi 363
Israel 289 Music 364-365 R Telephones 516
Musical instruments Telescopes 517
Italy 290-292 366-367 Radio 426 Television 518-519
Radioactivity 427 Theater 520-521
J•K•L Myths and legends 368 Rain and snow 428
Reformation 429 Time 522
Japan 293-295 N•O Religions 430-431 Tornadoes and hurricanes
Jefferson, Thomas 296 Renaissance 432-433
Napoleon Bonaparte 369 Reproduction 434-435 523
Jesus Christ 297 National parks 370 Reptiles 436-437 Trade and industry
Joan of Arc 298 Native Americans
371-372 Rivers 438 524-525
Judaism 299 Navigation 373 Robots 439 Trains 526-527
Rockets and missiles 440 Transportation, history of
Kennedy, John F. 300 Nests and burrows 374 Rocks and minerals 441-442
King, Jr., Martin Luther 301 New Zealand 375-376 Roman Empire 443-444 528-529
New Zealand, history of 377 Roosevelt, Franklin Trees 530-531
Knights and heraldry Delano 445 Tubman, Harriet 532
302-303 Normans 378 Russian Federation 446-449 Turkey 533-534
North Africa 379-380 Russian Revolution 450
Korea 304 North America 381-384 U•V•W
Korean War 305 Nuclear energy 385 S
Ukraine 535
Labor movement 306 Numbers 386 Satellites 451 United Kingdom 536-539
Lake and river wildlife Scandinavia 452-454 United Kingdom, history of
Oceans and seas
307-308 387-388 Science 455 540-541
Lakes 309 Science, history of 456-457 United Nations 542
Languages 310 Ocean wildlife 389-390 Seashore wildlife 458-459 United States of America
Law 311-312 Octopuses and squid 391 Shakespeare, William 460
Leonardo da Vinci 313 543-546
Lewis and Clark 314 Oil 392 Sharks and rays 461 United States, history of
Light 315-316 Olympic Games 393 Shells and shellfish 462
Lincoln, Abraham 317 Ottoman Empire 394 Ships and boats 463-464 547-548
Lions, tigers, and other Universe 549
big cats 318-319 Oxygen 395 Skeletons 465-466 Victorians 550-551
Literature 320-321 Slavery 467-468 Vietnam War 552
Lizards 322-323 P Vikings 553
Low Countries 324-325 Snails and slugs 469 Volcanoes 554
Lungs and breathing 326 Pacific Ocean 396-397 Snakes 470 Washington, George
Painters 398-399 Soccer 471
M Painting 400-401 Soil 472 555
Sound 473 Water 556-557
Machines 327-328 Persians, Ancient 402 Weather 558-559
Magnetism 329 Phoenicians 403 South Africa 474-475 Weights and measures
South America 476-479
Mammals 330-331 Photography 404-405 South America, history of 560
Mandela, Nelson 332 Physics 406 West Africa 561-564
Pilgrims 407 480-481 Western expansion 565
Mao Zedong 333 Pirates 408 Southeast Asia 482-485 Whales and dolphins 566-567
Marsh and Planets 409-410 Southeast Europe, Central
Plants 411-412 Wheels 568
swamp wildlife 334 Plastics 413 486-487 Wind 569
Mathematics 335 Southeast Europe, Women’s rights 570-571
Polar wildlife 414-415 Mediterranean 488-489 Wonders of the ancient
Maya 336 Political parties 416 Southern Africa 490-491 world 572
Medicine 337 Pollution 417-418 Soviet Union, history of World War I 573-574
Medicine, history of 338-339 Ports and waterways 419 World War II 575-576
Medieval Europe 340-341 Portugal 420-421 492-493 Worms 577
Space flight 494-495 Writers and poets
Metals 342
Mexico 343-344 Spain 496-499 578-579
Microscopes 345 Spiders and scorpions
Microscopic life 346 X•Z
Middle East 347-349 500
Migration, animal 350 Sports 501-502 X-rays 580
Stars 503-504 Zoos 581
Money 351 Statue of Liberty
Mongol Empire 352 INDEX 582–593
505 Gazetteer 594-596
Monkeys and Stone Age 506
apes 353-354 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Moon 355 Storms 507 597–600
Mosses, liverworts, Submarines 508
and ferns 356 Sumerians 509
Mountains 357
Mountain wildlife 358 Sun 510
Movies 359-360 Supreme Court 511

Switzerland 512

abolitionist

movement
to zoos

7

ABOLITIONIST MOVEMENT

Women join The fighT The DeClaraTion of inDepenDenCe promised equality for all,
among several important female
campaigners, Sojourner Truth leading many americans to question the inequalities of slavery. a movement
(above) played an active role in to abolish slavery and the slave trade took root throughout the northern
the abolitionist movement. Born states in the late 1780s. its supporters were known as abolitionists. although
into slavery in 1797, she was freed there had been protests against slavery since colonial times,
in 1827. She traveled the nation mostly by religious groups, the slave population continued
with her moving message about to grow, and tensions between the free states of the
the rights of slaves and women. north and the slave states of the South escalated.
Through newspapers, speeches, and public meetings,
abolitionists spread the word about the horrors of
slavery, despite strong opposition by Southern
slaveholders and their supporters. others helped
support the Underground railroad, a network of
houses and people who illegally helped escaping
slaves reach safety in the nonslave states. Their
crusade spread to england, where abolitionists
worked to end the international slave trade.

UncLe Tom’s cabin
no other abolitionist writing had the political impact of
Uncle Tom’s cabin, a novel by harriet Beecher Stowe.
after a trip to a Kentucky plantation, a horrified Stowe freDeriCK DoUglaSS
decided to write about the evils of slavery. her novel was Born a slave in maryland, frederick
simple and melodramatic, but its vivid descriptions of Douglass escaped to new York when
suffering and cruelty turned many people against slavery. he was 21 years old. he became one
Sales were astonishing—300,000 copies were sold within of the greatest antislavery speakers of
a year. in the South, Stowe was brutally criticized, but her
book proved an effective attack on slavery. his time, highlighting the terrible
treatment of slaves. his newspaper,

north star, advocated equality not
only for slaves but also for women.
fighTing for freeDom
Those who opposed slavery joined together to fight for
its abolition. abolitionists traveled throughout the north, john BroWn
spreading their message through rallies, debates, and Some abolitionists felt slavery could only be
speeches. one of the most powerful groups was the ended by force. in october 1859, abolitionist
american antislavery Society, founded in 1833. its john Brown and a small band of followers
founder, William lloyd garrison, published a newspaper mounted an unsuccessful raid on a government
called The Liberator to campaign for an end to slavery. weapons store at harpers ferry, Virginia. The
local militia killed most of his men, and Brown
was captured, tried for treason, and hanged.

An abolitionist rally

Find out more
Civil rights

Civil war
Declaration of independence

Tubman, harriet

8

AboriginAl AustrAliAns

The firsT inhaBiTanTs of australia were nomadic (wandering) people
who reached the continent from southeast asia about 40,000 years ago. When
europeans settled in australia at the end of the 18th century, they called these
native inhabitants “aboriginals,” meaning people who had lived there since the
earliest times. Today, there are about 670,000 aboriginals in australia. most live
in cities, but a few thousand still try to follow a traditional way of life. They travel
through the bush, hunting with spears and boomerangs (throwing sticks)
and searching for food such as plants, grubs, and insects. They have few
arT possessions and make everything they need from natural materials. This way
aboriginal of life does not change or harm the fragile environment of the australian
art is mostly outback (the interior). The well-being of the land, and its plants and
about animals, are vital and sacred to the aboriginal people.
dreamtime
and is made
as part of the ceremonies celebrating
dreamtime. Paintings of the people, Private ceremonies and secret
spirits, and animals of dreamtime rituals are an important
cover sacred cliffs and rocks in tribal
territories. The pictures are made in part of Aboriginal life.
red and yellow ocher and white clay, Through dancing,

singing, and
chanting, young
and some are thousands of years old. Aboriginal people
learn about
Dreamtime.

Dancers, singers, and musicians paint The didjeridoo, a wooden wind
their bodies with elaborate patterns. instrument, is used to play basic
rhythms in Aboriginal music.
dreamTime
aboriginal australians believe that they have animal, plant, and human
ancestors who created the world and everything in it. This process of creation
is called dreamtime. There are many songs and myths about dreamtime,
which generations of aboriginal people have passed down to their children.

UrBan Life Land cLaims
The majority of aboriginal australians live in cities and towns. some When British settlers arrived in
have benefited from government education and aid programs and australia, they seized sacred sites
have careers as teachers, doctors, and lawyers. many, though, are poor and other land that belonged to
and isolated from white society. They have lost touch with traditional aboriginal people. With the help
aboriginal tribal ways, and because they do not fit neatly into white of aboriginal lawyers, aboriginal
australian society, they cannot always share its benefits. however, australians campaigned to get
there are now campaigns among urban aboriginal people to the land back. in 1976, the
revive interest in the tribal culture of their ancestors. australian government agreed
that aboriginal people have
The curved returning Boomerangs rights to their tribal territories,
boomerang is used as well and some land was returned.
only for sport.
as the curved Find out more
returning boomerang, aboriginal australia
australians use a straight, non-returning
boomerang as a weapon for fighting and australia, history of
for hunting mammals such as kangaroos. dance

musical instruments
myths and legends

9

AFRICA

FEw rEgioNS oF ThE world are as varied as Africa.
on this vast continent there are 54 independent
nations and many times this number of peoples
and ancient cultures. There are mountains, valleys,
plains, and swamps on a scale not seen elsewhere.
The northern coast is rich and fertile; below it lies
the dry Sahara desert. South of the Sahara, lush rain
forest grows. Most of southern and eastern Africa is
savanna, a form of dry plain dotted with trees and
bushes. The nations of Africa are generally poor,
though some, such as Nigeria, have rich natural Africa is roughly triangular in
shape. The Atlantic ocean lies to
resources. Many governments are unstable, and the west and the indian ocean
rebellions and civil wars are common. There are to the east. in the northwest
SchoolS few large cities; most are near the coast. The rest only a few miles of sea separate
Schools in African towns
and cities are much like the African continent
schools anywhere in the from Europe.
world. Sometimes, however, of the continent is open countryside
pupils must walk many where people follow traditional lifestyles.
miles from their homes
to the schoolhouse. The Ashanti peoples of The tall Masai of
West Africa are Kenya herd
The Tuareg mainly farmers. cattle on the
peoples who open plains.
inhabit the Sahara
are pastoralists.

PEoPlE Few pygmies are
taller than 4 ft
in the African countryside many
people live in tribal villages. Some, (1.25 m). They live
such as the Kikuyu of East Africa, are in the dense Congo
descended from tribes that have lived
in the same place for many centuries. rain forest.
others are recent immigrants from The Bushmen
other parts of Africa or from other continents.
Borders between countries take little account of these varied cultures. People roam the deserts of
of one culture may live in two different countries, and in one nation may be southern Africa and
gather wild food
found more than a dozen different from the harsh
tribal groupings. environment.

The towers of
mosques dominate
Cairo’s skyline.

cAiro KiliMANjAro
cairo is the capital city of Egypt and the largest city in Africa, with a The tallest and most beautiful
population of more than 18 million. it sits on the Nile river near the head mountain in Africa is
of the river’s delta. The older part of the city contains narrow, winding Kilimanjaro, in Tanzania.
streets. The new city has wider streets and many modern office buildings its highest peak, which rises
and flats. The people of cairo are mostly Egyptian, although some come 19,340 ft (5,895 m), is an
from all over North Africa, as well as from Europe and the Middle East. extinct volcano. Although
the mountain is only a few
miles from the equator, the
top is always covered in snow.
A footpath leads to the top,
which can be reached in three
days from the nearest road.
Many people live on the
lower slopes, where they
farm tropical fruits.

10

africa

SAHArA deSerT

The Sahara is the largest desert in the
world and covers nearly one-third of
Africa. in recent years, the desert
has spread, destroying farmland
and causing famine. in some areas,
irrigation has stopped the spread of the
desert, but long-term irrigation can make
the soil salty and infertile. Temperatures
have been known to exceed 120˚f (50˚C)
in this inhospitable environment.

In West Africa, muSiC And CulTure Medicine and healing
drumming is a Africa has a rich and varied When seeking a cure for sickness, some
highly developed culture. north Africa shares Africans consult Western-style doctors.
art. People once the islamic traditions of the Others consult a traditional healer
used drum middle east, producing (above). Healers are respected
beats to pass members of a community, with vast
on messages. beautiful mosques and palaces. knowledge of local herbs and plants and
West African music has a strong the ways in which they can be used as
rhythm, and there are many medicines. To identify the source of an
interesting dances from this illness, the healer might contact good or
region. The area is also home evil spirits by going into a trance.
to a flourishing woodcarving Treatment may include animal sacrifice.

industry. eastern and
southern Africa have
become famous for
beautiful beadwork and

colorful festive costumes.

WAr And fAmine Road building
Civil wars and famines are common in in Nigeria
Africa. many are caused by political
disagreements, and some are the result
of tribal conflicts. in 2010, protests in
Tunisia marked the start of a series
of revolutions across north
Africa and the middle east.
in Sudan, a civil war lasting from
1983 to 2005 ended only with the
creation of the new country of South
Sudan. Other misery is caused by
famine. Traditionally, most people grew
enough food each year to last until the
next harvest. However, African countries
increasingly produce export crops and rely on
imported food. if food distribution breaks down or
drought ruins crops, thousands of people may starve.

rurAl life

Although African cities have been growing fast, most Africans still live in the countryside.
They grow their own food and only rarely have a surplus to sell or exchange for other goods.
most tribes have farmed the same land for generations, living in villages with all of their
relatives. Sometimes the young men go to live in cities for a few years to earn money in mines
or factories. Then they return to the village to marry and settle down. The types of crops

grown vary widely. Yams, cassava,
and bananas are produced in
the lush tropical regions;
farmers in drier areas
concentrate on cattle
and grain.

develOpmenT Find out more
poor infrastructure, Africa, history of
including unreliable roads,
railroads, and electricity Central africa
supplies, holds back the east africa
economic growth of many South africa
African nations. most West africa
countries rely on loans from
Western governments and
international banks to pay for
their development programs.

