Children's Illustrated Encyclopedia

russian federation

Space program
Volcano Mountain Ancient Capital Large Small russia’s space program began with
monument city city/ city/ the launch of the Sputnik satellite in
town town

1957. In 1965, the russian cosmonaut
aleksei Leonov became the first person to walk
StatiSticS in space. In 1969, the russians lost the race
area: 6,601,668 sq miles with the US to land a spacecraft on the moon.
(17,098,242 sq km) The russian craft mir, which orbited earth
Population: from 1986 to 2001, was the first continuously
142,424,000 inhabited research station in space. It was
capital: moscow made up of modules that were added to the
Language: russian station at different dates. astronauts stayed
Religion: russian on board for long periods of time, and supplies
orthodox were delivered by visiting spacecraft.
currency: ruble
Main occupations:
engineering, research,
agriculture
Main exports: oil,
natural gas, electricity,
vodka
Main imports: cars, cavIar
machinery caviar, an expensive delicacy, is
made from the tiny black eggs of
the beluga sturgeon, a type of
fish that lives in the Black and
caspian Seas. Jars of caviar are
rUSSIan LacqUerS exported worldwide.
Lacquered boxes have been made in the moscow
region for the last four centuries. The papier
mâché boxes are decorated with miniature aLaSKa
paintings of folk stories, rural scenes, dances,
forests, and fairy tales, and are then lacquered. (to US)

Franz Josef Chukchi Bering Strait
Wrangel S e a

Island
r U S S i a N F e D e r a T i O NK(apBaLlratirUcNok5ESof6KtliSK’asr4NbNevtar2GruaaroulDmGoslirs’nvsaopco.i-rzhonnFinnilgaeka’aNyuMrdy-rDa.ed)OUPrSSTSeBPayStCauNseraeklalatoaOrzoaiUvsVctVsavSgobltWne’ooaryvlu’riaalikogrnnkidgyoothvgasFrknaiY’NdNNCSahLOoiraPezKoamverhrUestagNNernaplzoonfaODoriazaryvbavanorelvu’At’odWsKrdrPgkaSsCnkhyeMkdaYhrtnamyueelgvBarklkemk’yoalaTaurVsS’aararhstnyoekbneeuatarnNsmirakkntiAaniWNsenrstOnn'aakbye’sdamusnyRtrm-PsMgZNkSleOaoaKmirvCbialaynyeararaiTTTaaLzSonSanmedIasNkDoruutiChndACginSunoegislkbnkuaTaeoatrarrPsayitalmarbalonTSytvSOerueZLUviareobemsaurwetn'lrl-yaaIiCaelayniamLnd aSskpeNEatkeeVvwIristVilSmaiAliynbudeyrsitLaNineYnsakakiyuEtsakAtaCsltheSSKreisobkaoemrgniosaao-nKmAomolylmu'sarke-
aY Anadyr B e r i n g PACIF IC
Sea
dy r
Ana
Volga ’ Ostrov
beL Karaginskiy
Koryak Range

Ural Khrebe Kamchatka Vulkan Klyuchevskaya
M o Pech VerkKhhoyraebnLeena Sopka 4750m
PYolaumosatlrov
P Petropavlovsk-
Olenë Kamchatskiy
Kotuy Magadan
Lower TYenisey Kurile Islands
b’ Sea of
Okhotsk
dan
Amur Sakhalin OCEAN
Makhachkala Novosibirsk Krasnoyarsk Tynda Am Yuzhno-
Sakhalinsk
Caspian
Kemerovo Lake ur Khabarovsk
K a Z a K H S T a NSea Baikal
C H i N a JaPaNScaLE BaR Blagoveshchensk
M O N G O L i a0 500 1000
Rubtsovsk barnaul irkutsk Chita

GorGa Belukha Kyzyl Ulan-Ude
o4r5a06Bme ha
l u k Vladivostok
Sea of Japan
km CHiNa N

0 500 1000 miles (East Sea)

WE

Lada S

In 1965, the russians signed a deal
with the Italian car company Fiat to
manufacture an economy car called
the Lada in the Soviet Union. Today, the
Lada is part of a group of companies that
includes renault and nissan. relatively
few russians own a car; however, the demand
for luxury western cars is growing.

449

Russian Revolution

In 1917, THe PeOPLe Of RussIA staged a revolution that was to change
the course of modern history. The Russian people were desperate for change.
Russia was suffering serious losses against Germany in World War I. food and
fuel were scarce. Many people were starving. czar nicholas II, ruler of Russia,
was blamed for much of this. In March 1917 (february in the old Russian
calendar), a general strike broke out in Petrograd (today’s saint Petersburg).
The strike was in protest against the chaos caused by the war. nicholas was
forced to give up his throne, and a group of revolutionaries, called the
Mensheviks, formed a provisional government. This government soon fell
because it failed to end the war. In november, the Bolsheviks, a more
extreme revolutionary group, seized power. They ended the war with
Germany and, led by Vladimir Lenin, set up the 1905 ReVOLuTIOn
world’s first communist state. They declared In 1905, unarmed workers marched
the country a soviet republic. This on nicholas II’s Winter Palace in saint
revolution was the first communist Petersburg. The czar’s troops fired on
the crowd. nicholas set up a Duma, or

an elected parliament. But the
Duma had no real power, so
takeover of a government. distrust of the czar grew.
It inspired more to follow.

OcTOBeR ReVOLuTIOn nIcHOLAs II russian revolution
What is known as the October Revolution Russia’s last czar, nicholas (1868-1918), 1914 Russia joins World War I
broke out on november 7, 1917 (October 25 in was out of touch with his subjects. They against Germany and Austria.
the old Russian calendar used before the revolution). 1916 One million Russian
The cruiser Aurora fired blanks across the neva River at the blamed him for the Russian defeats soldiers die after German
headquarters of the Menshevik government in the Winter in World War I (1914-18), where he offensive. Prices in Russia rise.
Palace. The Bolsheviks also attacked other important commanded at the front. His sinister 1917 March International
buildings in Petrograd. adviser, a monk named Rasputin, was Women’s Day march in
widely hated and feared. After nicholas Petrograd turns into bread
LenIn gave up the throne, he and his family riot. The Mensheviks set up a
were arrested. The Bolsheviks shot provisional government. The
Vladimir Lenin (1870- Bolsheviks organize another
1924), founder of them all the following year. government made up of
the Bolshevik party, committees called soviets.
450 July Lenin flees Russia.
believed in the october Lenin returns to
ideas of the German Petrograd.
writer Karl Marx. He november 7 Armed workers
lived mostly in exile seize buildings in Petrograd.
from Russia, until the november 15 Bolsheviks
October Revolution. He control Petrograd.
was a powerful speaker
whose simple slogan of Find out more
“Peace, land, and bread” communism
persuaded many Russians Human rights
to support the Bolsheviks. Russian federation
He ruled Russia as dictator. soviet union, history of
World war i

