Children's Illustrated Encyclopedia

middle east

Bahrain
Area: 293 sq miles
(760 sq km) Volcano Mountain Ancient Capital Large Small
monument city city/ city/
town town
Population: 1,347,000
Capital: Manama
Syria
Area: 71,484 sq miles
CypruS (185,180 sq km)
Area: 3,572 sq miles Population: 17,065,000
(9,251 sq km) Capital: damascus
Population: 1,189,000
Capital: nicosia Oil induSTry
TurKEy
Area: 302,535 sq miles deposits of oil and natural gas were first
iran (783,562 sq km) discovered in the Gulf in the early 1900s. The oil
Area: 636,372 sq miles Population: 79,414,000 industry has made several of the countries very rich,
(1,648,195 sq km) Capital: ankara particularly Saudi arabia, iran, iraq, the united
Population: 81,824,000
Capital: Tehran arab Emirates, Bahrain, and Kuwait.

iraq ARMENIA AZERBAIJAN
Area: 169,235 sq miles Caspian
(438,317 sq km) T SUYRR IKA E YAleppoT U R K M EN IS TA NAl Qamishli
Population: 37,056,000 Tabriz Sea
Capital: Baghdad Al Hasakah
Lake Ardabil Bojnurd
iSraEl Urmia
E Rasht Mashhad AFGHANISTAN
Mosul Zanjan l b urz Sari s
Mou i n
CYPRUS n t a

Al Jazirah Sanandaj TEHRAN

Area: 8,019 sq miles LEBANON Hims Kermanshah Hamadan Qom Dasht-e Kavir
BEIRUT DAMASCUS
I R A Q(20,770 sq km)
I R A NPopulation: 8,049,000 Arak Birjand
Tel Aviv-Yafo Syrian
BAGHDAD Isfahan
Capital: Jerusalem JERUSALEM Desert Zagros Iranian Dasht-e Lut
An Najaf
AMMAN Tigris Yazd
Eup
ISRAEL hrates Al ’Amarah M ou Plateau

JOrdan Suez JORDAN’Ar’ar As Samawah Ahvaz ntai ns Kerman
Area: 34,495 sq miles Canal Sirjan
Al Jawf KUWAIT Shiraz PA
Gulf of
(89,342 sq km) Aqaba Zahedan
Population: 8,117,500 Tabuk A n Nafud KUWAIT P e rGsiualnf ’Abbas
Bushire KISTAN

Capital: amman Arab Al Wari’ah Kangan

Re Bandar-e
RPIYeALDanyHla iAMlnHAuNsfuAufMDAOl UHaBNEAAQMIHTAIRTERDSAAAhIaRTrANjaERhSAtrSaABit oUDBf HuoDrbaHiWAGaBuhAIillbfMahoUf SOTCrmopAAiacTnofrCaancebr
KuwaiT EGYPT Al Wajh iaS A U D I A R A B I ABuraydah muz
Area: 6,880 sq miles Yanbu ’al
(17,818 sq km) Medina n
Population: 2,788,500 Bahr
Capital: Kuwait (Al Madinah)
lEBanOn Jedda
Area: 4,015 sq miles (Jiddah) i a n
(10,400 sq km) Sea Mecca
Population: 6,185,000 d (Makkah)
Capital: Beirut
OMan SUDAN MAN Al Ghabah Sea
Area: 119,499 sq miles
(309,500 sq km) Al Bahah As Sulayyil Duqm
Population: 3,287,000 A(rERmupbStya‘naQal wuKahratelir) Sawqirah
Capital: Muscat Tathlith O N

qaTar Abha Thamarit S
Area: 4,473 sq miles km
Jizan Najran
Jaza’ir
ER Farasan Ramlat Dahm Al Mahrah Salalah
Tarim
SANA W E
ETHIO Y E M E NI
T REA Hadhramaut Sayhut

Hodeida Aden
Ta’izz
P I A Aden Socotra
DJIBOUTI Gulf of (part of Yemen) SCALE BAR
0 200 400

0 200 400 miles

(11,586 sq km) Bahrain uniTEd araB
Population: 2,195,000 The island of Bahrain is little EMiraTES
Capital: doha more than 30 miles (50 km) Area: 32,278 sq miles
long. Oil wells and refineries (83,600 sq km)
Saudi araBia provide employment for Population: 5,780,000
Area: 830,000 sq miles many people, but tourism Capital: abu dhabi
(2,149,690 sq km) is important, too; in 1986 a yEMEn
Population: 27,752,000 causeway was opened, linking Area: 203,849 sq
Capital: riyadh Bahrain to Saudi arabia. miles (527,968 sq km)
Since then, many visitors Population: 26,737,000
The roofs of buildings in Bahrain from neighboring Gulf States Capital: Sana
extend across pavements, providing with strict islamic laws, have
visited Bahrain to enjoy its
shade from the scorching sun. liberal lifestyle.

349

miGRAniAmATl iOn

MArctic AnY AniMALS LiVe in the same
areas all their lives, rarely going far.
But others undertake migrations—
North Europe Asia long journeys in search of food,
America warmth, or a suitable place to
Salmon

Africa breed and raise young. Some
animals migrate seasonally.
Wildebeest During the dry season, for

South Bogong example, buffalo may set
America Australia moth off in search of water holes or

Blue fresh pasture. Some creatures
whales migrate to avoid the harsh winter
Arctic tern
cold; others to avoid the scorching
summer sun. Migration can cover
thousands of miles and often involves a
Arctic terns Antarctica
live for 30
years or more, return journey. Birds such as cuckoos and swallows,
and may travel for instance, spend the summer in europe and the winter in
more than
650,000 miles Africa. Some animals, such as locusts, migrate only when they
(1 million km) become so numerous that the area can no longer support them.
during their
lifetime. nAVigAtion

Arctic tern Some animals seem to
the longest migration in the world navigate, or find their
is made by the Arctic tern. this champion Wildebeest way, by following the
migrator travels from the top of the globe to the wander position of the sun, moon,
bottom each year and back again. Arctic terns spend the north to or stars. others may have
summer in the Arctic, where they rear their young and feed find fresh a built-in compass that
on insects, fish, and shellfish. After the short summer, they pasture. senses earth’s magnetic
fly south, and some reach the Antarctic. the direct journey
is 9,000 miles (15,000 km), yet many terns go even farther, field or the electric field of
flying east across the north Atlantic, and then west across Serengeti Female ocean currents. Scientists
the South Atlantic. After another summer near the South National Park wildebeest are not sure how animals
Pole, they migrate north again. in Africa usually remain know where to migrate,
especially young animals
in familiar that have never made the
groups, which journey before.
vary in number
WiLDeBeeSt
up to several During the dry season in Africa, huge
hundred
animals. herds of wildebeest (also called gnu)
set out in search of fresh grassland
and water. Sometimes they travel
more than 1,000 miles (1,500 km)
SALMon before they reach a suitable place.
Salmon hatch from eggs in rivers
and streams, then swim to the ocean, Spring:
where they spend most of their lives. Adult bogong
As adults, they migrate thousands of moths migrate to
miles back to the river where they were mountain regions
born, to breed. they are so sensitive above 4,000 ft
(1,200 m).

to the chemicals in the stream where they Summer:
hatch that they can find their way back to the Adults gather in mountain
same spot, even after a few years. Salmon are powerful caves and among rocks to
swimmers, and leap out of the water as they rest during the hot, dry season.
fight their way upstream.
Bogong Moth Find out more
Some animals migrate in the summer Animals
rather than the winter. During the hot, Birds
dry summer in southeastern Australia, bogong
moths sleep in cool caves and rock crevices high Butterflies and moths
in the mountains. this type of hibernation is called Fish
aestivation. in the fall, the moths fly down over the lowlands. Fall:
Some keep flying when they reach the coast, and perish at sea. Adult moths wake and fly down hibernation
to the lowlands to lay eggs.

350

Money

the next tiMe you are about to buy something, look at your money.
Coins and bills are just discs of metal and sheets of paper, yet the stores accepts
them as payment for useful, valuable goods. Money is a token that people trade
for goods of an agreed value, and strange objects have been used for money
throughout the world. tibetans once used blocks of dried tea! it does not
really matter what you use as money, provided everyone can reach an
agreement about what it is worth. Many early coins were made from precious
metals, such as gold and silver, but in 11th-century China, paper bank notes,
or bills, first appeared. unlike gold, bank notes had no real value. however,
the bank that issued them promised to exchange them for gold. British bank
notes still have the same
Some Native Americans promise printed on them.
used wampum belts the united states government
made of clamshell

beads for money.

Mint The first Chinese coins stopped exchanging
a government-controlled factory were made of bronze in bills for gold in 1971.
called a mint produces coins. the shape of tools, such
each coin is stamped with a as the head of a hoe.
special design, including its The weight of
value, and often the year of A strip of plastic or metal a coin made
manufacture. this stamping thread is embedded of precious metal
process is known as “minting”. in the paper. indicates its value.

Specially made paper includes
a watermark, which is visible only
when the note is held up to the light.

Coins The metal of a
modern coin is
People from ancient Lydia (now almost worthless,
turkey) were the first to make so the value of the
The loops and whirls coin is stamped on it.
are machine-engraved and coins, about 2,700 years ago.
extremely difficult to copy. their coins were made from electrum, a mixture of gold and
Bank notes
silver. today, coins are used only for small denominations
Governments issue bank notes, or bills, and guarantee their (amounts of money). Paper money is used for larger amounts,
value. it is a crime for anyone else to copy and print bank because notes are more difficult to forge than coins.
notes. the crime is called forgery, or counterfeiting, and
bank notes have complicated designs to make copying
difficult. thomas de La rue & Company is one of
the world’s most successful bank note printers. their
The built-in
computer chip
specimen note includes various security features contains
which make their notes very
difficult to copy. your personal
bank details.

Banks The raised Find out more
Most people deposit, or store, their letters include Plastics
money in a bank. Banks keep this
money safe in a vault or lend it to your name, rocks and minerals
their other customers. the bank card number, technology

has an account, or record, of and card trade and industry
how much each of its customers expiry date.

has deposited. Banks pay out Credit Cards
money when their customers a credit card is a piece of plastic that can be
used in place of money. in many countries,
need it to make purchases.
People with bank accounts can credit cards have a built-in computer chip
containing information that can be read by a
also buy things by writing
checks—notes that the bank machine when the card is used. the credit
promises to exchange for cash. card company pays for the goods, and you pay
People can also pay using debit
cards connected with their bank the credit card company a month or so later.
account for cashless transactions.
351

Mongol EMpirE

In the late 1100s, a masterful chieftain united a group of wandering
tribes into a powerful army. he was called Genghis Khan; the tribes were
the Mongols. all were toughened by a harsh life spent herding on the treeless
plains of northeastern asia. Determined to train the best army of his time,
Genghis built up a formidable cavalry force. Using their traditional composite
bows and new weapons, such as gunpowder, they were invincible. In 1211,
the Mongols invaded China, and then swept through asia. they moved at
incredible speed, concentrating their forces at critical moments. all their
military operations were planned to the smallest detail. looting and burning
as they came, they struck terror into the hearts of their enemies. In 1227,
GenGhIs Khan Genghis Khan died, leaving a huge empire
temüjin (1162-1227) was to his four sons, who extended it through
the son of a tribal chief. his asia Minor into europe. however, the Khanate of the
father was murdered when Golden Horde
temüjin was still a child, and
when he grew up he defeated empire broke apart as rival khans (Mongol Khanate of Empire of
his enemies, united all other kings) battled for control. Jagatai Kublai Khan
tribes under his control, and
took the title Genghis Khan, Armor- Khanate
meaning “prince of all that piercing of Hulagu
lies between the oceans.” he
aimed to conquer the world. arrow

Cavalry controlled MonGol Khanates
horses with their feet
to leave their hands after Genghis’s death, the Mongol
free for fighting. empire divided into four khanates,

Strung CoMposIte BoW Horses in or states, with different rulers.
bow Mongols made their deadly bows out of battle gear Kublai, grandson of Genghis, ruled
Unstrung wood, horn, and sinew, which gave the
bow bows incredible power. the Mongols 352 the eastern khanate. the smaller
were superb archers, able to western empires, although briefly
string, aim, and fire at full united in the 1300s by tamerlane
gallop. they developed the Great, gradually disintegrated.
armor-piercing
arrows, whistling Mongol eMpire
arrows for 1206 temüjin unites all the
signaling, and tribes of Mongolia.
even arrows 1219 Mongols invade persia.
tipped with 1223 Mongols invade Russia.
grenades. 1237 Batu, grandson of Genghis
Khan, invades north Russia.
YURts 1240 Batu invades poland
tribes wandered the Mongolian and hungary.
steppes following their herds of sheep, 1260 Mamelukes, egyptian
goats, cattle, and horses. they lived in warriors, defeat Mongols.
circular tents called yurts, which they 1279 Kublai Khan defeats China.
took with them when they moved. the 1370 tamerlane the Great
women drove wagons that held the conquers the western khanates.
yurts; the men hunted, looked after the
herds, and traded for grain and metal. Find out more
Mongols of today still live in yurts. armor

asia, history of
explorers

monkeys and apes
Orangutan
aMOng tHe MOSt intelligent creatures on
the richly colored orangutan is found
earth are the apes—chimpanzees, gorillas, gibbons, in the forests of Borneo and Sumatra in
and orangutans. they have large brains, long arms, Southeast asia. Orangutans spend most of
fingers, and toes, and their bodies are covered in their time high up in the trees searching for
hair. in body shape and intelligence these fruit, shoots, leaves, and insects. they live alone,
creatures resemble humans. Both apes and Prehensile hand except where there is plenty of food.
humans belong to the larger group known
as primates. closely related to apes are can grasp.
monkeys, a larger group of animals that Arms are very
includes baboons, macaques, colubuses, and long in relation
marmosets. Monkeys and apes have a similar to the body.
body form, although monkeys tend to be
smaller. a pygmy marmoset weighs only 5 oz Shaggy
(150 g), whereas a huge male “silverback” gorilla coat of
weighs as much as 400 lb (180 kg). Both monkeys reddish-
and apes have a rounded face, small ears, and brown
large eyes that face forward. they use their front hair
limbs like arms, and their hands can grasp
strongly and manipulate delicately. Most monkeys
have tails, which they use as a counterbalance as
they swing through trees. in some monkeys, the tail
is strong and prehensile (grasping); apes, however,
have no tails. apes and monkeys feed on a variety of
foods, including fruit, leaves, insects, and birds’ eggs.

gOrilla Today, orangutans are in danger of
extinction because their forest homes are
Measuring up to 6 ft (2 m)
in height, gorillas are the being cleared for timber and farmland.
largest apes. gorillas are slow, Breeding
gentle creatures—unless a gorilla group
disturbed—and they spend contains between five and
their time resting and eating 10 animals. there is one large
leaves, stems, and shoots. male, several females, and their
gorillas live in small family young of various ages. the young are born singly;
groups that travel slowly a female gives birth about every four years.
through the forest, eating
some, but not all of the food
in one area before moving
on to another place.

PriMateS Macaque MOnkey
all monkeys and apes belong to the Monkeys and apes show behavior that we describe
mammal group called primates. as “intelligent.” these creatures communicate well,
Other primates include bush have good memories, and are able to solve problems.
babies, pottos, tarsiers, and a famous example is the Japanese macaque monkeys
humans. today, many primates, that discovered that by washing its food in water they
including gibbons and the could get rid of the dirt and sand on it. Other
other apes, are on the official members of the troop saw what the monkey
list of endangered species. was doing and copied it.

353

MONKEYS AND APES

Gibbon The acrobatic gibbon
swings through the
A gibbon’s muscular arms and hands are
so long that the knuckles touch the trees of southeastern
ground even when the gibbon Asia and rarely
stands upright. Gibbons live in comes down to
family groups of a male, a female, the ground.
and two to four young. There are 14
kinds of gibbon; the largest is the siamang, Gibbons feed
which weighs about 22 lb (10 kg). The mainly on fruit and
siamang is so heavy that it cannot swing
out to the tips of thin branches as other young leaves.
Young chimpanzees spend much of their time
gibbons can. playing with objects and chasing each other.
This helps prepare the chimp to find
food and fight off enemies
in adult life.

Most monkeys
and apes
depend on
trees for shelter
and food,
particularly in
the rain forests.