11

africa

Political africa DEmocratic rEPUBlic liBEria sEnEgal
independent african states, with few of tHE congo Area: 43,000 sq miles Area: 75,955 sq miles
exceptions, are territorially identical to Area: 905,355 sq miles (111,369 sq km) (196,722 sq km)
the colonies they replaced. Until the (2,344,858 sq km) Population: 4,195,500 Population: 13,976,000
1960s, most of africa was controlled by Population: 79,375,000 Capital: monrovia Capital: Dakar
European countries as part of their Capital: Kinshasa liBya
overseas empires. By the late 1980s, Area: 679,362 sq miles sEycHEllEs
nearly every country had gained its DjiBoUti (1,759,540 sq km) Area: 176 sq miles
independence. in many cases, hasty Area: 8,958 sq miles Population: 6,412,000 (455 sq km)
attempts were made to set up European- (23,200 sq km) Capital: tripoli Population: 92,500
style governments. leaders often became Population: 828,000 maDagascar Capital: victoria
dictators, or the army seized power. Capital: Djibouti Area: 226,657 sq miles siErra lEonE
However, in recent years, there has been EgyPt (587,041 sq km) Area: 27,699 sq miles
a shift toward multiparty democracy. Area: 386,660 sq miles Population: 23,813,000 (71,740 sq km)
(1,001,450 sq km) Capital: antananarivo Population: 5,879,000
algEria Population: 88,487,000 malawi Capital: freetown
Area: 919,595 sq miles Capital: cairo Area: 45,747 sq miles somalia
(2,381,741 sq km) EqUatorial gUinEa (118,484 sq km) Area: 246,200 sq miles
Population: 39,542,000 Area: 10,830 sq miles Population: 17,965,000 (637,657 sq km)
Capital: algiers (28,051 sq km) Capital: lilongwe Population: 10,616,000
angola Population: 741,000 mali Capital: mogadishu
Area: 481,551 sq miles Capital: malabo Area: 478,841 sq miles soUtH africa
(1,246,700 sq km ) EritrEa (1,240,192 sq km) Area: 470,693 sq miles
Population: 19,625,500 Area: 45,406 sq miles Population: 16,955,500 (1,219,090 sq km)
Capital: luanda (117,600 sq km) Capital: Bamako Population: 53,675,500
BEnin Population: 6,528,000 maUritania Capitals: Pretoria/cape town/
Area: 43,483 sq miles Capital: asmara Area: 397,955 sq miles Bloemfontein
(112,622 sq km) EtHioPia (1,030,700 sq km) soUtH sUDan
Population: 10,449,000 Area: 426,373 sq miles Population: 3,597,000 Area: 248,777 sq miles
Capital: Porto-novo (1,104,300 sq km) Capital: nouakchott (644,329 sq km)
Botswana Population: 99,466,000 maUritiUs Population: 12,043,000
Area: 224,607 sq miles Capital: addis ababa Area: 7,172 sq miles Capital: juba
(581,730 sq km) gaBon (2,040 sq km)
Population: 2,183,000 Area: 103,346 sq miles Population: 1,340,000 sUDan
Capital: gaborone (267,667 sq km) Capital: Port louis Area: 718,723 sq miles
BUrKina faso Population: 1,705,000 morocco (1,861,484 sq km)
Area: 105,870 sq miles Capital: libreville Area: 172,414 sq miles Population: 36,109,000
(274,200 sq km) gamBia (446,550 sq km) Capital: Khartoum
Population: 18,932,000 Area: 4,363 sq miles Population: 33,323,000 swazilanD
Capital: ouagadougou (11,300 sq km) Capital: rabat Area: 6,704 sq miles
BUrUnDi Population: 1,968,000 mozamBiqUE (17,364 sq km)
Area: 10,750 sq miles Capital: Banjul Area: 308,642 sq miles Population: 1,436,000
(27,830 sq km) gHana (799,380 sq km) Capital: mbabane
Population: 10,742,000 Area: 92,098 sq miles Population: 25,303,000 tanzania
Capital: Bujumbura (238,533 sq km) Capital: maputo Area: 365,755 sq miles
camEroon Population: 26,328,000 namiBia (947,300 sq km)
Area: 183,570 sq miles Capital: accra Area: 318,261 sq miles Population: 51,046,000
(475,440 sq km) gUinEa (824,292 sq km) Capital: Dodoma
Population: 23,739,000 Area: 94,925 sq miles Population: 2,212,000 togo
Capital: yaoundé (245,857 sq km) Capital: windhoek Area: 21,925 sq miles
caPE vErDE Population: 11,780,000 nigEr (56,785 sq km)
Area: 1,557 sq miles Capital: conakry Area: 489,188 sq miles Population: 7,552,000
(4,033 sq km) gUinEa-BissaU (1,267,000 sq km) Capital: lomé
Population: 546,000 Area: 13,948 sq miles Population: 18,046,000 tUnisia
Capital: Praia (36,125 sq km) Capital: niamey Area: 63,170 sq miles
cEntral african Population: 1,726,000 nigEria (163,610 sq km)
rEPUBlic Capital: Bissau Area: 356,669 sq miles Population: 11,037,000
Area: 240,535 sq miles ivory coast (923,768 sq km) Capital: tunis
(622,984 sq km) Area: 124,503 sq miles Population: 181,562,000 UganDa
Population: 5,391,500 (322,463 sq km) Capital: abuja Area: 93,065 sq miles
Capital: Bangui Population: 23,295,000 rwanDa (241,038 sq km)
cHaD Capital: yamoussoukro Area: 10,169 sq miles Population: 37,102,000
Area: 495,752 sq miles KEnya (26,338 sq km) Capital: Kampala
(1,284,000 sq km) Area: 224,080 sq miles Population: 12,662,000 zamBia
Population: 11,631,500 (580,367 sq km) Capital: Kigali Area: 290,587 sq miles
Capital: nDjamena Population: 45,925,000 sÃo tomÉ anD (752,618 sq km)
Capital: nairobi PrÍnciPE Population: 15,066,000
comoros lEsotHo Area: 372 sq miles Capital: lusaka
Area: 863 sq miles Area: 11,720 sq miles (964 sq km) zimBaBwE
(2,235 sq km) (30,355 sq km) Population: 194,000 Area: 150,872 sq miles
Population: 781,000 Population: 1,948,000 Capital: são tomé (390,757 sq km)
Capital: moroni Capital: maseru Population: 14,229,500
Capital: Harare
congo
Area: 132,040 sq miles
(342,000 sq km)
Population: 4,755,000
Capital: Brazzaville

12

africa

mining
Volcano Mountain Ancient Capital Large Small africans have been mining and
monument city city/ city/ processing minerals, including iron
town town

ore, copper, and gold, for more than
two thousand years. gold mined in the forest
StatiSticS country of western africa was carried across the
sahara by african traders and exported to
area: 11,608,000 sq miles europe and asia. during the colonial period,
(30,065,000 sq km)
Population: mining was intensified. today, south africa,
Zimbabwe, Zambia, and democratic republic of
1,171,000,000 the congo possess heavily industrialized mining
Number of
independent countries: areas. these areas have yielded minerals such as
gold, diamond, copper, and uranium.
54 Large-scale drilling equipment (above) is
Highest point: used in the gold mining industry.
kilimanjaro (tanzania),
Dogon dancers (right) masks and dance
from Mali perform masked dance is performed in many
19,340 ft (5,895 m) a funeral dance.
Longest river: nile, communities in West and central africa
4,160 miles (6,695 km) N and plays an important part in social events.
Largest lake: Lake once inside the costume, the person takes
Victoria, 26,828 sq miles on the character represented by the mask.
often parts of the body are exaggerated with
(69,484 sq km) padding or pieces of wood (left). the dance
Main occupation: W E steps, songs, and sounds complete the costume
agriculture and energetically represent both the spirit world

S R O and the world of humans.

E U edit er P E

cape Verde m ALGIERS Horn of africa
The independent republic of Because of its shape, the
the Cape Verde islands lies madeira i n s TUNIS ar
385 miles (620 km) off
the coast of Senegal, (to Portugal) RABAT u n t a TUNISIA n e a n se a easternmost point of the African
in the Atlantic Ocean. continent is called the Horn of
The islands have a MORO C CO as M o TRIPOLI Nile Africa. It is one of the poorest
population of 546,000, Atl Delta
but almost twice canary islands regions on Earth, with few
this number of natural resources. Recent
Cape Verdeans (to spain) Giza CAIRO
live abroad. Thebes
LAÂYOUNE ALGERIA LIBYA A droughts and civil wars
CAPE Western Sahara I have killed
S sea thousands of
(disputed territory Tropic of cancer Ahag gar Libyan DesertEGYPT A Red Tropic of cancer people and
under Moroccan ti a
h a Tibes r made many
occupation) nile

Sa more homeless.
MAURITANIA
MALI
NOUAKCHOTT
a T L aS a h e lPsSlTaiaisehÃãrlnpasíeonoon dcjvupdTio potsusptl melcoaornatfféÍiomono,SnrrintctmãÉhhcooeioaPfTplRfa1oVreAter9mhgEIp4AeeéRu,Sr0beaD0IiGqlsnEiG0cEuldAa.RBaUwnMtRIdoFIiSStN,RBrAChE.SEOIEANLEANATMUEEAO-OOGKDWBNRANABANYRKLGINLOESAIJSUVRUBAILAIUENReEBIqAAYuAAMaMtACIOoEKVrUOOQOSASOURSUYTAKRTSNnOÃAOAigOFCRePAOCrSRIRTUOAAÍAOLNLGOMACGNPMDÉOIIMUnOÉAPRiA&MUINgETLNeTGEOrASOYOIENÃ-BNMUGAOOBORAÉICVABEGAOUZGMZRLJAAAEIEBBVIRRIROALYEOALNVOOEILUcLNLCahNEkaEDNedKNCÉDINTRJAHSREMCHDBAPBEAAAoULaNEScNnBDAsAAoGMLingFUgInRoCIoUBICURbSRaJAUWUEnNMgAPiBDNUKSSDAROAUAMAJUUDKPNWBAHBATAUKLAUhVNAIHGRGiRLcTAAtUaOoLNkrNUIeiDaMDKAIEETLTDENNauJK5RkAHrI8BekiYAIIAla9ROiTSmDInD5AOMURmaDOaJBTAEInIIIRBSjAPaAOArSBoIUAOATBAIMGMeuHOqlAoufGrfaornAtifocDoraafISdHenU
BURKIBEGTNHOAIGNNOA ite nile blu e nile

CONGO MADAGASC ALIA inDian ocean

Cabinda C O N G O Lake DODOMA

(to Angola) Tanganyika TANZANIA Zanzibar
LUANDA
nTi c
game parks and COMOROS
conserVation NAANMGI BOI ALAVicFtoZamrliAlabseMzZiIBMBILHLAAaAUBkRSeWAAnKREyAEasaMLAILBLOIAQNWGUMIWOEROciNsolIamnodros MAYOTTE
the animal life of africa is Za MOZAM
rich and varied. However in E (to France)
the last century, numerous ocean Mamoudzou
animal and plant species
have been lost forever. as AR
the land has been turned
into farms and industrial ANTANANARIVO
sites, many animals have
been driven from their WINDHOEK BOTSWANA
habitats. their numbers have
also been severely reduced by GABORONE PRETORIA Tropic of capricorn
hunters. to protect animals
from extermination, several S O U T HBLOKEDaMleFaOsheNraTtrEiINMBA(BTMSAHNAWESAENRSEUW) MAAZPILUATNOD ScaLE BaR km
african governments have 0 400 800 800 miles
set aside large game reserves LESOTHO
where hunting is prohibited. 0 400
CAPE TOWN A F R I C A

Cape of
Good Hope

13

AHISTORY OF

FRICA

For Much oF itS hiStory, africa has been hidden from outsiders’ eyes. Bantu speakers
the Sahara desert cuts off communication from north to south for all but the originated here
and spread to
striped area.

hardiest traveler. the peoples of africa have therefore developed largely by
themselves. by about 2600 bce, rich and powerful empires such as ancient
egypt had arisen. the empires have disappeared, but they left behind Africa
bantuS
Most of the
buildings and other clues to their existence. other african peoples left peoples of
records of their history in songs that have been passed down from parent to
southern africa
are related to
child through countless generations. europeans remained ignorant of this the bantus, who
rich history until, during the 1400s, they explored the west coast. Soon they
were shipping thousands of africans to europe and the americas as slaves, originated in the
western part of the
continent between
a “trade” that destroyed many traditional societies. during the late 1800s, 3000 and 2000 bce. they had
europeans penetrated the interior of africa and, within 20 years, had
reached southern africa by 400 ce.

carved up the continent between them. almost all
of africa remained under european control until
the 1950s, when the colonies began to gain
their independence.
today the peoples
of africa are free
of foreign control. Ivory
traders

Great ZiMbabwe

the stone city of Great Zimbabwe
was a major religious, political,
and trading center in southern
africa between the 11th and
14th centuries. it grew rich on

the proceeds of herding
cattle and mining gold,
copper, and iron. the
peoples of Great Zimbabwe
exported their produce to the
coastal port of Sofala in what is
now Mozambique and then up
the coast of africa to arabia.

Men armed Thatched Cattle herder
with spears and buildings
shields guarded City’s walls were made from
the city’s walls. huge granite slabs.

Great enclosure at Great Zimbabwe

benin SoapStone birdS
Soapstone carvings
the west african kingdom of benin of local birds on
reached the height of its power columns stood in an
between the 14th and 17th centuries. enclosure outside
its people traded ivory, pepper, palm Great Zimbabwe. one
oil, and slaves with the portuguese. of these birds has been
they also excelled in casting realistic
figures in bronze. on the left is a the national symbol
benin bronze mask. of Zimbabwe since the

14 country gained its
independence in 1980.

africa, history of

Scramble for africa

Until the 1880s, european conquest
in africa was restricted to the
coastal regions and the main
river valleys. but european
powers wanted overseas
colonies (settlements).
Throughout the 1880s and
1890s, european nations
competed for land in
africa. by 1900, almost
all of africa was in
european hands. The
only independent states
left were the ancient
kingdom of ethiopia in the
east, and the free slave state
of liberia in the west. The
cartoon (left) shows Germany
as a bird “swooping” onto africa.

zUlU WarS
Some african peoples
managed to resist the europeans
for a time. after 1838, the zulus of southern africa fought first the boers
(dutch settlers) and then the british. in 1879, however, britain finally
defeated the zulus. in 1887, zululand became a british colony. above
is a picture of the british trying to break through zulu lines.

independence orGanizaTion AFriCA
The coming of independence to much of africa after 1956 did of african UniTy 700-1200
not always bring peace or prosperity to the new nations. many despite the many political Kingdom of
were weakened by famines and droughts or torn apart by civil differences that exist between Ghana in West africa
wars. few have managed to maintain civilian governments the individual african states, they grows rich on cross-
without periods of military dictatorships. in 1964, malawi all share problems of poverty, Saharan trade with
(formerly nyasaland) became africa’s 35th independent state. poor health, and lack of schools. the arabs.
above is the celebration scene. in 1963, the organization of c. 800-1800 Kanem-bornu
african Unity (oaU) was kingdom.
ApArtheid founded to coordinate policies to 1200s Trading cities flourish
in 1948, the national party solve these problems. it was on east coast.
came to power in South africa. replaced in 2002 by the african 1235-1500 Kingdom of mali.
years of segregation, known Union (aU). above are two 1300-1600 Kingdom of benin.
as apartheid, followed. This members of the oaU medical 1300s Great zimbabwe
policy gave white people power unit treating civil war victims. flourishes.
but denied black people many 1350-1591 Kingdom of Songhai.
rights, including the vote. in nelSon mandela 1500-1800s europeans take
1990, the african national in 1994, nelson mandela (left), africans as slaves to america.
congress (anc), a banned black a leader of the anc, became 1838-79 zulus fight against
nationalist movement led by the president of South africa. boers and british.
nelson mandela, was legalized, 1880s europeans take
and the apartheid laws began to 15 almost total control of africa.
be dismantled. in 1994, the first- 1957-75 most of africa
ever free elections were held. independent.
1990 namibia
independent.

Find out more
africa

benin kingdom
egypt, ancient
prehistoric peoples

Slavery

AfricAn AmericAns

Civil righTS movemenT The hiSTory of AfriCAn-AmeriCAn people has been dominated
During the 1950s and 1960s, many
African Americans joined together by the struggle for freedom and equality. from the 1600s to the Civil War,
to fight for equality and justice. most African Americans worked as slaves, contributing to America’s vast
These civil rights activists used
mainly peaceful means, such agricultural wealth but entitled to none of the benefits or freedoms. once
as marches (above), slavery was abolished, African Americans made some progress toward equal
to end racist laws.
treatment under the law, but widespread segregation hindered their fight.
The civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s defeated racist laws,

although racism itself has proved harder to erase. Despite this, there has
been a resurgence of interest in African-American culture, and African

Americans have continued to flourish in politics, education, and the arts.

The AfriCAn-AmeriCAn people

About 42 million African Americans live
in the United States. They are the second-
largest minority group in the nation,
representing 13.2 percent of the

population. About half of all African
Americans live in the Southern
states. in many major cities, such
as Washington, D.C., Atlanta,
Detroit, and newark, African
Americans are the majority.