Polar orbit, used by Earth SatelliteS
observation satellites
Geostationary orbit, used satEllitE orbits Solar panels Radar altimeter provides
by communications satellites some communications satellites take generate data on wind speed, ocean
one day to orbit Earth, so they appear electricity from currents, and tides.
to remain fixed over one location. this kind sunlight to power
of orbit is called geostationary. a polar orbit the satellite.
allows a satellite to see the whole Earth in a
series of strips. in an elliptical orbit, a satellite
can pass low over a selected part of Earth.
Elliptical orbit, used
by spy satellites

WhEn airCraft and
balloons first took to the skies, the people
in them were amazed at their new view
of the world. from hundreds of feet
up they could see the layout of a large
city, the shape of a coastline, or the patchwork Infrared scanner Earth observation
of fields on a farm. today, we have an even wider view. measures water vapor in satellite ERS-2
the atmosphere and the
temperatures of seas and
cloud tops.
satellites circle Earth, not hundreds of feet, but hundreds
of miles above the ground. from this great height, satellites Antenna for transmitting
provide a unique image of our planet. some have cameras that take data back to Earth

photographs of land and sea, giving information about the changing artifiCial
environment on Earth. others plot weather patterns or peer out into
space and send back data (information) about planets and stars. all satEllitEs
of these are artificial satellites that have been launched into space
there are many types of
artificial satellites. Weather
satellites observe rain, storms,
from Earth. however, the word satellite actually means any object and clouds, and measure land and
that moves around another more massive one while being held in sea temperatures. Communications
orbit by gravity. there are countless natural satellites in the satellites send radio and television
universe: Earth has one—the moon. signals from one part of Earth to
another. spy satellites observe military
targets from low altitudes and send back
Mapping Earth detailed pictures to ground stations.
resources satellites take pictures of Earth observation satellites monitor
Earth’s surface. the cameras have vegetation, air and water pollution,
population changes, and geological
various filters so they can pick up factors, such as mineral deposits.
infrared (heat) radiation and different
colors of light. Vegetation, for instance,
reflects infrared light strongly, showing
up forests and woodlands. Computer-
generated colors are used to pick
out areas with different kinds of
vegetation and minerals.

Sputnik 1 natural satEllitEs The planet Jupiter with two of its
on october 4, 1957, the the planets in the solar system moons, Io (left) and Europa (right)
soviet union launched have 173 known natural satellites
the world’s first artificial (moons) altogether. Most of these Find out more
satellite, sputnik 1. it orbit (move around) the four astronomy
carried a radio transmitter giant outer planets: Jupiter, saturn,
that sent signals back to uranus, and neptune. the largest geology
Earth until sputnik 1 moons are bigger than Mercury, the navigation
burned up in the smallest planet; the smallest moons space flight
atmosphere 92 days later. are only a few miles across and have telephones
irregular, potatolike shapes. television
Satellite map image
of San Francisco Bay, 451
California. Clearly visible
are two bridges: the
Golden Gate Bridge
on the left and the
Bay Bridge on
the right.

scandinavia

At the fAr north of europe are the countries
of Scandinavia, which have much in common,
yet in some ways could not be more different.
their economies are closely linked, but each
uses its own currency. they are all
independent nations; but in times past,
Cross-country
skiing is a
popular sport several of them have been bound
in many parts together in a single union. each country
of Scandinavia. has its own language, yet strong cultural

ties exist between the nations. Landscapes are different, however. Denmark Geographically, Scandinavia
is flat—the biggest hill is only 567 ft (173 m) high—and most of the country consists of the norwegian/Swedish
is very fertile; but both norway and Iceland are mountainous, with little
farmland. Sweden and finland are dotted with lakes—more than 180,000 peninsula. But the name is also
in finland alone. Greenland is almost entirely covered in ice and snow. used widely to include Denmark
Politically, the different countries cooperate through the nordic Council, and finland. the faroe Islands,
Iceland, and Greenland are often

associated with Scandinavia.

which aims to strengthen ties between the nations. Denmark, finland,
and Sweden are members of the european Union, a trade alliance of
european nations. Most Scandinavians enjoy a high standard of
living and an active cultural life. norway and Sweden award
the annual nobel Prizes for sciences, literature, and the
promotion of peace.
The frozen north of Scandinavia,
called Lapland, is the home of
60,000 Lapps. Many of them live
by herding reindeer for
their hides and meat.

fInLAnD
Although finland is part of Scandinavia, it is closely tied to the
russian federation, and the two countries share a long frontier.
Until 1917, finland was a province of the old russian empire. today,
finnish trade is still conducted with the russian federation. forests
cover two-thirds of finland, and the paper industry dominates the
economy. Shipbuilding and tourism are also important. finland is
one of the world’s northernmost countries, and throughout the
winter months only the southern coastline is free of ice.
The Swedish
capital, Stockholm, is
built on numerous islands.

SweDen
the biggest of the Scandinavian
countries, Sweden is also the wealthiest. over the years,
the Swedes have developed a taxation and social welfare
system that has created a good standard of living for
most people. As a result, few people in Sweden are
either very rich or very poor. It has a population of
almost 10 million, most of whom live in the south and
east of the country; the mountainous north lies within
the Arctic Circle and is almost uninhabited.

norwAy Deep-sea fishing
is a major occupation
Shipping, forestry, and fishing were the traditional
norwegian industries. In 1970, however, oil was throughout Scandinavia.

discovered in the norwegian sector of the north Sea,
and the country’s fortunes were transformed. today,
around 5.2 million norwegians enjoy a high standard fIShInG
of living, low taxes, and almost no unemployment. But norway has almost the north Atlantic ocean provides a rich
no natural resources apart from oil and timber. the wooded country is marine harvest for Scandinavian fishermen.
mountainous and indented with numerous fjords, or inlets, from the high-quality cod and mackerel are caught in
north Atlantic ocean. these fjords make communications difficult between the cold, nutrient-rich waters. fish farming,
the cities in the south and the more sparsely populated regions in the north. especially in the fjords, is on the increase in
norway, the world’s largest salmon producer.