CommuniCATion ConSERvATion ChimpAnzEE
The forests where monkeys and apes live are being Chimpanzees are the animals
many monkeys communicate by cut down at a great speed. newly planted trees are that remind us most of ourselves—
sounds. The howler monkey of soon removed for timber, so they do not provide because of their facial expressions and
South America produces extremely homes for the local wildlife. Dozens of different kinds the way they play games, make tools,
loud howling noises using its of monkeys are at risk. Among them is the woolly spider and solve puzzles. Chimpanzees live in
specialized larynx (voice box). monkey of brazil. Some non-profit organizations have groups that sometimes fight with
These sounds warn other howler taken up their cause. Their three-point program works neighboring groups. Their main
troops to stay out of the group’s through rescue and rehabilitation, conservation foods are fruit, leaves, seeds, flowers,
territory. The leading male howler education, and research. insects, and sometimes larger
is usually the main shouter and can creatures such as monkeys and deer.
be heard nearly 2 miles (3 km) away. bAboon Chimpanzees live deep in the forests
and open grassland of Africa. pygmy
The African baboon can climb but usually chimps or bonobos are found only in
walks or gallops on all fours. baboons are the thick forests of the Democratic
easy to study because they live in open
country, and scientists have learned much Republic of the Congo.
about their social life. baboons live in
troops. Each troop is based around senior Find out more
females and their offspring. Growing males Animals
tend to live alone while they are maturing.
When a male becomes an adult he joins Animal senses
a troop, but has to battle with other males Conservation
to establish his rank. The troop protects
itself against predators, such as lions, and and endangered species
against other baboon troops that stray
into its territory. Forest wildlife
mammals
354

Lava once flowed from the Moon
moon’s interior, following
huge meteorite impacts OuR neaReSt neIghBOR in space is the moon.
more than 4,000
million years ago. It orbits, or circles, earth keeping the same face
The lava solidified pointed toward us. the moon is a hostile place.
into smooth- It has no atmosphere to keep the temperature
floored plains
called seas, fairly constant, as earth does. Instead,
or maria. temperatures range from a scorching 240°f

(115°C) during the moon’s day to an icy -260°f
(-160°C) at night. there is no water, so no
plants or animals can live there. great plains
stretch over the moon’s surface, dotted with
huge mountains and scarred by numerous
craters. the moon does not produce light of
its own. We see the moon because it acts like a
huge mirror, reflecting light from the sun. the
Craters moon is a natural satellite—something that orbits
were formed around a planet or a star. there are many moons
by meteorite
impacts. A few circling the other planets in the solar system.
are a result of
volcanic activity 1 New moon The gravitational attraction 1 PhaSeS Of
within the moon. (moon of the moon causes tides to Moon seen 8 the mOOn
BIRth Of the mOOn invisible) rise and fall in Earth’s oceans. from here
there have been many theories
to explain the formation of the 3 Half moon 5 Full 7 Half moon 2 5
moon. Scientists have suggested (first quarter) moon (last quarter)
that the moon may be a piece of as the
earth that broke away millions of moon orbits
years ago. today, however, most earth,
astronomers believe that the moon different
was formed when an asteroid the 3 7 phasess,
size of mars struck earth about
4.5 billion years ago. or shapes,
appear,
Luna 3 depending
until 1959, the far on the
2 Crescent 4 Gibbous 6 Gibbous 8 Old 4 6 amount of the
side of the moon moon moon (waxing) moon (waning) moon
had never been seen. sunlit side of
In October of that year, the the moon that is
Russian space probe Luna 3 visible from earth.

(right) sent back the first mOOn facts
photographs of this part
Distance 238,855 miles
of the moon. from earth (384,401 km)

Diameter at 2,160.5 miles
equator (3,477.8 km)
Other mOOns
Our solar system contains more than time for 27 days,
150 known moons. nearly all circle each orbit 7 hours,
the giant outer planets and are 43 minutes
made of ice mixed with rock.
the largest planet, Jupiter, has time between 29 days,
at least 63 moons, three of full moons 12 hours,
them larger than our own
moon. One, Io (seen 43 minutes
alongside Jupiter, left), is
alive with active volcanoes. Gravity at 1/6 of earth’s
another, ganymede, is surface surface gravity
the largest satellite in the
solar system. Some of Brightness 1/425,000
Saturn’s moons are very brightness
small and orbit in the Armstrong’s of sun
outer sections of the crew member,
planet’s rings. Edwin Aldrin, stands Find out more
by the lunar module. astronomy
LunaR LandIngS
In 1966, the Russian Luna 9 spacecraft made earth
the first controlled landing on the moon. It Oceans and seas
was only three years later, in July 1969, that
american astronaut neil armstrong climbed Planets
down from the apollo 11 lunar module to Space flight
become the first person on the moon.

355

Mosses, liverworts,
and ferns

MistY tropical rain Forests and moist, shady
woodlands shelter some of the simplest land plants.
these are mosses and liverworts, also seen on
logs, stone walls, and garden lawns. they are
quite different from other plants. they have no
true root systems, flowers, or seeds. instead,
mosses and liverworts have tiny rootlets that
absorb only a small amount of water from the soil,
and short-stemmed leaves that take in moisture from Carpet of moss covers
Horsetails the air. there are 11 different types of non-flowering plants. wet bark on log.
Horsetails are fernlike
plants with no flowers. Ferns are also flowerless. they are an ancient group of How Moss
about 300 million plants that have grown on earth for more than 300 million reproduces
years ago, forests of years. unlike mosses and liverworts, ferns do have true roots, the leafy moss plant has
giant horsetails grew with vessels inside their stems that carry water to the leaves. male and female organs.
up to 150 ft (46 m) the fertilized spores grow
high. their remains in the brown spore-
have turned into coal. the giant tree ferns are the largest of all ferns. they grow containing capsules, which
up to 65 ft (20 m) high and look like palm trees. the smallest ferns in tropical are held above the leaves
on long stalks.

rain forests are tiny, with leaflike fronds less than 0.5 in (1 cm) long. Ferns grow
in most kinds of soil, but not in hot desert sand.
Fern

Fern Tip of Polypody fern fronds Sori are on the Moisture-loving
frond stay green all underside of
a new fern frond uncurls winter. fern frond. plants
gradually unfurls. when Curled-up
it is mature, brown dots frond of Mosses and
called sori appear on the polypody liverworts grow
frond. these sori contain fern beside streams
spores. the spores grow
into tiny heart-shaped and rivers because
plants, which bear male they need a damp
and female organs. environment to
reproduce and
survive. they lack
roots and instead,

their leaves take
in as well as lose
moisture from
the air.

bracken liverwort Liverwort
bracken is found on
Bracken every continent except the liverwort grows close
spreads into a antarctica. it has to the ground, from which
pasture, reducing the far-reaching roots and it soaks up moisture. some
grazing area. underground stems, and liverworts, mosses, and
spreads quickly across ferns grow on trees and
other plants, which they
grassland and woodland. cling to for support.
bracken is a nuisance to many
farmers and gardeners because it
is very difficult to remove once it has
become established.

bog Moss Liverworts
take their name
sphagnum moss is one of the few from their shape,
plants found in marshy waterlogged which looks like the
human liver.
areas. it grows very well in swamps,
forming wet, spongy hummocks. as Find out more
the sphagnum dies, it rots slowly, and Forest wildlife

over many centuries turns into Marsh
mossy peat below the surface.
and swamp wildlife

plants
soil

356

Mountains

Continents Collide and grind against one another, High on the
while hot, molten rock bubbles beneath earth’s surface. mountaintop it
these powerful forces thrust up mountains reaching as
high as 5 miles (8 km). Many mountains are still growing, is so cold that
and those that formed long ago are slowly wearing plants cannot
grow. There

is only snow
and bare
rock.

away. some mountains are volcanoes, made of layers
of solidified lava that build up as the volcano erupts.
there are mountains under the oceans and on other
planets. the highest known mountain is on Mars; MoUnt eveRest
it is three times as high as Mount everest. the world’s highest
mountain is Mount everest,
earth has two vast mountain ranges. the Rocky on the border of China and
Mountains and the Andes run through north nepal. it rises to 29,029 ft
and south America; the mighty Himalayas, (8,848 m). Above are
Alps, and Atlas Mountains stretch across Asia, edmund Hillary of new
Higher still, only Zealand (left) and tenzing
plants that are norgay of nepal, who first
adapted to the cold climbed everest in 1953.
are able to grow.
europe, and north Africa. these mountains MoUntAin CliMbing
are “young”: they formed during the last 50 Mountain climbing
million years. other ranges, such as the Urals requires special
in Russia, are much older and lower. the equipment, such
forces of erosion have worn them down Forests of pine as ropes to prevent
since they were first formed more trees grow higher
than 200 million up the mountain falls, and crampons—
where it is colder. steel spikes attached
to mountaineers’
years ago. boots that
grip ice.

AvAlAnCHe
snow and ice can
suddenly crash down a steep
mountainside. this is called an
avalanche, and it often occurs
in the spring as the snow melts.

MoUntAin Zones Forests of broad-
A high mountain has several zones, or leaved trees and a wide
regions, containing different kinds of plants. Squeezing action range of other vegetation
Forests cover the mountain’s lower reaches. Formation of pushes up grow at the base of
Farther up is a zone of small, low-lying block mountains blocks of rock. Block wears away the mountain.
plants. snow covers the summit, which is over many years to
bare of plant life. Zones occur because the produce a mountain.
air becomes colder higher up the mountain.

eRosion
ice, wind, and running water break
up rock, slowly wearing it away over
FAUlting And Folding millions of years. this process of
erosion carves out deep valleys and
As the continents move, they Formation of fold creates high peaks. Continuing
squeeze layers of rock. these mountains erosion wears away the peaks, so
movements produce huge that the mountains become
cracks, or faults, and push As layers of rock lower and more rounded.
up blocks of rock that are squeezed, they
form block mountains. the form zigzag folds. The rocks then Find out more
movements also make earth’s crack and Continents
surface buckle, forming fold glaciers and ice caps
mountains. dome mountains wear away at Mountain wildlife
appear when molten granite the top of the oceans and seas
pushes the rock above it into curve, forming volcanoes
a huge hump. jagged mountains.

357

Mountain wildlife

laMMeRGeieR tHe Mountain RanGes of the world
the lammergeier is one of the biggest are home to all kinds of wildlife—from
vultures. it has a wingspan of about 10 ft tiny beetles to huge bears. lower
(3 m) and soars over the high mountain slopes are often covered with lush
peaks of africa, asia, and europe. vegetation and are rich in animal life.
this bird of prey feeds mostly
Higher up the mountain the temperature
on carrion (bodies of
dead animals).

is lower, and there is less wildlife. Mammals
living there have thick fur to survive the cold.
in places too steep for most creatures to
climb, surefooted goats and chamois leap
with ease over the rocks. near the top of the
mountain, the wind is so strong that only powerful
birds such as condors can fly. in some windy areas,
the insects have lost their wings during conseRvation
the course of evolution; wings would be Wildlife parks protect mountain
useless to them. spiders and wingless animals such as the bobcat shown
here. in the past, people hunted the
bobcat for its fur; today, this cat is an
insects live higher up the mountain than endangered species.
any other creature. as you climb higher,
the temperature drops by 6.5°F (3.6°c) for
every 1,000 ft (300 m) of height. above about
8,000 ft (2,400 m) small shrubs grow, bent and
twisted by the icy winds. Higher up still,
only mosses and lichens grow, and at the
This map shows the main mountain
ranges of the world. very top there is permanent snow and ice.

North Europe Asia The mountain goat is a North American cHaMois
America relative of the European chamois. Its body

Africa is more thickset and sturdy, and it is three a rubbery hoof pad
times the weight of a chamois. The allows the chamois to grip
South mountain goat moves slowly and stony surfaces with ease as
America deliberately through it leaps nimbly among rocks
deep snow. in search of grasses, herbs,

Australia

and flowers. chamois live in
groups of up to 30 females
and young. the males live
Mountains alone, except in the

Mountain plants breeding season.

High up where trees do not grow, alpine flowers spectacled beaR
bloom in the short summer. the word alpine the only bear in south america
means above the tree line. the leaves of most is the spectacled bear, so named
alpine flowers grow low and flat so they are because of the markings around
protected from the bitter winds. these flowers its eyes. it lives in the andes
are pollinated mainly by flies, butterflies,
and other insects that have survived Mountains and is found in warm,
the winter as eggs or as adults moist forests and mountains at
under the snow. heights of 11,500 ft (3,500 m).
Today the edelweiss
is a protected plant spectacled bears eat a wide
in many areas. range of foods, including leaves,
The trumpet gentian is named fruits, insects, eggs, small deer,
for its deep trumpet of petals. and other mammals.
It grows in stony places and in
damp, short turf at heights of
10,000 ft (3,000 m), in the Alps,
Pyrenees, and Apennines of Europe. Hyraxes eat Rock HyRax Find out more
the small, furry, stoutly animals
The alpine built hyrax of africa is the
longhorn beetle closest living relative of bears and pandas
the elephant—the largest birds
shown here animal on land. Rock
suns itself on hyraxes live at heights of up conservation
to 13,300 ft (4,000 m) in rocky
mountain places such as Mount kenya. and endangered species
flowers and
lions, tigers,
feeds on
their pollen. mainly grasses. and other big cats

Mountains

358

Movies

iN A pAriS café in CHArlie CHApliN
The British actor Charles
december 1895, people sat Chaplin (1889-1977)
down to watch the world’s created a movie character
first motion picture. it was that touched the hearts
of millions: a silent little
shown by two French tramp with a funny walk.
brothers, louis and
Auguste lumière, and
though it consisted only of a
few short, simple scenes, movies
have been popular ever since. The first movies were silent, with titles on the
screen to explain the story. A pianist accompanied the movie with the right
type of music—for example, fast and furious music during a chase scene.
The United States took the lead in making movies. Soon the public began to
select its favorite actors and actresses, and the first movie stars were created,
such as rudolph valentino. in 1927, the first full-length “talkie”—movie with
sound—was shown, and from then on the public would settle for nothing less.
Technical improvements continued. in the United States, Metro-Goldwyn-
Mayer and a few other powerful studios made 95 percent of the movies. Hollywood
during the 1950s, television captured people’s attention and the film industry Southern California had the ideal
went into decline. in recent years, movies have become
popular again. russia, Germany, France, and Japan have climate and scenery for making
The senior films. Between 1907 and 1913, a
electrician on los Angeles neighborhood called
the film set produced movies that have influenced Hollywood became the center of
is called filmmaking throughout the world, and the American film industry. Not all
the gaffer. there are many national film industries.
stars were human: King Kong
(above) was an animated model.

Lighting experts operate
huge lamps to ensure that
the light looks as natural
Teams of A continuity worker makes sure that scenes shot as possible in a movie.
expert makeup out of order match each other. He or she notes Lighting is needed
artists and the details of each shot to ensure that there are on location as
dressers prepare no mistakes when the scenes well as in
an actress or are put in order. the studio.
actor for a The producer
day’s shoot. Sound technicians follow chooses the
the actors with microphones
suspended from long poles
(booms).

script, finds
financial
backing, picks
the director
and the
technical teams,
oversees the
filming, and
The art organizes publicity.
director
designs
the sets and
chooses
suitable The cinematographer leads The director
locations for a team that also includes the guides the
filming away camera operator. Camera actors’
from the studio. assistants help with focusing,
load magazines, and operate performances,
Movie SeT the clapper board. Workers the action,
called grips move the camera and the
Set builders make movie sets—from city down tracks or rails
streets to tropical jungles—inside huge camera angles,
buildings like aircraft hangars, or outdoors and gives the
movie its style
and character.

on studio grounds. Hundreds of people are for the camera to run
involved in getting things ready for the first along smoothly.

filming of the day. when all is satisfactory, a Stuntmen and stuntwomen take
red warning light goes on, the studio is told Acting on the big screen is the place of actors in dangerous action.
very different from the theater. In close-ups, every They risk their lives performing stunts,
to stand by for a take (an attempt at a scene), movement can be seen, and actors have to play such as falling from a great height,
sound and cameras roll, and the director their part with subtle facial expressions. They must crashing a car, or leaping
shouts “Action!” also be able to act the story out of sequence. from a moving train.

359

movies “BUlleT-TIMe” SlOW MOTIOn eFFeCT
SPeCIAl eFFeCTS each small hole in the scene above conceals a
Special effects have created a vast new fantasy world in movies. In a technique known as still camera taking a picture of the scene from a
back projection, first used as early as 1913, the cinematographer projected a previously different angle. The series of shots is put together
filmed background on to a screen from behind. Actors or models were then filmed in in sequence on computer, along with thousands
front of the screen, giving the impression that they were actually at that location. Glass
screens painted with realistic backgrounds, studio sets wired up with controlled explosions, of extra “in-between” frames created using
special smoke and wind machines, and stop-frame animation of models were all used to software. The effect is of the camera moving

help bring make-believe scenes to life. As recently as the 1970s, life-like models were still around the action in extreme slow motion.
being filmed in a studio to produce gruesome horror effects, such as the shark in Jaws, On computer, the colored

and convincing space battles, such as those in Star Wars. Today, almost all of these background is easily
effects are created digitally using powerful computers. removed using a software
The actors are filmed filter—sometimes called
against a background of “Chromakey”.
solid blue or green color.

The actors are
superimposed on a
new background, and
the wires supporting
them are erased.

spielberg DIGITAl TrICkery Movies
Directors often become 1895 First public movie show
“stars” in their own Digital video editing software allows moviemakers to insert held in Paris.
right. Director Steven actors into almost any environment imaginable. Actors are 1905 In the United States the
Spielberg was born in filmed in front of a green or blue “matte” background, which first nickelodeon film theatre
1946. He shot his first is later replaced with a new scene—one either filmed opens.
film when he was 12 elsewhere or created on computer. real people can also be 1907 Hollywood founded.
and won a contract combined with computer-generated characters and models, 1927 The Jazz Singer (USA) is the
with Universal Studios, as in Harry Potter, and whole armies can be created that have first full-length film with sound.
Hollywood, after an “artificial life” entirely of their own, as in Lord of the Rings. 1929 First Academy Awards.
leaving college. He 1928 American cartoonist Walt
became the most eDITInG Disney (1901-66) launches his
successful American The movie editor ensures that all most popular cartoon character,
director of the 1970s, the shots are in the right order, Mickey Mouse, in the movie
1980s, and 1990s with and that the movie lasts the right Steamboat Willie.
blockbusters such as amount of time. But editing is 1935 First full-spectrum
Jaws (1975) and Jurassic more complex than that. A Technicolor feature, Becky Sharp,
Park (1993), and Oscar good editor can improve the is released.
winners such as movie by cutting out 1953 First CinemaScope (wide
Schindler’s List (1993). sequences that slow down the screen) movie, The Robe, released.
action or inserting close-up 1995 Toy Story, first completely
shots to make a scene more computer-animated feature
dramatic. editing is a highly film, released.
skilled process. In the past it 2003 Lord of the Rings trilogy is
involved physically cutting the first movie to win an award for
and taping together pieces of Best Digital Acting Performance.
film, though now it is usually 2009 Avatar becomes the first
done digitally. The director movie to create an entire world
and movie editor work together using motion capture technology.
for hours to get the right
combination of shots in each scene. Find out more
Cameras
DUBBInG Music
The sound editor is responsible Television
for assembling the soundtrack for the Theater
movie. This consists of dozens of separate tracks, including all
the dialogue, music, sound effects, and background sound.
After editing, these sounds have to be balanced against each
other and blended in a process called dubbing. Technicians
known as mixers watch the movie and operate controls on
a sound console to get perfect timing and balance of sounds.