Barack Obama’s SlAvery
victory in the The ancestors of most African Americans were
2008 election from the slave-trading states of benin, Asante,
and Dohomey in western Africa. These empires
demonstrated
the possibilities established a slave trade with europeans from
open to African the early 1500s. The first slaves arrived in
Americans in the American colonies in the 1660s. over
the 21st century.
the next 150 years, 400,000 Africans were
eventually transported as slaves. DiSCriminATion

Slave chains The Civil War ended slavery,
but most newly freed slaves
breAking bArrierS had no homes, and few
many African Americans have broken barriers could read and write. The
in politics, sports, and the arts. in 1993, Toni government built housing
morrison became the first African American
to win the nobel prize for literature, while in and established 4,000 schools
2009, barack obama became the first African- (above). however, many
American president of the United States. states passed laws to limit
the civil rights of African
hArlem renAiSSAnCe Americans and segregate
in the 1920s, an explosion of literature, art,
(separate) them from whites.
and music, centered in new york City’s
harlem, celebrated African-American Find out more
Abolitionist movement
culture. Jazz greats louis Armstrong and
Duke ellington led the movement, often Africa, history of
playing in harlem’s Cotton Club (right). Civil rights
Slavery

16

AircrAft

Less than 100 years ago, even the fastest ship took more than Jet airLiner
Like all jet airliners, the Boeing 747-400 flies
a week to cross the atlantic ocean. today most jet airliners (large high above the clouds to avoid bad weather.
passenger planes) can make this 3,000-mile (4,800-km) journey in less its airtight cabin is pressurized—supplied
than seven hours. aircraft are the fastest way to travel because they can with air at a suitable pressure. this protects
passengers and crew from the drop in
soar straight over obstacles such as mountains and oceans. Powerful air pressure and lack of oxygen at
jet engines enable the fastest combat aircraft to reach speeds in excess high altitudes.
of 1,500 mph (2,400 km/h)—more than twice as fast as sound. even
ordinary jet airliners fly at more than 530 mph (850 km/h). Modern
aircraft are packed with advanced technology to help them fly safely
and economically at great speed. sophisticated electronic
control and navigation systems
keep the airplane on course.
Computer-designed wings help
cut fuel costs. and airframes
(aircraft bodies) are made
of metal alloys and plastic
composites that are
lightweight and strong.
The undercarriage (landing wheels)
folds up inside the airplane during
FLight deCk flight to reduce drag (air resistance).
the captain and crew control the
aircraft from the flight deck. in the
past, the flight deck of an airplane was The Boeing 747-400 airliner can carry
a mass of dials and switches. new jet 412 people and fly nonstop for more
airliners are packed with electronics, and than 8,470 miles (13,600 km). Seats are
arranged on two decks.

computer screens have replaced the dials. The aircraft’s radar shows the crew the
other new features include computer- weather conditions up to 200 miles (320 km)
controlled autopilot systems that enable the ahead so that they can avoid storms.
plane to take off and land when bad weather
obscures the pilot’s vision.
airPLanes
FLying an airPLane airplanes are powered aircraft that have
wings. the word aircraft describes all
every airplane has three main controls: the throttle to
control speed; rudder pedals for turning the plane’s nose flying machines, including helicopters,
to the left or right (yawing); and a control column that gliders, hang gliders, and
tilts the aircraft to either side (rolling), or up and down airplanes. Most large
(pitching). the pilot usually operates all three to guide airliners and combat
the plane through the air. airplanes have jet engines

enabling them to fly fast and
high. But jets are expensive and
To roll, the pilot moves the control Aileron oBservation PLanes use a lot of fuel, so many smaller
column to the left or right, which specially designed aircraft give
raises the ailerons on one wing a clear view of everything from planes are driven by propeller,
and lowers them on the other. traffic jams to diseased crops. just like the first airplanes.

Elevator seaPLanes

To pitch up or down, the pilot aircraft are ideal for getting in and
pushes or pulls on the control out of remote places. seaplanes
column, raising or lowering the have floats instead of landing wheels
elevators on the tail wing.
to land and take off on water.

To yaw left or right, the Rudder Jet airCraFt
pilot’s feet swivel the each year billions of people make long
rudder bar, turning the journeys in jet airliners and smaller
upright rudder on the tail business jets. these aircraft are powered
of the airplane. by a type of jet engine called a turbofan.
turbofans are powerful and relatively quiet.

Like a bicycle going around a ConCorde
curve, an aircraft has to bank into this airliner, in service
a turn. To do this, the pilot uses from 1976 to 2003, was supersonic,
the control column and the rudder which means that it flew faster than sound. it
pedals together so that the aircraft cruised at more than twice the speed of sound,
rolls and yaws at the same time. crossing the atlantic ocean in less than four hours.

17

aircraft

Every part of the airframe
is rigorously tested to
Space for The fuselage, or aircraft ensure that it can Pilot uses the
passengers’ hand body, is made of special withstand the stresses of rudder, ailerons,
luggage is available lightweight aluminum flying fast and high. and elevators to
in compartments alloys and plastic The tail fin and wings of a jet
above the seats. composites. control the
airplane.
aircraft are swept back to reduce
air resistance in flight. Elevators on the
Baggage is carried tail plane swivel
in an unpressurized
hold beneath the Interior surfaces If necessary, seats can be to control the
passengers. made of fire- removed or rearranged to up-and-down
resistant materials give more space.
tilt of the
aircraft.

Air rushing over and under the Control surfACEs
aircraft wings produces an nearly all airplanes have a rudder and
hinged surfaces on the wings and tail fins that
upward force swivel to steer the airplane. in older aircraft
called lift. the pilot operates the flaps mechanically via
cables. in modern planes the control surfaces
Wings Jet airliners have often work electronically, with the aid of a
Airplanes can fly because air streaming special landing flaps. These computer. this system is called fly-by-wire.
past lifts their wings. A wing, or airfoil, swivel down to give extra lift as
is always curved upward, so that air the airplane flies slowly just A new system, called fly-by-light, uses
rushing over the top is forced to speed before landing. While fiber-optic cables instead of wires.
up and stretch out, making pressure the airplane flies
drop. Beneath the wing, air travels at cruising Hinged surfaces that tilt the
more slowly and pressure builds up. so, speed, the airplane from one side to
in effect, the wing is sucked from above pilot retracts
and pushed from below. (draws in) the the other are called ailerons.
landing flaps Angled winglets provide
to reduce drag. extra lift, which helps
lower fuel costs.

Famous aviators
the early days of flying inspired many
Four powerful turbofan brave feats. in 1919, for instance, British
jet engines push the fliers John Alcock and Arthur Whitten
plane through the air. Brown made the first nonstop flight
History of fligHt across the Atlantic in a plane with an
During the late 1840s, the English inventor sir george open cockpit. Eight years later, in 1927,
Cayley built a glider that could carry a person when it American aviator Charles lindbergh
was towed into the air. soon many would-be aviators made the crossing
were trying to take off in flying machines entirely alone,
powered first by steam engines and a feat repeated
later by gasoline engines. But it was by American
not until early in the 20th century Amelia Earhart
that the American Wright brothers in 1932. in
made the first successful powered flight. 1930, English
otto liliEntHAl aviator Amy
in the 1890s, german engineer Johnson
otto lilienthal took to the air in a kind (right) flew
of hang glider. this was the first flight in solo from
which the pilot controlled the aircraft. England to
Australia.
WrigHt BrotHErs
orville and Wilbur Wright’s Flyer made Find out more
the world’s first controlled, powered
flight at Kitty Hawk, north Carolina,
on December 17, 1903. Although the
flight lasted only 12 seconds, the age
of the aircraft had begun.

sounD BArriEr Engines
Many people once believed that airplanes Helicopters
could never fly faster than the speed of sound. But iron and steel
on october 14, 1947, American pilot Chuck yeager
proved them wrong when he broke the sound barrier Machines
in the rocket-powered Bell X-1. Physics
technology
transportation, history of

18

AlexAnder the GreAt

By 323 bce one Man haD conqUereD most of the known world
and set up an empire that extended from Greece to India. the name of
the general was alexander, today known as alexander the Great. he was the
son of King Philip II, ruler of Macedonia, a small but powerful Greek kingdom.
In 336 bce, Philip was murdered and alexander became king, although he
was only 20 years old. alexander was an ambitious and brilliant general. In
334, he invaded the great Persian empire ruled by Darius III. after a series of
remarkable victories, alexander then went on to conquer a vast empire running
alexanDer from egypt in the west to India in the east. When alexander died, aged only 33,
as a young man alexander he had led his armies at least 12,000 miles (19,000 km)
(356-323 bce) was brave and
intelligent. he was taught by the
Greek philosopher aristotle, from and had encouraged the spread of Greek culture
whom he developed throughout the known world.
a lifelong interest after he died, his empire
in philosophy. was divided.

But he is still
considered one
of the greatest
generals who Phalanx
the army that alexander led into Persia (Iran)
ever lived. consisted mostly of infantry, or foot soldiers, armed
with long spears. the infantry fought in a formation
called a phalanx. the men were packed closely
together with their spears pointing
toward the enemy.

MACEDONIA

Independent •Granicus BACTRIA
state of Sparta Issus •
• Guagamela

• Susa PERSIA INDIA
• Persepolis
Alexander the Mediterranean Sea
Great’s empire,
334-323 bce • Alexandria

BUcePhalUs Dependent state EGYPT ARABIA
of Cyrenaica Nile

alexander rode into River Alexander’s route
Independent region
battle on a beautiful horse called Bucephalus. according to legend, Dependent region
Bucephalus was completely wild and responded only to alexander. Alexander’s empire
When Bucephalus died, alexander built a monument and town, called
Bucephala, in honor of him. the city still exists in Pakistan today.

AlexAndriA Battles
In 332 bce, alexander founded the city of alexander fought many battles.
alexandria (named after himself) on the Usually he had fewer men than
Mediterranean coast. It soon became a his enemy, but he won because his
great port and a center of Greek culture men were well trained and
and learning, attracting poets and scientists equipped. at the Battle of Issus in
from all over the world. today, alexandria 333 bce, alexander, with 36,000
is the second-largest city in egypt. men, defeated Darius and his
110,000 troops. two years later,
After Alexander’s death, Ptolemy Soter, commander of Egypt, with a force of 45,000 men,
created a huge library at Alexandria. It was said to have contained alexander again overwhelmed
Darius and his 100,000 soldiers
more than 500,000 books; today only ruins remain. at the Battle of Guagamela.

Find out more
europe, history of

Greece, ancient

19

AlphAbets

When people first began to Write, they did not use an alphabet. instead, they drew
small pictures to represent the objects they were writing about. this is called picture
writing, and it was very slow because there was a different picture for every word. an
alphabet does not contain pictures. instead, it is a collection of letters or symbols
that represent sounds. each sound is just part of one word. Joining the letters
together forms a whole word. the human voice can make about 35 different
Ancient sounds in speech. so alphabets need at most 35 letters to write any word,
Romans used and most alphabets manage with fewer. the phoenicians, who
certain letters lived about 3,000 years ago in the Middle eastern country
for numbers. For
example, C is 100.

now called syria, developed the first modern alphabet. the
ancient greeks adapted the phoenician alphabet, and later
the romans improved it. the roman alphabet
is now used widely
throughout the world.

In every alphabet, letters have
a special order that does not
change. Dictionaries, phone
capital and sMall letters books, and many other
the first roman alphabet had only books are arranged in
capital letters. small letters started to alphabetical order
appear after the 8th century. in english, so that it is easy
capital letters are used at the beginning to find a word
of a sentence, and for the first letter of a syMbols and accents In traditional or a name.
name. capital letters are also used when in addition to letters, writers use punctuation printing, raised
words are abbreviated, or shortened, marks such as a period to show where a sentence lead letters are
to their first letters, such as Un for ends. some languages, such as french, also use used to print the
United nations. accents—marks that show how to pronounce the words on paper.
word. the sloping acute accent over the e in café
makes it sound like the a in day. The Romans did
not have the letter
roMan alphabet W. For J they used
I, and for U they
the alphabet used in english and other european used V.
languages is based on the roman alphabet, which had
23 letters. this alphabet is also used in some southeast
asian languages, such as Vietnamese and indonesian.

Cyrillic (Russian)
Greek

rosetta stone Hindi (India) cUneiforM
the ancient egyptians used Modern alphabets More than 5,000 years ago in
a system of picture writing called the roman alphabet is only one Mesopotamia (now part of iraq,
hieroglyphics. the meaning of this of the world’s alphabets. Many other syria, turkey, and iran), a form of
writing was forgotten 1,600 years languages use different symbols to writing called cuneiform developed.
ago, so nobody was able to read represent similar sounds, and the it started off as picture writing, but
egyptian documents until 1799 words may be written and read quite later letters began to represent
when some french soldiers made differently from the roman alphabet. sounds. the Mesopotamians did
a remarkable discovery. near Japanese readers start on the right side of not have paper; instead they
alexandria, egypt, they found the page and read to the left, or start at the wrote on damp clay using
a stone with an inscription on it. top and read down the page. wedge-shaped pens.
the words were carved in cuneiform means
hieroglyphics and in greek. Using Chinese piCtograms “wedge-shaped.”
their knowledge of greek, scholars in traditional chinese writing, symbols
were able to discover what the called pictograms are used to represent ideas. Find out more
hieroglyphics meant. there is a different character for every word. babylonians
bronze age
Bird Horse Tree Sun egypt, ancient
languages
phoenicians
Writers and poets

20

american revolution

paul revere’s riDe tHe uniteD states of aMeriCa was born amidst the upheaval of the
on the night of april 18, 1775,
boston silversmith paul revere american revolution. from the first shots fired in 1775 to the final surrender
took his famous ride through in 1781, the war was a fierce and brutal struggle between the undisputed
nearby Concord, Massachusetts, superpower of the day, great britain, and the people of britain’s 13 north
to warn the people that the american colonies. the colonists, who were not represented in the british
british were coming. parliament, resented the taxes imposed on them and established their own
Continental Congress to negotiate with britain. skirmishes led to war, with
famous battles in new york, philadelphia, and boston. as in the Civil War,
the conflict divided communities, as many colonists
chose to remain loyal to the crown rather than
defy the mother country. the american
revolution inspired people all over the
world and led them to fight for
their own political freedom.

battle of lexington boston tea party

the british army set out from the british government refused to withdraw its tax on tea,
boston on april 19, 1775, on a a constant reminder to colonists that they were subject
secret mission to capture arms to british taxation. on the night of December 16, 1773,
and gunpowder stored at
Concord. but patriot minutemen, some patriots dressed as Mohawk warriors boarded tea ships
already warned about the british in boston Harbor and threw the tea overboard as a protest.
advance by paul revere, met the
redcoats at lexington. a shot
rang out—poet ralph Waldo
emerson later described it as
the “shot heard round the
world”—and the fighting that
followed was the first battle
of the american revolution.

This cartoon depicts
the repeal of the
Stamp Act in 1766.

staMp aCt lafayette anD tHe frenCH
to raise money to pay for from the early days of the war,
stationing troops in the france gave the colonists money and
colonies, the british arms. benjamin franklin helped
parliament passed the persuade the french to increase
stamp act in 1765. a aid, and in 1778, the colonists signed
stamp, or seal, had to a treaty of alliance with the french
appear on newspapers, bills government. the Marquis de
of sale, wills—even dice and lafayette, the 21-year-old son
playing cards. Merchants had of a french aristocrat, served
to stamp all goods before as a general alongside george
selling them. this tax Washington and fought bravely
enraged the colonists. for the rebels.