452

scandinavia

norTh Sea oil SaunaS
Discoveries of oil and natural gas beneath the north Sea Finland is home to the sauna, which has
began in 1959, when a seaward extension of a major natural become a national institution.
gas field in the northeastern part of the netherlands was The Finns have used the steam
identified. within two decades, natural gas production sites bath for centuries as a way of
were located along a 100-mile (160-km) band stretching cleansing and relaxing the
from the netherlands to eastern england. Farther north, body, and today most houses
norway’s first offshore oilfield went into production in 1971. in Finland have one. a sauna
Today, norway’s economy largely depends on its abundant is a small, very warm room
natural resources, and the country is europe’s largest oil that is filled with steam. The
producer. norway is self-sufficient in natural gas and oil. steam is produced by
pouring water over hot
This man is stones. as the water
cooling off in an crackles and spits, the air
fills with clouds of steam.
icy pool of water Cooling off under a cold
after a session in a sauna. shower or a plunge in an
icy pool (left) follows a
Copenhagen session in the sauna and
completes the process.
Copenhagen (right) is the Saunas are traditionally
capital of Denmark, and more fueled by wooden logs, but
than one quarter of all Danish they are increasingly powered by
people live in and around the electricity, especially in Finland’s cities.

North Sea oil, produced on oil rigs, city. Copenhagen is on the
such as the one pictured above, is east coast of Zealand, the
exported globally. Norway is a largest of 482 islands that
world leader in the construction
of drilling platforms. make up about 30 percent
FJorDS of Denmark. The low-lying
During the ice age, glaciers carved
steep-sided valleys in the rocks along Jutland peninsula to the
norway’s coast. as the ice melted, the west makes up the rest of
north Sea flowed in, creating fjords.
glaciers have cut hundreds of fjords into the land area.
Scandinavia’s atlantic coastline. Fjords
are usually deeper in their middle and
upper reaches than at the seaward end.
The water in these inlets is calmer than
in the open sea.

The farming Farming in SweDen
regions close to The fertile soil in
the Gulf of Bothnia southern Sweden
is best known for dairy products. makes this area the
most productive
farming area
in the country,
with pig
farming, dairy
farming, and
crops such as
wheat, barley,
and potatoes.
many Swedish
farmers belong
to agricultural
cooperatives that process
and distribute their crops.

The tranquil waters of a Norwegian fjord. Find out more
Fjords often reach great depths. The great antarctica
weight of the glaciers which formed them
eroded the bottom of the valley far below arctic
sea level. The best farming land is found europe
in the lowland areas around fjords.
oil
453

Scandinavia

Greenland 0 200 km iceland 0 50 100 km

Area: 836,330 sq miles 0 200 miles Area: 39,770 sq miles 0 50 100 miles

(2,166,086 sq km) (103,000 sq km)
Population: 58,000 Population: 332,000
ARCTIC OCE tait Greenland
A N Sea
Kap Morris Jesup Wandel Denmark S Ísafjördhur RaufarhöfnN o r w e g i a n
Lincoln Siglufjördhur
Sea Sea NordP
EllesmerNe aIrsQelsaaSntardanitaKanqud LRaansmd u ss en Húsavík Sea
ermanent Ice Cap
KonVgIIFIrLedaenridk Greenland Akureyri Egilsstadhir
Sea
Stykkishólmur I C E LVAatNnajDökull Neskaupstadhur
Limit ofpsauckm imceer (June) Djúpivogur
Faxa ói
Kap York GREENLAND REYKJAVÍK Selfoss Hvannadalshnúkur
2119m
Baffin (to Denmark) XChLraisntdian Thorlákshöfn
Bay Kullorsuaq Kong
A T L A N T I CSurtsey Vestmannaeyjar O C E A N
CANADA ice Ittoqqortoormiit
Baffin Island
pack K oInXg LCahnr ids t i a n Kap Brewster

(June) Uummannaq Gunnbjørn Fjeld
3700m
it Ammassalikecember) pack ice
Qeqertarsuaq Denmark Strait A R C T I C O C E A NMagerøya
of summer QeqTeurtnaurasuupSisimQiaustigiannguit SCALE BAR
Sørøya
Stra Maniitsoq 0 50 100 km NoTrtahnCapVeVaadrasøngVearhrKBaainlravgkøeryreafenjornedsetns S

L imit Nuuk CEAN 0 50 100 miles ea R US S IAN F ED E RATI ON

vis

a FKryestd erik

D Limit of winter (D n

Kong Ringvassøy F Alta Karigasniemi
VI Kvaløya innmarksvidda Inarijärvi
da
Senja Tromsø

Qaqortoq Andøya

Labrador Kap Farvel O Vesterålen Harstad
Sea
ATLANT IC oten rden HNinnaøryvaik Mu n
Bodø
Lof Torneträsk Ounasjokla Loken
Vestfjo Kiruna Tornionjoki Tekojävi
Kebnekaise a p Sodankylä
l 2112m L onioälv
e

S v a rtisen Skalka Gällivare i Kemijärvi
Rovaniemi
Faroe islands Norwegian ö
(denmark)
Area: 538 sq miles Sea Mo i Rana Luleälven KiKvemijoki alo Kuusamo
(1,393 sq km)
Population: 50,000 Børgefjellet Kalix

Vega K Piteälven Luleå Pudasjärvi
Skel Piteå Hailuoto
A TOLCAENA TNI C NamsosKvarvnabtetrngest- Storuman lefteälven Skellefteå RaahOOeuluujlou Suomussalmi
er Lycksele Gulf of
B ki
o
FAROE manälven thn i a Oulujärvi Kuhmo
ISLANDS Ång
N o r t hN O R W A Y S W E D E N F I NE SLnTAoONrNwIDaAyLeirHviKekrrHmiSÅsataBtluienaagsensvKuevrsasnreaguinrndMsAenkHtdgirndoaaeerlnJnddrosSdaSeutmnaukngløLDnedalSraihrvGlHkgalÅi(eeidim2GeieGtnohdFrS4manraradDm6attløördr9heamyohöeaamlntveøsnmmeHrVpnneVibäesefgajebtgnsrmeoaerlnuedldrMaFrOargresmolgb)sTusSøoMsnrrrLdjagøKoesnOaanrSdlVtsBeäthianoÖnederrksåinStjmseetSLoMrrMtrusrsJjuaöödöarnnmnlviuidekksnsVAöuLatBgpäajsnuÖIoksdinsdUtnnleLrdFelargneairapssnbåäluäÖupkssrlANvnLonörsvdonjpeaurssislrkntdNakaöSgHGVaöySlöldpkiäuudsHsvöidbnMenvlpäyieirdgSkäkrihslnnsaTvavgröamaeNslnOllalGnonroCAdrstllKtSaaäReKnRUanaleMdjndpaHemlukaoteramOiåaeanNhLVpaäaHämMrHPaäpäsonaemarnN(TsJiaeÅkäKLukesoibeoanjräupbolkrivrusEn)uiutTaansGupadaVumoaolpnf etIaoriasefaÄKJPHlyFmääLuvKinijäEoaiaäenshplnlkkLantliyoiovaelSesäsnHKkiIKiIaodNomPuVutikevaakKilvoitranerklLIsNeaaianSauaupirsmpmaeJaeoesnenrasunutaUmeälven

