Children's Illustrated Encyclopedia

EXPLORERS

TODAY, PEOPLE ARE AWARE of the most remote corners of the

world. But hundreds of years ago, many did not know that countries

other than their own even existed. In the 6th century, an Irish saint,

Brendan, is said to have sailed across the Atlantic in search of a new

land. But it was not until the early 15th century that strong seaworthy

ships were developed and Europeans such as Christopher Columbus

were able to explore in earnest. Turkish Muslims had controlled

the overland trade route between Europe and the Indies (East

Asia) since the 11th century. They charged such high prices for

Asian goods that European merchants became eager to find

a direct sea route to Asia that would bypass the Turks. The

sailors who searched for these routes found the Americas and

other lands previously unknown to Europeans. Of course,

people already lived in most of these “newly discovered” lands, VIKINGS
and the results of these explorations were often disastrous for The Vikings came from Norway, Sweden, and
their inhabitants. All too often the new arrivals exploited and Denmark. Looking for new lands in which to
enslaved the native peoples, destroying their cultures. settle, they sailed to Iceland, Greenland, and
North America in their long ships, navigating

by the sun and the stars.

PACIFIC ISLANDS
Europeans exploring the
Pacific Ocean in the 1500s
were amazed to find that

prehistoric peoples had
found the Pacific Islands

before them. In about
3000 bce, the original
Polynesians moved from
Southeast Asia to the
islands in the western
Pacific, sailing in fragile
canoes. By 1000 ce, they
had settled on hundreds

of other islands.

EARLY IDEAS Maori ancestors leaving for New Zealand
The first explorers had few maps. Early
ideas about the shape of the world were DISCOVERIES
hopelessly inaccurate. Many people
thought the world was flat and that those Explorers took gold, treasure, and
who went too far might fall off the edge.
Some believed that the world was exciting new vegetables from the
supported by a tortoise (above).
Americas to Europe; they also
PERILS OF THE SEA
Early sailors faced many natural dangers, such carried silks, jewels, and
as storms, reefs, icebergs, and fog. The sea was
spices from Asia. People Silk from
an alien territory, and rumors and legends in Europe were eager to China
spoke of huge sea monsters that swam in
obtain these goods and
unknown waters. These stories were probably
based on sightings of whales and other marine wanted more. This led
creatures. They were exaggerated by returning
to a great increase in
sailors telling tall tales of their adventures.
Writers and artists added more gruesome trade between East

details to these descriptions, and West. Potatoes
and so the myths grew. from North

America

Tomatoes and chillies Spices from Chocolate
from the Americas South Asia was made
from cacao
199 beans from
the Americas.

EXPLORERS

INQUISITIVE EUROPEANS SIR HENRY MORTON MARY KINGSLEY (1862-1900)
STANLEY (1841-1904) A fearless and determined
Once Europeans had an idea Welsh-born Henry Stanley Englishwoman, Mary
of the correct shape of the worked for a New York Kingsley traveled in
world, they set out to newspaper. He led an West Africa, trading
explore it more thoroughly. expedition into Africa and making scientific
Some were driven by to find the missing studies. On her travels,
curiosity, some by greed, Scottish explorer she was entertained by
and some by a desire David Livingstone. cannibals. She was one
to convert the peoples When he found him, of the first to demand
who lived in faraway he uttered the famous fair treatment for the
places to Christianity. words “Dr. Livingstone, people of Africa by
All faced hardships I presume?” Stanley later their colonial rulers.
and dangers.
explored much of Central
Africa around Lake Victoria.

AMERIGO VESPUCCI (1454-1512) FERDINAND MAGELLAN (1480-1521) VASCO DA GAMA
The first European to Leader of the first European expedition to (1469-1524)
sail around the world, Portuguese explorer Despite bad weather
explore the Brazilian Magellan proved that there was a southwestern and hardships on
coast, Italian-born route to the Indies through the Pacific. the voyage,
Amerigo Vespucci Portuguese-born
gave his name to Vasco da Gama
reached the East
America. He was in African coast and
charge of a school proved that there
was a southeastern
of navigation in route to India. He
Seville, Spain. was the first European
to sail around the
Vespucci believed
in a southwestern southern tip of Africa.
route to the Indies

around South America.

Marco Polo’s journey EUROPE Siberia
from Italy to China lasted Venice
more than 24 years. ASIA
Arabia China
Marco Polo
leaving Venice Journey to China
India
WONDERS OF CHINA
On his travels, Marco Polo became a favorite of Kublai Journey
Khan, the Mongol ruler. Marco later published a home

detailed account of his journey MARCO POLO
and the wonders he had seen.
Few believed the account, and it Marco Polo (1254-1324) was
was years before Europeans an Italian explorer. His father
realized that he had and uncle were merchants
experienced a great
civilization— the from Venice, Europe’s
empire of China. greatest trading city. They
took the 17-year-old Marco
with them on a journey
from Italy to China.

Find out more

Columbus, christopher
Conquistadors
Cook, james
Pirates

EYES

as you REad This PaGE, you are using the two Openings of
organs of sight—the eyes. our eyes enable us to tear (lacrimal)
learn a great deal about the world around us. Each gland
EaGlE siGhT eyeball measures about 1 in (25 mm) across and sits
a golden eagle has in the front of the skull in the eye socket, or orbit. Tear
extremely powerful duct
eyesight. it can see rabbits Tear
and other prey from a The eyes can swivel around in their sockets so that sac
distance of more than you can see things above, below, and to the side. EyE sockETs
half a mile (1 km). Each eye has an adjustable lens and sees a slightly The eyelid and eyelashes protect
the front of the eye. When you blink, the
different view of the same scene. The eyes work together, controlled by eyelids sweep moisture over the eyeball,
the brain. This is called binocular vision. The lens of each eye allows rays keeping it clean. The moisture is
of light to enter from the outside and project a picture on to the retina— produced in the tear glands above the
the inner lining of the eye. The retina converts the light into nerve signals eyes. These glands also produce tears
that travel along optic nerves to the brain, where images are perceived. when you cry. Tiny holes drain fluid
through tear ducts into the tear sac,
ouTER EyE Choroid, containing Muscles which empties
light rays enter the curved front of the eye called the nourishing blood vessels anchored at inside the nose.
cornea, where they are partly focused. They pass through back of eye
the pupil, which enlarges in dim conditions to let in more socket move
light and shrinks in bright conditions to protect the inside
of the eye from too much light. The rays are then focused the eye.
on to the retina by the lens.

Retina, bearing light-
sensitive cells
Cornea is like a
transparent window in
the front of the eyeball. Iris
The cornea partly Sclera—tough Sclera makes
focuses light rays. outer covering Pupil is a hole
within the iris. pupil
larger or
smaller.

Lens fine-focuses EyEball
light rays. Three pairs of muscles turn the
eyeball to look up, down, and from
side to side and rotate it. Pads of
fat cushion the eye and the optic

nerve, which is stretched and
pulled by eye movements.

Conjunctiva—thin layer Optic nerve
covering white of the eye to brain

innER EyE Blind spot, containing no
light-sensitive cells, where
inside the eye is the retina, which optic nerve leaves eye
contains about 120 million rod cells,
mainly around the sides, and seven Eye muscle Rods and conEs
million cone cells, mainly in the The retina contains millions
fovea. The image on the retina is of light-sensitive cells called
upside down, but the brain turns it rods and cones. The rods
the right way up as it processes nerve work best in dim light, while
signals from the eye. cones are sensitive to different
colors. Rods and cones
produce nerve signals when
light falls on them.
clEaR and dEfEcTivE vision faR-siGhTEdnEss
clear vision depends on the lens bending light Rays are focused
rays to the correct angle so that the rays form behind the retina.
a sharp picture on the retina. in far-sighted a convex lens
people, the eyeball is too short and nearby corrects the focus. Find out more
objects appear blurry. in near-sighted people,
the eyeball is too long, making distant objects nEaR-siGhTEdnEss cameras
out of focus. Glasses and artificial lenses, such Rays are focused in color
as contact lenses, help the eye’s own lens to front of retina. a Ears
focus the rays correctly, thus correcting concave lens corrects
defective vision. the focus. human body
light

201

fARM ANIMALS

Female sheep are called ewes, males are Female chickens are called hens. HaMburgers, sausages,
called rams, and the young are called lambs. Males, like the one shown here, are
Merino sheep originated from the butter, and cheese are
Iberian peninsula and, due to usually more colorful. They are produced from animals
the quality and quantity of their called roosters.
wool, have been taken
all over the world. The Suffolk is that we keep on farms. Many
an English other foods, including eggs,
Meat from adult sheep is called mutton. breed of sheep bacon, and yogurt, also come
that was first from farm animals. Farm
developed
over 120
years ago. animals include pigs, cattle,
sheep, rabbits, goats, and chickens.
People keep these animals for their
meat, milk, fur, and skins. We use
the skins, or hides, of cattle, pigs,
and sheep to make shoes, and the
wool of sheep, goats, and rabbits
to make clothes. People have been
keeping animals on farms for at least
9,000 years. Many are kept in small
enclosed areas called pens, others
in fields, and still others in cages.
the first farm animals were wild
creatures that people captured
and domesticated, or tamed.
today’s chickens are descended
from tropical forest birds of southeast
asia. throughout the ages, farmers
have bred (mated) the healthiest,most
docile animals with the best milk,
meat, or wool production, to produce
The female pig is called a gilt before she has the breeds that we know today.
any young, and a sow once she has young.
Male pigs are called boars.

HaMPsHire Pig
the Hampshire pig has little fat
on its body, so the pork and
bacon from this pig are lean
(that is, they have little fat).

The Rhode Island PlyMoutH rock sHeeP
Red is named after there are about 19 billion Wool comes from sheep, goats, rabbits, camels, alpacas,
the state of Rhode Island. chickens around the world, and and vicunas. young sheep, or lambs, produce the softest,
It is a good egg layer and is about 500 breeds. the leghorn finest wool. the largest flocks of sheep are in australia,
well-known for its meat. is one of the most common where there are about 75 million sheep. the sheep we
breeds. the Plymouth rock farm for wool are sheared for their fleeces (coats) once
Chicks are sold for shown here is a fast-growing a year. an expert shearer with electric clippers can shear
meat from when chicken that produces tasty one sheep every 40 seconds. the wool is washed and
they are about eight meat in a short time. combed, and then stretched and twisted into yarn for
weeks old and weigh woollen fabric. Here, a woman in Nepal is spinning
about 4.5 lb (2 kg). 202 wool by hand to make into carpets and rugs.

Poultry

Many people keep chickens as a
source of meat and eggs. these
chickens scratch around in
farmyards and fields, eating seeds,
worms, insects, and scraps. they lay
their eggs in a small chicken coop or
any other secluded place. this is
called free-range rearing—the
chickens are able to wander freely.
Most chickens are raised indoors,
under controlled conditions.

FARM ANIMALS

InTenSIve reArIng

Some farm animals, such as pigs and chickens, are kept under
controlled conditions in huge hangarlike buildings. Chickens are
raised by the thousands in this way, for their meat or their eggs.
The food, temperature, and light in the building are controlled so
that each chicken lays up to 300 eggs each year. Dairy cattle are
milked on a large scale and, in some places, never go outside.
Pigs are kept in pig units like the one shown here. They are fed
an exact mixture of nutrients that makes them put on the most
weight in the least time. Some kinds of pigs gain more than
1.5 lb (0.7 kg) in weight each day. A pig may be sold for pork
when it is only three months old.

PIg Zebu
Cattle are one of the most numerous
There are about 480 million pigs in Asia, and farm animals, with about 1.355 billion in
another 500 million scattered around the world.
Some are allowed to roam freely to feed on the world. They were first used
roots, worms, and household scraps; others are to pull carts. Today some cattle
kept inside buildings (see above). There are
hundreds of breeds of pigs, and some of the are bred for their meat (beef
largest weigh more than 450 lb (200 kg). Almost breeds), others for their milk
every part of a pig can be eaten, including the (dairy breeds), and some for
trotters, or feet. Pork is the name for fresh pig both (dual-purpose breeds).
meat; cured or preserved pig meat is called
bacon or ham. There are more than 1,000
breeds and types of cattle

worldwide. The zebu cattle
shown here have a hump
at the shoulders and a

long, narrow face. They were
originally from Southeast Asia
and are suited to hot climates.
Zebu are also used to pull plows.

Turkey Every November in DuCkS AnD geeSe
Today’s most common breed the US, millions of Waterfowl such as ducks and geese are kept mainly
of turkey is the broad turkeys are eaten for their meat, especially in Southeast Asia. They
breasted White, which was also provide fluffy down (underfeathers) for
created by crossing the in celebration of stuffing mattresses, quilts, and clothing. geese
White Holland and the Thanksgiving. are good guards in the farmyard, beacause they
broad breasted bronze, hiss at strangers. The most common egg-laying
shown here. Turkeys waterfowl are Indian runner ducks, khaki
came originally from campbell ducks, and emden and
north America. Chinese geese.
When europeans
first traveled to The Toulouse goose is
north America used to produce foie gras.
in the 16th Adult birds weigh more
century, they than 28 lb (13 kg).
domesticated
(tamed) turkeys goAT
and took some The goat was one of the first animals to be
back to europe. domesticated. goats feed on thorny bushes,
Male turkeys, or spiky grasses, and woody stems, and they can
toms, are often twice the climb up easily into the branches of small
weight of the female hens. trees to eat the greenery. More than 860
Young turkeys are called poults. million goats are kept worldwide, often in
In many parts of the world, dry and mountainous regions. They are
people keep goats for their used for their milk, meat, skins, and wool.
milk, which is made into The main dairy breed is the Anglo-nubian,
cheese and yogurt. which produces up to 1,200 pints (660 liters)
of milk each year.
203 The Indian runner duck is kept in
large flocks and can move swiftly
because of its long legs, body shape,
and upright stance.

Find out more
Animal senses

birds
Farming
Farming, history of
grassland wildlife
Horses, zebras, and asses
Mountain wildlife

Farming

TO STOck THe fOOd SHeLveS of supermarkets in europe and
the americas, farmers make nature and technology work in
harmony. They use machinery to plow and reap great fields of
wheat; they fertilize and irrigate greenhouses full of vegetables
and orchards of fruit; and they rear animals indoors to fatten
them quickly. Through this intensive agriculture, Western
farmers feed up to 10 people from land that once fed one.
However, not all the world’s farmers can be so productive.
Those who have plots on hilly land cannot use machines. instead
they graze a few animals or cultivate the land with inefficient hand
tools. farmers in dry climates must be content with lower yields or
SubSiSTence farming choose less productive crops that will tolerate dry soil.
and farmers who cannot afford
in some developing countries, machines and fertilizers are forced
most farming families grow only to use slower farming methods
sufficient food for themselves. that have not changed
This is called subsistence Plowing
farming. in a good year it
provides enough food for all. Planting for centuries.
but a drought or an increase
in the population may lead Harvesting seeds farm macHinery
to famine and starvation.
modern grain farming requires
special machinery at different
times of the year. in the
spring, a plow breaks the
Superwheat Spraying soil into furrows for
planting. a seed drill
crOpS puts a measured
amount of seed into
almost all the prepared soil
crops that and covers the seed
are grown so that birds do not
today are the eat it. a sprayer
descendants covers crops with
of wild plants. pesticides to kill
However, special harmful diseases and
breeding has created pests. finally, a combine
varieties that give high
harvests. grain crops such as harvester cuts the crop
wheat have especially benefited. and prepares it for storage.

modern varieties have much A baler rolls up the straw—the cut stalks of wheat left after the grain has been
larger grains than traditional harvested—and ties it into tight round bundles called bales.
species. However, this new
“superwheat” is not as resistant

to disease as other varieties and
must be grown carefully.

Ordinary wheat inTenSive farming
The purpose of intensive
Organic farming farming is to increase the
Some farmers in Western production of crops and
countries prefer to grow animals, and to cut food
crops and raise animals in prices. food animals
a natural, or organic, way. such as chickens and
They do not use artificial pigs are kept indoors in
pesticides or fertilizers. tiny, overcrowded pens.
Organic food is more many people feel this is
expensive, but it may be unnatural and cruel, and
healthier to eat. prefer to eat only “free-
range” animals—animals
that have been allowed to
move freely in the farmyard.