21

american revolution

Mary
Hays TurTle
Just over 7 ft (2 m) long and
made of wood, the american
Turtle (right) launched the
world’s first submarine attack
on september 7, 1776. its
designer, David Bushnell, hoped
his invention could steal up
alongside a British warship and
attach a cask of gunpowder to its
hull, slipping away before a timer
made the cask explode. however,
the Turtle’s attack on hms Eagle
in New york harbor failed.
molly pitChers
many women served on the battlefield, carrying
pitchers of water to cool the cannons. they were
known as “molly pitchers.” one, mary hays, took Thayendanega
her dead husband’s place behind the cannon. was a Mohawk loyalists
leader loyal to
the British. as many as one-third of the people living in the
colonies wanted to remain British subjects. some
had relatives in england whom they did not want
A patriot rings to endanger; others were afraid of the British
the Liberty soldiers. many of these loyalists joined the British
Bell, symbol army. the army also recruited Native americans,
of American
independence. who did not like the colonists for taking their

land, and slaves, who were given their
freedom in return for serving in the army.

sUrreNDer

at yorktoWN
Great Britain fought a
patriots massive campaign on
land and sea to crush
in the early days of the revolution,
most patriots simply sought a voice the colonial army.
in the British parliament. But others early battles were
saw the opportunity for a united, self-
governing nation. patriots boycotted fought in the
British goods, including tea, and rallied northern colonies,
to the stirring speeches of rebels, such
as patrick henry and sam adams. but after France
entered the war, the
British army moved its

attention to the south.
it captured key southern

ports, but the patriots
rallied. With the French
navy blocking escape by
sea, the British army was

trapped. in october
1781, a large British

force surrendered to
George Washington
at yorktown, Virginia.

american revolution

1767 Britain imposes high 1775 Battle of lexington Commander-in-chief, Major General Lord
taxes on the 13 colonies. marks start of revolution. George Washington Cornwallis, the
1773 Boston tea party 1775 British win the Battle
protests against taxation. of Bunker hill, ma, the British commander
1774-75 Continental bloodiest conflict of the
Congress meets to protest entire war. 1778 France signs Find out more
against taxation and prepare 1776 Declaration of alliance with the colonies. Colonial america
the 13 colonies for war. independence. 1781 General Cornwallis
1777 Colonists win key surrenders at yorktown, Constitution
battle at saratoga, Ny. Va, in the last major Declaration of independence
battle of the war.
1783 Britain recognizes Franklin, benjamin
american independence United states, history 0f
in the peace of paris.
Washington, george

22

ANIMALS

The animal kingdom is one of the largest Frog
like many animals, the common green frog is aware of
groups of living things; scientists believe that
there are up to 30 million species. animals its surroundings and able to move, feed,
and reproduce. Frogs belong to
the class of animals called
amphibians. all
range from tiny, simple creatures that look amphibians spend
like blobs of jelly to gigantic blue whales.
part of their
The huge animal kingdom is divided lives in or
into many groups. a lion, for near water.

example, belongs to the order
Carnivora because it eats meat.
it also belongs to the class of placental
mammals. all mammals are vertebrates
(animals with backbones) and belong
to a group called chordates. an animal
is a living creature that feeds, moves, and
breeds. during its life cycle, an animal is
born, grows, matures, reproduces, and
eventually dies. it ingests (takes in) food to build
and develop its body. Food provides the animal with
the energy to move around. Some animals do not move at inTernal SkeleTonS
all; the adult sponge, for example, spends its life anchored to a The animal world can be divided into
rock. all kinds of animals from dinosaurs to dodos have become vertebrate animals and invertebrate
extinct; many others, including elephants and tigers, may soon
animals. vertebrates have an internal
disappear if their habitats are destroyed and if they continue skeleton with a vertebral column or

backbone. in most cases, this is made of
to be killed recklessly for their hides and bones. bone. Some sea-dwelling vertebrates,
such as sharks, have a backbone made of
Brain, control Lungs, part of the Kidneys, part tough, rubbery gristle called cartilage.
center of the body, respiratory system of the excretory
and part of the system
Eye, one of the main senses, nervous system Skull, made Orbit
and part of the nervous system of separate bones (hole) for
joined together solidly eyeball

TalleST Cloaca, exit from the digestive
The giraffe is the and excretory systems

tallest animal alive Front limb
today. a large male bones
can measure 17 ft
(5 m) to the top
of its horns.
Back limb
bones
Mouth, entrance
to the digestive
and respiratory
systems

Stomach,
part of the
Heart, part of the digestive Sex organs, Foot bones,
circulatory system system part of the part of the
reproductive
system musculoskeletal Vertebrae,
system bones that

inTernal organS oF a verTebraTe form the spine
inside an animal such as the frog above are many different boneS oF The SkeleTon
The skeletons of vertebrate
animals are similar in design, but
parts called organs. organs are all shapes and sizes. each each differs in certain details
one has a job to do. Several organs are grouped together
to form a body system, such as the digestive system, the through adaptation to the way
circulatory system, and the reproductive system. The the animal lives. a frog, for
nervous system and the hormonal system control and
example, has long, strong back
legs for leaping. all vertebrates
coordinate all the internal systems. have a skull that contains the
brain and the main sense organs.
SmalleST most vertebrates also have two
The smallest organisms are single-celled creatures called protozoa—so
tiny, they can hardly be seen by the human eye. The tiniest mammals pairs of limbs. Some bones, such
as the skull bones, are fixed
are the bumblebee bat and Savi’s pygmy shrew. This pygmy firmly together; others are linked
shrew measures only 2.3 in (6 cm) including its tail.
by flexible joints, as in the limbs.

23

AnimAls

vertebrates Fish include A human external skeletons
fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, sharks, rays, being is
and mammals comprise vertebrate and salmon. one of Many invertebrate animals, such as
animals. birds and mammals are the larger insects and spiders, have an outer
warm-blooded. their bodies generate mammals. skeleton. it forms an exoskeleton—a
heat so they can stay active in cold Amphibians tough outer casing around the body.
conditions. fish, reptiles, and the exoskeleton has flexible joints,
amphibians are cold-blooded, include and muscles pull on it from the
and can regulate their body newts, frogs, inside, so that the animal can move.
temperature by sunbathing it also supports and protects the
or seeking shade. and toads. internal organs. the exoskeleton is
hard, so it must be shed, or cast off,
Reptiles include Birds include as the animal grows larger. this
tortoises, pelicans, eagles, process is known as ecdysis.
crocodiles, and gulls.
snakes, and The prawn is a crustacean, a relative
lizards. of shrimps, crabs, and lobsters.

Mammals include mice,
cats, and koalas.

internal organs of Abdominal Brain, control center Antenna
an invertebrate muscles, part of of body and part of (large feeler)
a complicated invertebrate, such as musculoskeletal system nervous system
a prawn (right), does have internal Heart, part of Antennule
organs, but they are generally more circulatory system (small feeler)
simple than those of a vertebrate. Pincer on first
Prawns are crustaceans and have walking leg
jointed legs like insects and spiders.
When a prawn sheds its skeleton,
even the delicate coverings of its
feelers and eyes are cast off.

Uropod
(tail fan)

Pleopods Bladder, part of Image- One of five
(swimmerets) excretory system forming eye pairs of jointed
walking legs
Intestine, part of
digestive system

Crustaceans include crabs, Cnidarians include Bryozoans include sea Echinoderms include invertebrates
lobsters, and barnacles. jellyfish, corals, and mats and moss animals. starfish, sea urchins, some invertebrates, such as
sea anemones. and sea cucumbers.
Insects snails, have fleshy bodies
Arachnids include Sponges protected by shells. others,
include beetles,
spiders, flies, and such as jellyfish, have soft,
scorpions, unprotected bodies. insects
and mites. fleas. are the largest single group
of invertebrates. there are
Mollusks include snails, Nematode Flatworms include
shellfish, and octopuses. worms include tapeworms and flukes. more than one million
roundworms kinds of insects. the smallest
and hookworms. invertebrates are visible only

Annelid worms Centipedes Millipedes under a microscope. the
include earthworms largest is the colossal squid,

and leeches. with a total length of
65 ft (20 m).

Find out more
birds
frogs

and other amphibians

insects
Mammals
reptiles

24

ANIMAL SENSES

All AnimAls Are AwAre of their surroundings. Touch, smell,
taste, sight, and hearing are the five senses that animals and humans
use to detect what is happening around them. some animals,
however, have an array of senses very different from ours. A
dog’s nose is so sensitive to odors that it “sees” the world as a
pattern of scents and smells, in the same way that we see light
and color with our eyes. many creatures, particularly fish,
can determine where they are by picking up the tiny
amounts of bioelectricity produced by other living hunTing
things around them. A fish also detects vibrations senses
in the water using a row of sense organs down A shark can smell
blood in the water
hundreds of yards away.
As this shark closes in for the attack, it makes use
each side of its body, called the lateral line. of its sharp eyesight and electricity-sensing organs.
An animal’s senses, like its body shape,
are a result of evolution and suit the A clear lens at the front The otter’s scenting organs
animal’s needs. eyes would be of little of the eye focuses rays can detect many scents in
of light into the back of the air. These special organs
the eye to produce a
use to a creature such as the cave Lips detect sharp pieces of shell sharp image. lie inside the nose in the
fish, which lives in endless darkness. in food and then spit them out. roof of the nasal cavity.

instead, these creatures rely
on other senses such as smell
and touch. some senses
are extremely specialized.
long, feathery antennae Sensitive forepaws
manipulate food.
The otter also uses
enable a male emperor a stone to crack
moth to “smell” the open shellfish.

odor of a female moth
3 miles (5 km) away.

The otter hears
by sensing vibrations
when they strike its
The skin and hair roots eardrums. To help the
bear sensors that detect otter balance, tiny
vibrations, light touch, fluid-filled canals
heavy pressure, and inside the ear work
heat and cold. Whiskers are sensitive like miniature levels
to touch. They also to register gravity.
Claws and soles of feet respond to vibrations,
are sensitive to touch. so they are useful in
murky water.
Bloodhound oTTer
while the sea otter floats on its back in the water, eating a shellfish,
Bloodhounds have been its sense organs continuously send information about its surroundings
specially bred as tracker dogs. to its brain. The organs include the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, whiskers,
Their sense of smell may fur, skin, and balance sensors. stretch receptors in the joints and
be as much as one million times muscles also convey information about the otter’s body position. The
sharper than a human’s smell of a poisoned shellfish or the ripples from a shark’s fin instantly
sense of smell. Bloodhounds alert the otter to possible danger.
can even detect the microscopic
pieces of skin that are shed The Bloodhound’s sense Dog follows a
from a person’s body. of smell is so sharp scent with its
that it can even pick nose very
up scent that is close to
several days old. the ground.

25

AnimAl senses Insect senses
the position of an
heAt sensORs animal’s sense organs
depends on its way of
Pit vipers are very sensitive to warmth. they can detect the life. Flies, for example,
infrared heat rays given off by warm-blooded prey such as have hairs on their feet,
mice. the rays enter tiny pits on either side of the pit viper’s which act as sensors and
nostrils and reach the heat-sensitive nerve endings inside. test their food when they
By moving its head from side to side, the viper can land on it. A creature’s
activities also give clues to
determine the distance and direction of its prey; the kinds of senses it
it strikes accurately, even in total darkness. uses. A grasshopper, for
instance, makes a chirping
tAstIng the AIR sound when it is calling for
All snakes taste a mate or telling a rival to
smells in the keep its distance. For this
air by sticking reason, grasshoppers also

out their tongue. Odors need to hear well,
in the air stick to fluid on the flicking tongue as indeed they can.
and are drawn into the mouth. In this way
a snake can follow prey, seek out a mate,
or steer clear of danger.

Good eyesight
to watch for
predators.

Snakes can feel the vibrations
made by moving animals.

AntennAe
long feelers, or antennae, wave
continuously, picking up air currents.

MAgnetIc sense The cricket’s Strong legs Knee-eARs
some animals are thought to have “ears” are allow a cricket Bush crickets, such as
built-in magnetic compasses that mainly tuned in the one shown above,
they use when traveling long to the narrow to leap away
distances. Monarch range of sounds from danger. have ears on their
butterflies migrate made by other knees, while
across the length crickets.
of north America, grasshoppers have ears
having hatched only at the base of their
a few weeks earlier.
their bodies contain abdomen. thin sheets
a naturally magnetic of skin on the cricket’s
substance called
magnetite. some legs vibrate when its
scientists believe that they mate chirps.
may follow the lines of
earth’s magnetic field. RAdAR eARs

electRIc sense A fennec fox’s huge ears
Animal bodies produce concentrate sound waves
tiny bursts of electricity, deep into each ear. each
especially in the muscles. ear swivels around
the platypus’s leathery independently to find
bill is very sensitive to the direction of a sound.
touch and electric the fennec fox can hear
currents in the water. a desert beetle kicking over
the animal finds crayfish sand grains many yards
in the mud by detecting away. the huge ears also
the electrical bursts from give off heat from the many
their flicking tails. blood vessels inside them,
helping the fox stay cool.

Scenting organ in A reward at Find out more
the nose is about the end of Animals
30 times larger the trail Birds
than a human’s
scenting organ. dogs, wolves, and foxes
Fish

Mammals
sharks and rays

snakes

26

antarctica

STreTChiNG ACroSS AN AreA larger than the united States, the
continent of Antarctica sits beneath a huge sheet of ice up to 1.2 miles
(2 km) thick. Antarctica is centered on the South pole and is surrounded
by the ice-covered Southern ocean. powerful winds create a storm belt
around the continent, bringing fog and severe blizzards. it is the coldest
and windiest place on earth. even during the short summers, the
temperature barely climbs above freezing, and the
sea ice only partly melts. in winter, temperatures can Scientists can use
plummet to -112˚F (-80˚C). Few animals and plants can satellites to track
survive on land, but the surrounding seas teem with fish the movements
Situated at the southernmost point of penguins
of the world, Antarctica covers an by attaching
area of about 5.5 million sq miles a transmitter
(14 million sq km). The nearest and mammals. Due to its harsh climate, there are no to them.
land masses are South America, permanent residents of Antarctica. The only people
and New Zealand. The highest on the continent are tourists, and scientists and staff
point is Vinson Massif, which working in research stations. human activity has led
rises to 16,067 ft (4,897 m). to environmental concerns, including overfishing, the
ANTArCTiC TeMperATureS depletion of the ozone layer above the region, and
the effects of global warming, which has led to the
melting of ice in some coastal areas.

28°F (2°C) Seawater SCieNTiFiC reSeArCh Platinum
freezes. On the
Antarctic coast There are 45 permanent, and as many
summer temperatures as 100 temporary, research stations
are only a degree or in Antarctica devoted to scientific
so warmer than this. projects for 15 different nations.
-13°F (-25°C) Steel Teams of scientists study the
crystallizes and wildlife and monitor the ice for
becomes brittle. changes in earth’s atmosphere.
Antarctic-based research has
resulted in a number of scientific
breakthroughs, including the
discovery of a hole in the ozone
layer above the continent.

TouriSM
Cruise liners have been bringing tourists to the Antarctic region
since the 1950s. in 1983, Chileans began to fly to King George island,
where an 80-bed hotel has been built for vacationers. Antarctica
receives several thousand tourists each year. Visitors come to see
the dramatic landscape and unique wildlife, such as King penguins.