(to Denmark)

Kalsoy Bordhoy
VestmStraeynmnoay
Klaksvík en
Eysturoy

Vágar Tórshavn
Sandoy Húsavík
n

Sudhuroy Klarälven
Glåma
0 50 100 ATLANTIC
km OCEAN

0 50 100 miles Aland

denmark k
Area: 16,638 sq miles Vättern
(43,094 sq km)
Population: 5,581,500 a
Capital: copenhagen Aalborg
Finland
Area: 130,558 sq miles S e a (323,802Asrqekam: 1)25,020 sq milesViborg
(338,145 sq km)
Population: 5,477,000 D E N M A R K S e PCoappiutlaalt:ioons:lo5,208,000Ringkøbing J u t l a n d
Capital: Helsinki Læsø Varberg Växjö Oskarshamn

ÅrhKuast t e g a t Halmstad Kalmar N
Kristianstad Öland

Karlskrona
cEsbjerg COPENHAGEN Helsingborg
t i swedenRibe Odense
a l Area: 173,859 sq milesÅbenra
Fyn Sorø Malmö
Zealand
B (450,295 sq km)Small W E
Lolland Falster Bornholm
Nykøbing
Volcano Mountain Ancient Capital Large Population: 9,801,500city/
monument city city/ G E R M A N Y Capital: stockholmtown
town
S

454

Science

TA glass rod in a hERE aRE many foRms of sCiEnCE, and together the sciences seek
beaker of water to understand the nature and behavior of the universe and everything in it.
looks bent science comes from the Latin word for “to know.” scientists find out what
because light they want to know by practical methods. They observe, take measurements,
waves travel make experiments, and write down the results. There are four main categories
slower through (types) of science: natural sciences, physical sciences, technological sciences,
water than
through air.

PhysiCs and social sciences. natural sciences include the life sciences, such as biology
Physics is the
study of matter and botany, and Earth sciences, such as geology. Physical sciences include
and energy and physics and chemistry. Technological science includes engineering and uses
how they work information discovered by scientists to make or build things in the real
together. Because world. social sciences study people and include anthropology
there are many different kinds of and psychology. all the
matter and forms of energy, there sciences depend on
are many different branches of mathematics.
physics. optics, for example, looks
at the different way light waves can A simple experiment A measured amount of salt
behave. for instance, they travel at to find out how much is mixed in to a measured
different speeds through space, air, salt can be dissolved amount of water.
glass, or water. in water

sCiEnTifiC mEThod
scientific method involves
using observation and More salt is added to the
hypothesis (theory) to water until the salt no
explain things and then longer dissolves but
testing these theories
sinks to the bottom of
the jar. This is called

the saturation point.

with experiments. To be
sure that their results are
accurate, scientists always
follow strict rules when
making an experiment.
in an experiment only the
conditions under test
must change, everything
else must be kept the
same. in this way,
differences in the results
should only be caused by
the experimenter’s EaRTh sCiEnCEs
deliberate changes. Geography and geology are Earth sciences.

Bean shoot Shoot grows up Earth scientists study the structure of our
toward the sun. planet and the way it changes. The study
of rocks and fossils can tell us a lot about
the way the planet and its life have evolved.
since Earth is a living planet, the Earth
LifE sCiEnCEs sciences are linked to
any of the sciences that study the life sciences.

living things is called a life science.
Biology is the study of life
of all kinds, botany is the
study of plants, and Geologists study rocks
zoology is the study of and crystals.

animals. Because
animal and plant life
depend on each other,
scientists also study them
together Ecology is the
study of the relationships Chrysocolla

between living things of Cyanotrichite
all kinds and how they
soCiaL sCiEnCEs fit in with and affect
The sciences that study people are called social sciences. their environments. Find out more
There are various kinds. anthropology is the study of the life Roots absorb water Biology
and culture of the whole of humanity. sociology studies the and nutrients.
way humans behave together in groups; it looks at how Chemistry
families work, how society is made up, what makes it change, Earth
and how the changes affect people. Psychology is also a social Physics
science, but it looks at how people behave as individuals.
Rocks and minerals

455

S HISTORY OF

CIenCe

aNcIeNt tIMeS Space travel, computers, and reliable medical care are
early people first invented tools
about 2 million years ago. about just a few of the things that owe their existence to scientists
10,000 years ago, people began to and inventors. Scientists study the natural world, from distant
settle in communities and started galaxies to tiny atoms, and try to explain what they see.
farming and building. the first the work of a scientist is based on a cycle of experiment,
observation, and theorization (making theories).
civilizations grew up in the
Middle east, africa, India, and For instance, in the 17th century, english scientist Isaac
china. there, people studied Newton experimented with sunlight passing through
the sun and stars, built simple a prism. From the spectrum (bands of colors) that he
clocks, developed mathematics, observed, he suggested the theory that white light is a
mixture of colors. Inventors are people who think of
and discovered how to make
metals and pottery. a new idea that can be put into practice. an
invention may be the result of a scientific
This stone blade was used discovery, such as the laser, which theodore
about 200,000 years ago in Egypt. Maiman (1927-2007) built because of his
knowledge of light and atoms. However,
The wheel The plow this is not always the case. early people
was invented was invented in invented the lever before they knew how
in about about 4000 bce. it worked. Whatever their chosen fields,
3500 bce. scientists and inventors have one thing in
common: they are people of rare insight
GreeKS aND roMaNS who make discoveries new to the world.
From about 600 bce, the
Greeks began to study their
world. Great philosophers
The pump was (thinkers) such as pythagoras
invented in the developed the “scientific
2nd century bce. method”—the principle of 1000-1600 ce

observation and experiment that During this period,
arabic civilizations made
is still the basis of science today. several discoveries,
the Greeks studied mathematics
and astronomy and invented arcHIMeDeS particularly about the
simple machines. at around the Greek scientist archimedes nature of light. after
same time, the romans used (287-212 bce) explained about 1000 ce, people in
Hero of Greece Greek scientific ideas to help how levers and pulleys work europe began to use the
built the first them build great structures. and discovered how things scientific method of the
simple steam float. this idea is said to ancient Greeks. polish
engine in the
have come to him
while he was astronomer Nicolaus
1st century ce. in his bath. copernicus (1473-1543)

A balloon first suggested that earth
carried people orbits the sun, and
in 1783.