360

muhammad

during tHE 600s, one man founded what was to become one of the
world’s great religions. His name was muhammad, and the religion was islam.
muhammad came from mecca in southwestern arabia (now Saudi arabia), and
was born into one of the city’s arab clans around 570 ce. Orphaned at an early
age, he became a merchant and married Khadija, a wealthy widow, with whom he
had three daughters. at the time, the arab people worshiped many gods and
prayed to idols and spirits. muhammad came to believe that there was only
one god, named allah, and that he had been chosen to be allah’s prophet.
muhammad’s family and friends were the first to share his beliefs, but his views
angered the people of mecca, and he was forced to flee
to medina, a city north of mecca. there he proclaimed
the principles of islam and won many converts. after a
PrOPHEt OF iSlam holy war, muhammad led his followers to conquer mecca
muslims believe that angel in 630. missionaries spread the message of islam far and
gabriel told muhammad wide, and by the time of muhammad’s death in 632,
that he had been chosen
by god to be a prophet, in
the same way as moses and arabia was an islamic state.
abraham before him.

HEgira mOunt Hira
at age 40, muhammad began
People came to mecca to worship and to meditate in a cave on mount
trade at the Kaaba, a huge shrine that Hira, north of mecca. Here, he
contained hundreds of idols. muhammad had a vision in which the angel
was persecuted when he spoke out gabriel spoke the words of god
against the worship of idols. in 622, he to him and told him that he was to
fled with a few of his followers to medina. preach that people should believe
their journey is called the Hegira in only one god—allah. the
(meaning “flight” or “migration”). today, teachings of allah were revealed
the Kaaba is a holy shrine for muslims
(followers of islam). it is surrounded by to muhammad in a series of
a great mosque (muslim prayer hall) and visions throughout his life.
visited by thousands of pilgrims each year.

Pilgrims walk
seven times
around the
Kaaba.

Fatima Fatima and ali muHammad’S tEaCHingS MuhaMMad
muhammad’s daughter muhammad did not claim to be divine. He believed that c. 570 ce Born in mecca.
Fatima (605-633) traveled he was the last of the prophets and that he had received 595 marries Khadija,
with her father to medina. messages from god, which he had to pass on to others. He a wealthy widow.
She later married muhammad’s taught that there is only one god, that people should be 610 Has a vision of the
cousin, ali. Fatima’s descendants obedient to god’s will, and that all people were equal. He angel gabriel telling him to
went on to found the city of also preached against the selfishness of the rich, the unjust proclaim a new faith, islam.
Kahira (Cairo) in Egypt. treatment of women, slaves, and poor people, and cruelty to 613 Begins preaching to
Muhammad animals. in 632, knowing that his life was coming to an end, the people of mecca.
he led a farewell pilgrimage to mecca. there he delivered a 622 leaves mecca and
Ali famous sermon on the most important principles of islam. travels to medina.
624 meccan army defeated
dEatH OF muHammad at Battle of Badr by much
after the farewell pilgrimage, smaller muslim force.
muhammad went back to medina, 630 Conquers mecca.
but died within a few days of his 632 dies in medina.
return. His tomb lies in the
Prophet’s mosque at medina. after Find out more
his death, his followers wrote down islam
his teachings in the Qur’an
(Koran), the holy book of islam. religions

361

MUSCLES and MOVEMEnT

EVERY MOVEMENT YOU MAKE is powered by muscles. Muscles are controlled
by nerve signals from the brain. There are three main types of muscles—skeletal,
smooth, and cardiac. Skeletal muscle is also called striated muscle, and it covers
the bones of the skeleton. It is attached to the bones by cords called tendons.
When the muscle contracts, or shortens, it moves the bone. Skeletal muscles are
also called voluntary muscles because they can be controlled at will. Smooth
muscle is found in the digestive system, bladder, and blood vessels. It is called
involuntary muscle because it works automatically, even when you are asleep.
Cardiac muscle is found only in the heart. All muscles need energy in order to
work properly. Blood carries oxygen and glucose (sugar) to muscles to provide
them with fuel. As a muscle works harder, it needs more fuel, so the heart pumps
faster to supply it with
more blood. Deltoid raises arm.

KEEpINg IN SHApE Flexors Trapezius
If skeletal muscles are not move pulls shoulder
used regularly they gradually fingers. back and up.
waste away. Regular exercise
is an important part of Pectoralis
staying healthy. Taking part moves shoulder
in a sport, or exercising two and helps deep
to three times a week, helps breathing.
keep a person fit.

Gluteus maximus,
used in walking
and climbing

Biceps femoris Rectus abdominis
(hamstring) moves strengthens front
knees and hips. of abdomen.
Gastrocnemius bends
foot downward. Fascicle
(bundle of
fibers)

HUMAN MUSCLES Muscle Epimysium Smooth muscle has
fibre (muscle no stripes under
sheath) the microscope.
Skeletal muscle
A simple movement such as lifting your arm Blood looks striped under
involves dozens of muscles, acting together in vessel the microscope.
sequence with split-second timing. About 650
muscles move the various parts of the skeleton. Muscles
work in teams. The largest muscle is called the gluteus INSIdE A MUSCLE
maximus, in the buttock. The smallest muscles are the
tiny muscles of the small bones inside the ear. Altogether, Each muscle consists of a bundle
muscles make up to half of an adult’s body weight. of thin fibers. Each of these fibers
Myofibril is made up of even smaller myofibrils.
BICEpS ANd Biceps Biceps Myofibrils contain long, interlocking
TRICEpS MUSCLES contracts and relaxes and groups of molecules called actin and
Muscles can pull, but they shortens. lengthens. myosin. Actin and myosin molecules
cannot push. Many, such as the slide past each other in a ratchet fashion
biceps and triceps muscles in in order to make the muscle contract.
the upper arm, are arranged
in opposing pairs. The biceps Triceps Triceps Elbow Find out more
muscle in the arm contracts to relaxes. contracts straightens. Brain and nerves
pull on the forearm bones and and shortens. Heart and blood
bend the elbow. The triceps Elbow
muscle in the arm contracts bends. 362 Human body
to straighten the elbow. Lungs and breathing

Skeletons

MushrooMs,

toadstools, and other fungi

brIghTLy COLOreD TOaDsTOOLs, delicate
mushrooms, and the furry green mold on a rotting piece
of bread all belong to a unique group of organisms called
fungi. fungi are neither plants nor animals. They are the
great decomposers of the natural world. fungi feed by
releasing chemicals called enzymes that rot away whatever
they are feeding on. The dissolved nutrients and minerals
are absorbed and recycled by the fungi. Many kinds of MOLD
fungi grow in damp woodlands and lush, grassy meadows, The decaying parts of plants
Champignon mushrooms especially during the fall. There is no scientific difference and animals are rotted away
grow in a ring in meadows between mushrooms and toadstools, but toadstools are by pinmold, which grows on
and in gardens. Many often more colorful, and some are extremely poisonous. damp bread, and is the blue
people used to believe these mold growing on this peach.
were magic fairy rings.

The part of a mushroom that we eat is called the cap. It contains spores—
minute cells that grow into new mushrooms when they are released from
the cap. some harmful fungi cause diseases on plants and ringworm in
humans. yeast is a fungus used to make bread dough rise. another fungus
is used to make the antibiotic drug penicillin.

Ring where Cap eDIbLe fungI beefsTeak
rim of cap Many mushrooms and other fungus
was fungi are edible; some are not This fungus grows on trees.
attached only delicious but also are a It is called the beefsteak bracket
to stalk good source of minerals and because it looks like a piece
Gills inside fiber. Cultivated mushrooms of undercooked steak.
Stalk cap are farmed in dark, damp
Spores are released OysTer
from between the gills sheds on beds of peat. MushrOOM
of mature caps. Collecting wild fungi to eat The oyster mushroom
can be very dangerous. some is common on beech
deadly poisonous fungi look trees; its cap looks like the shell
Young just like edible mushrooms. of an oyster. Oyster mushrooms
cap are tasty and keep well when they
are dried.
fIeLD MushrOOM
During the fall,
field mushrooms
spring up overnight
in damp pastures
and meadows.

MOreL ChanTereLLe gIanT DuTCh eLM DIsease
prized for its flavor, the The funnel-shaped puffbaLL Dead and dying elm trees are
morel’s cap is crisscrossed cap of the chanterelle When the giant a familiar sight in europe and
with patterned ridgework. mushroom is yellow and puffball ripens, its top breaks
smells like an apricot. It is open, and clouds of tiny spores puff north america. a deadly
found in oak, beech, and birch woods. out with the slightest breeze or the fungus carried on the bodies
It grows slowly, preserves well, and is smallest splattering of rain. of elm bark beetles, which live

highly prized by chefs. on elm trees, has killed
millions of trees. The fungus
Poisonous fungi Death cup The bright red fly Fly
people die every year from eating agaric toadstool is agaric grows through the bark,
poisonous fungi. some of these blocking the water-carrying
are brightly colored toadstools poisonous. Small
that are easily recognized. amounts can cause tubes inside the trunk.
Others, such as the destroying
angel, look harmless, but cause unconsciousness. Find out more
death rapidly if they are eaten. The harmless-looking Drugs
death cup is one of food
the most poisonous
fungi. Less than forest wildlife
1 oz (28 g) can kill plants
a person in only soil
a few hours.

363

Music Ancient musicians of Ur in Sumer (now southern Iraq)
played lyres, flutes, pipes, and percussion instruments.
Musicians Make Music by carefully organizing sounds into a
regular, pleasing pattern to entertain listeners. notes are the starting The firsT Music
point for all music. a note is a regular vibration of the air that The chanting of prehistoric people was
musicians create with musical instruments or with their voices. The probably the earliest music. The oldest
more rapid the vibration, the higher the pitch of the note—the surviving musical instruments are mammoth
higher it sounds to a listener. certain notes sound better together bones from northern eurasia; musicians may
than others. Most music uses these notes, organized into a scale. a have banged them together or blown them to
scale is a series of notes that increase gradually and regularly in pitch.
Musicians usually play or sing notes at fixed time intervals. We call make notes about 35,000 years ago.
this regular pattern of notes the rhythm or meter of the music. a The shape of each note tells the
melody or tune is a combination of the rhythm, the notes the musician how long to play it. This
musician plays, and their order. The melody is the overall is a quarter note.
pattern that we hear and remember—and whistle or hum days or
perhaps weeks later. The key signature shows which key
the music is in. A key is a series of A curved tie line joining two
related notes. identical notes means they must
The clef shows the pitch at be played as one unbroken note.
which to play the music. This
is the treble clef.
The speed of the music
is often written in Italian.
Allegro means “quickly.”

The time Rests show where the When eighth All music is divided into equal measures,
signature musician should pause. notes are next to each of which has the same number of
each other, their beats, as indicated by the time signature.
shows the musician Dynamic markings indicate hooks are usually The bar marks the end of the measure.
the meter in which to how loudly to play the music— joined together.
play the piece. This is mf stands for mezzo forte, or A crescendo shows
four-four, or common time. moderately loud. that the music gets
gradually louder.
The position of the notes on or between the five
horizontal staff lines indicates their pitch. Musicians
use letters of the alphabet as names for each of the noTaTion
eight notes in an octave.

composers need a way of writing down the music they
create. Musical notation is a code of symbols and signs that
c records every aspect of the music. in the 9th century, monks
began to use musical notation to help them remember the
ab

cde f g tunes of holy songs. The system in use today had developed
fully by about 1200 ce.

Jazz chaMber Music
The essential ingredient of jazz is classical—rather
improvisation—the musicians make than pop—music
for small groups of
up some or all of the music as instruments is called
they play it. african-american chamber music.
chamber music was
musicians created the very so called because it
first jazz music at the began as music for
beginning of the 20th enjoyment in chambers,
century in new orleans, or rooms, in the home.
Louisiana. Jazz is a mixture composers wrote different
of blues, religious gospel, types of music for theaters or
and european music. churches. Today, performances
of chamber music often take
Charlie “Bird” Parker (1920-55)
popularized a new form of jazz, place in concert halls.
called “bebop,” in the 1940s.

364

Music

traditional Music
in much traditional music the composer is unknown, and
the music itself may not be written down. Performers are
often non-professional musicians who learn the tunes “by
ear”—by listening to each other play—so they do not need
a written score. Musicians sometimes make small changes
as they play, so there are often many slightly different
versions of the same traditional melody.

Cheerleaders
keep time with
marching
music and
encourage
spectators to
join in songs
Buddhist monks and chants.
blow large horns
as part of their
religious
ceremonies. Military and

Marching Music
Music with a strong, steady beat helps
soldiers march in step. today, military bands
are not the only ones to play marching music.
american high schools and football teams
often have their own marching bands, which
entertain the crowds at halftime and
on special occasions.

religious Music classical Music
Music has always played an important part classical music has become increasingly
in religion. in religious ceremonies, music popular in recent years, partly thanks to the
inspires people to think about their god efforts of young musicians such as violinist
or gods. it accompanies religious songs Vanessa Mae. Mae started writing her own
and sacred dances. composers also choose music at age nine, and by age 18 she had
religious themes for music that is not made several records and performed in
part of worship: Messiah by the german classical concerts all over the world. she has
composer george Frideric handel also mixed classical with modern by combining
(1685-1759) sets part of the Bible to music. the sounds of acoustic and electric violins.

rock Music American- Find out more
born singer composers
during the 1950s, a new form of popular Elvis Presley Movies
music was heard for the first time. rock (1935-77) sold
and roll songs had a powerful beat and millions of rock Musical instruments
words that young people could relate to. and roll records and sound
this form of music began in the united starred in 33 movies.
states, where it grew from traditional theater
rhythm and blues played by african-
american musicians. over the years it has
influenced many other musical forms.

365

Musical instruMents

the loud tWang of an electric guitar might seem far string instruments
removed from the delicate trill of a classical violin, yet Vibrating strings stretched
across these instruments
these two instruments make their different make the musical note:
sounds in a similar way. Both use a
stretched string to create the the finer the string and
the shorter its length, the
vibrations we hear as music. the higher the note. the size
ConCh horns guitar and the violin evolved in of the instrument also
Conch seashells affects its sound. the small
made fine trumpets
in ancient times— a similar manner, but they violin, for example,
as they still do in actually belong to different produces higher sounds
modern-day Peru. Playing than the large double
families of musical the violin

instruments. string instruments, bass. musicians pluck the
strings of guitars, harps,
such as the violin, make their notes when the and lutes, and usually
musician plucks the strings or draws a stretched
bow—a bundle of horsehair—across them. electric use a bow to play
the violin, viola,
cello, and
instruments, such as the electric guitar, produce double bass.
weak vibrations that must be amplified for the
audience to hear the music. there are five other
instrument groups: woodwind, percussion, brass, Cello
keyboard, and electronic. this short list includes the four
a huge variety: some instruments, such as the cello strings
hollow wooden flute, are very simple; others, make a rich,

mellow
sound.

such as the synthesizer, are highly complex. Violin

to play the violin the
musician holds it
WoodWind instruments under the chin.

Blowing into a woodwind instrument makes flute
the air inside vibrate; this produces the to play a side-blown
musical notes. Covering the holes in flute, such as this one,
the tube with fingers or keys changes you blow across the tube.
the length of the vibrating air,
producing different notes. the
instruments with the shortest
tubes, such as the piccolo, Upper Reed

make the highest notes. joint

other woodwind Keys
instruments are the
bassoon, english A wood
horn, saxophone, Body joint oBoe frame pulls
clarinet, oboe, the mouthpiece of horse-hair
and flute. an oboe is a double reed tight across the
(a piece of thin wood). bow. Sliding
the instrument makes the bow across
Keys a clear, sad sound. the strings
makes them

vibrate.

Head joint Tip

Reed

Lip plate oBoe reed
Blowhole most

Bell professional
joint oboe players

A flautist playing make their
a side-blown own reeds
concert flute by binding
two pieces of
split cane to
a tube called

a staple.

Playing the oboe Staple

366

Musical instruMents

brAss
some of the most exciting sounds in music come from brass
instruments. this group includes the French horn, trumpet,
bugle, cornet, trombone, and tuba. the instruments are long
tubes of brass or other metal curved around for easier handling.
sounds produced by the musician’s lips on the mouthpiece
vibrate down the tube. Pressing the valves opens more of the
tube, making the pitch of the note lower. the trumpet has a
long history. When the Egyptians buried King
tutankhamun more than 3,000 years ago, Playing the horn

they placed a trumpet
in his tomb.
tHE cornEt
musicians in
military and
brass bands
often play the
cornet, which is
descended from
the horns that were
blown to announce
the arrival of a FrEncH
mailcoach. the cornet is
one of the smallest brass Horn
instruments, with a tube about
4.5 ft (1.5 m) long. uncurled, this
Cornet player horn is 16 ft (5 m)
long. it developed
PErcussion from an 18th-century
bells, gongs, and drums are percussion instruments, and hunting horn and
there are many more, because all over the world Bass makes a rich, warm
people find different objects, such as beads strings sound. the Austrian
composer Wolfgang
and seeds, that make a noise when beaten Treble
or shaken. some percussion strings Amadeus mozart
instruments, such as the Tuning created four pieces
xylophone and timpani, pins
of music for the
are tuned to play French horn.

definite notes. KEyboArds
Hammers strike
snArE Sounding strings in the
drum board piano when the
the wire pianist presses a
spring on the key. Pedals keep
bottom skin of the note sounding
the snare drum when the key
vibrates when the is released.
player strikes the
top skin.

Pedals Iron frame

TradiTional insTrumenTs Keyboard Hammers
musicians in symphony Dampers
orchestras play only a few of the
world’s vast range of musical ElEctronic instrumEnts
instruments. many more are these instruments can produce an exciting array of sounds,
used in the traditional or folk by either simulating existing instruments or synthesizing
music of individual countries. completely new sounds. the
some of these instruments musician can feed sounds into
developed unique shapes in the memory of the instrument Find out more
different parts of the world, composers
as musicians explored the and then play them back movies
music-making potential of local together to simulate a music
materials. However, some are whole orchestra. sound
remarkably similar: the
bagpipes are played in
Europe, Asia, and Africa.