Organic farmers use natural In intensive chicken houses, conveyor belts Find out more
fertilizers, such as seaweed or carry food to the hens in the crowded farm animals
animal dung, to make the soil cages, and take away the eggs. farming, history of
more productive.
204

eArly FArMing farminghistory of
the first farmers domesticated
(tamed) wild animals and growing cropS and breeding animals for food
kept them in herds to
provide meat, milk, hides, are among the most important steps ever taken by
and wool. Some people humankind. Before farming began, people fed
became nomadic themselves by gathering berries and other plant
herders rather than matter and hunting wild animals. people were
farmers; they moved
their animals continuously nomadic—they had to move around to find food.
in search of new pasture. About 12,000 years ago in the Middle east, people
the picture shown here was
painted in a cave in the Sahara discovered they could grow cereal crops, such as
Desert in Africa about 8,000 years ago, wheat. these people were the first farmers. with the
at a time when the desert was grassland. start of farming, people began to settle permanently

crop growing in one place. villages grew into towns and cities.
in about 10,000 bce, farmers in the Middle east began to Farmers produced enough food to support the
plant crops to provide food. cereals, such as wheat, barley,
and millet were the main crops. in the Far east, people first population, so some people were free to do other
grew rice in about 6,000 bce. jobs such as weaving, and making pottery and tools.
Since everyone depended on farming for their food,
The huge Berkshire pig irrigAtion
was first bred for meat Farmers need a good supply of however, many people died of starvation
in the 18th century. water for their crops. in china when the crops failed because of bad
and other Far eastern countries, weather. over the centuries people
have tried many different ways of
where rice is the main crop, producing better crops. in the
water flows along channels on agricultural revolution of the
1700s, new scientific methods
the terraced hillsides to make helped overcome the problem
the paddies for growing rice. of crop failure. today, farming
is a huge international industry.

MeDievAl FArMing MechAnizAtion
During the 19th century, the development of steam
in the 11th century, the hard horse collar came
to europe from china. it allowed horses, power and, in the 20th century, the combustion
rather than oxen, to pull plows. By engine changed agriculture forever. tractors
the 13th century, european farms replaced horses as the main source of power,
consisted of open fields and each and railroads and refrigerated ships meant
peasant farmer had a piece of that food could be transported all over
land. later, much of the land the world.
was enclosed
with ditches Find out more
or hedges. engines

Steam Farm animals
tractor Farming

Seed drill

AgriculturAl revolution

During the 18th century, new methods of
agricultural production were developed
and breeds of livestock were improved,
such as the huge Berkshire pig (above).
the invention of new machines, such
as the seed drill, allowed farmers
to produce more crops.

205

Fish

FeaTures oF a Fish FEye or 518 million years, fish
The cod has all the features of a have swum in the oceans. The first
typical fish—a streamlined body for
speed, a powerful tail, and fins Lateral Mouth fish had no scales, fins, or jaws,
for balance and steering. line unlike those we know today. The
The lateral line range of fish that live in our
along the body rivers, lakes, and seas is enormous—
First
dorsal
is a row of sense fin from the great whale shark to the tiny
organs. These pygmy goby. in between are thousands
organs detect Operculum
movements (gill cover) of other fish, such as swordfish,

made by Pectoral sardines, parrotfish, and the comically
other fin rounded puffer fish. some live in
creatures Pelvic
in the fin freshwater; others in saltwater. some
water. skitter just below the surface; others swim
around in the depths. Despite their wide
variety, most fish have a streamlined shape,
Vent ideally suited to a watery environment. a
covering of scales and slimy mucus protects fish
First Gills from parasites and helps them slip rapidly through
anal fin all fish can the water. Fish propel themselves along by their tail,
obtain oxygen by
absorbing it from the
Second water through gills—blood-rich and steer and maneuver with their fins. among the
anal fin structures on each side of the head. thousands of kinds of fish are some extraordinary

exceptions. lampreys have no jaws,
mudskippers can crawl across mud
Caudal Vertebral flats, and catfish can crawl and
fin (tail)

column have no scales at all.
(spine)
Mouth

Spiny rays of
caudal fin

Fish bones Skull Placoid
Fish were the first animals on bones (shark)
earth to have backbones. most fish have
a bony skeleton, like the flatfish shown Space for Cycloid
here, but there are a few exceptions. sharks digestive (salmon)
and rays, for instance, have a skeleton made organs Ganoid
of a tough, gristly substance (gar)
called cartilage. Skeleton of a flatfish Ribs
Ctenoid
Swim bladder keeps the insiDe a Fish (perch)
fish buoyant in the water. most of a fish’s internal organs lie in the lower half of
ScaleS
Brain the body. The rest of the body is made of large blocks bony disks called scales
Internal system of muscle called myotomes. Wavelike contractions of are embedded in the skin.
of a fish these muscles make the tail move from side to side; They protect the body and
this produces swimming movements. usually overlap to allow
movement. although
Gills there are four main
kinds, most fish have the
Heart Pylorus cycloid or ctenoid kind.
(stomach)
Kidney Intestine

206

Fish

Strangely Shaped fiSh
each kind of fish is suited to its own way of life. the long nose of the
butterfly fish has a mouth at the tip to pick food from crevices in rocks.
flying fish use their enlarged fins as “wings” for gliding as they leap out
of the water. the bright colors on a lionfish School of fiSh
warn other creatures of the deadly poison in Small fish often live in large
its fin spines. Lionfish groups called schools, twisting
and turning together as they
search for food. a predator is
sometimes so confused by their
numbers and quick, darting
movements that it cannot
single out a fish to attack.

Flying fish School of sea goldfish
on a Red Sea coral reef

Long-nosed Sea horses breeding
butterfly fish
Sea horSe Most fish reproduce by
feeding depositing their eggs and
Sea horse eggs are sperm in the water, and then
fast predatory fish, such as barracudas, deposited by the leaving the fertilized eggs
have long, slim, streamlined bodies and female into the to develop into fish. Some
sharp teeth. Slower swimmers male’s front pouch, fish, such as sticklebacks
usually have more where they develop and bowfins, look after the
rounded bodies. for about four weeks. eggs and the young (called
despite its When the eggs hatch, the fry) once they have hatched.
shape, the young sea horses emerge other fish, such as some
parrotfish is from the pouch. types of sharks, give birth to
an agile fully formed young fish after
swimmer. the eggs have developed in
it slips
through the mother’s body.
cracks in
the rock Sea horses use their
in search tails to cling to seaweed.
of food.
MouthbreederS
Some cichlid fish, found in african

lakes, keep their eggs safe inside
their mouths. When the young hatch

they swim out, and then return to
the parent’s mouth for safety.

Parrotfish
eating algae
on a coral reef

EuropEan EEls Royal Cichlid fish
adult eels lay eggs in the Sargasso Sea. the eggs hatch gramma and young
into larvae, which swim north for the next three years. fish
upon reaching europe they change into tropical Find out more
elvers and swim up river. ocean fiSh animals
there, they fish, especially those
grow into yellow from tropical waters, are among deep-sea wildlife
eels, and Yellow eels the brightest of all animals. Migration
then adults. change into their dazzling colors and lively
adult eels, then patterns have many different ocean wildlife
return to the purposes. they help fish hide from Seashore wildlife
Sargasso Sea predators among the coral, warn
to breed. neighboring fish to keep out of
Larvae their territory, show other creatures
swim that they are poisonous, or
north and advertise for a mate.
change into
elvers. Young elvers
travel inland along rivers,
where they change into
Eggs develop yellow eels.
into larvae.

207

Fishing industry

The world’s rivers, seas, and oceans provide one of the most whaling
For two centuries whaling has been a
important of all foods. Fish are a rich source of protein and other vital
nutrients. it is possible to catch a few fish using just a hook on the end of major industry and has made some
a piece of string. But to feed large numbers of people, a huge industry species of whale almost extinct. as
exists to catch millions of fish. Japanese fishing boats, for instance, whales come to the surface to breathe,
catch more than 16,000 tons of fish each day. Fishing fleets use
different methods to catch these vast numbers of fish, such as nets, whale hunters shoot them with
traps, and hooks. some nets are several miles long and can catch more harpoons—huge explosive arrows
than 100 million fish in one haul. Baskets, boxes, and other traps are
left in the sea for shellfish, such as crabs, lobsters, and crayfish. hooks fired from guns.
Drift nets are up to 60 miles (100 km)
are arranged in a longline—a single long. They catch fish very effectively,
line carrying hundreds of but may also harm other marine life.
hooks—that is attached to
a fishing boat and can trap
huge numbers of fish at
one time.

Fishing grounds At night lights
Fishing boats catch most fish attract fish into
near the coast in the seas above
the continental shelf (shown in the the dip nets.
dark blue on the map). This shelf
is an extension of the continents The purse seiner
covered by shallow sea water. deep-water tows its net in a
currents rich in nutrients rise on to the huge circle to
shelf and create good feeding grounds for fish. enclose the fish.

sea Fishing Find out more
seines are nets that hang down from the surface. Farming
drawing the net into a circle around a school, or Fish
group, of fish forms a huge bag that encloses the
catch. gill nets are long curtains of net that trap oceans and seas
fish by the gills. some gill nets float on ocean wildlife
the surface as drift nets; others are
fixed to the sea bottom with anchors. Weights keep
a trawl is a large net bag towed behind the mouth of the

trawl net open.

a boat. dip nets are hung over the
side of the fishing boat on a
frame. lifting the frame
catches the fish.

Freezing Fish Fish Farms
once a fish is dead, not all fish are
its flesh quickly rots. caught in the wild.
some fish, such as carp,
Freezing, canning, salmon, trout, and
drying, smoking, and shellfish, can be bred in
controlled conditions on
pickling all slow the fish farms. in the united
decay and preserve the states, fish farmers raise catfish
for food. Fish farmers build pens
fish. Freezing is the best in lakes, ponds, or estuaries (river
method. large fishing boats mouths). They hatch fish from eggs,
have freezing plants on board to and then keep the fish until they
preserve the catch—the harvest of are big enough to sell.

fish—before returning to port. 208

FLIes and MOsQUITOes Housefly can
walk upside
down.

SoMe of THe SMaLLeST creatures in the world Housefly has excellent Eggs Larva (maggot)
eyesight and
are the most dangerous to humans. flies and spongelike
mosquitoes carry some of the world’s most mouthparts.

serious diseases. With their habit of sucking
blood and scavenging on garbage, many of
these insects spread cholera, malaria, and
yellow fever. There are about 150,000 kinds
of flies, including bluebottles, horseflies, fruit
flies, tiny gnats, and almost invisible midges.
We call many small, winged insects flies, but the
only true flies are those with two functional The bluebottle,
wings; they belong to the insect group Diptera. or blowfly, lays
all flies lay eggs. The eggs hatch into larvae thousands of eggs in
called grubs or maggots. The maggots feed garbage cans and on
and grow into pupae or chrysalises, from meat. Within just a few
weeks these eggs
produce thousands
more flies.

which the adult flies finally emerge. despite Housefly feeding on
their unpopularity with humans, flies play rotting meat

a vital role in nature. They pollinate Compound
flowers and recycle nutrients as they eye

scavenge, and they are a source of fLieS
food for many larger animals.
Antenna Tiny hairs and hooks and diSeaSe
on feet enable fly to
MoSquiTo walk on the ceiling. Houseflies,
bluebottles, and
The mosquito has needle-shaped mouthparts that pierce the similar flies feed on
skin to suck the blood of humans, horses, and other animals. and lay their eggs in
if a female Anopheles mosquito bites a person with malaria, it Wing rotting matter,
including garbage
takes in blood infected with the microscopic organisms and excrement. Their
that cause this disease. When the mosquito goes on mouthparts and feet
to bite another victim, the organisms pass into pick up bacteria, or
that person’s blood, and so the disease spreads. germs, which rub off
The map below shows those parts of the world when they settle on our
where malaria is most severe. food, dishes, and kitchen
equipment. The illnesses that
North spread in this way range from
America minor stomach upsets to deadly
infections such as typhoid.
Asia

South Africa
America
Areas
Australia where
malaria
Malaria is one of the most serious occurs
and widespread diseases. It kills
over 1 million people each year.

Hoverfly’s wingtips make a figure-eight HoverfLy
pattern with each wing beat. The hoverfly is one of the most

Life cycLe of a drone fLy expert fliers. it can hover even in
The drone fly is a kind of hoverfly. it windy conditions, then dart
resembles a bee in appearance and straight up, down, sideways, or
makes a low droning sound in flight. backward. Tiny ball-and-stick
after mating, the female lays her eggs structures behind the wings,
near a puddle, a polluted pond, or Female drone fly Adult fly called halteres, rotate rapidly and
other stagnant (nonmoving) water. lays eggs near emerges 4-6
The larvae, known as rat-tailed water in a drain. act as stabilizers during flight.
maggots, live in the water, breathing weeks after
through the long tail that acts like a Rat-tailed maggots (larvae) eggs are laid.
snorkel. The rat-tailed maggots wriggle feed on rotting and
on to drier soil before pupating. decaying plant and animal Maggots (larvae) Find out more
When the adults emerge from the matter in the drain. crawl out of water animals
pupal cases, they fly off to feed on and change into disease
pollen and nectar from flowers. pupae (pupate).
flight, animal
insects

209

F animal

liGHT

BIRDS, BATS, AND INSECTS are the only animals that truly fly. Other animals,
such as flying squirrels, flying fish, and flying lizards, swoop or glide, but cannot
climb upward into the air under their own power. Life in the air has several
advantages for flying animals—some birds, such as hawks, can hunt their prey in
midair; other birds can quickly escape from their predators. Birds are also able
to migrate very long distances to find more suitable feeding and breeding areas
in a cold season—the Arctic tern, for example, migrates about 11,000 miles
(18,000 km) from the North Pole to the South Pole every year. Another bird,
the swift, spends much of its life in the air, landing only to nest. A swift eats and
drinks on the move for nine months of the year. Birds, bats, and insects are also
ArchAeopteryx able to find food on land quickly and efficiently—a hummingbird hovers to
One of the first birds known gather nectar, a fruit bat flies into a tree to feed on fruit, and a dragonfly swoops
to have existed is called over a pond to catch small flies. All flying animals from
Archaeopteryx. Fossil remains bees to buzzards need plenty of food to provide
date back 150 million years. them with the energy to take to the air.
Archaeopteryx could glide Animals first began to fly about 300 million
and fly through the air. years ago, when Earth’s prehistoric coal
swamps were becoming overcrowded
Elastic fibers allow the SOOTy TERN
wings to shrink so The sooty tern lives
the bat can fold with all kinds of creatures. on the move for up
them neatly. Through evolution, to 10 years. It returns to
special features began to the ground only to breed.
Main bones
in the wing develop, such as a flap
of skin on the body for
gliding. In order to fly,
an animal needs a lightweight body WINgS
and strong muscles with which to flap
its wings. Birds have hollow bones The wings of a
flying animal are
light so that they
to save weight when they are in can be flapped easily.
flight, so that a huge bird such They are broad and
as the golden eagle flat, to push the air
weighs less than
downward and give lift.
Wings must also be flexible for
9 lb (4 kg). control in the air. An insect’s
wings are made of a thin
membrane stiffened by tubelike veins.
A bird’s wings have bones and muscles at
the front; feathers form the rest of the
surface. A bat’s wings consist of a thin layer of
muscles and tough fibers sandwiched between
two layers of skin that are supported by bones.

Skin stretches between Feathers near the wing Flight feathers are light
the forearm and root shape the wing and stiff, with strong shafts
finger bones. and large, smooth vanes.
smoothly into the body.

Powerful wing-flapping Covert feathers are
pectoral muscles are in at the front of the
wing. They are
the bat’s chest. small and packed
Bat closely together, to
give a smooth edge.
Wing of a kestrel Primary flight
210 feathers help
reduce turbulence.

flight, animal

Hovering
only a few kinds of animals can hover. Staying still in midair
requires great control and delicate balance as the animal adjusts Long beak
its wingbeats to the slightest breeze. A few animals, such as some probes into
moths, hover as they gather food. Hummingbirds also
hover expertly flowers to
to feed. As feed on
they sip nectar nectar.
from flowers,
hummingbirds Body held
hover, go straight almost
up and down, and vertical while
fly backward—just Tail fans out to hummingbird
like helicopters. help stability while hovers.
Hummingbirds beat hummingbird hovers.
their wings 20 to 50 DownStroke UpStroke
times per second; the hummingbird’s wings the bird’s wings swivel,
this produces the Hummingbird flap almost horizontally, and the upward stroke pushes
humming sounds. in flight pushing the air downward. air down to maintain the
lifting force.

inSect wingS DrAgonfly
the dragonfly is a powerful four-winged
many types of insects can fly. A small insect such as a flying insect. it twists and turns with great
mosquito flaps its tiny wings more than 1,000 times speed as it hunts for midges, aphids, and
per second. larger insects, such as butterflies and other small flying insects.
dragonflies, have bigger wings with slower wingbeats.
flies, gnats, and mosquitoes have one pair of Tiny veins strengthen the
wings; butterflies, bees, wasps, moths, and thin membrane of the
beetles have two pairs. Beetles are unusual dragonfly’s wing.
because their hard,
shiny wing cases come Insect wings gliDing
together and form the grow out of Some mammals can glide.
insect’s back when it the exoskeleton, they include flying squirrels
is not flying. insect the hard outer and flying lemurs (colugos).
wings grow out of body casing. these mammals can turn and
the exoskeleton, steer, but they do not have wings
the hard outer that they can flap. other gliding
body casing.
animals include several
Thorax snakes and frogs.
wing movement Flying squirrel’s
Hingelike joints attach furry skinflaps
the wings to the thorax, work like
the central part of the insect’s a parachute.
body. muscles in the thorax pull
on its walls from within, bending Flying
them in and out. this movement squirrel
tilts the wings up and down.