Archimedes’ leoNarDo Da vINcI andreas vesalius
screw was a the great Italian artist and (1514-64), a Flemish
device for inventor leonardo da vinci doctor, made discoveries
raising water. (1452-1519) designed about human anatomy.
many machines, including
a parachute and a helicopter.
However, these machines In 1438, Johannes
were not built in his lifetime. Gutenberg of Germany
(c.1398-1468) invented
In 1608, Dutch the modern
optician Hans printing process.
Lippershey invented 1600-1800
the telescope. Italian scientist Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
ISaac NeWtoN made discoveries about force, gravity, and motion.
In 1687, Isaac Newton Modern astronomy began in 1609, when German
(1642-1727) published the astronomer Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) discovered
daring idea that gravity is a the laws of planetary motion and Galileo built
universal force, keeping planets a telescope to observe the heavens. During the 1700s,
and moons in their orbits as the first engines were built by inventors such as James
well as causing things to fall to the Watt (1736-1819) of Scotland. chemistry advanced
ground. Newton (right) also put as scientists discovered how everything is composed
forward the famous laws of motion, of chemical elements such as oxygen and hydrogen.
and found that white light is
composed of the colors in the rainbow.

456

science, history of

1800-1900 History
of science
The invention of the battery by Italian Alessandro Volta
(1745-1827) led to discoveries about electricity and 5000 bce Metal objects first
magnetism by scientists such as Englishman Michael Faraday made in Middle East.
400 bce Greek scientist
(1791-1867) and many electrical inventions such as electric Democritus suggests that all
light. Englishman John Dalton (1766-1844) and other things are made of atoms.
scientists found out that everything is made of tiny atoms. 105 ce Chinese inventor Ts’ai
Frenchman Louis Pasteur (1822-95) showed that bacteria Lun makes paper.
cause disease, which led to better healthcare. Transportation 650 ce Persians invent the
advanced with the invention of locomotives, powered ships, windmill.
and cars. 1000 ce Chinese use
gunpowder in warfare.
The telephone was invented by In 1804, 1657 Dutchman Christiaan
a Scottish-American, Alexander Englishman Huygens constructs
Richard Trevithick pendulum clock.
Graham Bell, in 1876. invented the 1712 English engineer Thomas
steam locomotive. Newcomen builds first practical
THoMAS EDISoN In 1895, Italian scientist Guglielmo steam engine.
Thomas Edison (1847-1931) was one of the world’s most Marconi invented radio transmission. 1775 Englishman Joseph
successful inventors. He made more than 1,000 inventions, Priestley discovers oxygen.
including a sound recording system (patented 1878) and a WRIGHT BRoTHERS 1789 French scientist Antoine
system for making motion pictures. Edison was also one of In 1903, orville Lavoisier explains chemical
the inventors of the electric light bulb. Wright (1871-1948) reactions.
and his brother 1803 English scientist John
1900 To THE PRESENT Dalton explains existence
Wilbur (1867-1912) of atoms.
Scientists delved into the atom, finding electrons made the 1826 Frenchman Joseph
and the nucleus, and then studied the nucleus first powered Niépce takes first photograph.
itself. This led to the invention of nuclear power 1879 Thomas Edison (US)
and to the science of electronics, which brought airplane flight. and Englishman Joseph Swan
us television, computers, and the Internet. WILLIAM SHoCKLEy invent electric light bulb.
Scientists also explored living cells and found new 1885 German engineer Karl
ways of fighting diseases. Astronomers studied stars, Computers, televisions, and other Benz builds first car.
planets, and distant galaxies. The invention of electronic devices depend on 1888 German scientist Heinrich
aircraft and space flight allowed people to travel into the transistor, invented in 1948 Hertz discovers radio waves.
the air and out into space. by a team of scientists headed by 1898 French-Polish scientist
William Shockley (1910-1989). Marie Curie discovers radium.
Several scientists Now millions of transistors can 1911 English scientist Ernest
developed television be packed into a tiny microchip. Rutherford discovers nucleus
during the 1920s. of the atom.
The first public 1924 US astronomer
television Edwin Hubble discovers
service started galaxies and, in 1929, the
in the 1930s.
expansion of the universe.
Theodore Maiman 1942 Italian scientist
and Charles Townes Enrico Fermi builds first
invented the first nuclear reactor.
working laser in 1960. 1959 Soviet Union
launches first space probe.
Artificial
satellites were 1969 ARPANET (first
first launched version of the Internet)
goes live.
in 1957.
1993 World Wide
In 1943-45, a team Web developed.
of British scientists 2003 Scientists
map the entire
built the first fully human genetic
electronic computer. structure.

ALBERT EINSTEIN MAx PLANCK Find out more
In 1905 and 1915, the In about 1900, German scientist Max Biology
German scientist Albert
Planck (1858-1947) published his Chemistry
Einstein (1879-1955) quantum theory, which explained Medicine, history of
proposed his theories
of relativity. They showed the nature of energy and led to Physics
that light is the fastest many new ideas. For example, Renaissance
thing in the universe and although we usually think of light as
that time would slow waves, quantum theory explains how Science
down, length would light sometimes seems to behave Technology
shorten, and mass would as tiny particles called photons.
increase if you could travel
at almost the speed of light.
The sun’s source of energy
and nuclear power, and how
black holes can exist in space
are explained by his discoveries.

457

SEASHORE WILDLIFE

SeaSide dangerS a SeaSHore iS forMed wherever the land meets the sea
Most of these baby turtles,
hatching from eggs buried and can be a polar ice cliff or a tropical beach. The endless
by their mother in the motion of the waves, and the tide going in and out, means
sand, will die. They are the shore changes constantly with time. each seashore has its
food for gulls, crabs, own selection of plant and animal life, specially adapted to
lizards and other
hunters. Humans an environment governed by the rhythm of the tides.
also steal the eggs. inhabitants of the seashore must survive pounding waves,
Conservation
efforts are now salty seawater, fresh rainwater, drying winds, and hot
being made to sunshine. Plants thrive along rocky coasts and in some
protect turtles. muddy areas, providing food and shelter for creatures, but
Gulls hover over the they cannot grow on shifting sand or pebbles. Here, the
sea looking for fish, inhabitants depend on the tide to bring new supplies of
while waders hunt food, in the form of particles floating in the water. Successful
around the shore. seashore animal groups include mollusks and crustaceans,
both of which are protected by hard casings.