A flute player from Thailand

367

MYTHS and LEGEndS

Before There Were Any Books, storytelling was an important way
of passing on knowledge and beliefs from one generation to the next.
often, the stories took the form of myths that explained mysteries of nature,
such as the origins of thunder. Ancient peoples told stories about gods and
goddesses, and about human heroes with special powers. These myths
became part of art and literature. some legends may have had a basis on
real people and real-life events. To make a better tale, parents exaggerated
the details as they repeated the legends to their children. every country has
its own legends. Paul Bunyan, the hero of stories told by north American
lumberjacks, supposedly carved out the Grand
The TrojAn horse leGend Canyon by dragging his pick behind him. CreATIon MyThs
Greek soldiers conquered the sometimes, legendary monsters were created, Most peoples used myths
besieged city of Troy by hiding such as the werewolf that appears in stories to explain how the world
in a huge wooden horse. When from many cultures.
the Trojans took the horse may have begun. This
inside the city walls, the Greeks native American myth was
emerged and conquered Troy. told by members of the
kwakiutl tribe.
sun Gods
The Indian sun god, The Egyptian A raven, flying over water,
The same myths can be Surya—as painted on a sun god, Ra could find nowhere to land. he
found in widely different doorway in Jaipur, India
cultures thousands decided to create the world by
of miles apart. This dropping small pebbles to
is because natural things, make islands.
such as the rain, the sea,
and the moon, are Then he created trees and grass.
common to everyone. Beasts lived in the forest, birds
Many peoples worshiped flew in the air above, and the
sun gods: surya in India sea was filled with fish.
and Apollo in Ancient
Greece were both
believed to ride across the
sky in chariots of flame.

WIllIAM Tell
A famous swiss
legend describes
how William Tell
insulted his
country’s hated
Austrian rulers.
his punishment
was to shoot an
apple balanced on
his son’s head. he
succeeded, and later led
a revolt against Austrian rule.

Athena, the Greek Gods and Goddesses After many failed attempts, the
goddess of bravery The Ancient Greeks raven succeeded in making the
worshiped many gods first man and woman out of clay

and goddesses. The goddess Athena and wood. At last, his world
took part in battles and loved bravery. Athens, was complete.
the capital of Greece, is named after her.
Quetzalcoatl appears in Mexican mythology Find out more
as one of the greatest Aztec gods. As god of Greece, ancient
air, Quetzalcoatl created the winds that blew
away the rain. literature
religions
Quetzalcoatl, the Mexican god of air

368

NapoleoN boNaparte

august 15 1769 Born on iN a laviSH ceremoNy iN 1804, Napoleon Bonaparte crowned himself
the island of corsica.
1779-85 military school. emperor of the French. He was an unlikely figure to lead his country, and
1799 Becomes ruler spoke French with a thick corsican accent. yet he was one of the most
of France. brilliant military leaders in history. Napoleon first caught the public eye in
1804 crowned emperor. 1793, when he commanded an attack against the British fleet occupying the
1812 Defeated in russia. French port of Toulon. in 1795, he crushed a revolt in paris and soon led
1814 exiled to island of the French armies to victory in italy. By 1799, Napoleon was strong enough
elba in the mediterranean. to take power with the help of the army. He made himself First consul and
1815 returns to France; restored the power of the French government after the chaos left by the
defeated at Waterloo. French revolution. He introduced many social reforms, laying the
may 5 1821 Dies in exile on foundations of the French legal, educational, and financial systems.
the island of Saint Helena. Napoleon was a military genius who went on to control europe from the
english channel to the russian border. But he suffered a humiliating defeat
in russia, and when the British and prussians beat him at the Battle of
Waterloo in 1815, Napoleon was sent out of France into exile on a British
island in the South atlantic. He died six years later.

NapoleoNic empire

at the height of his power in 1812, Napoleon ruled europe
from the Baltic to the south of rome, and his relations ruled
Spain, italy, and parts of Germany. The rest of
Germany, Switzerland, and poland were also
under French control; and Denmark, austria,
and prussia were allies. only portugal, Britain,

Sweden, and russia were independent.

emperor 1812 and the retreat from moscow
on December 2, 1804, Napoleon crowned Napoleon invaded russia in June, 1812, with
himself emperor of the French in a ceremony a force of more than 500,000 men.
at Notre Dame cathedral in paris. He had The russians retreated, drawing
already changed his italian-sounding name, the French army deeper into the
Buonaparte, to the French name of Bonaparte. country. Napoleon captured the
Now he was to be known as Napoleon i. capital, moscow, but was forced
to retreat because he could not
supply his army. The harsh russian
winter killed many troops as they
returned to France.

iNvaSioN oF eNGlaND Find out more
in 1805, Napoleon assembled an army of 140,000 soldiers europe, history of
by the english channel and drew up plans to invade
england, which he called “a nation of shopkeepers.” These France
plans included crossing the channel by ship and balloon, French revolution
and digging a tunnel under the sea. The invasion was
canceled when the British admiral Nelson defeated the
French fleet at the Battle of Trafalgar.

369

Bridal Veil Falls, Yosemite NatioNal parks
National Park, California
From the depths of the Grand Canyon to the peaks of denali,
every American can share in the country’s scenic and historic
places through the national park system. the first national park,
Yellowstone, was established by an act of Congress in 1872. today,
there are more than 370 national park areas in the United states.
the spectacular landscapes of the best-known parks—Yellowstone,
the Grand Canyon, Yosemite, and the Great smoky mountains—
attract tourists from all over the world.
the park system also helps preserve
Surveyors camp in the
Yellowstone region, 1871.
America’s heritage, from
seashores and highways
to battlefields and
monuments.

preservinG the pArks the First pArk Grand Canyon
park ranger
America’s national parks attract in 1870, members of an
millions of visitors each year, drawn expedition exploring the
by the incredible scenery as well as
the many opportunities for outdoor Yellowstone region in
recreation. most Americans live Wyoming came up with the
within a day’s drive of a park, making idea of preserving the land by
it an ideal tourist destination. giving it to the nation. the
overcrowding in some parks led following summer, the government sent a geologist to
to the founding of the national
parks Association in 1919, to help survey the region. his report, and the enthusiastic
preserve the park system. support of the public, helped persuade Congress to set

aside the area for the enjoyment of all the people. in
1872, president Ulysses s. Grant signed the bill that
established Yellowstone as the first national park.

Alcatraz Island, UrbAn pArks
San Francisco not all national parks are
located in remote areas. the
largest and most popular
urban park is the Golden
Gate national recreation
Area, in san Francisco,
California. more than 14.5
million people visit the park
each year. Alcatraz island,
site of a former maximum-
security federal prison, is
found within the park’s
boundaries.

historiC plACes
the park system was
expanded in 1906 to
include national
monuments—landmarks nAtionAl pArk serviCe
and structures of historic the national park service was
or scientific interest. these established in 1916 to maintain and
include sites such as the administer the park areas. each
ancient cave dwellings in park has a resident superintendent,
the bandelier national assisted by a team of park rangers.
monument (left) and the rangers build roads, trails, and
Gila Cliff dwellings, both in campsites, run park museums, and
new mexico, as well as early offer tours and talks to visitors.
colonial settlements. in
1933, the park service oUtdoor ClAssrooms Find out more
was given control of Archaeologists, naturalists, and historians work Archaeology
military landmarks such at most national parks, often leading educational Conservation
as historic battlefields
from the revolutionary programs that help teach park visitors about and endangered species
and Civil Wars. their surroundings. Archaeologists can be seen
excavating dinosaur bones in parks such as the Fossils

dinosaur national monument, Utah (above).

370

Native aMeRiCaNs

NaTive americaNs, or americaN iNdiaNs, Smoke flap open Straight poles
for ventilation are bound
were the first people to live in North america, together at the
having arrived from asia more than 20,000 years top to form a
ago. They wandered over the Bering strait, cone shape.
which was a land bridge at the time and now
separates asia and North america, following Bison hide
animals they were hunting. Gradually, these was used
early people settled into different tribes. over the to make
centuries, the tribes developed organized societies. the tepee
during the 1500s, europeans arrived in North cover.
america for the first time. They thought they were
in the “indies,” or asia, so they called the natives WomeN
“american indians.” The europeans wanted land Women played an important part in the
and threatened the existence of native North
americans. The natives fought many wars with life of a tribe. They provided the food,
the new settlers. during the 1800s, the tribes made the clothes, and raised the children.
resisted when the Us government tried to
make them leave their homelands. after The women of the Hopi indians of the
a bitter struggle, the Native americans southwest also owned the houses
were moved onto reservations—areas and organized the village.
of land set aside for them—where Lodge pins made
many still live today. from bone held
the hides together.
Tepees Paintings that told
a story decorated
The sioux and other tribes on the hides.
the Great plains lived in tepees. Door flap
Tepees were made of bison hides
stretched over a wooden frame
and were easy to put up. Flaps
at the top of the tepee could
be opened to allow smoke
from the fire to escape.

A fire was lit inside
the tepee for cooking
and warmth.
GeroNimo Sign Language
one of the most successful native chiefs in leading each tribe of the natives spoke
resistance to the “white man” was Geronimo (1829-1909), its own language. But people
of the chiricahua apache indians. Geronimo led raids from different tribes were able
across the southwestern states and into mexico. in 1886, to communicate with each other
he was captured and exiled to Florida. Later, he was using a special sign language
released and became a national celebrity. they all understood.

Horse

Pawnee
(tribe)

TriBes Buffalo Keep
The native peoples of North america belonged
to numerous tribes. most of them hunted,
fished, and farmed. among the best-known tribes
are the cheyenne, comanche, and sioux, who
lived on the Great plains; the apache, Navajo, and
pueblo, who lived in the southwest; and the iroquois,
Huron, and cherokee, who lived in the east.

371

native americans

canoes
northern tribes who lived by rivers and lakes, such as the
Penobscot and Malecite, built canoes from the bark of
birch trees. these strong, fast canoes were light enough
to be carried overland when they could not be paddled.

Bark hull Paddles

sioUx WeaPons
the sioux lived on the Great Plains. they hunted bison on horseback,
using the skins for clothing and tepees, the meat for food, and the bones native-americans used bows
and horns for tools. the sioux were noted for their bravery and fighting and arrows, knives, and clubs
skills and fought a long series of battles with european settlers and gold as weapons. Many also carried
miners who took over their territory in the 1880s. in 1876, the sioux tomahawks. during the 16th
defeated the Us cavalry at the now famous Battle of the Little Bighorn century, they got rifles
in Montana. eventually the sioux were driven on to reservations. from european traders.

Bow, made
of wood

Quiver, used for Tomahawks
holding arrows were axes with
stone or iron
Bow case heads. It was the
holds the Europeans who first made
bow when a combined ax blade and
not in use. tobacco pipe.

PUeBLos CraftsWork
the Pueblos were a peaceful tribe that lived
in the southwest. they farmed vegetables for Many natives were skilled craftworkers. they
food and were skilled craftworkers, weaving produced beautifully decorated clothes and
brightly-colored cloth from homespun cotton headdresses. this pair of men’s moccasins, from
and making pots. their multistoried houses the Blackfeet tribe of western Canada, are made
were built of stone or adobe (sun-dried clay of stitched leather decorated with leather thongs
bricks) and were occupied by several families. and embroidered with colored beads.
today, many Pueblos live on reservations in
arizona and new Mexico.

Quinault Colville
Blackfeet
Leech Menominee
NORTHWEST Lake
COAST
Isabella

Crow Standing
Rock

CALIFORNIA - Uintah PLAINS EASTERN
INTERMOUNTAIN and WOODLANDS
Ouray
Navajo Cherokee

SOUTHWEST Osage
Apache

Papago

Last lands given up by Big Modern reservations
the native people in 1890 Cypress over 1 million natives in the United
Present-day reservations states live on reservations that they
govern themselves. the navajo
triBaL Lands reservation, for example, covers nearly Find out more
Before the europeans arrived, the native peoples occupied most 15 million acres in arizona, new aztecs
of what later became the United states. the tribes were roughly Mexico, and Utah. recently, several
grouped into six geographical regions. european settlement tribes, such as the Pacific northwest Canada, history of
gradually forced the natives to the west and southwest, so that Coast indians, have protested incas
by 1890 they were living on a few scattered reservations. successfully and regained lost land.
north america
United states, history of

372

NavigatioN

EvEn in A ciTy with signs and street names to help you, it is easy to get lost.
But imagine if you were out in open country or sailing in a boat without a map.
How would you find your way? The earliest sailors faced this problem as they
made their voyages of discovery. The answer was to watch the sun by day and
the stars by night. Because the sun always rises in the east and sets in the
west, sailors could work out in which direction they were traveling. The
position of stars in the sky also gave them their direction: polaris,
the north star, for instance, is almost in line with Earth’s north pole.
navigation is the process of working out where you are and in which
MAp And direction you are traveling. This can be on land, at sea, or in the air.
coMpAss Today, navigators have many aids to help them
Marks on a map find their way. There are detailed maps of
show paths, hills, and almost every part of the world, and electronic
other features. A magnetic systems that use radar and satellites can fix
compass shows which way to the position of an aircraft or ship to within
point a map so that it represents a few yards. such advances in navigation
the landscape. The chinese first make even the longest journey easy
used magnetic compasses about
1,000 years ago; about 2300 bce the
first map was drawn in Babylon.

nAvigATion sysTEMs and safe.
Today, ships and aircraft routinely travel around
the world without any danger of becoming lost. For safety, a boat or Boats and sExTAnT
They are equipped with electronic systems that use aircraft traveling at airplanes use For more than 250 years, navigators
radio beacons on land and navigation satellites in night carries a red signals beamed have used a device called a sextant.
space. These systems calculate the location of a ship light on the port side from navigation A sextant gives a measurement of
or aircraft and the direction in which it is traveling (left) and a green satellites, such as the angle between two objects, such
with great precision. light on the those of the Global as the horizon and the sun. From
starboard side Positioning System this angle, it is possible to work out
Radar warns a navigator of nearby objects (right). This tells (GPS), to guide the latitude of a ship or aircraft.
such as other boats or aircraft. A radar others the them anywhere in
scanner sends out a beam of radio direction it is
the world.

traveling in.

A radio receiver on board
a boat compares the

times that signals arrive
from land-based
waves as it rotates, and receives radio beacons and
the echoes bouncing back uses this information
from any to calculate the
object boat’s position. This
within system is called
range. radio direction
finding.

Buoy with A sonic depth Lighthouse
radar reflector finder measures depth coastal waters can be
Buoys of water, which is important dangerous because
Floating for navigating around coasts. of rocks and tides.
markers called It beams high-pitched lighthouses send out a
buoys mark dangers, sound waves towards bright beam of light to
such as hidden rocks. the sea bed. The time warn ships. The interval
Buoys either mark a safe taken for the echo at which the light flashes
channel or indicate the to return gives identifies the lighthouse
dangerous areas themselves. the depth. and so helps navigators
The shape and color of the buoys find their position.
show on which side a boat should pass. AuTopiloT
The autopilot will Find out more
Aircraft
keep a boat or a Magnetism
plane on a chosen course by
oceans and seas
adjusting the steering gear ports and waterways
automatically. The autopilot of an
airliner controls the plane for most satellites
ships and boats
of its flight. some computerized
autopilot systems can even guide a
plane through takeoff and landing.

373

NEStS aNd BURROWS

MOst ANIMALs need shelter and
a place to bring up their young. A
nest in a tree or a burrow underground
protects an animal against predators Natural building
and extremes of temperature. Many materials from the
surrounding area,
such as lichens, help
camouflage the nest.
creatures, including birds and
squirrels, build nests. some creatures
weave complicated nests. the harvest Nest has a soft, thick
mouse makes a ball-shaped nest among lining of moss, hair, and
Nesting boxes cornstalks, where it rests and sleeps. feathers to
and dovecotes Other animals, including birds, build keep eggs
encourage a nest only during the breeding season, warm.
many birds to
breed in the
same place in which they lay eggs or give birth to
each year. live young. they line the nest with
moss, grass, fur, or feathers to keep it
warm and dry. Rabbits and foxes dig burrows, or
tunnels, in the ground; a desert tortoise digs a
burrow in which to hide from the noon sun.
some burrows are shallow; others, such as rabbit
warrens, are deep, with escape routes, dead ends,
and a separate burrow for the breeding nest.
Nests
Flamingo nests are Many birds
cone-shaped and spend weeks
made of mud. making a nest in

Wagtail weaves twigs and stems a sheltered place.
together to strengthen the nest. each kind of bird has

FLAMINgO its favorite materials, such as twigs, grass,
Many animals, such as these or fur. each also chooses a particular place to
African flamingos, nest in make the nest, such as a tree or a spot on the
large groups called colonies. ground. A pied wagtail, for example, often builds
When a predator approaches, its nest around farm buildings and uses twigs, straw,
flamingos make such a noise leaves, and moss, with a lining of hair and feathers.
that few predators dare to enter A gray wagtail builds its nest beside fast-flowing water
the colony. In a flamingo colony and uses grasses and moss, with a lining of hair.
there is safety in numbers.

Young platypuses stay in the tRAP-dOOR sPIdeR
breeding nest in a burrow the trap-door spider digs a small burrow in loose soil and hides

underground and suckle in it. using silk that it produces from its body, the spider glues
milk from their particles of soil together to make a neatly fitting, well-disguised
door. As an insect or other prey passes by, the spider flips open
mother for up to
four months. the door and grabs the victim.

PLAtyPus buRROW Trapdoor is Door
fixed by a fits into
the Australian platypus digs silken hinge. specially
a complex breeding burrow Tunnel is up to shaped
up to 66 ft (20 m) long in 15 in (38 cm)
deep and lined top of
the riverbank. Here, the with silk. hole.
female lays eggs and
raises the young when Find out more
they hatch. each time Animals

the platypus enters or Ants and termites
leaves the burrow to bees and wasps
feed, it digs its way birds

out and rebuilds the spiders and scorpions
series of doors made
of mud along the
tunnel to protect its
young from intruders.