Model of the pterosaur The leading edge Flying reptiles Long tail helps
Dimorphodon which grew to of each wing was pterosaurs, or true flying with stability
3 ft (1 m) in length and lived formed by an reptiles, have been extinct and steering.
about 200 million years ago incredibly long for about 70 million years.
in the early Jurassic period. finger bone. Find out more
it was thought that most Animals
A long tail and rudder helped Short spiky teeth were gliders, but Bats
this pterosaur balance and were probably used scientists now Birds
maneuver during flight. by Dimorphodon believe that many Dinosaurs
Dimorphodon folded its to snatch fish as could flap and fly insects
wings when it landed, it skimmed above
and may have walked on the sea. well. the largest migration, animal
all fours, and clawed its pterosaur measured prehistoric life
way up trees and rocks. 40 ft (12 m) from wing
tip to wing tip.

211

Stamen Stigma
(male parts) receives

Flowers herbspollen
and

THE EXQUISITE BEAUTY, color, and scent of flowers have
inspired artists and poets for centuries. Flowers are
among the most brightly colored of all living things.
Style They include sun-loving desert marigolds, hardy
poppies in the snowy Arctic, tropical orchids, and
cultivated garden roses, as well as some tiny
inconspicuous flowers. Without the thousands of
Anther different flowers and herbs that grow on Earth,
with
pollen bees could not make honey, butterflies and
hummingbirds would have no food, we would have
no flowerbeds, and perfume would have no fragrance.
Ovary For most of us, the word “flower” describes any
contains Petals are brightly
ovules colored to attract
(seeds). Filament insects in search flowering plant that is particularly colorful or pretty. To

of nectar. the botanist who studies plants, however, a flower refers

The flower head strictly to the reproductive part of a plant—its bloom or
contains the blossom. The word “herb” is an everyday name we give to
reproductive parts Sepals protect smaller, less colorful flowering plants whose leaves and
of the plant—as inner parts blossoms have a strong, pleasant scent and taste.
shown by this pink of flower.
lily flower.

FlOWEr STrUcTUrE HErBS Thyme is a fragrant
addition to meats,
Sepals are usually green and scaly, and Plants known as herbs usually have green, juicy stems, unlike as a garnish, and
protect the flower in its bud. They often trees and shrubs, which have hard, woody stems. Some herbs for mouth, throat,
drop off once the flower has blossomed. and other flowering plants are described as annuals because and chest illnesses.
Petals may be large and colorful they grow, flower, produce seeds, and die all in one year.
to attract bees and butterflies. Others are known as biennials because their life cycle takes
The male cells lie in the two years; perennials live for an indefinite number of years.
pollen grains, contained in
the anthers. The female HErB gArdEn
cells are inside the ovary, Tending the herb garden was once an important part of daily life
below the stigma and style. because people relied on the natural products that they grew
themselves. Herbs are used to add flavor to food, scent the air, help
Basil is popular in us relax, and treat illnesses. Many of our modern medicines contain
Mediterranean cooking
and is also used as an herbs; peppermint, for example, is used in many
insect repellent. anti-indigestion pills. Herbal oils, known
as essential oils, are extracted from
Parsley is a herbs and used in the production
garnish, an of perfume and bath oils.
ingredient in
sauces, and a Sage
treatment for flavors many
urinary illnesses. dishes, from
Rosemary is a pork to
companion to lamb
dishes, and brewed poultry, and is
in tea for headaches used to treat
and upset sore throats
stomachs. and colds.

Bay leaf adds Tarragon Oregano
flavor to is often used (wild
casseroles
and stocks. in French marjoram)
cooking. is used for
Mint is used to make tea; it also clears meat,
a stuffy nose and eases indigestion. 212 stuffing, and
pizza, and to
aid digestion.

Flowers and herbs Wild
dog rose
Pollination

to produce a seed, the male cell in a pollen
grain must fertilize a female cell in the ovule.
For this to happen the pollen must travel from

its anther to the female stigma. in some
flowers, the pollen is small and light,
with wings, and is blown from
one flower to another
by the wind.

Cultivated
tea rose

Horticulture
From the beginnings of
civilization, people have cultivated
flowers for their scent and color.
today’s garden roses have been bred
from wild ancestors so that they
have larger, more numerous,
and more colorful petals, sweeter
scents, and a longer flowering time.
the art of gardening is
called horticulture.
Bees and Bird-oF-Paradise Flower
Flowers nectar the bird-of-paradise plant
Bees help Butterflies, moths, bats, and birds feed comes originally from
pollination. as on the sweet, energy-rich nectar inside riverbanks in southern
a bee feeds on nectar each flower. Bees convert nectar into africa and is now grown in
and pollen, more pollen inside honey in the beehive. many parks and gardens.
the flower sticks to the bee’s legs each plant has bright
and body and is carried by the orange flowers that form
bee to the next flower, where a shape that looks like the
it pollinates the female parts. head and beak of a bird of

Harebell Common poppy paradise. the bird-of-paradise
flowers rise one after the other
Oxeye from a long, stiff, green-pink casing.
daisy

Kangaroo Lily of perfume
paw the valley a flower’s
flowers have a
Passionflower sweet scent. Their smell attracts
Water leaves are scented, too. butterflies,
hyacinth bees, and
people, too.
lily of the

valley and rose
are used in the
manufacture of
perfumes and soaps.

wild Flowers and conservation
Many wild flowers are in danger of extinction. Marshes are
drained, and forests are felled for farmland and buildings,
Snake’s so the flowers that grow there are destroyed. rare and
head beautiful blooms are at risk because they are dug up
Cornflower fritillary illegally by plant collectors.

Common to save rare flowers, the Find out more
toadflax places where they grow must Bees and wasps
be protected. as forests conservation
Dogtooth violet are cut down, thousands of
flowers are disappearing and endangered species
even before they are
known to science. Fruits and seeds
Plants

213

Football legend Jim Thorpe football
played with the Canton,

Ohio Bulldogs.

The Game oF FooTball is a strategic battle between two teams as they try

to move a ball, by running with it or passing it, across the other team’s goal line
for a touchdown. The team with the ball plays offense; the team trying to stop them
by tackling or blocking the player with the ball plays defense. at the start of the
game, the offense begins an attack on the goal. if the offense is not able to move
the ball 10 yards (9 m) forward after four plays, the ball is given to the other team.
possession of the ball shifts many times during a game. before each play begins, the
teams face each other at the scrimmage line. The ball is passed to the quarterback,
who may hand the ball off to a teammate or make a longer throw to another player.
a typical game is divided into four 15-minute quarters, with many time-outs.

hisTorY oF FooTball Football equipmeNT
Football probably originated from the english Helmet
game, rugby. soccerlike games were popular The oval-shaped football is usually
at us colleges from the 1860s. after a visiting made of leather. its textured surface
canadian team brought rugby to harvard and lacing along one seam help
university, players began to run and
tackle as well as kick the ball. in 1879, players grip the ball. Football
Yale university coach walter camp is a contact sport and
proposed new rules that led to the the players need to be
development of the modern game. protected from injury.
A scrimmage line plastic helmets with face
masks protect the head,
Body
padding while the body is protected
with special padding—shoulder
pads, hip pads, thigh pads, and knee
pads—all worn under the uniform.

plaYers
each team consists of 11 players. in professional
football, players specialize in offensive or defensive
positions. players on the offensive team include the
quarterback, running backs, wide receivers, offensive
linemen, and tight end. defensive positions include
defensive backs, defensive
linemen, and linebackers.
other players specialize
in kicking the ball. Each play usually begins when
the ball is snapped to the
quarterback, who may throw it
to a player farther down the field.

super bowl
The National Football league (NFl)

stages a spectacular championship
game between the winners of its two
conferences. This game, called the super
bowl, decides the NFl title and attracts a
large live and television audience worldwide.

End zone Goalposts FooTball Field
a football field is a rectangle 100 yd
Yard (91 m) long and 53 1⁄3 yards (49 m)
lines wide, with yard lines marked across
its width every 5 yards (4.5 m). a
dowNs aNd TouchdowNs 10-yard (9-m) end zone extends
beyond the goal lines. Goalposts
The offensive team has four plays to move the ball forward rise above each end zone, through
10 yards (9 m), for a first down. each first down gives it which the ball is kicked for a goal.

another four chances to move the ball forward. if a team Find out more
fails to make a first down, it loses possession. a player health and fitness
who carries the ball into the opposing team’s end
zone makes a touchdown, worth six points. soccer
214 sports

Force and motion

chaNGiNG directioN what is it that makes oBjects move? why does a
when you move in a circle, on a fairground
ride for example, a constant force is needed to boat float? how does a magnet work? left to itself, any
change the direction of your motion. this force object would remain still, but when it is pushed or pulled,
acts toward the center of the circle. on the ride
shown above, the force comes from the tension it begins to move. something that pushes or pulls is
in the ropes that support the seats. called a force. forces often produce motion, or

movement. for example, an engine produces a force
that pushes a car forward. there are several different
kinds of forces. a magnet produces a magnetic force
which pulls pieces of iron toward it, and a rubber band
produces an elastic force when you stretch it. liquids
produce forces, too. a boat floats because of the force of
water pushing upward on the hull. and a drop of water holds
together because of a force called surface tension, which makes
all liquids seem as though they have an elastic skin around them.
from the smallest particle inside an atom to the largest galaxy, the
whole universe is held together by powerful forces. one of these
forces is gravity, which holds us on to the surface of earth.

acceleratioN iNertia
the action of a force produces motion, making an object accelerate it takes a strong force to start a heavier (more massive) object moving. in the same
(speed up). for example, the force produced by the engine makes a way, a strong force is needed to make it slow down and stop. this reluctance to
ship accelerate. the stronger the force, the greater the acceleration. start or stop moving is called inertia. the heavier the object, the greater its inertia.

water and air resist motion, producing a force called drag. NewtoN’s laws of motioN
a small boat accelerates easily and soon reaches its
cruising speed. But drag increases as speed increases. in 1687, the english scientist isaac Newton
when drag force balances the driving force (1642-1727) published his three laws of
of the engines, speed stays constant. motion. the first law explains that an
actioN aNd reactioN
a rowboat moves by action and reaction. the object stays at rest or moves at a constant
force of the oars pushing on the water is the action. speed unless a force pushes or pulls it. the
the moving water exerts an equal and opposite reaction
on the oars. this reaction force pushes the boat forward. second law explains how force overcomes
inertia and causes acceleration. the third
law explains that when a force (or action)
pushes one way, an equal force (or reaction)

always pushes in the opposite direction.

Friction static In an arch
when two surfaces rub against each forces bridge, the piers
when two teams
other, they produce a force called in tug-of-war pull (ends of the
friction, which opposes motion. equally hard on the bridge) support the
for example, brakes use rope, neither team moves. weight of the arch.
friction to slow a wheel this is because the forces
down. friction produces produced by the teams balance Find out more
heat and wastes energy. exactly. forces that balance and produce no atoms and molecules
Putting a layer of oil movement are called static forces. a bridge
between the moving stays up because of the balance of static Bridges
parts of a machine forces. its weight pushing down is balanced Gravity
reduces friction and by parts of the structure pushing up. magnetism
improves efficiency. Physics

215

Forest wildliFe

This map shows the main forest areas of the world. Trees Are THe mosT imPorTAnT plants in a forest.

North Europe They provide all kinds of animals, including monkeys,
America squirrels, and parrots, with food, homes, and escape routes
Asia from predators. The most common tree in any kind of forest
South often gives the forest its name, from the pine forests in the
America Africa cold north to the steamy teak forests in the tropical regions.

Australia A temperate forest consists of different layers of vegetation.
The forest floor is covered with leaf litter. Here, parts of trees
Temperate forest and other plants rot into the soil, helped by the millipedes,
Coniferous forest worms, and other small creatures that feed on them. The next
Tropical forest layer of the forest is called the herb layer. it consists of small
flowers and ferns that grow wherever enough sunlight filters
long-eAred oWl through the trees. Bushes, shrubs, and young trees make up
The long-eared owl swoops silently the under-story of the forest. next is a layer of tall tree trunks,
among the trees at twilight and during laced with trailing vines and creepers. The uppermost part of
the forest is called the canopy. leaves grow in the sunlight;
the night. These owls roost by day in
a tree, and their mottled brown insects, birds, and bats pollinate the flowers;
plumage provides good and fruit ripens to feed a host of creatures.
camouflage. The tufts on
the feathers of this owl’s
head look like long ears—
hence the name.

Wolverine
The wolverine of northern
forests is an exceptionally
strong animal for its
size. it tackles
animal prey much
larger than itself
and also eats carrion
(dead animals), fruit,
Coniferous foresTs and berries. The
wolverine is nicknamed
Pines and firs make up coniferous forests. the “glutton” because of
These trees are evergreen—they keep their its large appetite.
leaves all year, providing shelter for animals.
The leaves are very tough, and
only a few animals can eat BroAd-leAved foresTs
and digest them. A few The trees in a broad-leaved Ferns, such as bracken, grow quickly and
types of conifer, such as forest are called deciduous rapidly cover clearings. Bracken is
the larches, lose their trees because their leaves common on every continent
leaves in the fall. drop off in the fall, to be

replaced by new leaves the except Antarctica. It spreads
by sending out branching
next year. These trees underground stems.
blossom in the spring,
which is the main animal
breeding time. The new
shoots provide food for
animals. in the fall, animals
feed on the fruit, nuts, and
berries of these trees, so they
can survive the winter.

Bluebells are roe deer Several
one of the The roe deer’s reddish heavy-bodied,
spring woodland brown coat blends strong-legged
flowers. Some in well with the birds live in the
bluebells have pink bracken where it forest, including
flowers; others lives. it lives alone pheasants such as the
have white ones. for most of the blue peacock shown here.
year, feeding at These birds can fly but they
Wood anemone twilight on the often avoid danger by running
buds, shoots, and into the dense forest undergrowth.
leaves of trees
and shrubs.

216

forest wildlife tAnAger
the paradise tanager is a noisy,
ConservAtIon active bird that lives high up in the
As the forests are cut down or burned, animals
lose their homes. tree-living creatures such as rain forest canopy. Paradise
this bald uakari from south America are most at tanagers keep their bright
risk. they depend on the seeds of hard fruits plumage all year and flutter
from rain forest trees. Worldwide conservation from tree to tree in
organizations are trying to stop the destruction search of insects and
of the rain forests in order to save monkeys and ripe fruit.
thousands of other creatures. sloth
Few animals move more slowly
troPICAl Forests
than the sloths of Central and south
In tropical forests, the climate is America. they hang from branches with
much the same all year round. their curved claws and eat leaves. Algae
the wide range of grows in their coats, giving them a green
habitats make tropical rain forests
some of the richest places for hue. this helps camouflage the
wildlife. there are many more sloths among the trees.
species of trees than in any other
kind of forest, and thousands
more kinds of animals.

PArrot
the male and
female eclectus parrots
shown here are so differently
colored that for many years
people believed touCAn
they were With its large, light bill, this
plate-billed mountain toucan is an
two different species of birds. these excellent berry picker. During the
parrots live in the forests of new mating season, the male feeds
guinea and Australia. like all parrots, fruits to the female before they form a
they have large bills for cracking seeds. pair. there are 4 species of mountain

Several kinds of frogs, toucans, and they are all found
lizards, snakes, and squirrels in tropical south America.
toucans nest in tree holes
have evolved, or developed, ways of
gliding through the air from a high branch and eat fruits, birds’ eggs,
to escape from predators or
to reach food. The gliding insects, frogs, and lizards.

snake flattens its ribs as Atlas moth resting on
it leaps, to make a a bromeliad flower
streamlined ribbon shape.
PoIson ArroW Frog
It is so damp in rain forests that
frogs spend their lives in the
trees. the female frog lays
its eggs on land. When
the eggs hatch, the
frog carries them
to pools of rain that
collect on leaves,
fungi, and in flowers
such as bromeliads, AtlAs moth
which grow on trees. the atlas moth is one of the largest
Poison Arrow frogs live moths in the world, with a wingspan
in the rain forests of south of 12 in (30 cm). today, atlas moths
America. their bright colors
warn predators of the deadly are rare. In the past, people killed
lemur poison in their skin. thousands of them simply for their
there are
about 72 Ground butterfly collections.
ginger is a spice
species of lemur. made from the Leaf roller Find out more
they are primates, ants curl up Animals
so they are closely root of the leaves on the Birds
related to monkeys, and they live ginger plant, forest floor and join
in trees in madagascar, an island which came the edges into a tube Butterflies and moths
off the east coast of Africa. mouse originally to make a nesting site. Conservation
lemurs weigh only 2 oz (60 gm).
from the and endangered species
forests of Asia.
Frogs and other amphibians

217

FOSSILS

the fIrst plaNts, the earliest animals, the
beginnings of human life—we know about prehistoric
times because of fossils. preserved or mineralized for
thousands or even millions of years, fossils may
comprise, for example, parts of animals, molds,
footprints, and burrows. By studying fossils, we can
learn what ancient creatures and plants looked like
and how they lived. Most fossils are of plants and
animals that lived in water. When the living plant or
animal died, its soft parts rotted away, leaving the hard
pieces such as bones or leaf veins. Gradually, layers of
mud piled up and squeezed the remains of the plant Fossil collecting is a hobby
aMMoNIte or animal at great pressure. slowly, the mud, bones, that anyone can enjoy. You
some of the most common fossils can find fossils in rocks, on
are the shells of sea creatures called and other remains fossilized, or turned to rock, in the beaches, and in quarries.
ammonites. ammonites were related place where they lay underground. over many thousands of years, the
to squid and octopuses. they were movements of earth twisted and buckled the rocks, lifting the fossils
very widespread about 250 million closer to the surface of the soil. sun, rain, and wind wore away the rocks
years ago. the smallest ammonites and exposed the fossil.
measured less than 1 in (2 cm) across;
the largest measured about 8 ft (2.5 m)
across. ammonites died out with the
dinosaurs about 66 million years ago.