Seagull

Sandy Lace coral can survive Many sea birds
beaCHeS harsh rubbing by the wave- patrol the coast,
Waves roll washed sand grains. It provides searching for food
and tumble the a refuge for animals or scavenging on the
tiny grains of in its lacy folds.
sand on the beach. Common starfish dead bodies of cast-
Plants cannot get a firm up sea creatures.
hold on this type
of shore, so they Wading birdS gHoST Crab
usually grow higher Waders probe into sand or mud There are hundreds of
up. although the with their long, narrow bills to kinds of shore crabs along the
sandy beach often looks find shellfish and worms. Large world’s coastlines. They are
deserted, dozens of species with the longest bills, such the seashore’s “cleaners;”
creatures are just below as the curlew (above), reach they consume almost anything edible—living
the surface. Sand makes or dead. The ghost crab (above right) takes
an ideal hiding place for down several inches for deeply its name from its ghostly pale color.
burrowing creatures. buried items. Smaller waders,
Many filter food from the such as the black-bellied
seawater when the tide dunlin, take food from
is in or digest tiny edible just below the surface.
particles in the sand.

Sand HoPPer egg CaSeS
Sand hoppers are Sharks and rays lay
crustaceans which their eggs near the
razor CLaM feed on rotting
So called because it looks shore, anchored to seaweeds or rocks by
like an old-fashioned cut- vegetation. They clinging tendrils. When the young fish hatch,
swarm over seaweed
throat razor, the razor that has washed up on the egg cases, known as “mermaid’s purses,”
clam has a hinged shell. come free and are often washed up on the shore.
The mollusk inside digs shore and, when in
danger, leap away on their strong Sand eeL
quickly by pushing its back legs, hence their name. Many animals, from puffins to herrings,
strong, fleshy foot into
the sand and then feed on the sand eel (right). in turn,
pulling the shell down. Weever fiSH the sand eel eats even smaller fish,
The weever lies half buried in the sand, waiting
to gobble up small fish, crabs, and shrimps. as well as worms and plankton. it is
it has poisonous not a true eel, but an eel-shaped
The burrowing sea spines on its fins, member of the perch group.
anemone’s arms spread out to which give a nasty it lives in shallow water.
sting and catch small prey. Its sting if the fish is
stalk, up to 12 in (30 cm) long, stepped on.
is used to hold on to the sand.

458

seashore wildlife

salT maRshes Some large seaweeds are
salt marshes form at the back of the shore, called kelps, such as sugar
where the tide floods flat areas of land kelp and oarweed.

near a river’s mouth. Plants such as
cordgrass, glasswort, eelgrass, sea club
rush, and sea starwort are able to
survive in the salt that builds up in the
soil. Birds such as geese, gulls, and
terns can feed on salt marshes all year
round, especially in the winter, when
inland areas are frozen solid. some birds
use salt marshes as summer breeding
grounds, some as stopovers while migrating.
seaWeed
Cliffs
There are three main
only a few very agile land kinds of rocky-shore
animals, such as snakes, can seaweeds, also known as algae:
reach precarious cliff ledges. brown, red, and green. They do
so the ledges are safe nesting not have roots, stems, or leaves.
sites for a variety of birds, instead, most anchor themselves
to the rocks by structures called
from gannets to gulls, holdfasts. The larger brown
razorbills, and cormorants. and red weeds have stemlike
stipes, ending in leaflike blades
a few plants, like thrift known as laminae or fronds.
(“sea pink”), also gain a
foothold, provided they

can withstand strong
winds and salty spray.

Periwinkles seal themselves to
the rock with mucus as the tide
retreats, to keep from losing RoCky shoRes
water and drying out. Rocks provide a firm surface for seaweed,

and many creatures shelter among
the fronds. But the weeds still face
problems. Waves smash them against
the hard stony surface, and they are
regularly submerged by salt water, and then left
high and dry at low tide. shellfish cling to the
rocks, and a variety of fish and crabs adapt
themselves to the ever-changing conditions,
hiding from predators in holes and crevices.

Whelks
These rocky-shore scavengers hunt
for dead or dying animals. They are ChiTon
Chitons are also
relatives of land snails and find prey by called “coat of mail
“smelling” the water, which they draw shells” because they look
in through a periscope-like siphon. like chainmail armor.

anemones each chiton has an eight-
These jellyfish relatives use part shell set into its broad,
their tentacles to sting small fleshy body. it can grip
fish, shrimps, and other a rock very firmly. These
creatures and draw them Barnacle mollusks feed on small algae
into the body cavity through
the mouth. When the tide manTis shRimP from the rock surface.
goes out, the tentacles fold
inward for protection. The mantis shrimp, a crustacean, hides in a hole waiting
for prey. When a fish or other victim approaches,
the shrimp stuns it by a lightning blow
from its club-shaped
second “leg.”

Branching holdfast Red
provides shelter for seaweed
small animals

sea sTaR Find out more
The biscuit sea star Corals, anemones,
feeds on shellfish,
sea squirts, corals, and jellyfish
sponges, and other
animals. it glides Crabs and other crustaceans
along on dozens fish
of tiny, sucker-tipped
hydraulic tube feet lake and river wildlife
located on its underside. oceans and seas
ocean wildlife
459
shells and shellfish

ShakWeilSliapmeare

The greaTesT playwrighT of all time was
probably the englishman william shakespeare.
he was born in stratford-upon-avon, where he
went to school and later married. when he was in
his 20s, he went to london to work as an actor and
a playwright. his plays were very successful, and
37 of them survive. some, such as Hamlet, are
1564 Born, stratford-upon- tragedies, which end with the death of the hero The graMMar sChOOl
avon, england. or heroine. Others, such as Twelfth Night, are with its rows of wooden desks, the
1582 Marries anne old grammar school still stands in
hathaway. stratford. shakespeare was probably
1592 writes his first plays educated here.
in london. comedies, full of amusing characters who get into
1594-99 produces early terrible difficulties that are eventually resolved. shakespeare also wrote
comedies, and many histories that are based on real-life events, such as Henry IV. Most of
history plays. shakespeare’s plays are written in an unrhymed verse form called blank
1599 globe Theater verse. They are famous worldwide for their use of language, fascinating
constructed. characters, and wide appeal.
1600-08 writes many of his King’s Men
greatest tragedies. Male actors played in the 1590s, shakespeare
1616 Dies in stratford- female roles.
upon-avon.
joined a troupe of actors
called the lord
Chamberlain’s Men and
became their resident writer.
when James i came to the
throne in 1603, they gained
his support and became
known as the King’s Men.
They had their own theater,
the globe, near the Thames
river in london.