374

new zealand

The islaNd NaTioN of New Zealand is
a fascinating mixture of cultures and peoples.
Maori people were the original inhabitants of the
country, which they call aotearoa; and they still
live there, together with the descendants of the
early British settlers and immigrants from other
european and asian countries. only 4.4 million
people live in New Zealand, and there are few
large towns. The people are young—about
New Zealand lies in the Pacific ocean, east half of them are less than 35 years old— KiWi
of australia. There are two large islands— and the number of births per 1,000 New Zealand lies far from other
the North island and the south island— of population is among the highest of all
and many smaller ones, making a total developed nations. a former British colony, land masses, and as a result its
area of 103,363 sq miles (267,710 sq km). wildlife has developed in an
unusual way. The kiwi, which
New Zealand became fully independent
in 1947. it is a leading Pacific cannot fly, is the most famous of
nation and has strong links with all New Zealand creatures. There

are several other species
of flightless birds.

many of the small islands in
the region, such as Niue.
The landscape of New
Zealand is varied. There
are towering mountains,
glaciers, volcanoes, lakes,
hot springs, sandy
beaches, rolling hills,
and plains.

WelliNgToN Sheep shearers
work very quickly:
The capital of New Zealand is Wellington, which
stands at the southern tip of the North island. some can clip a
The city lies around a large natural harbor and is lamb in under
a busy port. older wooden buildings stand close a minute.
to recent structures built in a more modern style.

Maori CulTure FarMiNg
The Maori, a Polynesian
people, arrived in New New Zealand has a warm, moist climate which is
Zealand around 950 ce from ideal for many types of farming. sheep and
islands in the Pacific. Today, cattle ranching are the biggest businesses.
their descendants keep alive
the rich culture of wood There are two cattle and seven sheep for every
carving, weaving, and music human in New Zealand. The country exports
and dance, which they more dairy products and lamb than any other
brought with them.
nation and is the second largest exporter of
souTh islaNd wool. over the past 15 years, production of
other crops, such as kiwifruit, oranges, and
although the south island is the
largest New Zealand island, it has lemons, has increased. Newly built
fewer inhabitants than the North fishing boats have helped New

island. The western side of the Zealand’s fleet increase its catch,
island is covered by the southern and today the country is a
major seafood exporter.
alps, a region of mountains and
glaciers, parts of which have not been Find out more
explored. The rest of the island consists Cook, james

of farmland, grazing land for sheep and Farming
cattle, and a few ports and coastal cities. Mountains
New zealand, history of
Pacific ocean

375

NEW ZEALAND

Volcano Mountain Ancient Capital Large Small Three Kings sCALe BAR km
monument city city/ city/ Islands 0 50 100 100 miles
town town Cape Reinga
statistics 0 50
area: 103,363 sq miles
(267,710 sq km) North Cape North
Population: 4,438,500 Great Exhibition Island
capital: Wellington
Languages: Bay Great Barrier
english, Maori Island
Religions: Anglican, Paihia
Presbyterian,
roman Catholic, Ruawai
Methodist,
non-religious Auckland Whitianga East
currency: Bay of Cape
New Zealand dollar Tasman Plenty
Main occupation: S e a hamilton
Agriculture O
Main exports: Butter, North Taranaki Lake TaRuoptooruaRaukumar aC E A N Range
wool, lamb, fruit, Bight Taupo
vegetables, fish, cork,
wood, textiles New Plymouth Gisborne
Main imports:
Manufactured goods, Cape Egmont Mount Mount Hawke
iron, steel Taranaki Ruapehu Bay
AUCKLAND South Taranaki 2518m 2797m
SoUTherN ALPS The city of Auckland stands at a point where Hastings
On the west coast of the South the North Island narrows to a strip less than Bight Wanganui
Island the Southern Alps nearly
reach the shore of the Tasman Sea. 1 mile (1.5 km) wide. The Pacific lies Cape Farewell D'Urville Palmerston
The terrain is mountainous and to the east, and the Tasman Sea to Island North
steep, with only a few passes the west, so Auckland has two harbor Tasman Masterton
between the east and west coasts. areas and is New Zealand’s chief Bay
port. Auckland is important as a C
Sutherland Cook Strait
Falls, 1,904 ft N e WNAdaoopnvfoiuesedpttcwhrrkuhietZlblhaiaeugpnteahtiedoilco-oarnihpnnit:syalde’eacss’lesbwmabnuvhumtoiitesolsadiirtnxl,liianeepdvdsgeaatshsriirctintyireocdniuwntleedaGrrru.lrsyetrfyoym,FroouulCwthainKpdeaBriagmhWteaestpoNrtelsonlarenPciecKtaoinkoCCuaarpmaepbeWll eCaLpLe PiaNlligsertoN
(580 m) the city are Polynesian.
s ZeALAND
Dan Carter (left) is a Alp
player for the New ISs ol ua tn hdMilford Fox nAoraki Pegasus N
Zealand national rugby Glacier Bay
team. In 2015, he was Sound (Mt Cook) ury Plains W
LaSkeo u t h e r 3744m Christchurch S
named World Rugby
Player of the Year. Wakatipu aitakiCanterb Ashburton E
Canterbury
W P ACIFIC
Clutha Bight
Timaru

Fiordland Lake Queenstown Otago MoUNT TArANAKI
Te Anau Peninsula The peak of Mount Taranaki in the southwest of
Te Anau the North Island is 8,260 ft (2,517 m) high, so the

W aiau Dunedin volcano is visible from many miles away. Taranaki is
now extinct, but ruapehu and Ngauruhoe, in the
center of the island, are occasionally active.
Fovea Invercargill

ux
Strait
South West Stewart Island
Cape

rUgBy
rugby is New Zealand’s favorite sport. The national
team, the All Blacks, are world famous. They are named

after their black shirt and shorts. The All Blacks perform
the haka, a Maori dance, before each international
game. rugby was introduced to New Zealand by Charles
John Monro, a New Zealander educated in england.

The first game was played by Nelson College and
Nelson Football Club in 1870.

376

new zealand n History of

c. 950 ce First Maori arrive. ew zealand
1642 Dutch navigator Abel
Tasman visits islands. ABOUT 1,000 yEARS AGO, a group of people landed on a string of islands
1769-77 British explorer
captain James cook visits in the South Pacific. These people were the Maori, and they had traveled
islands four times. in canoes across the Pacific Ocean from the distant islands of Polynesia to
1814 British missionaries a land they called Aotearoa. For about 700 years, the Maori lived on the
arrive. islands undisturbed. In 1642, the Dutch Explorer Abel Tasman visited
1840 British settlement the islands, and named them New Zealand, after a province in the
established in wellington. Netherlands. Soon, American, Australian, and European sealers and
Treaty of waitangi. whalers were exploiting the rich coastal waters, and in 1840,
1843-70 Land wars between the British founded the first
Maori and British settlers. European settlement. The
1852 Britain grants New Maori fought the settlers until
Zealand self-government. 1870, when they lost control
1863 Gold Rush draws many of their lands. As a British
immigrants from Europe. colony, New Zealand grew
1893 women get the vote. wealthy by exporting its
1898 State pensions given. agricultural produce. In
1907 New Zealand becomes 1907, New Zealand became
an independent dominion independent. More recently,
in the British Empire. New Zealand has formed
1914-18, 1939-45 Troops fight several alliances with its
with Britain in two world wars. neighbors in the South
1960s Troops fight with Pacific to keep the region
Americans in the Vietnam war. free from nuclear weapons.
1985 New Zealand joins its
Pacific neighbors in declaring
the region a nuclear-free zone.

MAORI Traditional Maori cloak
made out of feathers
Long before the Europeans arrived in Protestors try to interrupt
New Zealand, the Maori had established
a thriving agricultural community. They the path of a nuclear
submarine.
grew sweet potatoes and caught fish and
fowl. They wore colorful clothes woven from
flax. They lived in houses made of rushes and

wood. Today, more than 700,000 Maori still
exist, most of whom live on the North Island.

TREATy OF wAITANGI NUcLEAR-FREE ZONE
In 1840, the Maori granted sovereignty, In 1983, antinuclear protesters blockaded the USS Phoenix nuclear
or ownership, of their country to Britain. submarine in Auckland Harbour. In 1985, New Zealand signed the
In return, Britain promised protection treaty of Rarotonga, which declared
of their rights and property. New the South Pacific region to be a
Zealand then became a colony nuclear-free zone. when France Find out more
of the British Empire.
continued to carry out nuclear tests cook, james
INDEPENDENcE in Mururoa Atoll, in the South Explorers
In 1852, Britain granted New Pacific Ocean, these were fiercely New zealand
Zealand self-government. The opposed by other Pacific countries.
country gave pensions to workers
and was the first in the world to
give women the right to vote. In
1907, New Zealand gained full

independence, but ties with
Britain remained strong. The British

monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, seen
here with Prince Philip in a traditional
Maori cloak, is the nation’s head of state.

377

NormaNs

Bayeux TaPesTry Today, solid sTone casTles in england, sicily, and France stand as
dating from the reminders of the normans, warriors from northern France, who transformed
11th century, the Bayeux europe during the 11th and 12th centuries. The normans were descendants of
tapestry was produced to the norsemen, or Vikings, and were formidable fighters. They settled in northern
record the norman conquest France during the early 900s in an area now known as normandy. The normans
of england. it shows scenes were not only warriors but also skilled administrators. Their dukes created a
of battle, and can be seen
today at Bayeux, in France.

complex and efficient society by dividing their kingdom into areas called fiefs.
a knight controlled each fief. The normans reached their height of power
under William, duke of normandy, who led the conquest of england in 1066.
They quickly transformed england into a norman kingdom, building
castles to defend their conquests, as well as churches, monasteries,
and cathedrals. By the mid-12th century, the saxons and Sovereign
states

normans had begun to merge into one nation, ruled scotland
by the Plantagenet dynasty. in 1204, the king of
France conquered normandy and took it over. Conquered Unconquered
ireland territory

William THe conqueror territory

William, duke of normandy (c. 1028-87), was a brilliant Wales england
but ruthless general, and administrator. He led the
norman invasion of england and, after defeating
the saxon king, Harold ii, was crowned king of england.
Brittany •Paris
domesday Book
in 1085, king William i ordered
a complete survey of england. known
as the domesday Book, it contained aquitaine

thorough details of people, goods,
animals, and lands
for almost the
whole country.

Architecture emPire
The normans were skilled at the height of norman power,
architects. They built strong
castles to guard their conquests, Henry ii (reigned 1154-89)
such as the Tower of london, ruled england and much of
which stands to this day. They France, and a separate group of
also built churches, cathedrals,
and monasteries. norman normans had conquered
southern italy, and sicily.
churches have intricately
carved arches over the doors Find out more
castles
and windows, and massive France
walls and pillars.
united kingdom, history of
Vikings

378

NORTH AFRICA

The north African coast The counTrIes of norTh AfrIcA have kAIrouAn
occupies the southern shores of the When Islamic Arabs conquered
Mediterranean, where the climate is suffered many invasions, from the romans to the north Africa in the 7th century,
mild and the land fertile. The Atlas french and British. But the conquest by the they founded many cities that are
Mountains and the rolling hills of armies of Islam in the 7th century was to have still important today. The walled
Algeria and Tunisia lie between the a major impact on the region, giving it a shared city of kairouan, in Tunisia, is a
coast and the sand seas and barren religion, language, and sense of identity. sacred shrine for Muslims in Africa.
rocks of the sahara. Much of north Africa is dominated by the largest The great Mosque was built in the
desert on earth, the sahara. It is sparsely 9th century. Its imposing marble
populated by dwindling numbers of nomads. courtyard, where the people pray,
Most people live along the fertile coastal strip
on the banks of the nile. cities increasingly is surrounded by columns.
attract migrants from the country—cairo is the
fastest-growing city in the Islamic world with a
population of over 18 million. In Algeria and
Libya, the desert has revealed hidden riches—

vast reserves of oil are fueling modernization
programs. Many tourists visit Morocco,
Tunisia, and egypt, attracted by
ancient ruins, medieval cities,
and sunny beaches.

People who live in the desert regions of
Africa, such as these Berber men (left),
wear loose clothes to keep cool, and
veils to protect themselves from the
windblown sands of the desert.

nILe AgrIcuLTure LepTIs MAgnA BerBers
The roman ruins
The river nile floods every summer, carrying of Leptis Magna, Libya (right) The Berbers are the original
rich mud from the highlands of ethiopia and are the finest in Africa. The city people of northwest Africa.
sudan to the arid deserts of egypt. It was this dates to the 5th century bce. They were converted to Islam
annual miracle that provided the foundations It became part of the roman in the 8th century. Arab
of Ancient egyptian civilization. Today, nearly empire and was abandoned after invaders drove them into the
95 percent of the egyptian population lives the Arab conquest in 643 ce. Atlas Mountains, where many
along the green and fertile land on the banks still live in remote villages. In
of the nile. egypt is a leading producer of the sahara, Berbers live a
dates, melons, and cotton. Most egyptian nomadic life, herding camels,
farmers use centuries-old methods; donkeys sheep, and goats.
and mules are still used to pull heavy loads
and carry water. Find out more
Africa
ALgIers
The capital of Algeria forms a vast Africa, history of
amphitheater of dazzling white buildings Desert wildlife
on the Mediterranean coast. The old Islam
Muslim quarter of the city sprawls across
the hills, a maze of winding streets and
high-walled houses. The french colonial
quarter, with its public squares and tree-lined
avenues, is found near the harbor. The french
captured the city, an unruly center of Mediterranean
piracy, in 1830. They left in 1962.

379

NORTH AFRICA

Volcano Mountain Ancient Capital Large Small
monument city city/ city/
town town

algeria moroCCo
Area: 919,595 sq miles Area: 172,414 sq miles
(2,381,741 sq km) (446,550 sq km)
Population: 39,542,000 Population: 33,323,000
Capital: algiers Capital: rabat

egypT Tunisia
Area: 386,660 sq miles Area: 63,170 sq miles
(1,001,450 sq km) (163,610 sq km)
Population: 88,487,000 Population: 11,037,000
Capital: Cairo Capital: Tunis

libya wesTern sahara aTlas mounTains
Area: 679,362 sq miles Area: 102,703 sq miles
(1,759,540 sq km) (266,000 sq km) The atlas mountains are a group of ranges, running roughly
Population: 6,412,000 Population: 571,000 parallel to the mediterranean coast. They stretch 1,500 miles
Capital: Tripoli Capital: laâyoune
Status: Disputed territory (2,410 km) from southeast morocco to northeast Tunisia.
occupied by morocco The high atlas mountains rise to 13,655 ft (4,165 m) at the
SCALE BAR km summit of Jbel Toubkal. mountain reservoirs provide water for

0 200 400 lowland farmers, and many tourists visit the middle atlas

0 200 400 miles nile river range for winter sports.

A T L ANTIC OMCOErAOScNcO At l aas MA oLu nGt a ienhsr i A a tuLNiSiriAB Y Aa e G Y P tLagouira GB(CaudoLWlaniutASson(dapjtcÂadtoeu(eacB-trMrYoZtSuoMyeoOpshMupePdIauaasmortoUialdttrAnareeiCte)mouNonrirrrnrgcdruaEoiaaca)stalnaou)nrrryJbeliMETScAlotumaMgMabrakaAasoradrhalhaaiNSrb4bakt1armlr6aeGisai5cmtAmnIohBfeTcBGdRTaiAiniAbaardntaLol(gMttKTouaierUAhfr(KoRtM)MouSSreepiA(CFlbktaEPioeligneRrnlguSaaè)zepCtAsOAAGgaahigdebnrcLBrhaiara)aanednTArcNneldahlLeCaEmSGrihGriTBdcglMheiaeoifOaemnroBrdcsredaTtjcnlaaioOSAdigr2aTuaeamb9Oangsn1bshDTga8ueeaèroMmijmzttsezuoDSAilrfukGraOtihirksuaBasednNaBiasrDdakCgAtjrdEloGanaanirnngaanAesbStatGizèabfnsaZaxtaKitenwtNaAeSiiuyalroealo’ruuUhNutswasriYetnaSaWyfrnraraaidnAtPdSlSaaOMaNKunZbTtIrhitaLohstGhuwnrf aiuealtmiohtllfaawNsechohe ifsMleAST4ielrih,atsBdi1e ba6ittMAhyP2e0(Bdl2einrBaAc8armKTerBa6wa’sohnemniantlobutegJeegDaarrfsaDhllhrulduanB(kaaa’6hsrSuzzS,nir6Gile)aao9ArahyenL5aeq.lgtieakeSbhxmasynaata)dQnDrSnaeiZpevdteatreaaeDrslrgrsai.iaeGaoSnzsieigAzSNDLsaayeiallwuuetkahteAcaNNljPiAlaM(AeoDasSilrsSdibuertnIumyresSzyLQeEmOiaanCzugiiiaAAanydxs2GMnp‘ts2aoeieatuwlb8r)rliese5yalaTdmanNrhop(iacbdoymfSiCunadisnatecner)redtalSAuDi
Oriental
A
ArABiSAe

Red

a

ggar rt

esti

oilfielDs WE
The oil reserves of libya were discovered in the 1950s. S
profits from oil were invested in industry and agriculture.
new roads, railroads, schools, and hospitals were also built. weaving
in the 2000s, oil accounted for 96 percent of libyan morocco is famous for its
exports. however, after a political revolution in 2011, colorful, hand-knotted
the oil industry suffered as rival political factions carpets. berbers weave
competed for control. carpets, tent hangings,
and even produce
embroidered
boots (left).

souk

The souk (market) is the
commercial heart of north african

towns. each trade is located in a
particular street. smelly trades, such
as tanning leather, are always located as

far away from the mosque as possible.
380

north america

The NorTh americaN continent
is a region of great contrasts. impressive
mountain chains—the appalachians and
rockies—run down its east and west
coasts, enclosing a vast, and mostly flat,
landscape, crisscrossed by mighty rivers
such as the mississippi and missouri. The
north is blanketed with coniferous forests.
The central Great Plains are grasslands, once grazed
by huge herds of buffalo. in the north, the arctic The biG freeze
Severe winter weather is common
The North american continent in the center of the continent,
stretches from the arctic circle region is permanently frozen, while in the south, especially around the Great
to the tropics and is flanked arid deserts and rocky canyons bake in year-round
by the atlantic, Pacific, and Lakes, which often freeze over
arctic oceans. The five Great in the winter. chicago, on Lake
Lakes of North america form sunshine. Tropical forests cover southern mexico, and michigan, is prone to severe
the largest area of freshwater in the southeastern US, semitropical wetlands harbor
in the world. many endangered species. Native americans are snowstorms, which can cut off the
descendants of the peoples who first settled the city. in 1998, a freak icestorm in
continent over 25,000 years ago. They were the canadian Great Lakes region

froze power lines, blacking out
the area for several days.

displaced by european colonists
who explored and settled on the
continent from the 16th century.
Successive waves of immigrants,
first from europe, and then from
the rest of the world, settled in
North america, drawn by its
wealth of natural resources, its
fertile prairies, and its vibrant cities—
home to most of its population. rockieS
The rocky mountains form the backbone of the
american continent, separating the great plains
of the east from the high plateaux and basins of
TUNdra iN aLaSka the west. Stretching from the canadian arctic
to New mexico, they are highest in colorado,
Tundra is a finnish word meaning where some 254 mountains are over 13,000 ft
“treeless heights.” it describes the
landscape of alaska (above), where (4,000 m). The highest point, mount
the only vegetation is lichens, mosses, elbert, is 14,149 ft (4,312 m).

turf, and low-lying shrubs. The average faLL iN New eNGLaNd
temperature is below freezing, and in The climate of North america ranges from
the winter it can plummet to -89.6°f the hot rain forests of the yucatán to the
(-32°c). These low temperatures leave a frozen arctic. The eastern coast of the US has
layer of permanently frozen soil which four distinct seasons. The colors of autumnal
can reach depths of 5,000 ft (1,525 m). leaves, especially the bright red of the maple,
is a famous sight that attracts many tourists.