Fin on back Long jaws and
for steering short, sharp teeth
and stability

Backbone Large eye socket

Fossil of a fish called Sparnodus—an Ribs
ancestor of the sea bream
Front paddle
Powerful two- for steering
lobed tail
Ichthyosaur
Rear paddles sometimes the outline of an animal’s
skin is preserved as well as its bones.
types this happened to the ichthyosaur
shown above—a sea reptile from
of fossIls about 150 million years ago. the
ichthyosaur looked like a dolphin,
When rock-forming so it probably led a life similar
minerals slowly replace to that of dolphins. the
the original parts of a dead Mineralized outline of this fossil shows The word fossil literally means
creature or plant, they fossil of a “dug up.” People who study fossils
make a mineralized fossil. poplar leaf, a fin on the back and a
sometimes the parts of a creature 25 million two-lobed tail. the dozens are called paleontologists.
or plant rot away after being years old of sharp teeth in the long
buried, leaving a hole in the rock; Find out more
this is called a mold fossil. If the jaws tell us that this animal Dinosaurs
hole fills up with rock minerals, grabbed fish and other evolution
it becomes a cast fossil. the slippery prey.
fossilized signs of animals, such prehistoric life
as footprints, droppings, and Cast fossil of a creature rocks and minerals
tracks, are called trace fossils. called a trilobite, which
lived in the sea

218

france

The largesT counTry in western europe is France—a land of green,
open spaces dotted with picturesque towns and small cities. Its many fine old
country palaces, or châteaux, are reminders of France’s long history. But it
is a modern nation, too, with flourishing industries. France is also one of the
leading countries in the european union (eu), the organization that
promotes political and economic union between the member states.
northern France has cool, wet weather. The south, with its Mediterranean
coast, is drier and warmer. rolling hills rise from the coasts and valleys,
providing good farmland. The rugged hills of the Massif central occupy
the middle of the country. The mountains of the Pyrenees and the alps line
France shares its long eastern the southwest and eastern borders. France also includes the Mediterranean
border with Italy, switzerland, island of corsica, and some islands thousands
germany, luxembourg, and
Belgium. spain is to the south.
The south of France lies on the of miles away in the Pacific ocean and
Mediterranean sea coast, and the caribbean sea. a democratically
the atlantic ocean is to the west. elected government
and president
rule France
Workers on small, family-run estates may

from Paris.still pick grapes by hand. Many people
spend their vacations picking
grapes, but it is
hard work.

WIneMakIng Even the smaller winemakers now
use some modern equipment, such
France produces about one- as stainless-steel fermentation vats.
fifth of the world’s wine. Many
famous wines are named after French
regions, such as champagne and
Bordeaux. Most French wine comes from
cooperatives—local groups of farms that share
wine-producing and bottling facilities. some wine,
however, is still made on the small estates attached to the old châteaux.
The grapes are picked in the early fall. Pressing the grapes extracts the
juice, which then ferments (reacts with yeast) in large vats to produce
the alcohol and the distinctive taste of the wine. only when this

process is complete can the
wine be bottled.

The Louvre in Paris is
one of the world’s most
famous art galleries. The glass
pyramid was added in 1989.
ParIs
MarseIlles
France’s biggest seaport is Marseilles, People have lived along the seine river, where Paris
now stands since ancient times. Paris is the capital
on the Mediterranean coast. The of France. France has a population of more than
warm climate of southern France
makes possible the lively, outdoor
lifestyle of the city. There is a long 66 million; one-fifth live in and around Paris. It is
history of trade with the rest of the one of europe’s greatest cities, with wide, tree-
Mediterranean. Marseilles has a
large arab population, mainly lined streets called boulevards, and many famous
monuments and museums. The city of today was
largely replanned and rebuilt during the 19th century.
from north africa.

219

france

EiFFEL TOWER MONACO
Built to impress visitors to the
Paris Exhibition of 1889, the A tiny country on the Côte d’Azur, Monaco lies in
Eiffel Tower was originally meant southeastern France. The heart of the country is
to be a temporary structure. the sophisticated city of Monte Carlo, famous for
it was designed by the French its casinos and auto-racing Grand Prix. Monaco is
engineer Alexandre-Gustave
Eiffel. Eiffel was internationally an independent principality, ruled for much of its
famous for his bridge and history by the Grimaldi family (above). Only a
aqueduct designs. The tower small part of the population is originally from
is built of steel girders weighing Monaco; about half the people are citizens of
7,700 tons (7,000 tonnes),
and 2.5 million rivets hold it France. They are drawn there by the lenient tax
together. it reaches a height laws and high standard of living, and earn more
of 1,050 ft (322 m) and up until per capita than any other country in the world.
the construction of the Empire
state Building in New York City
in 1931, it was the tallest building
in the world. Visitors can reach
its various levels by elevator or
by climbing hundreds of steps.
When it was first built in the
19th century, the Eiffel Tower
was fiercely criticized. It has now
become the symbol of Paris and
a much-loved feature of the city.

Normandy is a region of gentle NORMANDY
hills and farmland, and is The region of Normandy lies between Paris
especially known for
its hedgerows.

and the English Channel. Normandy is
a farming area, known throughout
France for its dairy products
and its apples. By grazing
their cattle in the orchards,
many local farmers get
double use from the
land. They sell the
apples as dessert fruits,
or turn them into cider
and an apple brandy
called calvados. Cream
from the Normandy
cattle makes some of
France’s most famous
cheeses, including Brie LOiRE RiVER
and Camembert.
The valley of the Loire River is famous for its
beautiful castles, called châteaux, such as this one
at Gien. Kings, nobles, or wealthy landowners built
the châteaux as their country homes. They often
TGV design has evolved
over the years. This train
has a sharp aerodynamic chose a site on high ground and surrounded the
nose to increase its speed. château with a moat, which made it easy to defend
the château from attackers. The Loire Valley is also
an important wine-producing area.

TRANsPORTATiON
The French are not only pioneers of aviation—
they cobuilt the Concorde—they also lead
the world in high-speed train technology.
With speeds of up to 200 mph
(320 km/h) the French TGV
(Trains à Grande Vitesse)
is one of the world’s fastest
trains. The first TGV line,
from Paris to Lyon, was
opened in 1983. TGV
lines have since been
built to Belgium, italy,
and spain. The Channel
Tunnel links France
to the UK.

220

tour dE FranCE france
Cycling is an enormously popular
pastime in France. the world’s most FrEnCh CuIsInE
famous cycling race is the tour de
France (tour of France), which takes French cooks are considered among the
place every summer. the route best in the world. there are numerous
follows public roads covering
about 2,200 miles (3,500 km), good restaurants, even in very small
primarily in France and Belgium, towns, and the quality of ordinary
but briefly in four other countries.
the race takes place over 26 days, daily food is very high. Food
and the world’s best cyclists take part. specialists who take great pride in
their work produce outstanding
In fine weather, café owners cooked meats, pastries, and bread,
put tables and chairs out on the including the famous stick-shaped
sidewalks so their customers can baguette. French cheeses, such as
eat and drink in the open air.
Camembert, are eaten
all over the world.

A patisserie specializes in
sweet, delicious pastries, and

produces a wide range for its
customers every day.

The town square
is the traditional spot
for games such

as boules
or petanque,
French versions
of lawn bowling.

The extract of scented Country towns
flowers, such as lavender,
is a major ingredient Much of France consists of open country, where most working
in perfume. people earn a living from farming. one in every five French
people lives and works in the countryside. the farming
communities spread out around small market towns, which
provide markets, banks, restaurants, stores, and supermarkets.
Each town contains a mairie—the offices of the local government
administration. the mairie often overlooks the central square,
where people meet to talk and perhaps enjoy a game of boules.

PErFuME and FashIon ChartrEs
two of France’s best-known industries are the France is a mainly roman Catholic
manufacture of perfume and haute couture, or country. there are churches in
high fashion. Many of the most famous and most every village, and cathedrals in the
expensive brands of perfume are French. French cities. the cathedral of Chartres, in
designers dominated fashion for most of the northern France, was completed
20th century. the Paris collections, shown in in 1260. It is famous not only for its
the spring of each year, are the most important fine architecture, but also for its
of the international fashion shows and are magnificent stained-glass windows.
attended by designers from all over the world. there are 176 windows, covering
they set the trends which the rest of a total area of 28,000 sq ft
the world will follow. (2,600 sq m), the equivalent
of 10 tennis courts.
The 176 luminous stained-glass
windows of Chartres Cathedral Find out more
Europe
(right) attest to the talents of
Chartres craftworkers. Europe, history of
French revolution
napoleon bonaparte

normans

221

France

MarItIMe alpS
Most of the French countryside consists of
Volcano Mountain Ancient Capital Large Small gently rolling hills and valleys, but there are
monument city city/ city/ high mountain ranges in the southwest
town town

and southeast. on France’s southeast
border a range of mountains called
the alps reaches the Mediterranean
stAtistiCs Sea at the Côte D’azur (blue coast).
Area: 212,930 sq miles
(551,500 sq km) the hills inland from the Côte
D’azur are called the Maritime alps
(right). the whole region depends
Population: 66,554,000 on tourism, and there are many
Capital: paris fashionable resorts.
Languages: French,
provençal, German,
Breton, Catalan, Basque
Channel tunnel
Religions: roman The Channel Tunnel runs from
Catholic, Muslim, England to France beneath the Perched high in the
protestant, Jewish, English Channel. It comprises Maritime Alps, this peaceful
three tunnels 31 miles (50 km) village has a spectacular view
Buddhist long: two for rail traffic, and
Currency: euro one for safety. of the surrounding area.

North sCALE BAR
UNITED KINGDOM S e a BELGIUMAlderney
Channel Dover dunkerque 0 50 100 km n
Tunnel Calais S
Strait of roubaix 0 50 100 miles

C Boulogne-sur-mer Lille W e

English hannel Abbeville A r Cdhearnlevnillee-smézières

Cherbourg dieppe Somme Hirson sedan LUXEMBOURG

Guernsey Normandy Amiens reims
rouen
Channel le Havre Beauvais seOi
Bayeux ges
Islands Meuse

GERMANY(to UK)
Jersey Coutances Caen Seine
versailles
Golfe de PARIs Châlons-en- metz Haguenau
nancy
d’OuessaÎnlet St-Malo Champagne Champagne
strasbourg
Brest st-malo Alençon Créteil

st-Brieuc fontainebleau
Chartres MoselleTroyes
Iroise Marne
Orléans
Seine
gien Yonne
Quimper rennes le mans Blois olivet Auxerre Épinal Vos
lorient st-nazaire Loire Tours Chaumont

Belle Île Loire Côte d’Or mulhouse

Cosne-Cours- Belfort a
sur-loire
Angers dijon

nantes Cr M o Besançonr
nevers u
Bay N C E sWITZERLANDBourges r v a n

Île d’Yeu Fla roche-sur-Yon euse VienneR AChâteauroux Cher Chalon-sur-
C saône
mâcon
les sables-d’olonne niort Poitiers moulins Saône Lake Geneva

A TOLCAENATNI C A l p I TsA L YPsftaSiiicmsSmnnroeooruooloewuomlFplmuortnlsraoehmcmattlrsthlantothqheahltaecfuhrelmnaeleaFae,ntst,riearriaurbarearm8.nnnlkunss0amd,puetc°tFgarteFroemmrsrenprsio(aea(atdocl2ubstfnunseut7fstepeyvloCr°tlefpnrueouCfaeroarsrwrnyr)orvemiwi.t)midsnad.IiehsusineetnetchrorsstesehheeadeGGauslcÎfolmdeon’dfoyOenlRBétBrr-édoiÎoaolneerry-rmsadiantAeazirnracstlauaaeHrncsxrhoooocuhchniaPlherlaeeef3VunPGosl2iltégrae9etnrrA8oIieTgsummmluAcaeaheronlbuenglBexDotiesamAoururglgodbêeeLgomarngeonanetsceAvTeCyoarohuPnogulroysuudéCeTr1slefeCS8eatrea8rCamrnn5rMrccmoayaennmmsdtsao-onennnstdntpeeCesrésllvtGii-eeaÉnrontfilîelfmlneenLePsvedyuaoCMuyleannamLcrAaeisrroelAegvnivsuliillgeleenuornbAPdgarigxoniaeIgr-vnpeeneCennneh-DToAcaboeunmlurnÎeallbeeonsécNncrdyy’iHcM4aye8èro0rine7ttsimmBe ldea’nAAMczluprOsLiNgSueAraiCanOBastiaof Biscaysère Rhôn J

nne nes
Rhône
M
e

Côt

s y r e n e e sANDORRA Perpignan Monte Cinto
2706m
P A M e d i t e r r a n e a nANDORRALA VELLA
I N s e a Ajaccio Corsica

sartène

anDorra MonaCo Bonifacio Bonifacio
Strait of

Area: 181 sq miles Area: 0.77 sq miles Sardinia
(468 sq km) (2 sq km) (to Italy)
Population: 85,500 Population: 30,500
Capital: andorra la Vella Capital: Monaco

222

1706 Born in Boston, f benjamin
massachusetts.
1718 Apprenticed to his ranklin
brother James, a printer.
1723 Runs away to A highly Accomplished statesman, inventor, and writer, Benjamin
philadelphia to start
his own printing press. Franklin was one of the most remarkable Americans of his time. Born to a
1732 First edition of poor Boston candlemaker, Franklin worked in his brother’s print shop. At
Poor Richard’s Almanack 17, he ran away to philadelphia to open a shop of his own. Franklin became
was published. philadelphia’s most famous citizen, with an endless list of achievements.
1752 publishes reports he founded the first public library, organized a hospital, and founded
on his experiments with a school that later became the University of pennsylvania. Franklin’s
electricity. experiments with electricity brought him acclaim throughout europe. he
1776 helps draft used his fame to promote the interests of the American colonies, helping
the declaration of persuade the British to repeal the stamp Act and convincing the French
independence. to help the colonists fight the British in the American Revolution.
1776 travels to France
as special Us envoy. A coloniAl stAtesmAn
1787 Framer of the
Us constitution. during his long career as a politician, Franklin
1790 dies in philadelphia. spoke for the interests of the colonies, secured
the political and financial support of the
Benjamin Franklin French government, and played a crucial
wearing bifocals, his role in shaping both the declaration of
own invention. independence and the constitution. he spent
his later years negotiating treaties in France;
in 1783, his work on the peace of paris treaty
marked the end of the Revolutionary War.

Benjamin Franklin
accompanies George
Washington and John
Paul Jones into the
Constitutional
Convention in 1787.

FRAnklin’s inventions pooR RichARd’s AlmAnAck
science and invention were two of Franklin’s For more than 25 years, Franklin
lifelong passions. Franklin’s experiments wrote this popular yearly calendar.
with electricity—most famously his kite it had jokes, proverbs, and advice
experiment, which proved that lightning is on how to get on in the world from
a form of electricity—amazed scientists and Franklin’s humble, hard-working
led to his invention of the lightning rod,
which diverts lightning bolts away from character poor Richard.
buildings. his other inventions included the
fuel-efficient Franklin stove, the bifocal lens Find out more
(a single lens with two different strengths), American revolution
and the odometer, a machine that measures
distances traveled when attached to a wheel. colonial america
constitution
city oF BRotheRly love
With a population of more than declaration of independence
300,000, Franklin’s home, philadelphia presidency
(from the greek for “brotherly love”),
was the largest city in the colonies.
Quaker William penn founded this
pennsylvanian settlement in 1682,
which developed into a bustling

port with a thriving textile and
shipbuilding trade. Franklin’s

gifts to the city include its
public library—where his

statue stands above a
doorway (right)—which
was the first circulating

library in America.