-40°F (-40°C) Synthetic Iron
rubber becomes brittle,
and exposed flesh Gold
freezes rapidly. MiNerAl weAlTh
-128.2°F (-89°C)
Lowest temperature Antarctica has deposits of minerals,
ever recorded, at such as gold, copper, uranium, and
nickel. however, extracting them may
Vostok Research damage the fragile polar environment.
Station, Antarctica,
1983. Find out more
Continents
Glaciers and ice caps

inuits
polar wildlife
rain and snow

27

antarctica

Volcano Mountain Ancient Capital Large Small Research whale Protection
monument city city/ city/ station large-scale whale hunting in antarctic seas
town town began in the 20th century. the whale population
soon fell, and in 1948 the international whaling
statistics commission was set up to monitor the diminishing
area: 5,405,430 sq miles numbers. following an international agreement in
(14,000,000 sq km) 1994, a whale sanctuary was created to protect whale
Population: no
permanent residents feeding grounds from overfishing.
capital: none
Languages: english, foreiGn territories
spanish, french,
norwegian, chinese, antarctica was first discovered in
Polish, russian, the 19th century. since then, various
German, Japanese nations, including australia, france,
Religions: not applicable new zealand, norway, argentina,
currency: none chile, and the uK, have claimed
Main occupation: territory. however, these claims have
scientific research been suspended under the 1959
Main exports: none antarctic treaty, which came into
Main imports: none force in 1961. under the treaty,
the continent can be used only for
peaceful purposes. stations may
be set up for scientific research, but
military bases are forbidden.

frozen seas antarctic ice
During the cold winter months, icebergs barricade more than 90 percent of the antarctic
coastline. the continent contains more than 80 percent of
the seas surrounding Antarctica the world’s fresh water in the form of ice. lambert Glacier
freeze, almost doubling the size The Lambert Glacier is the world’s largest
SOUTHERN OCEAN series of glaciers. It is 60 miles (100 km)
of the continent. wide at the coast and reaches more
than 250 miles (400 km) inland.
ea
SOU
South Orkney
Islands
Drake Passage

Scotia S
South Shetland
Islands
King George Queen Maud THERN
Island a r Land Land Enderby
Antar Land
c t W eddell Coats
i c Land
Penin Sea Kemp
Palme Land
s u l Berkner
Island Cape Darnley
Lambert
Ronne Glacier Mackenzie Bay
Alexander Ice Shelf Prydz Bay OCEAN
Island East

a N t a R c t i c aBellingshausenEllsworth Vinson MassifT r a n south amundsen-Scott Princess Davis
Sea Land 4897m Pole (to US) Elizabeth Sea
santarct Shackleton
PEtER i isLaND West Land Ice Shelf
Ross
A n t a r c t i c a(to Norway) Antarctica ic south vostok
M Geomagnetic (to russian Federation)
transantarctic Mar o Pole
mountains i e
The Transantarctic Amundsen Byrd Land untains
Mountains run across s
the continent, splitting Mount Sidley
it into East and Ice e

WWest Antarctica. 4181m Shelf k
d

Sea Roosevelt Victoria Land il Cape
Island n Poinsett

a

Mount Erebus L
3794m
S O U pTaLcikHmiicteEo(fDRsReucmeomNmsbeerrs) n
Sea
ross ice shelf Oates George V
Ice shelves are permanent Cape Adare Land Land
floating ice sheets that are
attached to land and We
are constantly fed by
glaciers.The Ross Ice Shelf OCEAN S
is 600–3,000 ft (183–914 m)
thick and about 600 miles scaLE BaR
(966 km) long. 0 500 1000
Limit of winter pack ice (June) km

0 500 1000 miles

28

ANTS ANd TERMITES

imAGine HoW mAnY millions of ants and termites live on this
planet. There are at least 12,000 different
kinds of ants and 2,750 kinds of termites. Cooling chimney
lets warm air
and carbon
These tiny creatures are among the most dioxide
fascinating animals on earth. Both ants and out of the
termites are social insects, living in large termite
groups called colonies, where each individual mound.

has a specific job to do. The queen
(the main female) mates with a male
and then spends her life laying eggs.
The hordes of workers do such jobs
as gathering food and rearing the young.
Soldiers protect the nest and the
foraging workers. Ants eat a variety of
AnT HeAd
The Asian tree-living ant food, including caterpillars, leaves, and
has simple jaws for feeding fungi. Termites feed mostly on plant AnT HiLL
on soft insects. other ants matter, and they are among nature’s most of the passages of an ant
and termites have strong most valuable recyclers.
jaws for chewing wood hill are underground. eggs,
and hard plant stems. larvae (grubs), and pupae
are kept in separate parts
TermiTe mound Termite
mound of the nest. Large-jawed
many termites make small nests in dead trees or soldiers guard the
underground. A few kinds of termites build a mound entrances. A large
that contains a termite city—a home for many millions ant nest may contain

100,000 ants.

Courtier
workers
of termites. in hot areas, the mounds have tunnels and
ventilation holes and may be more than 20 ft
(6 m) high. The mounds are often Termite
occupied for more than 50 years, mound
and the thick walls help keep out Front leg has many
tunnels.
Queen
anteaters and other predators. Jaws termite
The queen and king termites
live in a royal chamber Soldier
deep inside the mound. Antenna can bend termite
like an elbow joint.
Eye

Middle leg Thorax

Fungus grows
on the termites’
dung (waste matter)
Head inside the termite Nursery Queen lays
Claw mound. These 20,000 or
Rear areas are called for termite more eggs
leg fungus gardens. larvae daily in the
Termites feed
royal chamber. King
termite

Worker AnT on the fungus. Workers regurgitate Young
(spit out) food for male
Ant squirts All worker ants are female. Their long, queen, king, and termite
formic acid claw-tipped legs allow them to run fast and soldier termites.
from rear of climb well. Workers collect food, regurgitate Courtier workers TermiTeS
body in self- Abdomen it to feed the other ants, look after eggs and feed and clean The queen and male termites
defense. Worker ant queen and king.
have wings. They take flight
ArmY AnTS larvae, and clean the nest. They do not have and mate, and then the queen
wings, unlike the queen and male ants. returns to the nest. The queen
A few ants, such as these army
ants of South America, do LeAf-cuTTinG AnTS does not leave the nest again
not make permanent and is cared for by the courtier
nests and are always Ants can lift objects that weigh workers. The main male,
on the move. As the more than they do. Leaf-cutting
colony marches ants bite off pieces of leaves and or king, is larger than
the workers and
carry them back to a huge remains with
underground nest. Here they
chew the leaves and mix the queen.

through the forests, them with saliva to make Find out more
they forage for insects, a kind of compost. Animals
and sometimes even
eat large animals alive. fungus—the leaf-cutting ecology and food webs
ant’s only food—grows insects
on this compost.

Spiders and scorpions

29

ArchAeology

For an archaeologist, brushing away the soil that hides a broken pot
is like brushing away time. every tiny fragment helps create a more complete
picture of the past. archaeology is the study of the remains of past human
societies, but it is not the same as history. historians use written records as
their starting point, while archaeologists use objects. they excavate, or dig,
in the ground or underwater for bones, pots, and anything else created by
our ancestors. they also look for seeds, field boundaries, and other signs
of how long-dead people made use of the landscape. But archaeology is
not just concerned with dead people and buried objects. it also helps us
understand what may happen to our own society in the future. archaeology
has shown that human actions
and changes in the climate A grid pattern divides the site into squares so heinrich schliemann
or environment can that archaeologists can quickly record the
exact location of each find.

destroy whole In photographs of the site, in 1870, the pioneer german
communities. the stripes painted on archaeologist heinrich
poles make it easy schliemann (1822-90)
By sketching objects, to judge the size
archaeologists can of objects. discovered the site of troy
in turkey. he also set out basic
sometimes record more
detail than a camera can. rules for excavation, such as
careful recordkeeping. he did
not always follow his own rules.

his impatient hunt for
treasure sometimes destroyed
analysis the objects he was seeking.

the position Small trowels allow
and location of archaeologists to
remove soil carefully.
the objects uncovered
in a dig can provide
important information.
For this reason, archaeologists excavation
measure, examine, record, archaeologists gather
and analyze everything they much of their information
find and preserve it if about the past by carrying
possible. scientific methods out excavations, or digs.
such as radioactive dating they decide where to dig
enable archaeologists to by looking at aerial photographs,
find out the exact age of Archaeologists old pictures, maps, documents, or
objects made thousands sieve the soil marks on the ground. then they carefully
of years ago. they remove remove layers of soil, often using trowels and other
to check for small tools. the archaeologists keep digging until they
objects they may
have overlooked.

reach undisturbed soil with no trace of human occupation.

A soft brush removes 19th-century 17th-century Brick-lined well,
dry soil without drain floor c. 1800

damaging the object.

16th-century
chalk floor

BronZe-age tools 14th-century
archaeologists often find tools from ancient chalk-lined cesspit
times. the axe and arrowhead shown above
date from the Bronze age and are estimated Roman tiled
to have been used by humans between 3,000 floor
and 8,000 years ago.

stratiFication

archaeologists on a dig determine the relative age
of each object they find from where it is buried,

using the principle of stratification. this principle
says that older objects are usually buried deeper in

the ground than newer objects.

30

ArchAeology

TOLLund Man AeriAl photogrAphy
photography of the ground from airplanes began in
In 1950, archaeologists in the 1920s. It made archaeology easier because the high
denmark made a dramatic viewpoint reveals traces of buildings, roads, and fields
discovery. They found the that are invisible from the ground.
remarkably well preserved
body of a man in a peat bog
called Tollund Mose. The
man had been hanged and
buried about 2,000 years
ago. Most dead bodies soon
rot underground, but the
peat had tanned Tollund
man so that his flesh was
hard like a leather shoe.
Many details remained,
and scientists could even
tell that his last meal had
been a kind of porridge.

Richard Leakey measures and The Leakeys
records every detail of the The Leakey family has made major discoveries
human remains that he digs up. about the origins of human beings. Louis and his
wife, Mary, began to work in the Olduvai Gorge
in Tanzania (africa) in the 1930s. There they
showed that ancestors of human beings existed
1,750,000 years ago. since the 1960s, their son
Richard has continued their research. We can
now trace our ancestors back over more than
six million years. Modern humans evolved
around 200,000 years ago.

Among the objects found Archaeologists
in the tomb of Tutankhamun excavating
was a pectoral,
or brooch, in the the wreck of the
shape of a Slava Rossi found
scarab beetle.
Russian icons
(religious paintings).

TuTankhaMun shIpWReCks
The discovery of the
tomb of Tutankhamun The development of lightweight diving equipment over the
was one of the most last 50 years has enabled archaeologists to excavate sites
sensational events in the
history of archaeology. underwater. They use many of the same methods that are
Tutankhamun was a boy- used on land. Most underwater archaeologists look for
king who ruled in egypt shipwrecks, but they sometimes discover landscapes,
3,500 years ago. In 1922, buildings, and even towns of ancient civilizations.
the British archaeologist
howard Carter (1873-1939) Howard Carter Find out more
(left) found the Bronze age
found Tutankhamun’s sarcophagus, egypt, ancient
fabulously rich burial place in or coffin, of evolution
the Valley of the kings. near the Tutankhamun.
boy-king’s remains lay gold treasure It was remarkably Fossils
well preserved. Geology
and beautiful furniture. Iron age
31 prehistoric peoples

Architecture

Built around 200 bce, Most of our buildings have been planned by an architect.
this Indian stupa, or dome,
was originally a mound the word architect is greek for “builder” or “craftworker,” and architects
covering a site sacred to the aim to design and construct buildings that are attractive, functional,
Buddha or a relic of him.
In 447 bce, the Greek and comfortable. Architecture means designing a building; it also
architects Ictinus and refers to the building style. styles of architecture have changed over
Callicrates designed
the Parthenon, a the centuries and differ from culture to culture, so architecture
temple to the can tell us a lot about people. the Ancient greeks, for
goddess Athena, example, produced simple, balanced buildings that
in Athens, Greece. showed their disciplined approach to life. Architects
With its graceful are artists who create buildings. but
columns, it is a unlike other artists, they must sell their
perfect example ideas before they are able to produce
of classical architecture. their buildings.

clAssicAl Architecture
the Ancient greeks and romans developed a style that we call
classical architecture. Most greek buildings consisted of columns to
support the roof. the types of columns varied according to the
particular classical “order” (style) that was used. everything was

simple and perfectly even. the romans, who came after the
greeks, developed the arch, dome, and vault.

Elegantly curving skyward Milan Cathedral in gothic Architecture
in several tiers, pagodas Italy (right) is an With their multitudes of pointed arches, finely carved
example of late stonework, and intricate windows, gothic buildings are
were built as shrines to the Gothic architecture. the opposite of simple classical ones. the gothic style of
Buddha. On the right is architecture began in western europe in the 12th century.
the pagoda of Yakushi-ji it was used mainly in building cathedrals and churches.
Temple, in Japan. Each Although most gothic buildings were huge, their thin
element in the building’s walls, pointed arches, and large areas of stained-glass
design originally had a
religious meaning. windows made them seem light and delicate.

Following the client’s brief, the
architect presents a drawing
(below) to the client to
show how the finished
building will look.

frAnk lloyd Architects

Wright if you wanted to build a house, you would
approach an architect, giving clear and
American architect frank lloyd precise details of what you required
Wright (1869-1959) influenced
many other architects. he tried to (a brief). An architect must know from
blend buildings into their natural a client what the building is to be used
surroundings and create a feeling for, how many people will use it, and
of space, with few walls, so that how much money is available. A good
rooms could “flow” into one another. architect will make sure that the new design fits in
At bear run, Pennsylvania, he built with existing buildings around it and is built from suitable
fallingwater, a house over a waterfall. material. the architect then presents drawings and plans to the client.
When the plans are approved, work on the building can begin.

Doric column Ionic column Corinthian column Barrel vault Groin vault Rib vault Dome

32

architecture

Extraordinary architEcturE
Some architects design weird and wonderful
buildings that really stand out from the rest.
in 1965, a new town was built outside paris,
France, called marne-la-Vallée. it has many
extraordinary buildings, designed by various
adventurous architects. the apartment complex,
left, is like a monument that people can live in.
two circular buildings face each other across a
central courtyard. it was designed by a Spanish
architect named manolo nunez-yanowsky.

Jean Louis Charles Garnier was the architect Designed by the British
of the Paris Opera House (built 1861-75). It is architect Norman Foster,
Neobaroque—a 19th-century revival of the
Baroque style. the 30 St. Mary Axe
The Burj Khalifa, building in London,
a skyscraper in Dubai, England, is an example
UAE, is 2,716 ft (828 m) of contemporary
high, and the tallest architecture. Due to its
building in the world. shape, it is popularly
known as the Gherkin.

Baroque arChiteCture Contemporary arChiteCture
During the 1500s in rome, architects wanted to break the Glass, steel, and concrete are the building
classical rules of simplicity and evenness and build more materials of today’s architecture. there is
exciting, dramatic buildings. they added domes, clusters of
statues, and ornate decoration and carving to their buildings. little decoration, because a building’s
this style, known as Baroque, spread from italy to other parts purpose is considered more important
of europe. many churches and grand palaces were built in the than its shape or form. the “international”
Baroque style. style—glass and concrete suspended on

The architect draws up a steel framework—is seen almost
detailed plans of the inside everywhere in the world.
of the building to show how
the space will be used.

Working drawings
contain exact
measurements,
materials, and
structures, down
to the tiniest detail.

The builder uses working drawings for
each stage of a construction project.