GraNd caNyoN Moose live in the subarctic forests.
canyons are dramatic, deep They have huge antlers, long legs,
and fleshy muzzles.

rock formations created by
the eroding flow of a river.
The most famous is the Grand
canyon in arizona, formed
by the colorado river. it is
220 miles (350 km) long, and
plunges to depths of 5,970 ft (1,820
m). The processes of erosion started
about 5–6 million years ago. Some of
the rocks at the base are 2 billion years
old—the oldest rocks known in the US.

Limestone, sandstone, shale,
and granite are eroded at different
speeds, giving the Grand Canyon
its distinctive layered colors.

381

north america

Manatees grow to an flOriDa everGlaDes
average length of 10 ft the everglades (left) is a vast area
(3 m). These huge, gentle of semi-tropical marshland that
creatures are found in Florida’s stretches across the southwestern
shallow coastal waters. part of florida. a series of low
islands, called “hammocks,”
are home to a great variety of
trees, ranging from tropical
hardwoods, such as mahogany,
to bay trees, eucalyptus, and
mangroves. Over 400 species of
birds are found in the everglades,
and other animals such as
alligators, tree frogs, and otters
thrive in the swampy conditions. the
everglades’ unique ecosystem is supported
by a cycle of dry winters and wet summers.

Mississippi This male American bison’s
thick hair and beard
accentuate its size.

at 3,740 miles (6,020 km) long,
the Mississippi is the main river
artery of the Us and one of the
busiest commercial waterways in
the world. it rises in northern
Minnesota, flowing south and
receives the waters of the Missouri
and Ohio rivers in its middle
reaches. it drains into the Gulf
of Mexico, where it forms a delta,
which is moving the shoreline out
to sea at a rate of nearly 6 miles
(10 km) every 100 years.

This satellite image (above) shows the Mississippi A barn and yellow canola crop on
and Missouri rivers converging near Saint the Great Plains just east
Louis during flooding in 1993. of Washington
aMeriCan bisOn
Great plains the american buffalo that used to roam the
the Great plains, which Great plains of north america is actually a bison.
stretch across the center a fully grown bison stands 6.6 ft (2 m) high and
of north america, weighs more than 1,985 lb (900 kg). traditionally
were once areas of the bison provided food and clothing for the
grassland (prairie) native americans living on the plains. Up until the
grazed by huge herds 18th century, the bison population flourished as the
of buffalo (bison). native american method of hunting had little effect
Over-hunting wiped on numbers. it was not until the “white man” arrived
out the buffaloes and, with rifles that the herds were dramatically reduced.
as the frontier of pioneer During construction of the railroads in the 19th century,
settlement moved farther whole herds were shot to feed the rail workers. today,
west throughout the 19th only 30,000 bison remain. Most live in reserves,
century, the plains were settled by protected by federal and state regulations.
farmers. today, this is one of the most
intensively farmed regions in the world, 382
a vast producer of both corn and wheat.

Urban life

Much of the north american continent,
such as the drier south and west, is sparsely
populated, but there are great concentrations
of population and industry in urban areas—
especially in the temperate regions along the
coasts and along the shores of the Great lakes.
new York City (right) lies at the center of a
vast conurbation of cities, which stretches from
boston to Washington D.C. accessible to both
the atlantic Ocean and the Hudson river, new
York developed as a major port. today, it is the
Us’s main financial, commercial, and cultural

center. toronto is the largest urban area
in Canada. it is a key industrial center.

bAld EAglE north america
The bald eagle, the only eagle native to
north America, has been the US national oil rig
bird since 1782. it has a wingspan of
7 ft (2 m), and is found mainly The US has an abundance of
along the coasts. it is a natural resources, including
protected species in oil, coal, and minerals. oil was
the US. found along the coast of East

native americans Texas in 1901. Texas is the
The first people to settle north America US’s main oil-producing
crossed into the continent from Asia more
than 25,000 years ago. As they settled, state. oil is transported to
they adapted to many different climatic refineries on the gulf Coast
conditions, resources, and terrain. Today, by pipeline, tanker, and train.
after centuries of conflict with European Houston is the capital of the
settlers, many native Americans now live
on government reservations. The navajo oil business, although it is
are the largest tribe in the US. Most of also the center of high-tech
them live on a large reservation in the industries and home to the
Southwest. The tribe is famous for weaving
and silverwork, and many of their hand- space shuttle program.
made artifacts are sold to tourists.
nATUrAl HAzArdS
A chain of volcanoes
stretches from the
US-Mexican border
to the southern end
of South America.
Popocatapetl, one
of Mexico’s many
dormant volcanoes,
is 17,888 ft (5,452 m)
high, with a crater
500 ft (152 m) deep.
Central Mexico is also
vulnerable to earthquakes,
which often hit the country’s
most heavily populated regions. in 1985, an
earthquake in Mexico City killed some 9,500 people.

El Castillo, the temple-
pyramid at Chichén-Itzá, is
73ft (22m) high. It stands in
the main plaza of the city.

Joshua trees grow dESErT
in the higher and The barren deserts of the
cooler parts of Southwest are harsh and arid
California’s desert.

places, swept by fierce winds
and baked by searing heat.
only the hardiest animals,
such as snakes, lizards,
and reptiles, can survive
these conditions. Spiny-
leaved Joshua trees
thrive in the desert,
and can live for up to Rugged formations of CHiCHÉn-iTzÁ
pink and gray rocks The history of Mexico’s
1,000 years. and boulders form a urban civilizations dates back to c. 1150 bce, and the

stark desert vista. elaborate ritual centers of the olmec. The Maya built
monumental cities and temples in the jungles of the
Yucatán from c. 200 ce. They are thought
to be the first American civilization to
develop a writing system. The Mayan
pyramid-temple at Chichén itzá
dates to the 12th century ce.

Find out more
Canada
Mexico

native americans
United states of america

383

north america

Volcano Mountain Ancient Capital Large Small alaskan glaciers
monument city city/ city/
town town glaciers are large masses of ice that
form when winter snowfall exceeds
summer melting. They may be several

hundred feet thick. as they move
down the valley, they grind and scour
the valley floor, leaving rock fragments

in their wake. Many of alaska’s
glaciers spread over lowlands at

the foot of mountain ranges.
The Hubbard glacier forms the

longest glacial valley in north
america. it is 93 miles (150 km) long,

and moves very slowly, at an average
rate of about 2 in (5 cm) a day.

MoUnT sainT Helens
The volcano of Mount saint Helens in washington state has erupted 20
times over the last 4,500 years, most devastatingly in 1980. after several
days of volcanic activity, an explosion reduced the mountain’s height by
3,600 ft (1,100 m).
a resulting avalanche ASIA ARCTIC OCEAN
reached speeds of Ellesmere
155 mph (250 Greenland
km/h). a layer of Island
ing Strait (to Denmark)
ash 3 in (8 cm)
deep blanketed Ber Brooke Beaufort
nearby towns. A Berin g C olorados Range Sea Baffin
eauntdiSasena Bay
Is l Mount McKinley Victoria Davis Stra NUUK
l 6194m Island Baffin Is

bering sTraiT Gulf of Coast MountainsMMaockuenntaziiensMackenzie Great Bear AT LANLabrador
The Bering Strait separates Alaska Lake Sea
Asia and North America. It is it
53 miles (85 km) wide at its Roc Great Slave Hudson land Labrador MonarcH bUTTerfly
narrowest point. Sea levels Lake Bay Laurentian every winter thousands of
were much lower in the last Ice Highlands monarch butterflies migrate
Age, exposing a land bridge. Queen c an Canaa d D a from the northern Us and
Humans, plants, and animals Charlotte Newfoundland canada to southern
crossed to America by this Islands Gr Lake Lakei a Shield
route 35-20,000 years ago. ky Manitoba n
Vancouver Lake st Pierre & california and Mexico.
Island Winnipeg Superior miquelon They travel up to

eat St Lawrence (to France) 80 miles (130 km) a day.
M Nova Scotia

Mount St Helens Pl Great Lake Huron OTTAWA N
2549m ou Lake Lake WE
Michigan Lakes Ontario
Great Cahokia Lake
Basin Erie WASHINGTON D.C.

Great Salt
Lake
Missouri Mississippi
ppalachian Mountains
ains
ntai

Sierra Nevada
U n i t e D s t a t e s Ohio
n A r kansas
TIC S
P Sonoran s OF america Mount Mitchel
Desert 2037m CE
A
O
Baja California SimerroaGerMrraanadMdXeraedOrieccOcidreinentOatlal turks & caicos
Sie Rí islands
A CIF Mississippi (to UK) British virgin
Delta NASSAU BaHamas ivsliarngidns islands

Gulf (to UK) anguilla (to UK) AN
st Kitts & nevis
(to Us)
M a dGrMeUdEAXeT5ClGISE7CiASetM0UlONuaL0CAMlarmtChSLéstiApIAcaTeLheetCYLélVomnIxAvT-IcDafaYtizOOLáDMcRaAsOoNtrAaYPBBGHueEHSenrcLUAAaíLOMTniVANtacisEAOnuZnJGnaNlOPeaDUALAiSJcCaUÉNac(ktIaoaerGmyKNrUmAaIaiKPcaLNacsn)OaiPGGrciUARasSlCgUaTaTunB-OadaAaPsUNaAr-NPHiRAbaIMaNbirAtCeuEbCaiaInT(tYoOnSDDrSAeUOcteO(eNhtMu.oTP)aTmrnI.aOHNeç.tPrhaG.ou)iOcAeB(otroGomMts(nontrtooea(etEitnULhorn.tseU)UsR)aeKcrD)IiraaaaCtnGDAtumOiaGamdtrUetsBrtilintaHonaiuniirv&eqcpBiuiaGenDBea(racaDt(otreoeDOFnBFnrsar&UaantncDDcet&e)ia)OneBsaGO
I
ToTeM pole
The native american C
tribes of western canada
lived as hunters and fishers. Teotihuacan
They built towering
wooden totem poles, O C E A NSierra
carved with animal and
human figures, as a sign of Panama S
a family’s status, as a mark
of respect, or as a km california redwoods
memorial. ancient wood 1000 miles when dinosaurs roamed earth, some
carving is now being 66 million years ago, gigantic redwood
revived in the region. trees covered much of north america.
Today, they are restricted to the northwest
scaLe Bar coast of the Us. They are the world’s tallest
0 500 1000 trees, reaching heights of 368 ft (112 m).
0 500

384

Nuclear eNergy

The aToms ThaT make up everything in the universe are the
source of a huge amount of energy called nuclear energy. Nuclear
energy produces the searing heat and light of the sun, the deadly
explosions of nuclear weapons, and vast amounts of electricity in
nuclear power stations. Nuclear energy is based on the
Hydrogen
nucleus with
extra neutron fact that matter and energy are different forms of the
same thing, and one can be converted into the other. In
Neutron a nuclear reaction, a tiny amount of matter changes into

an enormous amount of energy. The nuclear reaction
occurs in the nuclei (centers) of atoms. This can happen
in two ways: when the nucleus of a heavy atom splits,
Experimental nuclear fusion Hydrogen
reactor near Oxford, England nucleus with two
Nuclear fusIoN extra neutrons Helium in a process called fission, and when two lightweight
nucleus nuclei join together, in a process called fusion.

scientists are trying to build reactors that use nuclear fusion, a process In nuclear weapons, fission or fusion
that produces less dangerous waste than nuclear fission (below). occurs in a split second. In contrast, Neutron hits
Nuclear fusion occurs when hydrogen atoms smash together and join nuclear power stations produce nucleus of
to form heavier atoms of helium. however, nuclear fusion is extremely electricity from fission reactions uranium atom.
difficult to achieve. hydrogen atoms must be held by a magnetic field
and heated to a temperature higher than that in the sun’s center for
fusion to occur.
that work at a controlled rate.

Reactor core If neutrons travel too rapidly, they bounce
contains pellets of off uranium atoms without producing
uranium dioxide fuel fission. The fuel is surrounded by water,
which slows the neutrons down so they
held in fuel rods. produce fission. A material that slows
Two thimble-sized neutrons in a reactor is called a moderator.

pellets would Control rods absorb neutrons and Fission occurs,
produce enough slow down the nuclear reaction. In an releasing energy
electricity for one
person’s domestic emergency, the control rods drop into and neutrons.
supply for one year.
the reactor core and shut off
Pump for the nuclear reaction.
high-pressure Nuclear fIssIoN
water system Nuclear power stations produce energy
from the fission of atoms of uranium
Protective within uranium oxide pellets. The impact
clothing worn of a particle called a neutron makes an
when handling atom of uranium split, releasing heat
nuclear waste energy and two or three neutrons. The
neutrons strike other uranium atoms and
make them divide. soon, many atoms
split, producing a huge amount of energy.

The high-
pressure water
flows through pipes
in a steam generator,
which transfers its heat to
a separate water system.
The water in this second
system boils to form steam.
Steam spins turbines that drive
Water is pumped around the generators, producing electricity.
reactor core at high pressure
in a sealed circuit. The nuclear
reactions heat the water to
more than 570°F (300°C),
but the high pressure keeps Pressurized water reactor (PWR) A third water circuit acts as a coolant,
it from turning into steam. changing the steam back into water, which
returns to the steam generator once again.
Nuclear radIaTIoN
Nuclear power sTaTIoN Find out more
some waste from nuclear power stations is
radioactive—it produces deadly nuclear radiation a fission reaction becomes continuous atoms and molecules
consisting of tiny particles or invisible waves that can only if there is a certain amount of fuel chemistry
damage living cells. some radioactive waste may last present, called the critical mass. In a cold war
for thousands of years, so it is buried underground physics
in sealed containers. many people are concerned nuclear reactor, rods contain uranium radioactivity
about the dangers of nuclear waste and are fuel. The fuel rods are placed close science, history of
demanding an end to nuclear energy production. together to provide the critical mass soviet union, history of
that starts the reaction.

385

NUMBERS

Fractions When We Want to knoW how many things we have, or
sometimes the number 1 has to be
divided into portions. Parts of a measure how large something is, we use numbers. numbers are
whole number are called fractions. symbols that describe an amount. there are only 10 number
symbols: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9, but they can be put together in many
counting different ways to make other numbers of any size. Besides counting and
measuring, numbers can also be used to work out time and distances, or to
When people needed to put things in order. the skill of working with numbers is called arithmetic.
count higher than 10, they early humans probably used their fingers and thumbs to count. Because we
used objects such as pebbles have 10 digits—eight fingers and two thumbs—we developed a system of
to represent multiples of 10.
so, five pebbles and three counting that was based on tens. this is called the decimal system,
fingers stood for the number after the Latin word for 10. numbers are just as important
53. making calculations with as words for passing on information. they can be written
pebbles led to the invention down, so that other people can read and use them.
of the abacus, and later the
slide rule and calculator. Cardinal A fraction, two-thirds
numbers

Using fingers

Ruler

Pebbles

Calculator

numBers in history A decimal fraction,
People have invented many different ways of representing 10 and 65
numbers with symbols. the modern decimal system has
now been taken up all over the world, but older systems are hundredths
still used in a few places. even the ancient roman system is
used sometimes, especially on clock faces.