223

French revolution

“liberTy! equaliTy! FraTerniTy!”
This slogan echoed throughout France in
1789, as the hungry French people united
to overthrow the rich noblemen who
ruled the country. The revolution put the revolution
ordinary people in control of France May 1789 estates
and gave hope to oppressed people all over General (parliament)
the world. The revolution started when the meets at Versailles.
THe execuTion oF louis xVi bankrupt king louis xVi summoned the July 1789 paris crowd
“because the country must live, louis must die.” French parliament for the first time since storms bastille prison.
With those words, the king of France was killed Aug 1789 Declaration
on the guillotine on January 21, 1793. 1614. instead of helping him raise taxes, of the rights of Man.
June 1790 nobility
they seized power. in paris, a crowd stormed the bastille prison, the symbol is abolished.
of royal authority. The king had to support the revolution, but in 1792 France June 1791 louis xVi
became a republic, and louis was executed. counterrevolution broke out in tries to flee from paris.
parts of France in 1793, which led to a reign of Terror that undid many of Aug 1792 King louis
the benefits of the revolution. in 1799, a military takeover put napoleon imprisoned.
bonaparte in power and ended the revolution. Sept 1792 Monarchy
abolished and France
Place de Royal becomes a republic.
Louis XV palace Mar 1793 counter-
National revolution in Vendée
Assembly region.
Sept 1793 start of
Tuilleries Place de reign of Terror.
gardens la Bastille July 1794 Terror ends
Place de when robespierre
paris la Nation is overthrown.
nov 1795 a new
although republic, the Directory,
the revolution takes power.
engulfed the whole of nov 1799 napoleon
France, paris was always bonaparte overthrows
at the center of events, with Directory and assumes
guillotines set up in many power.
squares. swords mark uprisings.
MaxiMilien robespierre
When 35-year-old lawyer
robespierre came to power in
1793, he took severe measures
to safeguard the revolution.
He presided over the reign
of Terror but was himself
executed in 1794.

The red bonnet
worn by the

revolutionaries,
and the

republican
tricolor flag

Marianne sans-culoTTes reVoluTionary WoMen Find out more
The new revolutionary Women were very active during europe, history of
calendar started from The well-dressed aristocrats sneered the revolution and led many
the day the king was at the revolutionaries and called them of the marches. but women France
overthrown. Marianne sans-culottes because they wore plain were never allowed to vote or to napoleon bonaparte
—a symbolic but trousers instead of fancy stockings. The participate in the government,
imaginary revolutionary revolutionaries adopted this name as their and the rights of Man (the
woman shown here on own. Their clothes came to symbolize the revolutionary charter of human
a stamp—illustrated the new way of life in revolutionary France. rights) did not apply to them.
first month.

224

FROGS and OTHER aMPHIBIanS

amPHIBIanS are a GroUP of creatures that are
able to live both on land and in the water. the group
includes frogs, toads, salamanders, newts, and
caecilians. amphibians have existed for millions
of years and are found everywhere but antarctica
and Greenland. Frogs are the most widespread
amphibians, surviving in deserts, rain forests, and Frogs rely on their
mountainous regions. the limbless caecilian is found eyes to watch for
prey. They also use
their eyes to judge
distances when
only in tropical areas. Caecilians burrow in the earth they are leaping.
and swim by wriggling like eels. Frogs, in contrast, can
swim, hop, and climb trees using their long back legs. most
amphibians breed in water, where they lay eggs that develop Front
into larvae (tadpoles). during the larval stage, amphibians legs act
breathe through gills; as adults they develop lungs for as shock
breathing on land. Several kinds of frogs and salamanders absorbers
are brightly colored, and some have glands in the skin when the

frog
lands.

that produce toxins (poisons) to ward off predators.

After hatching amPHIBIanS Frog’s toes
from its egg, the Some amphibians lay spawn (eggs) in water; others lay
tadpole starts to eggs out of water, on leaves, or in holes underground. r are sticky.
swim, breathing the frogspawn you see in a pond hatches into limbless
through tadpoles. as the tadpoles grow in the water, they develop ed-eyed tree FroG
gills. limbs. they gradually change into frogs and climb on to
the land. this process is called metamorphosis. tree frogs often have longer,
leaner bodies than frogs that live
About 16 weeks after mainly in water. a frog’s long back legs can kick
hatching, the young frog powerfully for swimming and leaping away from
leaves the water. predators. the red-eyed tree frog, shown above, has sticky
Tail becomes smaller disks on its toes that give a good grip on leaves and bark.
and eventually today, red-eyed tree frogs are in danger of extinction.
disappears.

Limbs form, and internal
lungs develop.Tadpole
begins to gulp air from
the surface of the water.

Salamander Mandarin newt
after the tadpole stage, the fire
salamander crawls up on to land and Fire salamander
lives among leaves in moist woodland
areas. the females return to the water to Cane toad newt
give birth to 10 to 15 live young. the fire Salamanders and their relatives, the newts,
salamander is so named because it hides in logs, the cane, or marine, toad shown resemble lizards in shape. In the breeding season
and is sometimes seen emerging from a log fire. here, originated in Central newts often become brighter in color, and may
Cane toad grows up be red, yellow, or orange, such as the mandarin
to 9 in (23 cm) in and South america.
body length. during the 1930s,
it was brought to
australia to eat newt shown here. these colors warn
the beetles that predators that the glands in the skin
produce horrible-tasting
or poisonous fluids.
Asian leaf frog

were pests in
sugar cane
plantations. Tomato frog Find out more
today, the cane animals
toad itself
is regarded Camouflage, animal
as a pest. Conservation

and endangered species

225

Fruits and seeds

All FlOWerINg PlANTS, from tiny weeds to mighty oaks, Seeds
(pips)
develop from seeds. each seed contains an embryo (a young
plant) plus a store of food for the embryo’s growth. A There are more than
fruit is the seed container; it protects the developing 1,000 varieties of
seeds until they are dispersed by animals, the wind, Core cultivated apples.
water, or the plant itself. Fruits include lemons,
melons, cherries, and tomatoes. The hard little APPle
stones, or pips, inside are the seeds. many fruits, The apple’s flesh, which is what we eat,
such as oranges and blackcurrants, are an important grows from the receptacle of the flower, so it
source of food. They contain large amounts of vitamin is a false fruit. The apple core is formed from
C, necessary for good health. People have cultivated the ovary, and the pips inside are
fruits for centuries; today, fruit growers produce millions the seeds. Pears, quinces, and
of tons of fruit every year. Strangely enough, some foods hawthorn berries are formed
that we call vegetables, such as cucumber, are in fact fruits, in the same way; they are
bursting with tiny seeds. So, too, are spices such as whole also known as pomes.
chiles and peppercorns. Yet rhubarb, which is often cooked
as a fruit, is really the pink stem of a leaf.

True ANd FAlSe FruITS grAPe
Berries are juicy, succulent
Fruits have different names, depending true fruits with pips
on which part of the flower develops inside. They include
grapevine berries,
into the main part of the fruit. which we call grapes.
Fruits are usually described as
either true or false fruits. A true About 5,000 kinds of
grapes are used to make wine, or
fruit develops from the female are dried into currants and raisins for
parts of the flower. A false fruit
is one that includes some other cakes and cookies. Other berries include
gooseberries, tomatoes, and bananas.
Citrus fruits, such as oranges, lemons,
part of the flower, such as the and grapefruits, are also berries.
receptacle, or flower base.
The bright Plum druPe
Runner red fruits of the mountain drupes are juicy, succulent true fruits
bean pod ash (rowan) develop from like berries. unlike berries, however,
clusters of white flowers. drupes do not have pips. Instead, they

PeA legume POPPY CAPSule have a hard stone that contains the
legumes are dry, non- Capsules are hard, dry fruits seed. Plums, cherries, and apricots
juicy fruits. Their seeds found on poppies, violets,
are contained in a long snapdragons, and the are all drupes. A blackberry is a
outer casing called a pod. horse chestnut tree. collection of drupes.
Pods are found on pea and
bean plants, as well as Cherry
sweet peas and laburnums.
We eat the fruits of pea The poppy capsule is Plum
Pea and bean plants. like a saltshaker. The tiny
seeds fall through holes at
the top when the wind blows.

Pea
pod Walnut fruit
NuT (drupe)

A nut is a dry, hard-cased fruit, such Seed
as an acorn or hazelnut, with only one cases
seed inside. most hard, woody fruits or
seeds are called nuts, but the fruit of Walnut Seed
the walnut is actually a drupe, and the “nut”
Brazil nut is really a seed. is the
seed.
Hard
Outer shell of casing head Seeds
Brazil nut
Sunflower
Brazil “nuts” are The sunflower grows about 8 ft
the seeds of a (2.5 m) high. After fertilization,
South American the large flower ripens to form a
Sunflower plate-sized seed head. Sunflower
tree. The seeds seeds are used seeds contain large amounts of
grow in melon- in margarine, vitamins and edible oil.
sized fruit animal food,
pods. and as a snack.
Brazil nut (seed)
that we eat

226

Fruits and seeds

GerMinaTion WheaT runner Bean First true
The seeds of a runner bean has a food store leaves
Seeds need warmth, cereals such as in the form of two seed leaves open.
moisture, and air in wheat and that are called cotyledons.
order to germinate other grasses
(grow). The seeds of have only one First true Shoot
certain tropical plants seed leaf. These leaves lengthens.
start to germinate within seeds are called
a few days; the seeds of Dormant Radicle monocotyledons. Plumule Plumule
most other plants remain seed (young First (young shoot) grows
dormant, or asleep, until root) leaves upward.
conditions are right.
Many tree and shrub Young
seeds must pass through shoot
a cold winter before they
can begin to grow. Roots
develop
Root hairs Testa (seed branches.
begin to case) Roots lengthen.
grow. containing
seed leaves

Radicle
(young root)
hoW SeedS are SPread begins to
grow.
Plants have several ways of spreading their seeds.
Some seeds have wings or parachutes that are blown
by the wind. The coconut plant has seeds that float and are
carried on water. The sweet pea has a pod that snaps open Sycamore fruit
and flings the seeds out. animals also disperse seeds. Birds has wings to
eat berries and other fruits, then drop the seeds as they carry it through
the air.

feed or pass them out
after digestion.

BirdS acorn BurierS Seed is
Birds and a large oak tree Squirrels contained
monkeys bears thousands of ripe bury nuts to eat during the winter. inside fruit.
are the main fruits called acorns. animals Sometimes squirrels forget where
seed spreaders cannot eat them all; a few they have buried these Wind
for many fruits. survive to grow into new oak trees. nuts, and the forgotten The light, winged, helicopter-
Seeds stick to the bird’s bill WaTer seeds may sprout the shaped fruits of sycamore trees
to be wiped off later on a aquatic plants such as water lilies following spring. twirl in the wind, far away from
branch or the ground. and lotus flowers produce fruits the parent tree. Pines also have
that float away downriver winged seeds. Many plants, such
on water currents. The as cotton and dandelions, have
fruits often grow seeds with fine silky plumes or
into new plants
far away from parachutes that catch
the parent the breeze.
plant.

The lotus flower exPloSive dandelion
lives in water. Its PodS each time you
seeds float away Fruits such as those of blow on the head
downstream to the lupin are still soft of a dandelion
grow elsewhere. and fleshy when they shed you spread the
hookS and BurrS their seeds. When they are seeds on their
numerous kinds of fruits and seeds have hooks and fully ripe, the casing suddenly feathery parachutes.
burrs on their outer casings. These hooks catch onto splits open, and the seeds pop out
the fur or feathers of a passing mammal or bird and with explosive force. Find out more
sometimes on to our shoes, socks, and clothing, to fall Birds
off later. Well-known
Flowers and herbs
hooked fruits are Plants
burdock, cleavers, Trees
agrimony, and South
african grapple fruit.

In the fall, the badger picks up many seeds on its
fur as it pushes through undergrowth. The seeds
eventually drop off and grow into new plants.

227

Formation oF Gas
natural gas
the natural gas we use
today is millions of years
old. it was formed from
the remains of prehistoric Burning gas to make heat is a quick and easy way to warm
plants that lived
on land and in the home and to cook. gas is also used in industry, both for heat
the sea. new gas and as a raw material. most of the gas we use for fuel is natural
deposits are still gas. it is extracted from deposits buried deep underground
being created. or under the seabed. gas for burning can also be made by

1in the sea, tiny plants sink and processing coal to produce coal gas. these fuel gases
a layer of dead plants builds up are not the only kinds of gas: there are many
on the seabed. the sea plants others with different uses. For instance,
are buried in mud.
the air we breathe is made up of
several gases mixed together.
gas delivery 2on land, too,
natural gas is piped mud covers Huge drills on a production
to homes for use dead plants and trees. platform sink wells to reach
in stoves and slowly, the mud hardens
heaters. gas stored into rock. more layers of gas deposits,
in metal bottles rock form above and press which lie as deep
supplies homes that down on the plants, burying as 4 miles (6 km)
them deeper and heating them up. below the seabed.

are not connected 3the pressure and heat slowly
to the pipeline. change the sea plants into oil and then

into gas. land plants turn first to coal before
becoming oil and gas. a layer of rock now traps the
gas in a deep deposit. earth movements may have
raised the rocks containing the gas above sea level,
so that the gas now lies under the land.

6gas flows from terminals to large tanks, 4 gas flows up the well to
where it may be frozen and stored as a the production platform,
liquid. the gas can also be stored in huge and a pipeline takes it to a
underground caverns. Pumps push gas terminal on land. gas from
along pipes to the places where it inland wells flows straight to
is needed. the terminal.

5 raw gas has to Gas gas For industry
be cleaned and storage
dried before it can tank not all gas is used in the
be used. the gas home. many power stations
terminal removes burn gas to generate
impurities electricity. in dry places,
and water. such as deserts, the heat from burning gas is used
to process seawater in order to produce salt-free
drinking water. gas is also used as a fuel in factories
producing all kinds of things, from roasted peanuts
to cars. Chemicals made from gas are vital
ingredients in the manufacture of plastics, fertilizers,
paints, synthetic fiber, and many other products.

UsefUl gases Gas deposit A gas layer
gas wells produce several different kinds of gas. methane is the Oil deposit often forms
The pressure of the above a layer
gas helps force the
oil up wells to the of oil.
production platform.
main component, but other fuel gases, called propane and
butane, also come from gas deposits. the gas terminal stores
these gases in metal cylinders for use in houses
where there is no gas connection. gas deposits
are also a source of helium. helium is used to fill
balloons because it is very light and does not burn. air
is another source of useful gases. Carbon dioxide, the gas Find out more
that makes the bubbles in carbonated drinks, comes Coal
from air. air also contains a little neon gas. some heat
advertising signs are glass tubes filled with neon. oil
Neon the gas glows when electricity passes through it. Helium gas
sign balloons oxygen
science

228

GENETICS

The science of geneTics has officially existed ever since the word “gene”
was coined in 1909 by the Danish botanist Wilhelm Johannsen (1857-1927).
he invented the term to describe the “particles” of inheritance that pass
characteristics from one generation of plant or animal to the next. The
field of genetics developed over the course of the 20th century, and
produced important discoveries about how genes work. scientists showed
Each “rung”
is a pair of
chemicals that genes are sections of the long molecules of deoxyribonucleic acid
called bases. (DnA) that are connected together to form chromosomes. genes

contain the instructions by which plant and animal cells are built.
genes are passed from both parents to their children
DnA through sexual reproduction. By this process, called
heredity, inheritable characteristics are passed from
Deoxyribonucleic acid
is the full name of DnA. one generation to the next.
it is the molecule that
holds the coded
instructions within
genes. its structure is a The sides of the
“ladder” are made up
of phosphate and
double helix, with sugar molecules.
chemical bonds that
attach one side of the
helix to the other, rather
like the rungs of a ladder.
each “rung” is made up of a
The DNA molecule looks
pair of chemicals selected from something like a twisted
a choice of four chemicals, so the ladder in this model. In
real life it is a chain of tens
way in which genetic information is of thousands of atoms.
coded is actually very simple.
hereDiTy
When a plant or animal is created, it inherits
a combination of genetic information from both of
its parents. heredity is the passing of characteristics
from parents to children. it means that a baby
Blue eyes

inherits certain features from each of its parents,
but it also ensures that each baby is usually
different from its brothers and sisters.
Albino hamster
has white fur and
red eyes.

Some of the features Hamster with muTATion Children resemble their parents
controlled by genes normal coloring When new DnA but are not identical to them.
can be easily seen. is being created, The sex chromosomes determine
The genes in this girl’s sometimes a mistake whether a cell is male or female.
cells make her eyes can occur during the Males contain an XY pair, while
blue, her hair straight, copying process. females contain an XX pair.
and her skin fair. These mistakes are called
mutations, and they may appear
Wavy hair as a defect or a new characteristic.
if a mutation turns out to be
useful, it may become common
in future generations.

The genes in this boy’s genes chromosomes X chromosome
cells make his eyes each chromosome consists of a The nucleus of a living cell
brown, his hair wavy, long molecule of DnA. normally, contains a number of pairs
and his skin dark. the molecule is unraveled, but it of chromosomes. They are
coils up to give the chromosome rather like filing cabinets
its characteristic shape (right) when that store all of the genetic
a cells divides. each gene is a short information of the plant or
section of the chromosome that animal. chromosomes are
contains the instructions needed arranged in pairs that carry
to make a particular protein. This identical or different forms
is just one of the large group of of the same genes.
chemicals that control the features,
such as eye color. humans have
around 23,000 genes.