Pediment Gothic arch Romanesque arch Cornice Find out more
Cities
33 Dams

industrial revolution
plastics

renaissance

arctic

The arctic ocean centers on the The smallesT of The WoRlD’s IceBReakINg
North Pole, the northern extremity
of earth’s axis. Three of the world’s oceans, the arctic centers on the North Pole. although half of the arctic ocean
largest rivers, the ob, Yenisey, and Between the months of December and may, is covered by ice in the winter,
lena, flow into the cold waters most of the arctic ocean is covered by polar
of the arctic ocean. The arctic sea ice, up to 98 ft (30 m) thick. The ocean special ships called icebreakers can
regions consist of alaska, canada, is surrounded by the arctic regions, where still sail through the ice. During
greenland, and northern siberia. much of the ground is permanently frozen
to depths of 1,500–2,000 ft (460–600 m). particularly harsh winters, ice can
During the long, cold winters in the far become so dense in harbors and
north, much of the land is subject to periods ports that it freezes right down to
of 24-hour darkness. This is because of the the seabed, marooning ships for
low angle of the sun in relation to the months at a time. Icebreakers are
ground. Beneath the rocks of the arctic
regions lie rich reserves of iron, nickel, designed to crush the ice with
copper, zinc, and oil. severe weather their steel hulls, opening up a lane
conditions have made it hard to exploit these that other ships can pass through.
resources. But global warming is thinning the
sea ice and opening up new areas of land. The Russian nuclear-powered
arctic countries now want to claim areas of “arktika” ships are the world’s
the seabed. largest, most powerful icebreakers.

Teams of hardy husky dogs were
traditionally used to pull sleds across
the frozen ground. aRcTIc seTTleRs

The arctic is one of the world’s most sparsely populated regions. Today, some 115,000
Inuit (eskimo) people live in greenland, alaska, and canada. over the past 3,000 years,
they have adapted to their icebound conditions, hunting with kayaks and harpoons, and
existing on a diet of caribou, seal, whale meat, and fish. They lived in houses made of
frozen snow (igloos) or semi-underground stone pit-houses. Today, snowmobiles
(above) have replaced sleds, and rifles are used for hunting.

coal mININg PolaR BeaRs
The Norwegian island of spitsbergen, in the arctic ocean, has very extensive coal deposits. Between 20,000 and 25,000 polar bears roam the
arctic. Their white coats provide perfect camouflage,
Its coal-mining towns are isolated and are desolate places. The sea route to and a 4-in (10-cm) layer of body fat keeps them warm.
mainland Norway, some 620 miles (1,000 km) away, is frozen for four Bears gorge on seals from april to July—they can
months of the year. many Inuit have moved to towns such as these survive for eight months without food, and are asleep
to work in the coal mines. for several of these months. They can swim as far as

93 miles (150 km) in search of prey.

Find out more
glaciers and ice caps

Inuits
oceans and seas
ocean wildlife
Polar wildlife

34

arctic

gianT icebergs
Volcano Mountain Ancient Capital Large Small icebergs are frozen lumps of freshwater ice
monument city city/ city/ that have broken off a glacier. Most arctic
town town icebergs have broken off the coastal
glaciers of greenland, baffin island, and
statistics ellesmere island. each year, about 375 arcTic Tern
greenland icebergs flow into the north atlantic, The arctic tern (left)
area: where they are extremely dangerous to breeds in the southern
shipping. icebergs can vary from the size arctic and winters
836,330 sq miles of a grand piano to a 10-story building,
(2,166,086 sq km) 147 ft (45 m) high. They are moved by in the antarctic,
status: self-governing winds and currents and melt and break the longest annual
territory of denmark up within two years of entering the ocean. migration of any bird.
claimed: 1380
Population: 58,000 norThern lighTs
capital: nuuk The northern lights
(aurora borealis) occur
Jan Mayen when highly charged
area: particles from the sun
146 sq miles (377 sq km) collide with particles
status: norwegian in earth’s atmosphere.
dependency These glowing streaks
claimed: 1929 of light are brightest
Population: 0
capital: none at the north Pole.

svalbard Prudhoe bay arcTic ocean
area: Rich reserves of oil are Bering The Arctic Ocean is
23,956 sq miles found in Alaska’s Prudhoe Saint Lawrence characterized by a wide
(62,045 sq km) Bay. A 795-mile Island Sea continental shelf and
status: norwegian (1,280-km) long deep basin around
dependency anchorage nome Provideniya the North Pole.
claimed: 1920 Yukon Ri
Population: 1,900 pipeline transports ering StraitverkaB R U sPevek n e
capital: longyearbyen oil from Prudhoe a l(paarSt
Bay to the of Us) Chukchi East sIa W
Halibut ice-free port Sea Siberian S
of Valdez. Laptev
arcTic fish a barrow Wrangel Sea Sea a S i aTiksi Lena
large quantities of cod, haddock, M a c k enzie Island
and halibut are found in the
arctic ocean. arctic catches C inuvik Prudhoe bay
are mainly processed in greenland.
greenland eDrai Great Beaufort Chukchi FEDERaTION
greenland, the world’s largest Bear Sea Plain
island, is a self-governing Lake N
territory of denmark. The Chukchi New Siberian
interior of greenland is covered m Plateau Islands FINLaND
by an enormous ice sheet, which a
rises to a height of 10,000 ft Canada Wrangel
(3,000 m). The coastline is a Victoria Basin Plain
deeply indented with fjords. N Island
ARCTIC
L
rTh v khatanga
ca Ridge
Queen noso Severnaya
North Zemlya
Elizabeth
o m o

o Islands Pole noril’sk
Ellesmere Island dikson
n Pond alert OCEAN Kara Yenisey
inlet Nares Strait Sea vorkuta Ob`
n Island Wandel
Savissivik North Franz
Baf n Geomagnetic Josef
Baf Bay Pole Land

Davis Strait (tGorDeenemnalrka)n d FreLdaerniKkonVgIII Sea Novaya
sVaLBaRD Zemlya

(to Norway)

d Spitsbergen
daneborg
longyearbyen ( December) Ostrov

Labrador Greenland winter pack ice B a r e n tKsotel'nyy
Sea Sea Sea
Sisimiut ice (June) Lim it of

nUUk Gunnbjørn Fjeld pack North Cape murmansk
3700m JaN MaYEN
summer (to Norway) Kola
ammassaDlieSknt rmaaiLtrimkit Peninsula
of Norwegian archangel
Sea
NORWa Y
reYkJavÍk sWEDEN scaLE BaR
eUroPe 0 250 500 km
ATLANTIC OCEAN miles
35 0 250 500

argentina

Argentina stretches for 2,150 miles ArGeNTiNA cONsisTs Of Three mAiN reGiONs. in the
(3,460 km) down the southeastern
coast of south America. its border north, lie the hot, humid lands of the Gran chaco. in the center, the
in the west is defined by the Andes. temperate grasslands of the Pampas provide some of the world’s best
To the south it straddles the farming country. Argentina is a world leader in beef exports and a
strait of magellan. major producer of wheat, corn, fruit, and vegetables. in the far south,
the barren semidesert of Patagonia is rich in reserves of coal, petroleum,
and natural gas. Argentina was settled by the spanish in 1543. New
european diseases, as well as conflict between the spanish and Native
Americans, considerably reduced Argentina’s original population. in
the 19th century, many immigrants from southern europe, especially
spain and italy, came to Argentina to work on farms and cattle ranches.
Although spanish is the official language today, many other languages
are spoken, ranging from Welsh to Basque, reflecting the varied origins
of Argentina’s many settlers.

ArGeNTiNiAN WiNe
european vines were
introduced to Argentina
by spanish missionaries,
and thrived in the
temperate climate and
fertile soils of the central
regions. Argentina is the
fourth-largest wine-
producing country in
the world—though much
of the wine is for sale in
Argentina only.

GAuchOs BueNOs Aires
Argentina’s capital, Buenos Aires, is
These nomadic cowboys of the Argentine Pampas first one of the largest cities in south
appeared in the 18th century, when they were hired America. situated on the Plate river
to hunt escaped horses and cattle. Their standard estuary, it is also a major port and
equipment included a lasso, knife, and bolas (iron balls thriving industrial center. it was
on leather straps, thrown at the legs of the escaping founded by spanish settlers in 1580,
animals). in the 19th century, they were hired by and some historic buildings survive
ranch owners as skilled cattle herders. Today, today. The city expanded in the 19th
Argentine cowboys keep their culture alive. They still
wear the gaucho costume of a poncho (a woollen
cape), high leather boots, and long, pleated trousers.

A street performance (below) of a century when european immigrants
tango in Buenos Aires. The South flooded to Argentina. its museums,
American version of the tango library, opera house, and cafés all give
developed from a blend of rhythms the city a european flavor.
brought to South America by African
slaves, as well as rhythms from Spain.

ANdes TANGO dANcers
Tango developed in the 1880s in
This wall of mountains forms a natural border between the poorer districts of Buenos
Argentina and its western neighbor, chile. in 1881, the Aires. By 1915, it had become a
two countries signed a treaty defining this boundary. craze in the fashionable ballrooms
in western Argentina, the extinct volcano, cerra of europe. Today, the sensuous
Aconcagua, reaches a height of 22,816 ft (6,959 m). dance, accompanied by
it is the highest peak in the south American Andes. melancholy song, is still popular
on the streets of the city.

Find out more
coal

south america
south america, history of

36

argentina

Volcano Mountain Ancient Capital Large Small Atacama Desert BOLiVia Chaco
monument city city/ city/
town town
Tropic of Capricorn
statistics San Salvador ran P a RaGUaBermejoPilcomayo Tropic of Capricorn
area: 1,073,518 sq miles de Jujuy
(2,780,400 sq km) OCEAN
Population: LE Salta G
43,432,000
capital: Buenos aires Andes Cerro Ojos San miguel Formosa Y Plate
Languages: Spanish, del Salado de Tucumán
italian, amerindian Urugu
languages 6880m Paraná
Religions: roman Corrientes a
Catholic, Jewish, Santiago resistencia ZiL
Protestant del estero
currency:
argentine peso Posadas
Main occupation:
agriculture la rioja Salado ay
Main exports: Beef, Laguna Mar
wheat, fruit, wine Chiquita a raná R
Main import: B
designer clothing
San Juan Santa Fe P Concordia
Paraná
mendoza córdoba URUGUaY
godoy
Cerro Aconcagua Cruz Rosario
6959m
San rafaelSalado río Cuarto gualeguaychú

IC m p a s BUENOs aiREs
i
a Junín La Plata River

P

ACIF Santa rosa dolores
olavarría azul O
sH mar Cdel Plata
aRGENtiNa necochea EA
Tres arroyos N
Colorado
Zapala bahía
blanca
neuquén Bahía Blanca
Río
San antonio Negro
c oeste
viedma
e Nahuel Huapi
Lago

San Carlos de bariloche Gulf of San Matías
P ATLANTIC
Península n
d Valdés

esquel Chubut rawson

An a W e

i

Sarmiento n S

Chico

o Comodoro rivadavia

g Gulf of San Jorge Falkland iSlandS
Perito DeseaCdoaleta olivia
morenoa discovered by the British in

t

Golfo de Penas a 1592, the Falkland islands are a
Tierra del Fuego
This string of islands is separated P Puerto self-governing British colony,
from the South american mainland deseado some 300 miles (480 km) off the
by the Strait of Magellan. They are
divided between argentina and Chico FaLKLaND coast of argentina.
Chile. The landscape, with its isLaNDs The cool, windy
mountains, frozen lakes, and Santa Cruz Bahía islands are only
glaciers, is bleak and windswept. el Calafate Grande West (to UK)
it is also barren—only stunted trees río gallegos suitable for grazing
and mosses grow there. Herds of Falkland sheep, and meat and
sheep graze the land. oil has been
discovered in this remote area. wool are their main
resource. in 1982,
Strait of Magellan East argentina claimed the
Falkland
Falklands as their territory.
Tierra río grande Isla de los Estados They surrendered after
10 weeks, when British
del Fuego
reinforcements landed. in 2013,
scaLE BaR the people of the Falklands voted
0 200 400 km Cape Haosrns to remain a part of the uk.
400 miles
0 200 D r a k eP a g e

37

Armor

Ancient wArriors quickly realized that they would survive in battle if they
could protect themselves against their enemies. so they made armor—special
clothing that was tough enough to stop weapons from injuring the wearer.
Prehistoric armor was simple. it was made of leather but was strong enough
to provide protection against crude spears and swords. As weapons became
sharper, armor also had to improve. A thousand years ago, the roman empire
employed many armorers who made excellent metal armor. But after the fall of
rome in the 5th century, blacksmiths began to make armor and its quality fell.
in the 14th century, specially trained armorers invented plate
armor, to withstand lances, arrows, and swords. But even
Arrows bounced the thickest armor cannot stop a bullet, so armor became
off the curves
of the helmet.
Knights often less useful when guns were invented. today, no one AnimAL Armor
wore mail or uses traditional armor, but people in combat still soldiers have used animals in warfare,
padding beneath such as dogs for attack and horses for
wear protective clothing made out of modern
the helmet. plastics and tough metals. riding into battle. Armor protected
these animals when they fought. the
most elaborate animal armor was the
elephant armor of 17th-century india.

The breastplate was flared Helmets
so that enemy sword A single heavy blow to the head can
strokes bounced off. kill a person, so helmets, or armored
hats, were among the first pieces of
The vambrace was armor to be made. they are still widely
a cylindrical piece to used today. Different shapes gave
protect the upper arm. protection against different types
of weapon. Bronze Age helmets protected
The cowter protected against swords more than
the elbow but allowed 3,000 years ago.
it to move freely.
Pikemen of the
The gauntlet was 16th century
made up of many
small pieces so that
the hand could
move freely.

The cuisse protected 12th-century helm Modern helmets give
only the front of the leg. protection against shrapnel
Poleyns had to bend easily (metal fragments from bombs).
when the knight rode a horse.
Greaves were among the BuLLetProof vest
earliest pieces of body armor modern police and security forces
to be made of sheet metal. sometimes wear bulletproof vests to protect
themselves from attack by criminals and
suit of Armor terrorists. the vests are made of many
layers of tough materials such as nylon
Late 15th-century armor provided and are capable of stopping a bullet.
a knight with a protective metal shell.
the armor was very strong and cleverly cHAin mAiL Find out more
jointed so that the knight could move chain mail was easier Alexander the great
easily. However, the metal suit weighed and cheaper for a Knights and heraldry
up to 70 lb (30 kg), so that running, blacksmith to make
for example, was virtually impossible. than a complicated medieval europe
suit of plate armor. roman empire
mail was very common vikings
between the 6th and
13th centuries. it
was made of a large
number of interlocking
rings of steel. it allowed
the wearer to move
easily, but did not give
good protection against
heavy swords and axes.

38

asia

The larGesT oF The seveN coNTINeNTs, asia occupies one-third
of the world’s total land area. Much of the continent is uninhabited. The
inhospitable north is a cold land of tundra. Parched deserts and towering
mountains take up large areas of the central region. Yet asia is the home of
well over half of the world’s population, most of whom live around the outer
rim. china alone has more than 1.3 billion people, and India has more than
1.2 billion. altogether, asia contains 48 nations and many times this number
of peoples, languages, and cultures. It has five main zones. In the north is
the russian Federation. Part of this is in europe, but the vast eastern region,
from the ural Mountains to the Pacific ocean, is in asia. The Pacific coast,
The ural Mountains form the which includes china, Korea, and Japan, is known as east asia. To the south
border between the continents of of this lie the warmer, more humid countries of southeast asia. India and
asia and europe. asia is separated
from africa by the red sea. The
Bering strait, only 55 miles (88 km) Pakistan are the principal countries of the Indian subcontinent in south
wide, marks the gap between asia asia. one of the world’s first civilizations began here, in the Indus valley.
and North america. australia lies
to the southeast. Bordered by the Mediterranean and arabian
seas, the Middle east lies to the west where
MIddle easT europe, asia, and africa meet.
The hot, dry lands of the Middle east
occupy the southwestern corner of asia.
almost the entire arabian Peninsula,
between the red sea and the Persian
Gulf, is desert. To the north, in Iraq Siberian scientists
and syria, lie the fertile valleys of the looking for minerals
Tigris and euphrates rivers. Most of in North Asia have to
the people of the Middle east are
arab, and speak arabic. work in subzero
temperatures,
and the cold
can freeze
their breath.