Henry Wriothesley The audience was it bacon?
pOeTry stood around in the 19th century,
shakespeare was a fine poet the stage. some people thought
and wrote a series of 14-line that the learned writer
love poems called sonnets. Francis Bacon (1561-
They are addressed to two 1626) had written
different people, “a dark shakespeare’s plays,
lady” and Mr. w.h. some because shakespeare
scholars believe that Mr. had not gone to
w.h. may have been henry college, but there is
wriothesley, the Third earl no real evidence that
of southampton, who was proves this.
shakespeare’s patron.
Find out more
English A MIdsuMMer NIgHT’s dreAM elizabeth i
actress, One of shakespeare’s most popular plays, A literature
Maggie Midsummer Night’s dream, is a comedy. The play
Smith, in a has a huge cast of characters, including two young Theater
performance of couples who fall in and out of love, a group of writers and poets
A Midsummer workmen, and the king and queen of the fairies,
Night’s Dream. who create hilarious confusion with their magic.

460

SharkS and rayS Good sense
of smell for
hunting
a perfecT sHape for speed, an incredible sense
of smell, and a mouth brimming with razor-sharp
Long tail used for
rounding up fish in
teeth make sharks the most fearsome fish in the the water
sea. sharks have existed for 350 million years,
and their basic shape has hardly changed at The thresher shark
all during this time. as adults, they have no lashes the water
with its tail to
sweep fish into a
predators and fear nothing in the ocean. group. Then, with
The great white shark is the largest predatory its mouth open,
fish, at more than 27 ft (9 m) in length and the shark charges
through, gobbling
2.7 tons in weight. dozens of huge teeth line them up.

its jaws. The great white shark prowls the ocean, Excellent
eyesight for
eating any kind of meat, alive or dead, and often spying prey
swallows its prey in one gulp. sharks have to keep
moving in order to take in enough oxygen, and
the great white travels more than 300 miles
(500 km) in a day. although most fish have bony THresHer sHark
skeletons, sharks and their relatives, the rays, have This shark measures fIn
skeletons made of a substance called cartilage.
20 ft (6 m) in length. It a shark’s
rays are flat-bodied, with a wide mouth on lives mainly in the warm dorsal (back)
the underside and blunt teeth for coastal waters of the fin cuts the sea’s
crushing clams and other atlantic and pacific surface as the shark circles before
shellfish. rays live close to the oceans but sometimes attacking. The dolphin’s fin is
strays north in summer. more crescent-shaped.

seabed and move gracefully
by flapping their huge wings.

Stingrays have a poison
spine on the tail.

sTIngray TeeTH
sharks have many rows of
There are about 100 teeth. as they grow, the
kinds of stingrays—the teeth move from inside
biggest measures 12 ft Shark the mouth to the outside
(4 m) across. tooth edge, where they are used
Sharks’ teeth have a for tearing flesh. eventually
Whale shark serrated edge so they the teeth wear away or break
The harmless whale shark cruises Huge can saw through flesh. off, only to be replaced by the
slowly through the tropical oceans, wings teeth behind.
feeding by filtering tiny floating
animals (plankton) from the water. skIn
It is a peaceful creature and is the shark skin is covered with
biggest fish of any kind, at 50 ft Dorsal fin toothlike scales and has
(15 m) long.
Dorsal fin a texture like sandpaper.

Upper lobe of Pectoral fin Nostrils are excellent
caudal fin (tail) at detecting the smell of
blood in the water.

swImmIng macHIne
The shark’s swimming power comes from its tail. The larger upper lobe drives

it down with each stroke and helps keep the body level; otherwise the
creature’s weight would tilt its head down. a shark cannot swivel its
fins to stop quickly. It must veer to one side instead.

A human can swim safely with the gentle whale HammerHead Find out more
shark, the biggest fish in the sea. The eyes and nostrils animal senses
of the hammerhead
shark are on the two animals
“lobes” of its head. fish
Hammerheads prey on
stingrays, unharmed by ocean wildlife
the poison in their spines.

461

ShellS and ShellfiSh

ALL THE WONDERFUL sHELLs you find
on the seashore were once the homes
Tentacles

of soft-bodied sea creatures. These Head

creatures are commonly known as
shellfish, although they are not fish
at all, but mollusks, like slugs and
snails. There are thousands of
ARgONAUT different kinds of shellfish living
The paper nautilus is in the sea, including mussels,
a type of octopus that oysters, and clams. Many, such
makes a thin shell to as the winkle, have small,
keep its eggs in. it is also delicate shells; others, such
known as the argonaut,
after the sailors of greek
legend, because people
believed they used its
papery shell as a boat. as the queen conch, have big, iNsiDE A sHELL
heavy shells. The shell itself is like The pearly nautilus
a house, built by the shellfish. As it has a shell with many
feeds, the shellfish extracts calcium carbonate from the chambers. As it grows,
the animal shuts off more
chambers by building a
water. This mineral is used by the shellfish to build up “wall” and lives only
layers of shell, little by little. As the creature grows bigger, in the last chamber.
its shell grows bigger too. some shellfish live in a single,
coiled shell; others, known as bivalves, have a hinged
shell with two sides that open and close for feeding.
NAUTiLUs
This predator and scavenger hunts
HOW sHELLs gROW Growth rings on at night. it lives in the indian and
shellfish hatch as larvae from eggs, and adult triton shell pacific oceans and has more than
then develop shells. Creatures with single 30 tentacles for catching prey.
coiled shells, such as this triton, grow by
adding layers of shell-building material
(calcium carbonate) to the open end. HiNgED sHELLs Inside a cockle
Hinged-shell creatures, such as The two sides of a hinged Hinge Siphons for
shell (bivalve) are held breathing
cockles, add calcium carbonate to
the rounded edges, in the form together by a tough
of coils called growth rings. ligament. powerful
muscles keep the valves
closed for protection.
Larva has a The valves open slightly MUssEL
smooth shell. to allow the creature The mussel
to breathe and feed. is a common
Eggs bivalve on many
Foot
Gills filter food
from the water. seashores.

COCkLE sHELL
The ridged cockle
buries itself in
sand and feeds
when the tide
Young shells are tiny Growth rings are slowly comes in.
and have few coils. added to the open end.