229

genetics

MEndEl PATTErns oF inHEriTAnCE
different forms of the same gene are called alleles, and they
gregor Mendel (1822-84), an Austrian can be dominant or recessive. dominant alleles always show
scientist, discovered the laws of heredity up, even if the information they carry comes from only one
parent. recessive means that a certain feature might not be
through experiments with pea plants. seen in a plant or animal even though it is carrying the right
in 1866, he showed that features alleles. recessiveness is sometimes linked to gender.
Gregor
in a plant, such as the production Mendel was Male cat Female
of a smooth or a wrinkled pea, are tortoiseshell cat
determined by the genetic information an ordained carrying
given to the plant by its parents. He tortoiseshell
called this information “particles,” some priest and allele
43 years before the word “gene” was combined
invented by the danish scientist religion with
wilhelm Johannsen (1857-1927). his work as
a scientist.

The cats produce
male and female
kittens. Only females
can be tortoiseshell.

Twins
if a fertilized human embryo splits in
two it will develop into identical twins.
Each twin shares the same genetic
information. in fact, they are not
The second kitten, who Only one kitten is
carries two tortoiseshell tortoiseshell like her mother,
entirely identical, because each fetus alleles, does not have a because she carries two
develops in a slightly different way after the alleles and is female.
original split. Therefore, identical twins can tortoiseshell coat
because he is male.

appear to be remarkably similar yet have quite
different personalities. non-identical twins
develop from two separate embryos.
genetics
Identical twins are The world’s media took a 1859 darwin publishes
of the same sex great interest in Dolly, the his theory of evolution.
because they come first large mammal 1866 Mendel establishes
from a single to be cloned.
embryo. laws of inheritance.

1869 Friedrich Miescher
isolates “nuclein”, later

called dnA.

1905 X and y sex
chromosomes discovered.

1910 Thomas Morgan
confirms chromosome

theory of heredity.

1927 genetic mutation
in fruit flies created
using x-rays.

Cloning dolly 1941 Proved that one
Clones are one or more identical gene produces
organisms that share identical genes but, one protein.
unlike twins, are not produced by natural
reproduction. For many years, scientists have 1944 shown that dnA
been interested in cloning identical copies of controls heredity.
animals and plants. in 1997, scientists successfully 1953 watson and
cloned a sheep, known as dolly. The experiment led to Crick discover the
structure of dnA.
a worldwide debate about the ethics of cloning. 1966 genetic code
cracked.

gM Foods 1984 discovery of
dnA fingerprinting.
The plants and animals that 2003 Human genome
produce gM (genetically modified) project to identify genes,
foods have had their genes
changed by scientists. in theory, is completed.
genetic modification is just a
way of speeding up the process Find out more
of selection by breeding, which Atoms and molecules
is already done in the natural
way. There is much to be learned radioactivity
before we can be sure that genetic reproduction
modification is a safe thing to do.

230

GeoloGy

our earth changes all the time. mountains rise and wear away.
continents move, causing oceans to widen and narrow. these changes
are slow. it would take a million years to notice much difference. other
changes, such as when an earthquake shakes the land or a volcano
erupts, are sudden. geology is the study of how earth changes, how it
was formed, and the rocks that it is made of.
clues to earth’s history are hidden in its rocks. geologists survey
(map out) the land and dig down to the rocks in earth’s crust. the age
and nature of the rocks and fossils (evidence of prehistoric plants and geoLogists at Work
animals) help geologists understand the workings of earth. geologists rocks at earth’s surface reveal their
also help discover valuable deposits of past to the expert eyes of geologists.
coal, oil, and other useful minerals. For example, huge cracks in layers of
sateLLite mapping rock show that powerful forces once
satellites circle earth and send back
they study the land before a large photographs of the surface from squeezed the rocks.
structure such as a dam is built, to make space. the pictures show features
sure that the land can support the great of the land in great detail and help sandstone
weight. geologists also warn people geologists identify the rocks. the top
about possible disasters. using special and youngest layer of rock
satellites have also measured is sandstone. it sometimes
the size and shape of earth. forms from desert sands. the
criss-cross pattern shows how
instruments, they detect the the wind blew sand to form
movement of rocks and try to the rock.
predict volcanic eruptions Studying the rocks in the shaLe
and earthquakes. ocean floor can reveal a layer of shale
the slow movements rock shows that the land must
of Earth’s crust. have been beneath shallow
water. mud from a nearby
aeriaL surveys river built up and compacted,
airplanes carry special forming shale.
cameras that produce
three-dimensional views
of the land below, and
instruments that measure
the strength of earth’s
magnetism and gravity.

seismic tests radioactive BasaLt
special trucks strike the dating Lava from
ground with huge hammers, a volcano formed this layer
producing shock waves, rocks contain of basalt. the land rose
called seismic waves, which substances that decay from the sea, and a volcano
bounce off the layers of rock over millions of years, erupted nearby to cover
below. computers use these giving off tiny amounts the rock below with lava.
waves to draw pictures of the of nuclear radiation.
layers of rock within earth. Limestone
By a process called the lowest and
The hisTory of geology radioactive dating, oldest layer contains fossils of
the ancient greeks which measures this tiny creatures, showing that
and hindus were the radioactivity, geologists 100 million years ago, during
first peoples to study and driLLing can find out how old the time of the dinosaurs, the
date the rocks of earth. rigs bore shafts as region was under the sea.
during the late 18th deep as 10,000 ft the rocks are.
century, the scottish (3,000 m) below the rock sampLe
scientist James hutton ground and bring up the layers of rock in this sample
became the first samples of the rock (above) come from deep
european geologist to layers beneath. underground.

In 1795, James Hutton realize that earth is examining earth Find out more
founded the modern millions of years old and coal
science of geology that it changes constantly. earth’s crust is made of layer upon
with his book The But his ideas were not layer of different kinds of rock that continents
Theory of the Earth. accepted until after his have been laid down over millions earth
of years. the topmost layers usually
death. in 1912, alfred Wegener, a german formed most recently and the earthquakes
meteorologist, proposed that the continents lowest layers are the oldest. By Fossils
move. But it was more than 50 years before uncovering these layers of rock, gas
his idea was found to be true. geologists can trace back the oil
history of earth.
rocks and minerals

231

germany

The naTion of Germany occupies a central position in northern
europe. The 80.9 million German people also play a central role in the
economy, way of life, and traditions of europe. Germany is an old country,
and its borders have changed often over the centuries. for much of the
second half of the 20th century, Germany consisted of two separate nations:
West Germany (the federal republic of Germany) and east Germany (the
German Democratic republic). in 1990, they again became one nation.
Germany is a rich and fertile land, and its farms are among the world’s most
productive. The landscape rises gently from the sandy coasts and islands on
the north Sea and Baltic Sea. flat plains dominate the northern part of
the country, and in the south there are forests and the soaring alps. The Germany lies at the heart of
region’s cool, rainy weather helps agriculture. farms produce livestock and europe. its landscape varies greatly
dairy products, cereals, potatoes, sugar beets, fruits, from the flat plains of the north to
and vegetables. most people, however, live in and
the peaks of the Bavarian alps in
the south.

Sausage sellers around the towns where Germany’s
specialize in energetic industries are based.
various kinds of
wurst and often
sell their wares
from tiny stalls
or vans.

The Brandenburg WurST anD Beer Beer gardens
Gate stands on Germany produces some excellent wine and is also attached to
the line that once famous for its beer. Germans often drink beer with bars and
divided East and the traditional snack of a sausage (wurst) and a bread cafés are
West Berlin. popular in
roll, accompanied by a large dollop of mild mustard. warm weather.
There are numerous kinds of wurst, and
every region has its speciality.
frankfurters, a type of wurst,
originally came from frankfurt.

BerLin BMW factory in Dingolfing, Germany
inDuSTry
reinstated as the capital of Germany
in 1990, Berlin grew up on the There is a wide range of industries in Germany,
banks of the Spree river. Canals producing electrical goods, computers, tools,

also link Berlin to the elbe and textiles, and medicines. Coal mines in the central
oder rivers. Berlin was devastated ruhr region produce large quantities of brown
in World War ii. in 1949, the city coal, or lignite, to fuel the factories. Western
was split between the two states of Germany is famous for high-quality precision
east and West Germany. for many goods, such as BmW cars and Leitz cameras.
years, a wall separated the people
in the eastern and western sectors,
and the two parts of the city still
look very different. new buildings
have made western Berlin look like
any other modern european city.
eastern Berlin still suffers poor
infrastructure and buildings.

232

germany

The enchanting, BAvARIA DüRER
gray granite Schloss Covering the entire Born in Nuremberg, Albrecht Dürer
Neuschwanstein is hidden southeastern part of (1471-1528) is famous for his paintings and
away in the Bavarian Alps. the country, Bavaria engravings. He produced his first self-portrait
is the largest state in at the age of 13, and painted himself at intervals
Germany. most of throughout his life thereafter. He produced this
the region is cloaked self-portrait (above) when he was 26. At the
by forests and farms. age of 15, Dürer was apprenticed to michael
In the south, the Wolgemut, Nuremberg’s chief painter and book
Bavarian Alps form illustrator. He was inspired by the painters of
a natural border with the Italian Renaissance and resolved to depict
Austria. Bavaria is a people and things in realistic detail. In 1512,
magnet for tourists, who Dürer became court painter to Emperor
come to see its fairy-tale maximilian, and gained international fame.
palaces (left) and spectacular
scenery. The region’s traditional DRESDEN
costume is Lederhosen (leather shorts), The city of Dresden in eastern Germany was once 
suspenders, and a cap for men, and Dirndlkleider the capital of a historic German state called Saxony.
(a full-length dress with puffed sleeves) for women. Although there are still some beautiful buildings in
Dresden, including the former royal palace (below),
SEmpER OpERA HOuSE most of the city’s fine architecture was destroyed by
The architect Gottfried Semper (1803-79) Allied bombing in World War II (1939-45). Dresden
has now been completely rebuilt, and many of the
built his first opera house, the Royal
Theater, on Theaterplatz Square in buildings have been restored.
Dresden, in the years 1838-1841. Almost 30
years later it burned to the ground and the
opera was forced to move to temporary
premises. public pressure persuaded
Semper to create a second opera house
between 1871 and 1878. The new building
(right) followed the style of the Italian High
Renaissance. Following its destruction
during an air raid in World War II, it was
rebuilt in its original form between 1977
and 1985. Its exquisite acoustics and opulent
interior decoration make it a model for
opera houses throughout the world.

BROTHERS GRImm Dresden was
once admired as the
Jakob (1785-1863) and Wilhelm (1786-1859) Grimm were “Florence on the Elbe.”
born in Hanau, near Frankfurt. Devoted to each other, the
brothers went to the same school and university, and lived
together until Wilhelm’s death. The Grimm brothers are
famous for their collections of German folktales, which
include the well-known tales of Cinderella, Hansel and Gretel,
Rapunzel, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, Sleeping Beauty,
and Little Red Riding Hood. The brothers did not create these
stories themselves, but gathered them together from the

accounts of country folk, and old books. most
of the stories date back hundreds of years.

Snow White and
the Seven Dwarfs

233

germany

rhine river Sporting achievement
the rhine is the longest river in germany. it begins in Switzerland and germany has produced some
later forms the german border with France. Finally, it cuts through the
western part of germany toward the netherlands and the sea. large river excellent athletes over the past
barges can sail up the rhine as far as Basel, Switzerland. vineyards on the few decades. Sports stars include
steep banks of the southern part of the river produce much of germany’s Boris Becker, Steffi graf, and
famous white wine. michael Stich in tennis, michael
Schumacher in auto racing,
and Katja Seizinger in skiing.
the german government
encourages sports, mainly
because it promotes good
health. prizewinning
athletes also bring great
honor to their country.

The buildings The joining of East and West
in parts of Germany brought together some of the
Bonn have world’s finest athletes. When the two
a modern countries were rivals, East German
architectural style. competitors were aided by excellent sports
facilities, and special privileges gave them time
Bonn to train. They won many more events than their
Between 1949 and 1990, Bonn was the capital of West germany. Bonn, West German counterparts.
an ancient city, stands on the rhine river on the site of a roman camp.
it is a university town with many beautiful buildings in traditional oBerammergau
german style. Bonn was the birthplace of composer ludwig van ruhr valley once every 10 years an extraordinary
Beethoven (1770-1827). event takes place in this small town
much of germany’s heavy industry in the Bavarian alps of southern
is concentrated in the valley of the germany. the inhabitants of
ruhr river. huge coal seams oberammergau get together to
provide the valley with a rich perform a passion play, which tells
source of power, and factories in the story of christ’s crucifixion.
the region produce iron, steel, and the villagers first performed the
chemicals. the ruhr valley is play in 1634 in an effort to stop the
germany’s most densely plague. they have maintained the
Wild boar still populated area. custom ever since. it is now a major
roam in the tourist attraction, attended by
larger forests thousands of visitors from germany
and are hunted and abroad.
for their meat.
Find out more
ForeStS europe
great forests cover many of the hills and mountains
of the central and southern regions of germany. europe, history of
these forests are prized for their beauty and for
their valuable timber, which is used widely in
industry. the most famous forests include the
thüringer Wald, the forests of the harz mountains
in central germany, and the Schwarzwald, or Black
Forest, in southwestern germany.

234

germany

cars
Germany is
Volcano Mountain Ancient Capital Large Small europe’s largest
monument city city/ city/ vehicle producer,
town town

specializing in
high-quality cars.
american and Japanese
statistics car companies are based
area: 137,847 sq miles here, attracted by the
(357,022 sq km) skilled workforce.
Population: 80,854,500 hamburG
capital: berlin DE North Frisian Islands NMaR Located on the Elbe River, Hamburg is
Languages: German the second-largest city in Germany and
Religions: Protestant, North Kiel its economic center. The city is also the
roman catholic, muslim Sea Lübeck country’s busiest port.
currency: euro
Main occupations: Helgoland Hamburg K Baltic
engineering, Sea
manufacturing East Frisian Islands Fehmarn
Main exports: cars, heavy Rügen
engineering, electronics, Bremerhaven Rostock Pomeranian
chemicals Bay
Main imports: energy
sources, raw materials Oderhaff

Schwerin Neubrandenburg

Müritz POLaND

D s Oldenburg Bremen Elbe er
Od
Eberswalde-Finow

NEtHERLaN el Ems AllerWeser Havel BERLiN
Potsdam
Osnabrück (HHaannnoovveerr) Wolfsburg Frankfurt
Münster Magdeburg an der Oder

rhIne rIver B ohemiaHarz Elbe Spree
The Rhine is Germany’s Cottbus
main waterway. It is an Saale
important transportation Essen Dortmund Halle
route to and from a
northern ports. It Duisburg Leine Fuld MainRuhrKassel Leipzig
meanders across
820 miles (1,320 km), E L GiUM Düsseldorf NeckaGERMa NY Dresden
from its source in cologne R(Rhhineei n
Switzerland to the (Köln) a WerrThürinEgrefrurWt ald
North Sea. FRa N c E Frankfurt am Main Jena Chemnitz
irge
B Aachen irge
z g e b Fichtelberg
RheinischMeBossoSncnhKieofbelregnezb 1214m
E r

Mainz cZEcH

LUXEMBOURG ) Würzburg REPUBLic

German borders Heidelberg Nuremberg
Germany is positioned (Nürnberg)

in the very center of r Regensburg n Grosser Arber
europe, and has land Heilbronn 1456m
borders with no less than (DDoannauub)e
nine countries. It is not stuttgart Forest
surprising, then, that it is
europe’s biggest trading nation.
all kinds of raw materials flow into SchwäbiscanhouneabueA)lb Ulm
Germany across its borders, for the lack Forest Augsburg Inn
nation has few natural resources.
manufactured goods cross Freiburg im Breisgau (DD Munich
Germany’s borders in the opposite Lech (München )

direction. of all Germany’s borders, B
that with France is the busiest: nearly Konstanz Bavarian Alps
10 percent of all German trade is Oberammergau Zugspitze 2962m N
with France. aLake
sWitZERLaND a U s t R iConstance
scaLE BaR km W E
0 50 100

0 50 100 miles LiEcHtENstEiN S

235

Glaciers
and ice caps

glacierS SnoW Falling on the world’s tallest mountain peaks never melts. the
glaciers often join
together, just as small temperature rarely rises above freezing, and fresh falls of snow press down on
rivers meet to form bigger those below, turning them to ice. a thick cover of ice, called an ice cap or ice sheet,
rivers. the ice may be builds up, or snow collects in hollows. ice flows down from the hollows in rivers of
more than 0.5 mile ice called glaciers. they move very slowly, usually less than 3.3 ft (1 m) a day, down
(1 km) deep.
toward the lower slopes. there it is usually warmer, and the glaciers melt.
however, in the arctic and the antarctic, ice and snow remain throughout the
year, though in recent times, large areas of ice have been melting because
of global warming. ice sheets covered much of north
america and europe during the last ice
age over the last million years. When
the weather became warmer,
about 10,000 years ago, the
ice cap ice sheets retreated. ice
ice caps cover sheets now exist only in
vast areas. When
the thickness of
the ice reaches greenland and antarctica.

about 200 ft (60 m), cirqueS
the hollow
its enormous weight where the ice Shaping the landScape
sets it moving. collects to start glaciers slowly grind away even the
Valley glacier hardest rock and reveal a changed
the ice fills a valley, moving the glacier is landscape when they retreat. deep
faster at the center than at called a cirque
the sides of the glacier. or corrie. valleys and lakes, together with
cracks called crevasses rivers and waterfalls, now exist
open in the surface. Waterfall where there were

none before.

moraine A river Deep
the glacier acts like a huge flows down U-shaped
conveyor belt, carrying broken the center of valley carved
rocks, called moraines, down from the the valley.
mountaintop. the moving ice also plucks out by
stones and boulders from the base and sides of Streams of the glacier
the valley. this material is carried along within water form as Lake formed
the glacier, and is called englacial moraine. the glacier melts.
behind
Frozen moraines
mammothS
in the russian Rocks in the
Federation, ice and melting ice build
frozen soil have preserved up a wall called a
huge hairy elephants, called terminal moraine.
mammoths, just as if they
were in a deep freeze.
the last mammoths lived in
north america, europe, and
asia during the ice age.