The Babylonians invented a number system based on 10 about Cricket scoreboard tyPes oF numBer
3,500 years ago, but the symbols took a long time to write down.
The Ancient Roman number system goes back to about 500 bce. Whole numbers that stand for
It is an awkward system, but it is still sometimes used today. quantities, such as 1, 2, or 3, are
In about 200 bce, the Hindus used a number system based on 10. called cardinal numbers. numbers
About 1,400 years ago, they modified it to include zero. that put things in order, such as 1st,
By the 15th century, Hindu-Arabic numbers had replaced Roman 2nd, or 3rd, are known as ordinal
numerals as the most popular number system. numbers. in a fraction, the number
Today, most countries use a modern version of the Hindu-Arabic below the line shows how many parts
number system, because it makes calculations easy. the whole is divided into; the number
above shows how many of those parts

are being described.

using numBers Find out more
if you look around, you will see how numbers are alphabets
used in everyday life. For example, scoreboards, computers
speed limits, distances, prices, tV channels, and
the time of day are all shown using numbers. Page mathematics
numbers in the index of this book show where science
to find the topics that interest you. money is also
divided into units to make it simple to understand.

386

Oceans and seas

yOur Feet May Be restinG firmly on the ground, but more than
two-thirds of our planet is covered with water. Oceans and seas make
up 71 percent of earth’s surface. they influence the climate, supply us
with food, power, and valuable minerals, and provide a home for a
fascinating range of plant and animal life.
the oceans and seas began millions of years ago, when earth cooled
from its original molten state. Water vapor escaped from inside earth
in volcanic eruptions, cooled, and fell as rain. it filled vast hollows and
basins surrounding rocky land masses. these
gradually moved around to form the
Ocean hunters continents and oceans as they exist
Fishing boats sail the oceans and seas to today. as rivers formed on the land
bring us the fish and other sea creatures and flowed into the seas, they Pacific
that we eat. the best fishing grounds are dissolved minerals from the rocks, Ocean
in shallow seas, where the water teems
with fish. But catches must be controlled; making the oceans and seas salty.
otherwise the numbers of fish will fall as
the fish fail to breed.

Sun sprinG tides Indian
high, spring tides Ocean
occur when earth, North
Rise in the sun, and the the WOrld’s Oceans and seas Pacific
water level moon are in line. Oceans are vast bodies of water, usually Ocean
Moon separating the continents. the pacific
Ocean, which is the largest and
deepest, lies between america
and asia and covers more than
a third of the globe. the Southern
others, in order of size, are Ocean
the atlantic, indian, and
tides southern oceans. the The Southern Ocean
twice a day the arctic Ocean lies between surrounds Antarctica. It
level of the seas rises Earth includes all the waters
and falls. these changes in the land masses around between 60 degrees
level are called tides. they are the north pole and is Atlantic south latitude and the
caused mainly by the pull of largely covered by ice. Ocean continent of Antarctica.
the moon’s gravity on earth. Indian Ocean
When the moon lies directly seas, bays, and gulfs are The Arctic Ocean is
over the ocean, its gravity pulls smaller bodies of water an ice-covered ocean
the water toward it. Water also that lie between arms of at the North Pole.
rises on the opposite side of
earth, because earth itself is land, or between islands and
pulled toward the moon. land masses. some, such as the

caspian and dead seas, are
entirely surrounded by land and

are really not seas but large lakes.

Ocean currents
the water in the oceans is constantly moving in great circular streams, or
currents, which can flow about as fast as you walk. Winds blow the surface layer
of the oceans to form these currents, which carry warm or cold water along the
shores of continents, greatly affecting the weather there. sometimes, currents
flow deep below the surface, moving in the opposite direction to surface
currents. For example, surface currents
carry warm water away from the equator,
while currents deep beneath the sea
bring cold water back to the equator. NORTH
Most seas have strong currents. But AMERICA

the waters of the sargasso sea,
which lies in the north atlantic
Ocean, are almost still, causing the Gulf EUROPE
sea to become choked with seaweed. Stream
Gulf of
Mexico The Gulf Stream broadens
out, slows down, and
the Kon TiKi expeditiOn GulF streaM becomes the North
early peoples may have used the Water heated by the sun flows out from the Atlantic Drift. A slow
currents to travel across oceans. in 1947, current is called a drift.
the Kon Tiki expedition, led by norwegian Gulf of Mexico. this warm current crosses
the atlantic Ocean and flows around the
explorer thor heyerdahl, tested this shores of western europe. there, the winter
theory by sailing a light wooden raft weather is mild, while places on the other side of
from peru to the polynesian islands. the ocean away from the current are freezing cold.

387

Oceans and seas

Long, wide ocean
ridges run through
most oceans.

Undersea
mountains rise
from the seabed.

Long, deep trenches Under The OceanS
lie near the edges a strange landscape lies hidden
of some oceans. beneath the oceans. There are huge
cliffs, great ranges of mountains, and deep
chasms, all far larger than any on land. Much of
the ocean floor is a vast flat plain that lies up to
4 miles (6 km) below the surface. Trenches descend
as deep as 7 miles (11 km), more than the height of
the highest mountain on land. Undersea mountains and
volcanoes rise from the plain, many poking their summits
above the waves to form islands. The seas around the shores
of most continents are not very deep. Most offshore islands
Some volcanoes rise are high land rising from the shallow seabed. coral reefs
from the deep ocean
floor to form islands. and atolls grow up from the seabed in warm seas.

Many Large offshore islands OceanOgraphy
continents rise from the ocean floor Our knowledge of the oceans comes from
extend out oceanographers, who study the oceans. They
into the ocean or continental shelf. sail in special ships with instruments that take
and have a wide The continental shelf samples of the water and mud on the seabed,
undersea continental ends in a cliff called chart ocean currents, and map the ridges and
shelf which is about the continental slope. trenches in the ocean floor. The scientists also
400 ft (130 m) deep. dive in submersibles and use underwater
robots to see the strange creatures that live in
the depths. Satellites look down from space
and send back information about the oceans.

WaveS
The surface of the sea is restless, even
on the calmest day. Waves ceaselessly rise
and fall, eventually reaching the land to lap
or crash on the shore. Waves are caused by winds
blowing over the ocean. The energy from
waves can be used to power generators
and produce electricity. however,
tsunamis, huge waves that can
reach heights of 100 ft (30 m),
are very powerful and
destructive. Sometimes ShOreS and cOaSTS
wrongly referred to as
tidal waves, tsunamis high land at the shore ends in cliffs, and low land
are in fact caused by slopes gently to form beaches. The waves hurl
earthquakes and stones at the base of cliffs, causing rocks to fall
volcanic eruptions. and form coasts with bays and headlands. Strange
rock formations and caves may result. The waves
batter the rocks and break them up into pebbles
and then into sand. Beaches form at the base of
Water reaches base of Water reaches top of Crest topples over cliffs, and the sea also sweeps pebbles and sand
circle in trough of wave. circle in crest of wave. to break on shore. along the shore to

form beaches Find out more
elsewhere. continents
deep-sea wildlife
hOW WaveS MOve earthquakes
The water in a wave does not move forward. Fishing industry
It moves in a circle, so the water only goes up and Indian ocean
down as a wave passes. The approaching shore holds Ocean wildlife
back the base of the wave, making the top of the wave Seashore wildlife
move faster to break on the shore.

388

Ocean wildlife

LIFE BEGAN IN THE OCEANS millions of years ago.
Today, oceans cover 71 percent of the planet’s surface
and provide homes for countless fish, octopuses, seals, sharks, and
jellyfish. Ocean wildlife is at its richest in the warm shallow
waters of coral reefs, where dazzlingly colorful angelfish and Sea birds

butterfly fish live. In deeper waters, whales, dolphins, and
porpoises are found. Most plants and animals live close
to the water’s surface. Sunlight filters through the
surface, allowing microscopic organisms, such as
diatoms, to flourish. An intricate web of small
animals feeds on these tiny organisms; larger
sea creatures eat the smaller ones, and so on up
COELACANTH the food chain to the large predators such as sharks.
The coelacanth is a survivor from Today, many marine plants and animals are
prehistoric times, although scientists threatened; we dump chemical wastes in the oceans,
first discovered it in 1938. The
coelacanth lives around the Comoro
Islands, off southeast Africa, and in
the eastern Indian Ocean, in water fertilizers flow into the oceans from rivers, and we PLANkTON
230–1,300 ft (70–400 m) deep. Adult catch so many fish that fish-eating sea Billions of tiny organisms float
coelacanths measure about 5.5 ft (1.7 m) mammals such as seals and dolphins in seawater. Together they are
in length. Today, this fish is threatened have to compete with us for their food.
because of fish collectors and called plankton, from the
souvenir hunters. Greek word planktos, meaning
“wanderer.” Plankton are food
for many fish and other
Common squid Finback whale sea creatures.

FINBACk wHALE
The finback whale is the second
largest living animal (the blue
whale is the largest) and is
found from the poles to
the tropics. Finbacks
grow to about 85 ft (25 m)

in length and weigh 71 tons. They feed by
straining shrimplike creatures called krill
from the water, using fringes of baleen
hanging from the upper jaws.

HErrING SANd TIGEr OPEN OCEAN
There were once vast schools
of herring in the oceans; they Sharks are the most aggressive Many animals in the open sea are
were an easy catch for fishing hunters in the ocean. The ferocious streamlined (sleek in shape) so that they
boats, and people valued them sand tiger shark hunts even before it can swim away quickly from predators and
for their tasty flesh. Today, herring is born, when it is still in its mother’s
is much less common because people womb. There are 10–15 embryo sharks chase after prey. There are fish of all
in the womb, and as they develop, they shapes and sizes in the open ocean, as
have overfished the oceans. Herring eat each other until there are only one
feed on plankton. or two left. The survivors are born fully well as enormous schools of jellyfish
formed, then swim away to begin their and mammals, such as seals. Sea
birds, such as albatrosses, petrels,
fish-eating lives, growing to 12 ft and shearwaters, feed at
(3.5 m) in length. the surface.

SArdINE
Pacific sardines

are related to
herrings. Other
members of the
herring family are the sprat
and the shad. All of them are hunted
by bigger ocean dwellers such as seals.

SwOrdFISH
This spear-nosed hunter is one of the fastest fish in the sea; it can swim
in bursts at speeds of 60 mph (95 km/h). The swordfish resembles the
marlin and sailfish, and weighs up to 1,500 lb (675 kg).
Swordfish injure their prey with sideways slashes of
the sword, and then devour them.
Swordfish

389

Ocean wildlife

Seaweeds such as this During courtship, the
oarweed grow on the shore male frigate bird puffs
and in water a few feet out its bright red throat
deep. Seaweed provides pouch like a balloon to
food and shelter for
attract a female.
animals close to
the coast.

dall’s porpoise frigate Bird
there are six kinds of porpoise. the frigate birds swoop
largest is dall’s porpoise, shown here. it weighs and hover
up to 330 lb (150 kg). dall’s porpoise lives in the gracefully as
north pacific ocean, from north america to Japan. they feed at the sea’s
porpoises usually stay near the coast, where they catch surface. they also harass
small fish, squid, and other sea creatures. other birds to make them drop
Manta ray food. during the breeding season,
the immense manta ray frigate birds nest on small islands
cruises near the surface by Manta ray in tropical regions.

flapping its wings and funnels continental shelf
small sea creatures into its mouth.
this ray is also known as the devilfish, the sea floor slopes gently around
because it seems to have two little horns most major land masses. these
on its head. the biggest mantas weigh sloping, shallow areas are called
more than 3,500 lb (1,600 kg) and measure
20 ft (6 m) from wingtip to wingtip. continental shelves, and are as deep
as 670 ft (200 m). they may extend
Blue-ringed octopus
this fearsome inhabitant of the pacific ocean hundreds of miles from the shore
is extremely dangerous; its poisonous bite can before they dip sharply down to

kill a human. When the deeper water. continental shelves are
blue-ringed octopus rich in sea life because they receive
is threatened, the
dull-colored rings nutrients washed in by rivers. sunlight
on its body and arms penetrates these waters, so seaweeds
glow a vivid blue as and other algae can grow.
a warning signal.
Moray eel
although moray eels have a reputation for
fierceness, they prefer to hide in cracks or

caves and usually bite only if threatened.
Moray eels are predators; some hunt fish,

and others eat crabs or shellfish.

coral reef
corals usually grow in
shallow waters where Moray eel

the temperature is
above 63°f (17°c).
they flourish best in
temperatures above 68°f
(20°c). Most corals are made up of tiny creatures
that look like small anemones. each makes a
stony, cup-shaped skeleton around its soft body.
as the coral animals die, their skeletons merge Jellyfish
with the skeletons of other marine animals to Many jellyfish can
form the fragile rock of a coral reef. move around using rhythmic
squeezing motions of the bell
angelfish grouper (main body). their trailing tentacles
Brightly colored grouper fish live around coral reefs and may measure sting small prey, such as fish and
fish live around coral more than 10 ft (3 m) long. the grouper lurks in cracks prawns, and drag them toward the
reefs. the brilliant colors help stomach at the center of the bell.
attract a mate, act as camouflage, and often swallows victims whole with one gulp
and keep rivals out of the fish’s of its huge mouth. the bright spots Find out more
territory. the angelfish, shown on the body help camouflage corals, anemones,
here, feed on small plants and this jeweled grouper among
animals in cracks and crevices. the many gleaming and jellyfish
colors of the reef.
In self-defense, the porcupine deep-sea wildlife
fish swallows water and swells fish
into a ball shape with its spines
oceans and seas
poking outward. seashore wildlife
sharks and rays
Whales and dolphins

390

OctOpuses and squid

Sea creatureS, Such aS the octopuS and squid, have always held a
strange fascination for humans. With their powerful tentacles and strange
shape, they were once thought of as sea monsters. octopuses and squid are
clever, active creatures, the biggest and most intelligent of all the invertebrates
(animals without backbones). they have sharp eyesight, a large brain,
fast reactions, and the ability to remember. octopuses, squid, and
Some large octopuses their relatives, the cuttlefish, are mollusks, related to shelled
measure 30 ft (9 m) across animals with soft bodies, such as snails and clams. unlike snails and
with their “arms” spread out. clams, octopuses, squid, and cuttlefish have no outer shells, though
However, stories of giant squid have a very thin shell called a pen inside the body. the
octopuses that swallow
divers whole are untrue.

white oval cuttlebones of cuttlefish are often seen
washed up on beaches. an octopus has eight
“arms” covered with suckers, which it uses for
moving around. Squid and cuttlefish have
eight short “arms” and two
long tentacles which curl
Water can be and uncurl. they use
squirted out
through siphon
for jet-propelled their arms as rudders
movement. for swimming and their

tentacles for
Mouth is on underside; catching prey.
it has a horny “beak”
for cutting food,
and saliva that
contains poison.

coMMon octopuS

the common octopus lurks in
caves or crevices during the day.
It emerges at night to hunt for
crabs, shellfish, and small fish.
It has a hard, beaklike mouth
and a rough tongue.

cuttlefISh Each “arm” has two rows of Ink
octopuses, squid, and powerful suckers for moving,
cuttlefish can change color cloud
in less than a second. this feeling, and grabbing prey.
can provide camouflage so octopuses
that the creature blends in and squid have
with the surroundings. It an ink gland attached
may also indicate a change to the digestive system.
of mood—a male cuttlefish to confuse an enemy,
turns black with rage when they squirt ink out
it is angry. the dappled red of the siphon and
coloring of the cuttlefish cannot be seen behind
shown here is a good disguise the dark, watery screen.
this ink was once used by
among the coral. artists and is called sepia,
which is also the scientific
Giant squid Common squid name for cuttlefish.
Measuring 60 ft (20 m) in length including its tentacles, SquId
the giant squid is the world’s largest invertebrate. It Find out more
With its torpedo shape, the animals
is an important source of common squid is an especially
food for sperm whales. fast swimmer. powerful muscles deep-sea wildlife
inside the body squirt water rapidly ocean wildlife
through the siphon, pushing the
creature along through the water.

391

Oil

without oil, modern life would grind to a halt. oil is oFFshoRe oil
needed to make the fuels that drive cars, trucks, diesel trains, Rigs drill wells down
ships, and aircraft. Power stations burn oil to produce much to oil deposits, and
of the world’s electricity, and many homes use oil-burning production platforms
furnaces for heating. oil is also very important because it is
needed to make plastics, textiles, and other useful products. bring the oil to
oil is a dark, thick liquid that lies deep underground and the surface. the Some gas
beneath the seabed. oil wells are bored to obtain platforms either from the oil
float on the sea is burned off
or stand on the as a safety
seabed. precaution.

oil, which is also called crude oil or
petroleum. Crude oil contains a mixture of
chemicals and many different types of oil.
lubricating oil is made from crude oil.
it helps machine parts slide easily so
that the machine works well. Oil workers live
Oil workers in quarters on
are ferried the platform.
to production A platform may stand
oil ReFineRy platform by on legs and be as tall
the crude oil that comes helicopter. as a skyscraper. Some
from a deposit is a mixture platforms do not have
of chemicals and many kinds legs but rest on huge
of oil. Crude oil is taken to an Huge oil tankers Divers check and floats called pontoons.
oil refinery, where it is heated. carry oil from repair platform Several wells
this makes the oil break down, offshore platforms to from below. are drilled to
or separate, into gasoline and refineries on land. an oil deposit.
other fuels, lubricating oils,
chemicals, and bitumen
for making roads.

Rocker

Oil terminal
and refinery

PiPeline Pipeline

Oil well a long pipe carries oil from the
platform to an oil terminal or
tanker port. From there the oil
is sent to a refinery.
wheRe oil is FounD
oil is found in many places, from the Middle east to
the arctic. all these places were once covered by the
oil well oceans. tiny sea plants sank to the seabed and were
an oil well is a shaft that is drilled to buried in mud. the mud turned into layers of rock.
obtain oil. the oil flows up the shaft heat from the rocks warmed the plants over millions
from the deposit far below. on land, of years and changed them into oil and natural gas.
a machine called a rocker pumps
up the oil.