The Arabs of the Middle East drank coffee
long before it reached other countries.
sIBerIa

The northern coast of asia is fringed by the
arctic ocean. The sea here is frozen for

most of the year. a layer of the land, called
permafrost, is also always frozen. This area is
part of the vast region of the russian Federation
called siberia. despite the cold, russian people
live and work in siberia because the region is

rich in timber, coal, oil, and natural gas.

Trade rouTes TroPIcal raIN ForesTs
The warm, damp climate of much
as long as 2,000 years ago, there was of southeast asia provides the
trade between east asia and europe. perfect conditions for tropical rain
Traders carried silk, spices, gems, and forests, which thrive in countries
pottery. They followed overland routes such as Myanmar (Burma) and
across India and Pakistan, past the Malaysia. The forests are the
Karakoram Mountains (above). These habitat for a huge variety of wildlife
trade routes were known as the silk and are home to tribes of people
road; they are still used today. whose way of life has not changed
for centuries. But because many
of the forest trees are beautiful
hardwoods, the logging industry
is now cutting down the forests
at an alarming rate to harvest
the valuable timber.
Sunlight breaks through the dense
foliage of the rain forest only where
rivers have cut trails through the trees.

39

asia

ProSPeriTY Korea
Some asian countries, such as Japan The Korean peninsula juts out from northern China
toward Japan. The two Korean nations were at war
and Singapore, are among the between 1950 and 1953. They have lived in constant
world’s most prosperous nations. mistrust of each other since the war ended but are
The discovery of oil in a number now trying to mend the
of other countries, such as Saudi divisions between them.
arabia in the Middle east and South Korea has a
brunei in Southeast asia, has booming economy
and is heavily
made them very wealthy. supported by the
Brunei’s vast oil wealth has United States. North
enabled the sultan (ruler) to Korea is Communist
build a magnificent new palace. and poorer. The
It is called Istana Nurul Iman climate favors rice
and is only open to the public at growing, with warm
the end of the Islamic fasting summers and
icy winters.
month of Ramadan.
Construction work is a common
“Floating markets” Vanilla vines sight in South Korea, as new
are a common grow well in offices and factories are built
for the country’s expanding
sight on the busy the warm industries.
waterways of climate of SoUTHeaST aSia
East Asia. Indonesia, Many different people live in the warm,
and women tropical southeastern corner of asia. There
harvest the are 10 independent countries in the region.
pods by hand. Some of them—Myanmar (burma), Laos,
Thailand, Cambodia, and vietnam—are
Far eaST on the mainland attached to the rest of
east asia is asia. Further south lie brunei, Malaysia,
and the tiny island nation of Singapore.
often called the indonesia stretches across the foot of the
Far east. in the 19th region. it is a scattered nation of more than
century, european traders 13,500 islands. The islands of the Philippines
and travelers used this name are to the east. although some of these
to distinguish east asia from the countries are very poor, Southeast asia as a
whole has one of the most rapidly developing
Middle east. The Far east includes economies in the world.
China, Japan, and North and South Korea. Hundreds of different
languages are spoken in
the Indian subcontinent,
but Indian schools teach
pupils to read and write
Hindi, which is the
country’s official
language.

The port iNDiaN SUbCoNTiNeNT
of Shanghai The triangular landmass of South
lies at the
mouth of the asia extends south from the
Yangtze River. Himalayan mountain range to
YaNgTze river the warm waters of the indian
The Yangtze (or Chang Jiang), the world’s third- Find out more
longest river, flows 3,964 miles (6,380 km) through ocean. This region is also China
known as the indian
india and subcontinent
subcontinent. it Japan
includes not only
religions
india but also russian federation
Pakistan, Nepal,
bangladesh, and Southeast asia
bhutan. at the very
southern tip of india
lies the island nation
of Sri Lanka.

the middle of China, from its source in Tibet to the
sea at Shanghai. in 2006, work was completed on
the Three gorges Dam, China’s largest construction
project since the building of the great Wall.

40

ASIA

AsiA EAsT TiMOR KYRGYZsTAN sAUDi ARABiA
Asia is the world’s largest Area: 5,743 sq miles Area: 77,202 sq miles Area: 830,000 sq miles
continent. it is a region (14,874 sq km) (199,951 sq km) (2,149,690 sq km)
of contrasts: both in Population: 1,231,000 Population: 5,665,000 Population: 27,752,000
its landscape and its peoples. Capital: Dili Capital: Bishkek Capital: Riyadh
The break-up of the soviet GEORGiA LAOs
Union produced five new Area: 26,911 sq miles Area: 91,429 sq miles siNGAPORE
central Asian republics. The (69,700 sq km) (236,800 sq km) Area: 269 sq miles
countries in the south are Population: 4,931,000 Population: 6,911,500 (697 sq km)
mainly Muslim, but are Capital: Tbilisi Capital: Vientiane Population: 5,674,500
divided by religious iNDiA LEBANON Capital: singapore City
differences and conflicts. Area: 1,269,219 sq miles Area: 4,015 sq miles
(3,287,263 sq km) (10,400 sq km) sRi LANKA
Population: 1,251,695,500 Population: 6,185,000 Area: 25,332 sq miles
Capital: New Delhi Capital: Beirut (65,610 sq km)
Population: 22,053,500
AFGHANisTAN iNDONEsiA MALAYsiA Capital: Colombo, sri
Area: 251,827 sq miles Area: 735,358 sq miles Area: 127,354 sq miles Jayewardenepura Kotte
(652,230 sq km) (1,904,569 sq km) (329,847 sq km) sYRiA
Population: 32,564,000 Population: 255,994,000 Population: 30,514,000 Area: 71,489 sq miles
Capital: Kabul Capital: Jakarta Capital: Kuala Lumpur, Putrajaya (185,180 sq km)
MALDiVEs Population: 17,065,000
ARMENiA iRAN Area: 115 sq miles Capital: Damascus
Area: 11,484 sq miles Area: 636,372 sq miles (298 sq km) TAiWAN
(29,743 sq km) (1,648,195 sq km) Population: 393,000 Area: 13,892 sq miles
Population: 3,056,000 Population: 81,824,000 Capital: Malé (35,980 sq km)
Capital: Yerevan Capital: Tehran MONGOLiA Population: 23,415,000
Area: 603,909 sq miles Capital: Taipei
AZERBAiJAN iRAQ (1,564,116 sq km) TAJiKsTAN
Area: 33,436 sq miles Area: 169,235 sq miles Population: 2,993,000 Area: 55,637 sq miles
(86,600 sq km) (438,317 sq km) Capital: Ulan Bator (144,100 sq km)
Population: 9,781,000 Population: 37,056,000 MYANMAR (Burma) Population: 8,192,000
Capital: Baku Capital: Baghdad Area: 261,288 sq miles Capital: Dushanbe
(676,578 sq km) THAiLAND
BAHRAiN isRAEL Population: 56,320,000 Area: 198,117 sq miles
Area: 294 sq miles Area: 8,019 sq miles Capital: Nay Pyi Taw (513,120 sq km)
(760 sq km) (20,770 sq km) Population: 67,976,500
Population: 1,347,000 Population: 8,049,000 Capital: Bangkok
Capital: Manama Capital: Jerusalem TURKEY
Area: 302,535 sq miles
BANGLADEsH JAPAN NEPAL (783,562 sq km)
Area: 57,321 sq miles Area: 145,914 sq miles Area: 56,827 sq miles Population: 79,414,000
(148,460 sq km) (377,915 sq km) (147,181 sq km) Capital: Ankara
Population: 168,958,000 Population: 126,920,000 Population: 31,551,000 TURKMENisTAN
Capital: Dhaka Capital: Tokyo Capital: Kathmandu Area: 188,456 sq miles
(488,100 sq km)
BHUTAN JORDAN OMAN Population: 5,231,500
Area: 14,824 sq miles Area: 34,495 sq miles Area: 119,499 sq miles Capital: Ashgabat
(38,394 sq km) (89,342 sq km) (309,500 sq km) U.A.E.
Population: 742,000 Population: 8,117,500 Population: 3,287,000 Area: 32,278 sq miles
Capital: Thimphu Capital: Amman Capital: Muscat (83,600 sq km)
Population: 5,780,000
BRUNEi KAZAKHsTAN PAKisTAN Capital: Abu Dhabi
Area: 2,226 sq miles Area: 1,052,090 sq miles Area: 307,374 sq miles UZBEKisTAN
(5,765 sq km) (2,724,900 sq km) (796,095 sq km) Area: 172,741 sq miles
Population: 430,000 Population: 18,157,000 Population: 199,086,000 (447,400 sq km)
Capital: Bandar seri Begawan Capital: Astana Capital: islamabad Population: 29,200,000
CAMBODiA Capital: Tashkent
Area: 69,898 sq miles NORTH KOREA PHiLiPPiNEs ViETNAM
(181,035 sq km) Area: 46,540 sq miles Area: 115,831 sq miles Area: 127,881 sq miles
Population:15,709,000 (120,538 sq km) (300,000 sq km) (331,210 sq km)
Capital: Phnom Penh Population: 24,983,000 Population: 100,998,000 Population: 94,349,000
CHiNA Capital: Pyongyang Capital: Manila Capital: Hanoi
Area: 3,705,407 sq miles YEMEN
(9,596,960 sq km) sOUTH KOREA QATAR Area: 203,849 sq miles
Population: 1,367,485,000 Area: 38,502 sq miles Area: 4,473 sq miles (527,968 sq km)
Capital: Beijing (99,720 sq km) (11,586 sq km) Population: 26,737,000
Population: 49,115,000 Population: 2,195,000 Capital: sana
Capital: seoul, sejong City Capital: Doha

CYPRUs KUWAiT RUssiAN FED.
Area: 3,572 sq miles Area: 6,880 sq miles Area: 6,601,668 sq miles
(9,251 sq km) (17,818 sq km) (17,098,242 sq km)
Population: 1,189,000 Population: 2,788,500 Population: 142,424,000
Capital: Nicosia Capital: Kuwait Capital: Moscow

41

ASIA

Mount EvErEst
the Himalayan mountain range runs along the
Volcano Mountain Ancient Capital Large Small China-nepal border southeast from the Pamir
monument city city/ city/
town town Mountains. It is a group of rugged peaks and valleys,

sometimes described as the “roof of the world.” the
highest point in the Himalayas is Mount Everest
(right)—the world’s highest mountain.
StatiSticS
area: 17,207,994 sq miles
(44,568,500 sq km) SCALE BAR 1000 km
Population: 0 500 500 1000 miles
4,384,844,000
0

Highest point: Mount uraL MountaIns AN
Everest (nepal) The Ural Mountains
29,029 ft (8,848 m) form a natural border E East Bering
Longest river: Yangtze between Asia O C Sea
(China) 3,964 miles and Europe.
ARCTIC Siberian
Sea
a
(6,380 km) Laptev Kolym a KurILE IsLands
Largest lake: Caspian Sea Lena Kolyma Range The Kurile Islands are
sea 144,000 sq miles KamchatkP Kurile Islands
(372,960 sq km) Kara AC I F I part of the Russian
Sea Federation, but Japan
claims the southernmost
ns Yenisey Central e r Aildan a islands in this chain as
Siberian Sea of part of its own territory.
Ural Plateau b Lena Okhotsk
Argun
E RUSSIAN Si Sa
FEDERATION
P U r a l MountaiWest Amur khalin
E O Siberian Ob’ Angara Vitim Amur
U R Ob’
Lchashen Plain

Sea
M e diteSreraa n
A I C H I N A NI N D I ATropic of CanJcEeerLCRaINJSUEnYOIRSBCBPARAAEORLDIENSEUARLIMaONUASNKTNTAAARMUGRSSIDYAiuYSMARRBKARAUAlNYEAflKUMDAaMAarARUMYNoEWPHQcEARfQAIABkeEYRAANDSMArnAaECNIdAiITEnbAVeITBUAMnZsiNAAAauESARNRGnlGPIaBAeHGuU.Br(SBADslDtAE.foTioAOAZaOcAOHBKoYn.EIDMHEtIAUReRrCRLmA.aRABTAGIAaBflSeUGENnIGI.IAuHNA)MTDAlAfRNUBHUoAArfRASNTSOaCKBAmeIMbTUaAaiEKnFZaGPBnEHAKASAAAKeZNrBSaaIyIUlrSASADNLTTSAKETMANWBADNToHaNUuDAlNkASTnSLEhaSHHaraKIALtGmSskATHKKEJhYoLeaINdEAvIRABdKaAIBNTeaMvIKGIrSaErHTSiHeANrHsYBihKsTMnBtZKNuaAiAAA8SnEENmNDTNlT8KPuGa4DnAArai8LUPoNMLmmfAlolaHTGDuteanaiAeBEbBntaBrnaSgeayuieedaHthDnsanamsaiyHmTgaBMAHaposMaHuKnoSfIltaMuAUrNlOanwPMATMetBHeaY(AeYnNABkUiPoNANUnnYgVNsGRGIGIMMTKEOoAAONTA)bWKTHRBLLHiIAAaaUIkiNILLkLeAEIaAAACnlNONBnASBEVeDYMraIAHJnXBTIMgANiOtOzoNJGeiRDAPaOnYnIIgOAyHDaNaanoGigCnSYaSohAnuNeiYaSnMGKteSOhlaeAOlNKaoUNRwOPOCTITTSEL(EHRARSSEHhEAAAIETaEOJSaeIWIiJPaHAeLsanOUsAEpatLtLINNaIauSPoGnzefPoaCPn)IIhTNTJirYlAoSEipeMpPTiSacpAOioniNnfKdCYeaOannacoerC

spian Sea Alt ngolia Honshu N
rtysh S
W E
arya Equator
Tigris KIASmTuANNDIaSrTyaAN (Yello uw aRnivger)He Ryukyu Islands A
Euphrates OCE
I ndus
Red Sea
I E T NMeAkoMng
AFRIC Irrawaddy

N Islands PHNOM PENH
D (to India) Andaman Gulf of
IsEouL BANDAR SERI
AModern office blocks crowd together in SRI Sea Thailand BEGAWAN New Gu in ea
Nseoul, the capital city of south Korea, but COLOMBO LANKA Nicobar M A L A Y S I A BRUNEI Papua
Islands LUKMUPAULAR Moluccas (Irian Jaya) L I A
a few ancient buildings still survive. the SRI (to India)
um
Osouth Gate (below) was built at the end of JAYAWARDENEPURA PUTRAJAYA B o r n e o Sulawesi ESIA
C Ethe 14th century as part of a wall that once KOTTE
A Nsurrounded the city. today seoul is spreading S SINGAPORE (Celebes)

far beyond its original boundaries, as rapid Equator atra J a vI a N D F l o rFOe sloSreesa N
industrial growth creates a need for more Sea
offices, factories, and homes. EAST TIMOR
DILI
Timor
JAKARTA J a v a Timor Sea A
R
East tIMor A U S T
In 1975, Indonesia invaded the
Portuguese colony of East Timor,
the eastern part of the island of
Timor. The following year the region
was made a province of Indonesia. In
a UN-monitored referendum in 1999,
voters rejected Indonesian rule, and
in 2002 East Timor became an
independent state.

Java
rice terraces (right)
provide the staple food for
Indonesia. these fields are
on the island of Java, which
has only seven per cent of
Indonesia’s land area but is
the home of some 60 percent of

the country’s people.