Icebergs ice age FjordS
huge pieces of a deep ice sheet covered about one- third the sea rose at the end of the ice
floating ice are of the world’s land during the last ice age. age, drowning valleys formed by
called icebergs. ice extended as far south as Saint louis, glaciers. these deep, steep-sided
nine-tenths of the missouri, and london, england. there inlets are called fjords. the coast
ice floats below the had been ice ages before the last one, of norway has many fjords.
water, so icebergs and there could be more in the future.
are a danger to Find out more
ships. in 1912, the 236 antarctica
ocean liner Titanic
sank after colliding arctic
with an iceberg. mountains
polar wildlife
rain and snow

Glass and ceramics Spark plug
for car
stiCky Clay and dry sand are more familiar on the end engine
of a shovel than on the dinner table. yet these are the basic
ingredients in the manufacture of the plates we eat from,
and the jars and bottles in which we buy preserved food
and drinks. Glass and ceramic materials share some useful
qualities: they resist the flow of heat and electricity, and
they have a hard, nonreactive surface. But they are
different in other ways: light passes through glass but not
stainEd Glass ceramics, and ceramics stay strong when they are heated. CEramiCs
strips of lead hold together the in their most basic forms, glass and ceramic objects are
many pieces of colored glass in the damp clay is easy
to mold into
brittle, but special additives and manufacturing methods pottery and tiles;
make both materials much tougher. Glass and ceramics heat sets the
stained glass windows that decorate are ancient materials. the Egyptians made decorative glass
homes, churches, and temples. beads more than 5,000 years ago, and pottery is even older. shape permanently.
Ceramics resist heat

and electricity, so
they are ideal for
Glass Glass bottle for insulating objects
holding medicines that get hot, such
Containers of clear
glass both protect Glass bottle for as spark plugs.
their contents and holding ink
display them. lenses Pottery mug

are specially shaped
pieces of glass that
bend and concentrate
light. But not all glass
is functional; some
glassware is simply Ornate
glassware
jug made
decorative. in the

1930s

EnamEl Magnifying Ceramic tile
Enamel is a glasslike glass which
layer on metal and
other objects that is a large
protects them from convex lens.
damage and corrosion. Colored enamel
gives ornaments a beautiful appearance.

Making glass Recycled Fiberglass
glass strengthening
Sand Limestone Soda ash plastic with fibers
of glass produces
Heating sand, a material called HEat rEsistanCE
limestone, and fiberglass or glass- Ceramics can withstand very
soda ash in a reinforced plastic, high temperatures. Ceramic
furnace together which is tough tiles keep astronauts cool
with recycled enough to be used even when their space shuttle
glass produces for car bodies. glows red from the intense
molten glass. heat of re-entry.
The molten glass is A lump of hot, soft
poured onto a pool of glass is placed in GlassBlowinG
molten tin, which makes a bottle-shaped mold. the breath of the glassblower
the glass spread into a flat Blowing air into the inflates soft glass on the end of
sheet suitable for windows. mold makes the a tube into a bubble. skillful
glass inflate into shaping makes the bubble into
The glass sets and a bubble, which fine glassware as it cools.
hardens on the cooler tin.
expands to form Find out more
the bottle. Heat
The glass then light
cools and
sets hard. Plastics
science

237

Government and politics

The adminisTraTion of a counTry’s affairs is undertaken by
a government whose policies direct decision making. Governments have
many roles: they decide how money raised through taxes will be divided
among the different public services, such as health, education, welfare,
and defense. They also maintain the police for the safety of society, and
the armed forces for the defense of the nation. as a result
of differing cultural and political traditions,
government and policies vary from country to
country. There are, however, three main types
of government: republican, monarchical, and
dictatorial. most countries are republics,
with people voting in an election to choose
their government and head of state.
plaTo in a monarchy, the head of the royal
more than 2,000 years ago, the
Greek philosopher plato wrote
the first book about governments family is the head of state. countries
and how they rule people—what in which a single ruler has seized
today we call politics. his book, absolute power—often through
The Republic, set out ideas for how a military takeover—are known
a perfect state might be governed. as dictatorships.

monarchy
in a monarchy a king
seaTs of power or queen rules the country.
Today, only a few monarchs, such as the king
every government has a meeting place where members of saudi arabia, have political power; but four
discuss policies and pass laws. The seat of power also houses
the administrators who assist the government. The us centuries ago, in europe,
government has its seat of power in washington, d.c., monarchs made
where a political history is evident in buildings the laws and
collected
such as the Jefferson memorial (right), which taxes.

commemorates the early 19th-century
president, Thomas Jefferson. in the
us government there are two groups
of elected representatives, the senate
and the house of representatives,
known as congress.

The Jefferson Memorial,
Washington, D.C.

Thabo Mvuyelwa Mbeki
is sworn in as president
of the Republic of South
Africa in 1999.

presidency anarchism
not everyone
in a republic, such as south africa, the believes in governments.
people vote for their head of state. in this anarchists prefer a society without
central control. The 19th-century
case, the president holds real political picture below shows a bomb placed
power, and is responsible for the at a paris opera house by french
administration of the country anti-government protestors.
and for its foreign policy. in
france, power is divided
between the president and
the prime minister. in some
countries, such as india, the
president is more of a symbolic
figurehead, who takes on a
ceremonial role, rather like
that of some monarchs.
238

government and politics

Presidential LOCAL GOVERnMEnT
seal
Cities, towns, and counties are served by
ShAREd pOwERS local governments, usually headquartered
The government of the United States
is a federal system, in which powers in a city hall (right). Many cities elect a
are shared between the national mayor, who works with local officials in the
government and state and
local governments. The federal city council to run the city government.
government, headed by the The local government ensures safety for
president, works for all Americans. city residents through fire departments and
Under its umbrella are state police forces, and maintains local parks and
governments, which in turn roads. It is also responsible for hospitals.
share their powers with the local One of the most important, and costliest,
governments of cities, towns, jobs of local government is administering
and villages.
the public school system.

EMERGEnCy SERVICES GOVERnOR
Local governments are responsible for providing The chief executive of a state is
emergency services for their communities.
Firefighters provide safety for the people who called the governor. Most
work and live in the area. Many fire departments governors have the power to
also provide medical care in other, nonfire appoint state officials, direct
emergencies, giving immediate assistance to the state’s budget, veto bills
a victim before he or she goes to a hospital.
from the state legislature,
GOVERnMEnT SERVICES command the state militia,
More than 21 million people in
the United States are employed by the and grant pardons. A
government, making it the nation’s governor is elected by popular
largest employer. The government vote to a two- or four-year term.
employs people in all sorts of
occupations, from astronaut to Jennifer Granholm, governor
zoologist, policeman to nurse. One of Michigan from 2002 to 2011
government worker familiar to all
Americans is the mail carrier.

State capital of
Vermont in Montpelier

STATE GOVERnMEnT

State governments are organized
in the same way as the federal
government, with an executive

branch headed by the governor, a
legislative branch (state congress),

and a judicial branch (state
courts). Each state has its own
constitution, but state laws must
not conflict with the Constitution

of the United States. State
governments are responsible for

education policy, public works
(such as road repairs), welfare,

and public safety.

239

Uncle sam gOVernmenT PrOgrAms
The character of “Uncle sam” has come to symbolize the Tax money is used to fund welfare
United states government. legend has it that the real programs such as social security, which
Uncle sam was a new York meatpacker named includes unemployment insurance,
samuel Wilson. during the War of pensions, and family aid. each citizen
1812, Wilson supplied rations to is issued a social security card (above).
the Army with the initials “Us”
(for Us Army) marked on each
barrel. When a visitor to Wilson’s
plant asked what the initials stood for,
an employee humorously replied it
must be his boss, Uncle sam. soon,
everyone was using this nickname to
represent the federal government.
Uncle sam’s stars-and-stripes costume
appeared in cartoons from the 1830s.
Uncle sam has been used to promote
everything from war bonds to ice cream.

mOneY And TAXes
The Constitution gives the federal
government the power to coin
money. The Us mint is
responsible for making coins,
and for safeguarding the gold
and silver reserves stored at
fort Knox, Kentucky. The
Bureau of engraving and
Printing makes paper money.
However, the money used to
fund government programs,
such as national defense, mail
services, firefighting services, and
social security, is not simply printed

or minted—it comes from taxes.

federAl gOVernmenT defense
One of the most important functions of the federal
The workings of the federal government government is to provide for the nation’s defense.
affect everyone, no matter what state or The United states government spends many
billions of dollars each year to maintain its armed
city they live in. The Constitution forces. The federal government is entrusted with
established the structure of the federal the power to declare war, and the president is the
government, and outlined its powers. commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The
some responsibilities entrusted to department of defense is headquartered in the
the federal government include Pentagon, in Arlington, Virginia (above).
national defense, regulating trade
between states, collecting taxes, The Capitol building, With approximately 60% of
printing money, and providing Washington, D.C. eligible voters heading to the
for the welfare of all citizens.
The federal government also polls, the 2008 Presidential
liaises with the governments election had the highest voter

of other nations. turnout since 1968.

eleCTIOn dAY
People vote to elect a government

to represent their wishes. Voter
turnout is on the decline, and less

than half of all those qualified
usually vote. To encourage greater

participation, a number of states
have made laws to make voter
registration simpler.

Find out more
Congress
law

Political parties
Presidency

240

GRASSLAND WILDLIFE

This map shows the main VAST AREAS OF AFRICA, the Americas, Asia, and Australia
grassland areas of the world.
consist of grasslands—areas too dry for forests, but not too dry
North for grasses. Grasses themselves are flowering plants that can
America grow again quickly after animals eat them. Grasses also recover
quickly if fire sweeps across the plains in the hot, dry season.
Asia The fire burns only the upper parts of the grass, so the roots
and stems are not damaged. Grasslands provide a home for
Africa many different animals. Each survives by feeding on a different
part of the grass plants. Zebras, for example, eat the coarse,
South Australia older grass, while wildebeest (gnu) graze on new shoots.
America Thomson’s gazelles nibble close to the ground. Grasshoppers,
ants, and termites shelter among the grass stems and roots;
Steppe these insects, in turn, are food for larger animals such as
Savanna anteaters and armadillos. The lack of trees in grassland areas
Pampas/Prairie means that small animals and certain birds have to dig burrows
for shelter and for breeding. Each type of grassland has
GRASSlANd AREAS burrowing rodents; prairie dogs and pocket gophers live
The main grassland areas in the world are the in North America, susliks in Asia, ground squirrels in Africa,
Asian steppes, African savannas and grasslands, North and viscachas and tuco-tucos in South America.
American prairies, and South American pampas, which
blend into tropical Amazonian savanna. There are also
tropical grasslands in parts of India and across Australia.

Thistles grow in grassy areas throughout the world.
Their prickles protect them against grazing animals.

The flowers are often purple, and form fluffy
white seed heads.

SOuTh AmERICAN pAmpAS VISCAChA
The viscacha is related to the guinea pig.
The largest mammals on the South A male viscacha weighs about 17 lb
American pampas are the pampas (8 kg), almost twice the size of
deer, guanaco, and rodents such the female. Viscachas dig a
as the viscacha, which burrows for system of burrows with
shelter and safety. A fast-running their front feet and pile
bird called the rhea also lives on up sticks and stones
the South American pampas, near the various
entrances. They eat
feeding on grasses and other plants. mainly plant leaves
BuRROWING OWl
and stems.

GIANT ANTEATER The burrowing owl
lives on the South
With large claws on its second and third fingers, the giant American pampas.
anteater can easily rip a hole in an ant’s nest or a termite
mound as it searches for food. The giant anteater uses its It often makes its
nest in an empty
long, sticky tongue to lick up the ants and termites. burrow taken over
Its tongue measures about 24 in (60 cm) in length.
from a viscacha.
Burrowing owls eat
grasshoppers, insects,
small mammals, birds,
lizards, and snakes.

Tail pAmpAS GRASS
protects The white, fluffy seed
anteater’s body as it
sleeps in a shallow hole, heads of pampas
listening for predators grass are a familiar
such as pumas. sight in parks and
gardens. Wild pampas
grass covers huge areas
of Argentina, in South
America. pampas leaves
have tiny teeth, like
miniature saws, that
easily cut human skin.

241

GRASSLAND WILDLIFE

JaCkal Jackals Thomson’s gazelle
on the african savanna, golden sometimes These swift-moving mammals live on the grassy
jackals eat whatever they can hunt in groups,
find, including fruits, small pursuing small plains of africa in herds of up to 30 animals.
mammals, eggs, birds, and the grazing animals They all have horns, but those of the male are
carcasses (dead bodies) of such as these
larger animals larger than those of the female. Thomson’s
such as Thomson’s gazelles are often the prey of other grassland
zebras. gazelles.
animals, such as the cheetah and the jackal.
Conservation The Cape Crested
porcupine lives on savanna
the African
savanna. The huge grassland areas of eastern and
southern africa are called savannas. These
areas are home to the world’s largest herds of
grazing animals, including zebra, wildebeest,
and hartebeest. many large grazers wander

from one area to the next in search
of food. acacia and baobab
trees dot the landscape,
providing shade for resting
lions, ambush cover for
leopards, and sleeping
places for baboons.

many grassland areas are now used CaPe CresTed PorCuPIne Wild peonies are found in many grassy
as farmland, and the natural wildlife The Cape Crested porcupine has sharp spines on its back habitats around the world. Many garden
is being squeezed into smaller areas. as for protection. It warns enemies to stay away by rattling
a result, these areas become overgrazed the hollow quills on its tail. If an intruder ignores these peony plants came originally from the
and barren. grassland animals are also warnings, the porcupine runs backward into the enemy, hardy wild peonies that grow in
threatened by human hunters. In the and the quills come off and stick into the intruder’s flesh. grassland areas.
past, the asian saiga antelope was killed

for its horns. Today,
it is protected
by law, but it is
still seriously
endangered,
with about
130,000 left
in the wild.

A newborn saiga sTePPe grass snake
antelope is fluffy The grass snake lives on riverbanks
and has no horns. The vast plains of asia are called steppes. In and in marshes, mainly in europe
the western part of asia the rainfall is more
Pallas’s CaT than 10 in (25 cm) each year, and grasses and and asia. grass snakes are good
This long-furred cat lives other plants grow well. Toward the eastern swimmers.
in mountains, high
steppes, and open part of asia there is less than 2.5 in raInbow lIzard
country across (6 cm) of rainfall yearly, and male rainbow lizards can often
Central asia. at the grasses fade away into the be seen on piles of rocks,
night it hunts harsh gobi desert. saiga scanning their territories.
for small antelopes, red deer, and These dominant males
mammals roe deer graze on the have red or orange heads.
and birds. rolling plains. rainbow lizards eat most
small insects, such as ants, as
Head-body length of well as some plant materials.
about 25 in (65 cm)

Strong, agile,
stout body with
short legs

Soft, thick fur to Pallas’s sandgrouse Find out more
keep out the The mottled plumage (feathers) of Pallas’s horses, asses, and zebras
cold winds sandgrouse gives it excellent camouflage among
the brownish grasses and stones of the asian lions, tigers,
steppe. It needs little water and can survive
on dry, tough seeds and other plant parts. and other big cats

lizards
reptiles

242

Falling Gravity Mass and weight
earth’s gravity makes falling an object’s mass is the amount of material
objects accelerate (speed earth Moves around the sun, it contains. Mass stays the same wherever
up). their speed does not traveling about 50 times faster than the object is in the universe. the weight of
depend on how heavy they a rifle bullet. a strong force holds
are: a light object falls as fast earth in this orbit. this is the force an object is the force of gravity pulling
as a heavy object unless air of gravity; without it, earth would on it. weight can change. Because the
slows it down. the italian shoot off into space like a stone moon is smaller than earth, its gravity
scientist galileo galilei from a catapult. everything is weaker, about one sixth as strong
(1564-1642) noticed this possesses gravity; it is a force that as earth’s. therefore, an astronaut
about 400 years ago. attracts all objects to each other. on the moon weighs only one-sixth
however, the strength of the force of his or her weight on earth, but
A heavy rock weighs depends on how much mass is in an her mass remains the same.
much more than an object, so gravity is only strong in Moon and earth
egg of the same size. huge objects such as planets. gravity keeps the moon moving in its
However, both objects although you cannot feel it, the orbit around earth. the moon’s gravity
fall at the same rate force of gravity is also pulling on you. has effects on earth, too. when the
and hit the ground earth’s gravity holds you to its moon is directly over the sea, its gravity
at the same time. surface, no matter where you are on pulls the seawater toward it, which
earth. this is because gravity always produces a high tide; low tide follows
pulls toward the center of when earth rotates away again.
earth. sometimes you can
see or feel the effects of Objects fall in the
gravity. For example, the opposite direction
effort you feel when you on the other side
climb up a flight of stairs of Earth.
is because you are The force of gravity
fighting against the gets weaker as you
force of gravity. go farther from the
center of Earth.
 On top of a high
mountain, gravity
is slightly weaker
than at sea level;
so objects weigh
fractionally less.