Vegetable oils CheMiCals FRoM oil
Plants and vegetables, such as olives, gasoline
corn, and sunflowers, provide valuable oils. an oil refinery produces gasoline is one of the most
olive oil is made by crushing ripe many chemicals from crude important of all oil products.
olives; sunflower oil comes from oil, which are called petro- Diesel fuel is another kind of
sunflower seeds. these oils are chemicals. Factories use these motor fuel made from oil.
used in cooking, and sunflower chemicals to make plastics,
oil is used to make margarine. textiles, and other products. Find out more
Factories treat plant and Polyethylene, for example, is Coal
vegetable oils to make soaps made from a gas that comes gas
and paints; vegetable from oil. Chemicals from oil
Olive oil oil can also be are also used to make drugs, geology
fertilizers, detergents, and Plastics
used as fuels, dyes and paints in all colors. Rocks and minerals
such as biodiesel.
Olives

392

Olympic Games

eVeRY two YeaRs, the world’s best athletes Five interlocking
rings make up
compete in the summer or winter olympics. the Olympic
more than 10,000 athletes from around 204 symbol.
nations take part in the summer olympics,
in more than 25 sports. the winter games The
are smaller, with 2,800 athletes from about opening
88 countries competing in 15 sports. ceremony for
the Olympics is a
the inspiration for today’s olympics spectacular occasion.
came from ancient greek games of
more than 2,000 years ago. the modern olYmPic Flame
olympics began in athens, greece, in
1896. individual excellence and team the olympic games open with
achievement are the themes of the olympic a spectacular ceremony. the most
games, not competition between nations. important part is the lighting
the international olympic committee (ioc) of the olympic Flame with a
chooses a city, not a country, to host the games. no burning torch. teams of runners
one country “wins” the games, and there is no prize carry the torch from olympia, in
money. instead, individuals and teams compete for greece, site of the ancient games,
gold (first place), silver (second), and bronze (third) to the stadium where the games
medals—as well as for the glory of taking part. are to be held. this ceremony
dates back to 1928, when Baron
Ski jumping, shown here, is one of ancient games Pierre de coubertin, founder of
the most exciting events in the the ancient olympics the modern olympics, urged the
Winter Olympics. athletes to “keep alive the flame of
began as a religious
festival. at first they the revived olympic spirit.”
consisted of just one

race, but at their
height the games lasted

five days and included
sports such as wrestling

and chariot racing.
only men could

compete in or watch
the ancient olympics.
women held their

own games in
honor of the
goddess hera.

winteR olYmPics Politics and the games
the huge international audience for the
a separate winter games takes place every olympics ensures that any political protests
four years, halfway between two summer and terrorist acts that occur gain maximum
olympics. it includes ice and snow publicity. in 1968, winning athletes raised
sports such as skating and skiing. clenched fists to show that they supported a
campaign to give black people more power.
Four years later, an act of terrorism caused the
deaths of 11 israeli athletes at munich, germany.

The black
power salute

The Games include a variety
of team and individual sports.
New ones are added, and old
ones are sometimes dropped.

Running Cycling Weightlifting Gymnastics Find out more
dance

Football
greece, ancient
health and fitness

sports

393

OTTOMAN EMPIRE

During the late 13th century, a group Hungary

of nomadic turkish tribes settled in anatolia Anatolia
(modern turkey). they were led by Osman, Mesopotamia
their first sultan, or ruler. he gave his name
to the Ottoman empire—one of the greatest AFRICA Egypt Arabia

empires in the world. the empire expanded Mediterranean Persian
through war and alliance with neighbours. By Sea Gulf

1566, it had spread along the Mediterranean Ottoman Empire at its greatest extent
Sea across the Middle east to the Persian gulf.
the Ottomans owed their success to their military
skill. their armies included many christian recruits
organized into groups of highly trained foot
SuleiMan the Magnificent soldiers called Janissaries. the empire grew ottoman
the greatest of all Ottoman sultans wealthy on the trade it controlled throughout empire
was Suleiman i (1494-1566), known as the Middle east. art and architecture flourished
Suleiman the Magnificent. During his 1281-1324 Osman
reign the Ottoman empire reached within its borders. Discontent with Ottoman founds Ottoman
the height of its power. a patron of empire.
the arts, Suleiman reformed the 1333 Ottomans
educational and legal systems. rule eventually weakened the empire, and it capture gallipoli,
declined during the 19th century turkey, giving them
Janissaries could before it finally collapsed in 1918. a foothold in europe.
be recognized by the country of turkey emerged 1453 Ottomans
their elaborate capture city of
headdresses. constantinople (now
out of its ruins. istanbul), the capital
of the Byzantine
Public letter writers the OttOManS empire; the city
wrote letters for people. becomes the capital
although the Ottomans of the new empire.
were Muslims, they 1566 Ottoman
allowed christians and empire reaches its
Jews to practice their own greatest extent.
religions and tolerated the 1571 christian navy
many different peoples destroys turkish fleet
who lived within their at lepanto.
empire. the sultans lived 1697-1878 russia
in great luxury and wealth, slowly expels the
and encouraged the arts turks from the lands
and learning. Ottoman around the Black Sea.
women had to live in a 1878-1913 turks
separate section of the expelled from most
household called a harem. of their european
possessions.
1914-18 Ottoman
empire fights on the
side of germany and
austria in World War i.
1918 troops of
several allied nations,
including Britain and
greece, occupy the
Ottoman empire.
1922 last sultan is
overthrown. turkey is
declared a republic.

Battle Of lePantO Sick Man Of eurOPe A 19th-century cartoon mocks the Find out more
to stop the growth of Ottoman power, Pope During the 19th century, declining state of the Ottoman Empire. Byzantine empire
Pius V formed a christian league that included the Ottoman empire lost
Spain, Venice, genoa, and naples. in 1571, islam
the christian forces defeated the turks at the its grip on its european
Battle of lepanto, off the coast of greece. possessions and was in
the defeat was a very serious setback to the danger of falling apart.
Ottoman empire and ended turkish naval the empire became
power in the Mediterranean Sea. known as the “Sick
Man of europe.”

394

Oxygen

We cannot see, smell, or taste oxygen, yet without it, none of
us could survive longer than a few minutes. It is fortunate, then, that
oxygen is the most common substance on earth. oxygen is a gas. mixed
with other gases, it makes up about one-fifth of the air we breathe.
RespIRatIon most of the oxygen in the world, though, does not float free as a
our bodies need gas. Instead, the oxygen is bound up in combination with other
oxygen to release the substances—in a solid or liquid form. this is because oxygen is
energy consumed chemically reactive: it readily combines with other substances,
when we use our often giving off energy in the process. Burning is an example
muscles. the of oxygen at work. When a piece of timber burns, oxygen is
oxygen we combining with the wood and giving off heat. oxygen is also
breathe in is found in water, combined with atoms of another
used to “burn” gas, hydrogen. oxygen can be extracted
the food we eat, from water by passing an electric
producing energy. current through it. the electricity oxygen cycle
this process is breaks the water into its Breathing air or burning fuel removes oxygen
called respiration. parts—the gases oxygen from the atmosphere and gives off carbon
Blood carries the and hydrogen—and dioxide. plants do the reverse. During the
oxygen from the oxygen bubbles off. day, they produce energy for growth by the
lungs, which process of photosynthesis. the green parts
extract it from the of the plant take in sunlight,
air, to the muscles water, and carbon dioxide to
where it is needed. make new cells, and give
off oxygen. thus,
BURnIng oxygen continually
passes into and
nothing can burn People and Green plants absorb out of the air.
without oxygen. In outer animals carbon dioxide this is called
space there is no air or breathe breathed out by the oxygen cycle.
oxygen, so it would in oxygen. living creatures.
be impossible to
light a fire. the oxygen In WateR Mountain climbers, astronauts,
rocket motors seawater contains and undersea divers carry a
used to launch dissolved oxygen. Fish supply of oxygen to breathe.
spacecraft need use this oxygen to A special valve releases the
oxygen to burn breathe. Water flows
the rocket fuel over their gills, which oxygen at the correct
and propel the extract the oxygen. pressure for
craft upward. Unlike other fish, breathing.
spacecraft carry some sharks can
their own supply breathe only when
of pure oxygen, moving in the
which mixes with the water. to avoid
fuel in the rocket motor. suffocating, they
When anything burns in must swim constantly,
pure oxygen, it produces a even when asleep.
very hot flame. In welding
machines a fuel gas is
burned with pure oxygen,
producing a flame hot
enough to melt metals.

Find out more
chemistry
Human body

lungs and breathing
plants
science

395

pacific ocean

there are some 25,000 pacific On a map Of the pacific Ocean, the sunny, tropical pacific islands
islands, but only a few thousand are
inhabited. they stretch across the look like tiny grains of sand scattered on the sea. the first adventurous
central part of the pacific Ocean, settlers of these islands sailed from Southeast asia. they spread gradually
straddling the equator and across the region, traveling over the vast expanses of ocean in their light
occupying an area larger than wooden sailing boats. today, the islands are divided into three main groups:
the whole of asia. to the west micronesia to the north, melanesia to the south, and polynesia to the east.
and southwest lie Southeast asia, there are 12 independent countries in the pacific, including fiji, tonga,
australia, and new Zealand; north and nauru, one of the world’s smallest nations. europeans first arrived in
and South america are to the east. the pacific in the 16th century, and a number of islands maintain strong
Wooden sailing boats called links with europe. new caledonia, for instance, is french. many pacific
outriggers have a main hull and islanders lead lives that have barely changed for centuries; but there are a
floats on either side.
number of important modern
industries, including large-
scale fishing and mining,
as well as tourism.

iSland life
many pacific islands
are very small.
they are the tops
of submerged
mountains. coral
reefs protect them
from the pacific
waves. On the more
remote islands,
people live much as
their ancestors did.
their simple houses
have thatched roofs
made of palm fronds.
families keep pigs and
chickens and grow fruit

and vegetables. they use
traditional boats for
fishing and for trade
between the islands.

Those taking part in the United States military bases cover
spectacular traditional dances virtually all of some Pacific Islands,

of Papua New Guinea wear mainly in Micronesia.
costumes decorated with
feathers and beads.

eaSter iSland
tiny, remote easter island is one of the
farthest east of the pacific islands. a dutch
admiral gave the island its name when he
landed there on easter day in 1722. more
than 1,000 years ago, the islanders’ polynesian
ancestors carved mysterious stone statues,
which still dot the dry, barren landscape.

Wake iSland
the United States controls a number
of pacific islands, including Wake
island (above) and midway, which
was the scene of a major battle in
World War ii. the islands of hawaii
papUa neW GUinea There are form one of the 50 states of the USa.
new Guinea, one of the world’s largest islands, more than
is part of melanesia. half of it belongs to 600 of these
indonesia and is called irian Jaya. the other huge heads
half is a mountainous independent country on Easter Find out more
called papua new Guinea. its thick tropical Island, some Oceans and seas
forests are the home of many remote tribes over 65 ft World war ii
who have little contact with the outside world. (20 m) tall.

396

Pacific ocean

Nauru SoLoMoN
Area: 8.1 sq miles iSLaNDS
Volcano Mountain Ancient Capital Large Large (21 sq km) Area: 11,157 sq miles
monument city city/ city and (28,896 sq km)
town port Population: 622,500
StAtiStiCS Population: 9,500 Capital: honiara
Area: 305,106 sq miles FiJi Government Center: Yaren Currency:
(790,225 sq km) Area: 7,056 sq miles Currency: australian dollar Solomon islands dollar
Population: 9,105,000 (18,274 sq km) ToNGa
Number of independent Population: 909,000 PaPua New Area: 288 sq miles
countries: 12 Capital: Suva GuiNea (747 sq km)
Languages: english, Currency: Fiji dollar Area: 178,704 sq miles Population: 106,500
local languages and (462,840 sq km) Capital: Nuku’alofa
dialects KiriBaTi Population: 6,672,500 Currency: Tongan pa’anga
Religions: Protestant, Area: 313 sq miles Capital: Port Moresby TuvaLu
roman catholic, hindu (811 sq km) Currency: Kina Area: 10 sq miles
Highest point: Mount Population: 106,000 (26 sq km)
wilhelm (Papua New Capital: Baikiri (Tarawa atoll) PaLau Population: 11,000
Guinea) 14,793 ft Currency: australian dollar Area: 177 sq miles Capital: Fongafale
(4,509 m) (459 sq km) Currency: australian dollar
Main occupations: MarShaLL Population: 21,000 vaNuaTu
agriculture, fishing iSLaNDS Capital: Ngerulmud Area: 4,706 sq miles
Area: 70 sq miles (181 sq km) Currency: uS dollar (12,189 sq km)
Population: 72,000 Population: 272,000
Capital: Majuro SaMoa Capital: Port-vila
Currency: uS dollar Area: 1,093 sq miles Currency: vatu
(2,831 sq km)
MicroNeSia Population: 198,000
Area: 271 sq miles Capital: apia
(702 sq km) Currency: Tala
Population: 105,000
Capital: Palikir
Currency: uS dollar

New caLeDoNia ARCTIC OCEAN SCaLe Bar km
The Isle of Pines (above) is one of the 0 1000 2000
smallest inhabited islands in the New
Caledonia group. Like many of N O RTH 0 1000 2000 miles
Vancouver
the Pacific Islands, New Bering Sea Gulf of
Caledonia is governed by Aleutian Trench Alaska
a larger, more powerful A Sea of
country. France rules I Okhotsk MRaicdqgua e ch ERICA
New Caledonia, and Kurile Tren KTerremn cahd e c AM
French aid provides S Seattle

one-third of the A Busan Yokohama PACIFI C San Francisco
country’s income. Kobe Long Beach
Most of the rest
comes from the Shanghai Mariana TrenchNORTHERN MIDWAY IS.
M(toAURSI)ANAMISi.d-Pa (to US)
export of nickel— Tropic of Cancer H AWA I I
the islands have WAKE IS. Mountains
40 percent of Hong Kong cific (part of US) C E N T RA L
the world’s A M E R IC A
reserves of South GUAM (to US)
the metal. China (to US) Panama
Sea PALAU MARSHALL Clipperton Island ci do sg e City
N MICRONESIA ISLANDS (to French Polynesia)
OSAMOA C E A N CRo Buenaventura
Galapagos Is.
Equator GNuienwea PAPUA NAURU K I R I B A T I TOKELAU
NEW (to NZ) (part of Ecuador)

Guayaquil
Arafura Sea GUINEA P eru-Chile Trench
TUVALU AMERICAN Rise Peru Callao
SOLOMON IS. SAMOA Valparaíso
DePeNDeNcieSW E Coral (to US) Basin AMERIC A
FRENCH Chile
Sea VANUATU COOK POL YNESIA Pacific Basin
NEW CALEDONIA ISLANDS
( to France ) FIJI (to France)
(to NZ)
S Tropic of Capricorn A U S T R A L I A PITCAIRN IS.
WALLIS & NIUE (to UK) Easter I.
FUTUNA TONGA (to NZ)
(to France) East (part of Chile}

Sydney HLoorw San Ambrosio Island
Ta s m e Ridse Sou t h we s t n SOUTH
n acif i c B a s i (part of Chile)

Besides the 12 Seaa Wellington P
independent nations listed NEW
at the top of the page, there ri e ZEALAND
are many other island groups
in the Pacific. Most of these -Antarctic R i d ge Basin C. Horn
islands depend on aid from a larger HERN
country, and some have very low S Pacifi c Southeast Pacific
OU T
OCEAN

populations. Pitcairn, for example,
is a British colony and is home to
around 50 people. A N TA RCT I C A

397

Painters

aRtiStS USe Paint in the same way that writers use words to convey
ideas on paper. Painters capture the likeness of a face or a flower, but
they can do much more than just paint a realistic image. Painters work
skillfully with color, texture, and shape to create all kinds of eye-catching
images of the world as they see it. Many cultures throughout history have
produced their own great painters, from Giotto in the 14th century to
Picasso in the 20th century. there have been many different groups, or
movements, in painting, such as classicism, cubism, and pop art.
Painters change the way we see the world. Rembrandt’s portrait
paintings, for example, are powerful studies from real life,
while Salvador Dali’s strange surrealist (dreamlike) landscapes
eaRly PainteRS are drawn from his imagination. Painters use all kinds of paint
the artists of ancient egypt
decorated the walls of tombs to create a picture—thick blobs
with scenes of gods and
goddesses and of hunting and of oil paint daubed on to a canvas
feasting. the Minoan people of early Greece painted with a palette knife; delicate
their houses and palaces with pictures of dancers,
birds, and flowers. Roman artists painted gods and brushstrokes of water-color on a
goddesses and scenes from classical mythology. sheet of paper. Some painters dab
paint on with sponges, rags, even
MeDieVal PainteRS their fingers; others flick paint
Up until the 14th century, Western artists painted
mostly christian subjects—the life of christ and the
saints. Painters used rich colors and thin layers of gold onto a surface. Whatever the
medium (materials) used, each
to make these religious paintings. these early artists
used different methods of painting people from later great painter has his or her own
Western painters, and although the paintings may distinctive style.
look flat to us, they are no less powerful. artists
worked on wood panels
for altarpieces
and painted
directly on People in medieval paintings sometimes look stiff and
church expressionless, like the figures in this 11th-century
walls. picture (left) of an emperor, a saint, and an angel.

The Sistine Chapel
ceiling, painted by
Michelangelo.

RenaiSSance

one of the greatest periods
in european painting was the
Renaissance, which reached its
height in italy in the late 15th and
early 16th centuries. During the
Renaissance, painters developed
more realistic styles of painting. they
studied perspective and the human
body, painted more realistic landscapes,
and developed portrait painting.

MicHelanGelo Michelangelo Giotto
had difficulty
Michelangelo Buonarroti in reaching the italian artist Giotto
(1475-1564) is one of the certain parts (c.1266-1337) painted at the
best-known italian Renaissance of the ceiling beginning of the Renaissance. He
painters. Much of his work in the Sistine brought a new sense of naturalness
was for Pope Julius ii, who Chapel, so to paintings. the painting shown
commissioned him to paint he built a above is called The Flight into Egypt. it
the ceiling of the Sistine scaffold and shows Mary and Jesus on a donkey
chapel in the Vatican, in Rome, sometimes lay
between 1508 and 1512. on his back being led by Joseph.
to paint.

398