42

AsiAhistory of

The vasT conTinenT of asia is home to the oldest civilizations
and religions in the world. Because asia contains many virtually
impassable deserts and mountain ranges, individual countries
developed separately from each other. however, links between
these countries sprang up as merchants traveled along the silk
Road, indian kings invaded neighboring countries, Buddhist
monks crossed the himalayas, and arab traders sailed across the
indian ocean. as a result, the great hindu, Buddhist, and islamic
religions spread across the continent. for much of the last 500 years,
europe controlled large parts of asia, but since 1945, asian countries have
gained their independence. Many of them are now world-class economies.
eaRly civilizaTions
asia’s extreme land forms,
such as the towering peaks
of the himalayas that separate hinduisM
india from china, meant hinduism began in the ancient civilizations of
that early asian cultures
had little contact with each the indus valley, in india, around 2500 bce.
other, or with the rest of the over the centuries, the religion spread across
world. as a result, the first india to sri lanka and the islands of southeast
great asian civilizations,
such as the indus valley asia. hinduism is the oldest religion in the
world still practiced today and provides a

thread linking together all of india’s history.

civilization in the indian
subcontinent and the
shang dynasty in
china, developed
very different and
distinct cultures.
aRaB TRadeRs
arab merchants were great travelers and
Bactrian (two-humped) adventurers, crossing deserts and oceans in
camel pottery made search of new markets in which to buy and
in China.
sell their goods. on their journeys, they
converted local people to their islamic
religion, founded by Muhammad in arabia
in the early 600s. as a result, islam spread
silk Road across asia as far as the southeastern islands.

The silk Road was an important
trading route that stretched across
asia from loyang, china’s capital,
in the east to the Mediterranean sea
in the west. it was called the silk Road
because of the chinese silk that was
traded along its length. The road was
not continuous but was made up of a
series of well-marked routes connecting
major towns. here, merchants bought
and sold their goods, creating a
link between asia and europe.

Buddhist monks shave BuddhisT Monks Mongols
their heads and wear siddhartha gautama, the The Mongols were fierce
saffron-colored robes. founder of Buddhism, was warriors who lived as nomads
born in india c. 563 bce. on the steppes, or grasslands,
By his death c. 483 bce, of central asia. in the 1200s,
his teaching had spread they created an empire that
throughout india. from stretched from china into
about 100 ce, Buddhist eastern europe. Their power
monks took Buddhism declined in the 1300s, but in
across the himalayas to 1369, one of their leaders,
china and along the silk Tamerlane the great, became
Road into central asia. ruler of central asia. he built
Today most of the world’s many fine mosques in his
Buddhists live in asia. capital, samarkand.

43

asia, history of

EuropEan domination World War ii
in 1498, portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama sailed to during World War ii (1939-45),
india around the southern tip of africa. He was the first the Japanese invaded china and
European to reach asia by sea. other Europeans much of southeast asia in order to
followed, and over the next 400 years create an empire. some welcomed
Europeans dominated much of asia, the Japanese invaders, because the
first as traders and merchants, Japanese threw out the European
then as conquerors and colonial masters and sometimes
colonizers. only persia gave the people a greater degree
(present-day iran), of independence. after Japan’s
afghanistan, thailand, defeat in 1945, Britain, France, the
and Japan remained netherlands, and the us returned to
free from take control of their former colonies.
European
control. communist asia

Portuguese The Red Guard, in 1949, the communist party finally gained power in
colonial house followers of Chinese china after years of civil war. communists also took
control in north Korea, mongolia, north Vietnam,
in Macau Communist leader cambodia, and laos. the communist governments
Mao Zedong hoped to improve people’s living standards but failed
ASIA
c. 2,500 bce Hinduism Chinese students to match the economic success of
is founded in india. bearing a portrait Japan and other asian
c. 563-c. 483 bce life of countries.
the Buddha. of Mao Zedong
500s bce the silk road (1893-1976) Chinese demonstrate
is established. their revolutionary
250 bce Buddhism indEpEndEncE fervor in 1967
spreads to sri lanka Following World War ii, the European
and southeast asia. countries began to grant their asian Find out more
100 ce monks take colonies independence. india became asia
Buddhism to china and independent from Britain in 1947-48, and china
into central asia. indonesia gained its independence from
850-1200 chola kings the netherlands in 1949. the last colony— communism
of india take Hinduism the portuguese territory of macau—was india and subcontinent
to sri lanka and into handed back to china in 1999.
southeast asia. Japan
1279 mongol Empire tiGEr EconomiEs World war ii
under Kublai Khan
reaches greatest extent. Japan and other countries began
1369 tamerlane the rebuilding their economies after
Great creates a new World War ii. they concentrated
mongol Empire in the
city of samarkand. on heavy industries such as car
1498 Vasco da Gama manufacturing and shipbuilding,
sails to india. and on hi-tech industries such as
1600 British merchants computers and electronics. today,
establish the East india Japan is the world’s third-biggest
company in order to
trade with india. economy, while taiwan, south
1619 dutch begin to Korea, and singapore have
control the East indies.
1757 British take over become industrial powerhouses.
Bengal and expand
their rule in india. 44
1850s French begin to
control southeast asia.
1937 Japanese troops
invade china.
1941-45 World War ii
rages in eastern asia
and the pacific.
1947-48 British rule in
india comes to an end.
1949 indonesia
becomes independent.
1999 portuguese hand
macau back to china.

AssyriAns WArrIors
the Assyrians were
About 3,000 yeArs Ago, a mighty empire rose to power in the Middle famed and feared for
their strength in battle
east where Iraq is today. this was the Assyrian empire. It lasted for more and for torturing their
than 300 years and spread all over the surrounding area from the Nile victims. they developed
river to Mesopotamia. under King shalmaneser I (1273-44 bce) the the chariot and fought
Assyrians conquered babylon and many other independent states and with swords, shields,
eventually united the region into one empire. With an enormous army,
armored horses, fast two-wheeled chariots, and huge battering rams, the slings, and bows.
Assyrians were highly skilled, successful fighters, ruthless in battle. the Assyrian
empire grew quickly with a series of warlike kings, including Ashurbanipal II and
sennacherib. great wealth and excellent trading links enabled the Assyrians to
rebuild the cities of Nimrud and Nineveh (which became the capital), and to
create a new city at Khorsabad. Assyria was a rich, well-organized society, but by
the 7th century bce, the empire had grown too large to protect itself well. Around
612 bce, the babylonian and Mede peoples destroyed
Nineveh, and the Assyrian empire collapsed.

Men armed with spears and
swords accompanied the
king on lion hunts.

Mediterranean Nineveh
Sea Babylon

Damascus

Jerusalem
Memphis

Thebes Persian
Gulf

AssyrIAN eMpIre LIoN huNt
In the 7th century bce, the Assyrian hunting and
empire reached its greatest extent. killing lions was a
It stretched down to the persian favorite pastime of
gulf in the south and the the Assyrian kings.
Mediterranean coast in the west, Lions represented the
and included babylon. wild strength of nature. It
was considered a noble challenge
to seek them out and kill them, although captive lions
were also hunted. only the king was allowed to kill a lion.

royAL LIfe Winged bulls have
stone reliefs tell us much a human head, wings,
about the lives of the Assyrian
royalty. this relief sculpture shows and fishlike scales,
King Ashurbanipal II (669-621 bce) suggesting that
drinking wine in his garden with they represent
his queen. It looks like a quiet, a combination of all the best
domestic scene; but on another qualities of animals and people.
section of this sculpture there
is a head hanging from a tree.
It is the head of teumann, the
king of the elamites, whose
defeat the king and queen
are celebrating.

Assyrian slaves had WINged buLLs
to drag the massive Massive stone sculptures
sculptures to the palace. (right) of winged bulls
were placed on each side of
important doors and gateways.

Find out more
babylonians
Middle east

45

AstronAuts There is no air in space to carry
And spAce trAvel sound waves, so astronauts
communicate by radio.
Visor
Main life support
On April 12, 1961, the world watched in TV camera system contains
oxygen tanks,
wonder as Yuri Gagarin of russia blasted off Helmet lights electrical battery,
from Earth aboard a huge rocket and entered water-cooling
system, and radio.

space. He was the first cosmonaut—the Drink bag
russian word for astronaut, a person trained
to work in space. Eight years later, an
Control panel allows the
astronaut to adjust
American, neil Armstrong, walked on the the temperature and
moon and became the first human being to oxygen flow in the suit.

step on to another world. Since then, a few Tool belt
hundred other astronauts, both men and
women, have voyaged into space. Astronauts Glove with
rubber
fingertips
have jobs to do during their missions. They
built the international Space Station and now
perform scientific experiments there under
the weightless conditions of space. Today,
astronauts are preparing for the next major
landmarks in space exploration: to go back
to the moon and then perhaps to Mars.
Battery-powered
drill for tightening
and loosening bolts

Cosmonaut Salizhan Tethers attach the The rescue unit
S. Shapirov astronaut to the helps an untethered
installing navigation astronaut fly back
and communication space station or ship. to the spacecraft
equipment outside Colored stripes help or station.
the International
Space Station. astronauts identify each other.

Astronauts wear a “maximum absorbency The suit’s inner layer
garment,” which serves as a giant diaper. holds in the oxygen

The heel of the boot attaches to the spacecraft while the middle layers
or station to hold the astronaut securely. keep in the heat. The
outer layer is made of
waterproof and fire-
resistant materials.
SpAcESuiT
Space is a perilous place for a human being.
There is no air to breathe, and without a spacesuit
Weightlessness for protection, an astronaut would explode. This is
We have weight because of the because the human body is built to function under
pull of Earth’s gravity. in space, the constant pressure of Earth’s atmosphere, which
gravity holds the astronauts and
their spacecraft in orbit around is not present in space.

Earth. But there is no force holding
the astronauts to their spaceship,
so they float around inside it. This
is called weightlessness.
TrAininG
people have to undergo long
On some spacecraft, training programs to become
astronauts sleep in astronauts. They also must be very
sleeping bags attached fit. These cosmonauts are practicing
to the cabin walls.

Food and drinks Special exercise working under weightless conditions
come in special machines help the using a life-size model of a Salyut
packs that do not astronauts keep fit.
spacecraft inside a huge water tank.
spill. There is an livinG in SpAcE
oven to heat food. While on board a spacecraft, astronauts Find out more
Gravity
consume the same kind of food and drink as they do on Earth.
There is usually no bath or shower; astronauts wash with damp rockets and missiles
cloths instead. regular exercise is essential, because living in Soviet union, history of
weightless conditions can weaken bones and muscles.
Space flight

46

Astronomy

there are amazing sights to be seen in the heavens—other worlds

different from our own, great glowing clouds of gas where stars are born, and
immense explosions in which stars end their lives. astronomers are scientists
who study all the objects in the universe, such as planets, moons, comets, stars,
and galaxies. astronomy is an ancient science. the early arabs and greeks
looked up to the sky and tried to understand the moons, stars, and planets.
however, most of these objects were too distant for early astronomers to see in
any detail. it was only after the invention of the telescope in the 17th century
that people really began to learn about the universe. today, astronomy makes
use of a vast array of equipment to explore space. astronomers use ground-
based telescopes of many kinds, launch spacecraft that visit the other planets
in the solar system, and send up satellites to study the universe from high
above earth’s surface.

Fine guidance High-gain antenna Sunshade protects the telescope ObservatOry
sensors lock on to receives commands at launch, and helps prevent astronomers study space
bright stars, to from Earth and returns bright sunlight from spoiling from observatories (above)
ensure that the the images. that are often at the top of
telescope is steady Hubble pictures as a mountain where there is
and the images are TV signals. Secondary mirror a clear view of the sky. this
not blurred. Reaction wheels is supported within photograph took several
point Hubble at the telescope hours to make. the stars
stars and other tube. trace circles because the
targets in space. rotation of earth makes

them appear to move
across the sky.

Space Handrail for space telescOpe
Telescope astronauts
Imaging Magnetometer senses the optical telescope is
Spectrograph Hubble’s movements one of the main tools of an
breaks up light through Earth’s astronomer. most astronomical
into its constituent magnetic field. optical, infrared, and ultraviolet
wavelengths. telescopes focus light from
Light is reflected from the main distant stars using a large
Cosmic mirror to the secondary, and curved mirror instead of lenses.
Origins then to the cameras and this is because it is not possible
Spectrograph other detectors behind to construct a lens big enough,
(hidden from the main mirror. and even if it were, a lens would
view) analyzes produce distorted images.
ultraviolet light. Wide Field Computers Second Solar arrays launched in 1990, the hubble
Camera (WFC3) coordinate all high-gain provide power space telescope is an optical
Near-Infrared is the main camera the onboard antenna by converting telescope that orbits high above
Camera and for visible light. systems. sunlight into earth in order to avoid the
Multi-Object Main (primary) electricity. blurring effect produced by
Spectrometer mirror, 7.8 ft (2.4 m) earth’s atmosphere.
contains three in diameter, collects
infrared and focuses light.
detectors.
RECEIVING DATA ON EARTH
communications with the hubble space telescope
are relayed by satellites to and from large microwave
dishes in new mexico. all data passes through nasa’s
goddard space Flight center. here, engineers
constantly monitor the spacecraft’s health (right).
hubble astronomers work at the space telescope
science institute, and control the telescope’s
observing schedule. the schedule is set in
advance down to the last second.

47

Astronomy

Exploring thE univErsE x-rays
special satellites carry detectors
stars and other objects in the universe produce streams
of tiny particles and many kinds of waves such as radio that pick up x-rays. these
waves. Except for light, these waves and particles are all satellites have discovered black
invisible, but astronomers can study them to provide
information about the universe. the atmosphere holes, which give out x-rays as
blocks many of the rays, so detectors are they suck in gases from
mounted on satellites that orbit
above Earth’s atmosphere. nearby stars. this is an x-ray
image of a nebula blown off a

star that exploded.

infrarEd rays
objects in space can also send
out infrared (heat) rays.
satellites and ground-
based telescopes pick up
these rays. they can reveal
the centers of galaxies
and gas clouds called
nebulae (right), where gamma rays
stars are forming. some satellites detect gamma rays, which are
waves of very high energy. gamma rays come
from many objects, including pulsars, which
are the remains of exploded stars. this is
a gamma ray map of our own galaxy.
ultraviolEt rays
stars that are much hotter than our sun give
out far more ultraviolet radiation than visible
light. this ultraviolet image of a spiral galaxy
was taken from a space observatory to help
astronomers understand when and visiblE light
telescopes on the
where new stars have formed. ground and on satellites

detect the light rays
that come from planets,
comets, stars, and
galaxies. Earth’s
Radio image of a atmosphere distorts
quasar. A quasar light rays, making
is a kind of
powerful
radar signals galaxy with a pictures slightly
astronomers very bright fuzzy. however, new
produce radar center. computer-controlled
maps of planets telescopes are able to
reduce this distortion.

and moons by radio wavEs An image of a
bouncing radio many bodies nebula made with
waves off their produce their own an optical telescope.
surfaces. the radio waves, which are
radar map of picked up by the large
venus (left) was dishes of radio telescopes.
recorded by the objects called pulsars,
Pioneer Venus spacecraft quasars, and radio
of the united states. galaxies were
the map is color- discovered in this way.
coded to represent
plains and mountains
on the planet’s surface.

Sky watcherS of the paSt An array of sensitive light nEutrinos
in the third century bce, the greek scientist aristarchus detectors pick up flashes of tiny particles called neutrinos
suggested that Earth and the planets move around the light produced when neutrinos come from stars. most neutrinos
sun. the telescope, first used to observe the heavens enter the tank. pass right through Earth, but
by italian scientist galileo, proved this to be true and led Some neutrino special detectors lying deep
to many other discoveries. in the 1920s, the astronomer detectors consist underground can detect a few
of large tanks of of them. by studying neutrinos,
Edwin hubble found water, in which flashes astronomers can find out about
that stars exist in huge of light occur as the the sun and exploding stars.
groups called galaxies neutrinos pass through.
and evidence that the Find out more
universe is expanding. black holes

The ancient observatory at moon
Jaipur, India, contains stone planets
structures that astronomers built satellites
to measure the positions of the space flight
sun, moon, planets, and stars.
stars
sun
telescopes
universe

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