When you drop a ball, it falls earth’s
because gravity is pulling it
toward the center of Earth. gravity

Gravity pulls all objects People on the
down toward the opposite side of
center of Earth. earth are upside down
in relation to you. But they
do not fall off into space. they
are held on to the surface of earth just as you are. this is
because the force of gravity pulls everything toward the center
of earth. down is always the direction of earth’s center.

Isaac NewtoN Center oF gravity
english scientist isaac newton it is best to carry a large, unwieldy object
(1642-1727) was the first person such as a ladder by holding it above its
to understand the force of center. the weight of the ladder
gravity. in 1666, after balances at the center, which
watching an apple fall to is called its center of gravity
the ground, he wondered or center of mass. an object
whether the force of gravity with a large or heavy base has
that makes things fall also a low center of gravity. this stops
holds the moon in its orbit it from falling over easily.
around earth. this was a
daring idea, and it took newton Objects such as a loaded tray balance Find out more
many years to prove it to be true. if supported directly beneath their astronauts
he declared his law of gravity to center of gravity.
be a universal law—a law that is and space travel
true throughout the universe. 243
Physics
science, history of

Universe
weights and measures

Volcano Mountain Ancient Capital Large Small greece
monument city city/ city/
town town

statistics Greece is a land of wild mountains, remote
area: 50,949 sq miles
(131,957 sq km) valleys, and scattered islands. Most people make
their living by farming; olives can grow on the
Population: 10,776,000 dry hillsides and hardy sheep and goats thrive in
capital: athens
Languages: Greek, the rugged landscape. Greece is the world’s third- lying at the eastern end of the
turkish, Macedonian, largest producer of olive oil, and also exports citrus Mediterranean, Greece is
albanian fruits, grapes, and tomatoes. With one of the largest
Religions: Greek merchant fleets in the world, Greece is a seafaring
orthodox, Muslim surrounded by the Mediterranean,
currency: euro nation—people and goods travel by boat. Millions of aegean, and ionian seas. it consists
visitors are attracted to Greece by its landscape, and
of a mainland, the Peloponnese
by its rich history as the birthplace of democracy in peninsula, and over 2,000 islands.
the 5th century bce. in recent years, the
global financial crisis has the Greek islands
the Greek mainland is
hit Greece hard, and surrounded by many islands.
has left the country ships and ferries unite these
with crippling debt. scattered communities. in 

the summer, the islands, with
their warm climate, fishing
orthodox Priests villages, and beautiful
the eastern orthodox church was founded beaches, are major tourist
in constantinople (istanbul) in the 4th centers, attracting over nine
century ce. the Greek orthodox church
became independent in 1850 and is the
official religion of Greece, with more million visitors. in the winter, the
than 10 million faithful. distinctively small islands are deserted by summer
dressed priests are a common sight. residents, who return to the mainland.

MacEDONia B U L GRhNoedstoospe aR i a

Drama M ou n ta ins

Str Komotini Y
h yamis ia Axios E
AliaLakeEdessa syamloonans ica Kavala K Sea of Marmara
EvrosPrespakmonasThracian tUR
SOt rtar aLBa NCorfu (thessaloniki)
Kozani Chalkidiki Thasos Sea
it Corfu Samothraki
an (Kerkyra) Mount Olympus Thermaic
2917m Gulf Myrina Limnos
of IoPaninndiunsaMo
to

T PineiosLarisa Aegean

untains Trikala Volos

Arta Karditsa Skiathos Mytilini athens
Lesbos the ancient city of athens, the cultural center
I Preveza (Lesvos) of Greece in the 5th century bce, is generally
Lefkada
o G R E E c EKarpenisi Lamia Skopelos Chios

(
ni Skyros

II o

a

on

n Mesolongi Chalkida Chios believed to be the birthplace of western
Euboea civilization. the fortified acropolis (above) rises
io a
ni Kefallonia 328 ft (100 m) above the city. it is crowned by
Se
I PatraGulf of Corinth Isthmus of (Evvoia)

sl Poros Corinth atHENs

iN

a

is
S e aoasiboncuGcactttrhrtocteheopeeeuMkdPysuudeeaesderseliatitorcebearoecrcvayeoZ,ndarmkesfyianistnnhhog.isngKePryirgoKsalamAlfaeta(nKnoCerosiTnerSrtihpinpoatosrh)tliiNs aKfpytlhiMoiraiSrteoP(aaPine(riTaarSEzaeetirariiuamHfosss)oMiNuiSlpoyasoroC)PlsSiayarncAostlnoaTrdiirdnnoioseMssIoysk(NAKonasytxokIAysokplsmaaaroldiaPraegiSaasoat)smmooSssamKKaoalLyos)emsesrnoesosn the Parthenon temple, dedicated to the city’s
M Sea of Crete patron goddess athena, and built in 432 bce.
ai
today, this busy modern city is a major
a P e l o p o ios commercial, shipping and tourist center,

n) and the seat of the Greek government.

LaKkoonlpiokos D( Dooddeeckaann i s Tilos Rhodes
Rhodes
e (Kritikó Pélagos) (Rodos) scaLE BaR km
Lindos 0 50 100

d Chania irakleio Karpathos N 0 50 100 miles
i t Rethymno Karpathos
Agios Nikolaos Find out more
e r r a n e a n S e aCrete (Kriti) W archaeology
E christianity
democracy
Greece, ancient

S

244

G ANCIENT

REECE

Many western words, ideas, and sources of entertainment have
their roots in the world of ancient Greece. about 2,500 years ago, the
Greeks set up a society that became the most influential in the world.
Greek architects designed a style of building that is copied to this
day. Greek thinkers asked searching questions about life that are still
discussed. Modern theater is founded on the ancient Greek plays that
were performed under the skies thousands of years ago. and the
Greeks set up the world’s first democracy (government by the people)
in athens. However, only free men born in athens were actually teMPle of Hera
allowed to have a say in government. ancient Greek society the Greeks built temples to worship
went through many phases, with a “golden age” between their many gods. this temple at
Paestum, italy, was built to honor
around 600 and 300 bce. arts and culture flourished at that
the goddess Hera, who was the
protector of women and marriage.

time. the Macedonians, under Philip of Macedon, finally
conquered the civilization, but it continued
under Philip’s son alexander, who
spread Greek culture and thinking
throughout the
Middle east and
north africa.

Pericles There were many busy
as leader of athens, markets in Athens, where
Pericles (c. 490-429 bce) people came to buy and
carried out a program sell their goods.
to beautify the city. this atHens
included the building of during the golden age, the Greek world consisted of independent,
the Parthenon, a temple self-governing cities, known as city-states. with its own superb port
to the goddess athena. at Piraeus, athens was the most important city-state. it became the
center of Greek civilization and culture, attracting many famous
Spartan hoplites playwrights and thinkers, such as socrates. athens practiced the
system of demokratia (democracy). People gathered together in the
agora (marketplace) to shop and talk. the acropolis (high city)
towered above athens.

sParta Byzantium
Chalcidice
the second major city-state of
Greece, sparta, revolved around Ilium (Troy)
warfare. spartans led tough,
disciplined lives. each male Athens Euboea
spartan began military
training at the age of Ionia
seven and remained a
soldier until the age of Cnidus
60. women kept very fit
by running and wrestling. AEGEAN
the fierce spartan hoplites SEA
(foot soldiers) were feared
throughout the Greek world. Athens (in Attica) Greek world
and dependent the Greek world consisted of many
states (shown in city-states and their colonies, spread
pink), c. 450 bce. throughout the Mediterranean region.

245

greece, ancient

Modern reconstruction of a Greek trireme Navy ancient greece
The athenians possessed a powerful
The main actors All the actors were navy, consisting of a fleet of more 1500 bce Minoan
performed on the men, even those than 200 triremes—warships civilization (on island
proskenion (stage). playing women’s powered by a square sail and rowed of Crete) at its height.
roles. They wore c. 1400 Mycenaean
painted masks to by 170 men seated in three civilization, centered
hide their faces. ranks. The battle tactic involved in great palaces on
rowing furiously and ramming the Greek mainland,
the enemy’s ship. In 480 bce, dominates Greece.
c. 1250 Probable date of
during wars against the the Trojan Wars between
Persians, the athenian navy Mycenaeans and the city
crushed the Persian fleet at the sea of Troy.
battle of Salamis.

The audience bought stone
tokens, which were like tickets,
and sat in a semicircle of
tiered seats set into
the hillside.

c. 1000 establishment
of the first city-states in
mainland Greece.

776 First Olympic
Games held at Olympia,
Greece.

750s First Greek
colonies founded.

c. 505 Democracy is
established in athens.

400s Golden age of
Greek theater.

490-479 Persian Wars;
Greek states unite to
defeat Persians.

The chorus The circular space in 490 Greeks defeat
commented on front of the stage was Persians at Marathon.
the action of the 480 Greeks destroy the
play in song Persian fleet at the Battle
and dance. of Salamis.
479 Final defeat of
Greek TheaTer called the orchestra. Persians at Plataea.
461-429 Pericles rules in
Drama was born in athens. It began as singing and acting as part athens; Parthenon built.
of a religious festival to honor the god Dionysus. The audience 431-404 Peloponnesian
watched a series of plays; at the end of the festival, prizes were War between athens and
given for the best play and best actor. From these beginnings, Sparta leads to Spartan
playwrights such as Sophocles and aristophanes started to write domination of Greece.
tragedies and comedies. Tragedies involved dreadful suffering; 359 Philip becomes king
comedies featured slapstick humor and rude jokes. of Macedonia.
338 Philip of Macedonia
conquers Greece.

ThINkerS Vase Painting 336-323 alexander the
Great thinkers from athens Painted scenes on Greek Great, son of Philip, sets
dominated Greek learning and pottery give us clear clues up Greek empire in
culture during the 5th and 4th about daily life in ancient Middle east.
centuries bce. Socrates (469-399 bce; Greece. The paintings
above) was one of the most famous. often show a touching Find out more
he discussed the meaning and scene, such as a warrior alexander the great
conduct of life. he also questioned bidding his family
people cleverly, often proving that farewell as he goes off architecture
their ideas were wrong. Socrates wrote to war. They also show Democracy
no books himself, but one of his the many gods that the Greece
followers, Plato (427-347 bce), made Greeks worshiped.
him the subject of many of his books. Olympic games
Amphora (vase) from Attica shows Theater
Zeus, king of the gods, at the birth
of Athena, his daughter.

246

HAbSbURGS

DuRing The 900s, a family named habsburg owned some
land in France and switzerland. From this position, they rose The Netherlands
to dominate european history for more than 1,000 years. The Austria

name habsburg comes from one of the family’s first castles, France

the habichtsburg, in switzerland. Through a series of wars, Spain Italy
inheritances, and careful marriages, the family acquired
more and more land. By the 1500s, it owned most of southern
and central europe and much land in the americas. The
habsburg possessions became so big that, in 1556, the
ChaRles V
under Charles V, who reigned as holy
habsburg emperor, Charles V, split the land between Roman emperor from 1519 to 1556, the
members of his family. philip ii governed one half from
habsburgs reached the height of their
power. Charles V ruled a vast empire
FaMilY CResT Madrid, spain, while Ferdinand of austria governed shown in pink on the map above.
The crest of the the other half from Vienna, austria. The spanish
habsburg family was the habsburgs died out in 1700, but the austrian habsburgs continued to expand
black double-headed their empire. in the 19th century, however, their power began to weaken because
eagle. it appeared on all the empire contained so many different peoples. When it collapsed after World
their flags and banners.

War i (1914-18), four new
nations emerged: austria,
Joseph II

Czechoslovakia, hungary,
and Yugoslavia.

Joseph ii habsburgs
1273 Rudolf i becomes
From the time of the holy Roman emperor.
Rudolf i onward, 1282 albert i becomes first
the habsburg family extended its power throughout
europe. Joseph ii, son of Maria Theresa, was appalled by the habsburg ruler of austria.
living conditions of his poorer subjects. he began reforms 1438 albert ii becomes
that included freeing serfs holy Roman emperor.
and abolishing 1519 Charles V becomes
privileges. holy Roman emperor.
1526 Ferdinand, brother of
Charles, acquires Bohemia.
1556 Charles V splits
habsburg lands in half.
1700 Charles ii, last spanish
habsburg monarch, dies.
1740-1780 Maria Theresa
increases habsburg power
in europe.
1781 Joseph ii, son of Maria
Theresa, introduces major
reforms and frees serfs.
1867 austrian empire is split
between two monarchs:
austrian and hungarian.
1918 Charles i,
last habsburg
emperor, gives
up throne.

MaRia TheResa ausTRia Find out more
in 1740, Maria Theresa came under Maria Theresa, austria became the leading artistic center of europe. austria
to the austrian throne. she austria was home to the composers Franz Joseph haydn and Wolfgang
was only 23 and her empire was amadeus Mozart. artists and architects came from all over europe to work Charlemagne
bankrupt. over the next 40 years, on great palaces such as the schönbrunn in Vienna (above). europe, history of
she pulled austria back from
poverty and restored habsburg 247 France
power in europe. switzerland

HEALTH And fiTnEss

Regular, vigorous Are you heAlthy? Before answering, think about what
exercise helps prevent
you understand by “health.” It doesn’t just mean freedom from
heart disease. disease. health is a measure of how sound and vigorous both
Better hygiene and a more your body and mind are. A truly healthy person has a sense of
physical and mental well-being. our health is precious and
balanced diet could easily damaged. But there is much we can do to maintain it.
eliminate much ill health in eating well, exercising, and getting enough sleep all help keep
us healthy. Standards of health and health hazards are different
developed nations. from place to place. In some parts of the world, many people have
serious health problems because they are poor, hungry, and
without clean drinking water. In other places, stress at work,
lack of exercise, and too much food bring their own health
problems, such as heart disease.
People also damage their health
through the use of alcohol,
tobacco, and dangerous drugs.

KeePInG heAlthy ImmunIzAtIon
Good health includes preventing disease.
Food plays a large part in health. A healthy diet Immunization, sometimes called vaccination,
includes fresh fruit and vegetables, meat, fish, involves injecting the body with a vaccine.
bread, eggs, and milk, but not too many fatty, salty, this is a tiny dose of the infecting agent of
or sugary foods. exercise keeps the heart strong the disease, which has been specially treated
and prevents us from gaining too much weight. to render it safe. the vaccination provides
immunity, or protection, against the disease.
Observing a child at
play can help the It is now possible to immunize against
psychiatrist to make diphtheria, polio, tetanus, measles, mumps,
an assessment. rubella, tuberculosis, meningitis, and lots of
other illnesses. Immunization has completely

eradicated one disease—smallpox.

A doctor or nurse usually
gives immunizations by
injection.

mentAl heAlth
A healthy mind is just as
important as a healthy
body. Stress, drug abuse,
physical disease, and
family problems, such as
divorce, can all damage
mental health. Specialist
doctors who treat mental
health problems are
called psychiatrists. other
sources of help include
drug therapy, counseling,
and self-help groups.

heAlth checKuPS PuBlIc heAlth
through routine medical checkups, Dirt and lack of hygiene damage health.
doctors can detect health problems, If not controlled, they can extend to whole
such as cancer, at the early stages, cities and affect large populations. the Great
when treatment is most effective. Plague of london in 1665 is a good example.
During the 1840s, pioneers of public health
checkups can also reveal in europe worked to introduce clean water
hereditary health problems— supplies and good sewage systems. now,
diseases that pass from parents international agencies like the World health
organization have been set up to monitor
to children. public health.
To reveal cancer cells on a
microscope slide, technicians stain
the tissue sample with colored dyes.

248