How a pearl is made sCALLOp Inside a scallop
if a piece of grit gets lodged in an oyster’s The scallop is
shell, the oyster covers it with mother-of-
pearl (nacre), a substance lining its shell. able to swim
by “flapping”
its two valves.
By snapping
the two sides shut, it can shoot through the
water to escape from a predator.

Tiny piece of Mother-of-pearl Pearl comes free, pEARL Find out more
grit irritates (nacre) forms removing the We value oyster pearls highly Animals
oyster. over grit. irritation. because of their white, shiny
appearance, but other kinds of Animal senses
shellfish make pearls too. The Caribbean conch ecology and food webs
makes pink pearls, and some shellfish make
orange ones. The pearl shown here is a “blister Ocean wildlife
pearl” on a black-lipped oyster shell. seashore wildlife

462

ShipS and boatS Traditional craft such as this
Chinese junk are still used in
some parts of the world.
eveR since ouR eaRliest ancestors discovered that
wood floats on water, ships and boats have played a major
part in human history. the first boats helped people
cross streams and rivers and carried hunters into
shallow waters so they could go fishing. Better ways
of building ships and boats began to develop when
people left their homes to explore new territories.
since more than two-thirds of earth is covered by water,
these early explorers had to go out to sea to discover new
sHipBuilding lands, and they needed vessels that could make long voyages.
Modern ships are built of steel ships and boats changed and improved over thousands of years
plates welded together. ship-
builders make all the parts
separately and finally assemble the as distant nations began to trade and opposing navies fought battles at sea.
ship in the shipyard. after months today, there are thousands of different types of ships and boats. ships
of sea trials to check its safety, the
ship is ready for service. A crane (called a are seagoing vessels; boats are generally smaller
The captain commands the derrick), driven by and travel on coastal or inland waters.
ship from the bridge, which steam or electricity,
houses the steering wheel and is used to load and Weight of ship Upthrust from water
navigation instruments such as unload cargo. pushing upward

compasses, radar equipment, pushing
and charts. downward

Propeller HoW sHips float
although metal is very heavy, a ship
Rudder contains large spaces filled with air.

RuddeR and Cabins for crew the hull (main body)
pRopelleR to sleep in when of a ship pushes water
a rotating propeller not on duty
forces the ship through out of the way, and
the water, and the rudder steers Main body of the water pushes
the ship. When the rudder twists, the ship is back on the ship
the weight of water thrusting called the hull.
against it turns the ship. with a force called
Cargo is stored in a large compartment upthrust. the
A powerful diesel engine drives below the deck, called a hold. Large
one or more propellers at the modern cargo vessels may have 12 or upthrust balances
stern (back) of the ship. more holds. Ships that carry fresh food the weight of the ship
have refrigerated holds.
Kinds of sHips and keeps it afloat.
The front end of a ship
there are many kinds of ships. is called the bow.
they range from passenger vessels
to cargo ships that carry goods of caRgo sHip
all types to and from
the world’s ports. every year, cargo ships carry
millions of tons of goods across the world’s
oceans. some cargo ships, called container ships,
carry huge loads piled up in large, steel boxes
that stack together like building blocks. the

largest ships of this kind carry more than
10,000 such containers.

feRRy oil tanKeR cRuise lineR tRaWleR
ferries take people and goods oil is transported at sea in huge liners are large ships that carry trawlers are engine-powered fishing
across a stretch of water. large tankers. the engines and bridge passengers on scheduled routes. Most boats that drag a net (the trawl) along
ferries carry cars, trucks, and are at the stern to give more liners are like floating hotels and take the seabed in order to catch fish that
trains, as well as people. storage space.
tourists on lengthy cruises. swim near the bottom of the sea.

463

ShipS and boatS

HiStorY oF SHipS And boAtS Hydrofoil
A boat’s engine has to work hard to overcome the
the development of ships began more than 6,000 years ago resistance of the water. Light, fast boats called hydrofoils
with rafts and reed boats, and continues today with the avoid this problem because they rise up on skis at high
introduction of nuclear-powered ships speeds. With the hydrofoil traveling so rapidly, water
and boats made of light, strong plastics. behaves as if it were a solid, so the hydrofoil skims over
the water surface just like an airplane wing in air.
Hide boAt
About 6,000 years ago the Ancient egyptians
used boats made of a wicker framework covered
with animal skins. in about 3200 bce, the
egyptians invented sails.

trireme Any force can be divided into Air rushing past the
the Greeks invented the trireme (above) in two parts at right angles to sail produces a
each other. The part force that tends
about 650 bce. it had sails and lines of rowers along the length of
to carry it along at speed. the romans the boat drives to move the boat
built similar ships for trade and war. the boat forward. at right angles
to the wind.
Groups of rowers were positioned on two levels. Wind rushing past sail

Wind pushing on sail

CLipper SteAmSHipS Centerboard HoW A boAt SAiLS
Fast sailing ships called clippers (above) oceangoing steamships (below) prevents the modern sailing boats do not need the wind
appeared during the 19th century, the took to the seas early in the 19th boat from drifting behind them to move—they can travel in almost
height of the age of sailing. they carried century. the earliest vessels had with the wind and
many sails and had sleek lines to paddles connected to the engine stops the boat any direction. in the same way that
increase speed. Clippers were from capsizing. air rushing over the wings of an
used mainly for trade. and sails to gain extra speed in airplane produces an upward force
high winds. Ships with called lift, wind moving past a sail produces a force
propellers entered at right angles to the sail. Adjusting the sail makes
service during the boat move in different directions.
the 1840s. With the wind behind the
boat, the sail is stretched
out across the boat.

Direction of wind

A sailing boat cannot Direction of
travel directly into the movement
wind. Instead, it must The boat heads into the
follow a zigzag path. wind with the sail drawn
This is called tacking. in as tightly as possible.

KindS oF boAtS Direction of movement With
the wind to the
different boats have different uses. many boats, such side of the boat, the
as yachts, are pleasure craft; tugs and sail is drawn in more
fishing boats, however, are the tightly. The boat travels fastest
workhorses of coastal waters. with the wind in this position.

poWerboAt tuGboAt YACHt Find out more
powerboats are small, fast boats tugs tow larger vessels, guiding Yachts are pleasure boats. they navigation
driven by powerful gas or diesel them through difficult or shallow have engines or sails. racing yachts oceans and seas
engines. they are used either for waters at sea or on inland are built purely for speed and are ports and waterways
pleasure or for racing. waterways, such as canals. made of strong, light materials. Submarines
technology

Wind

464

SKELETONS

InsIDe tHe HUMan BoDY hundreds of bones link Skull HUMan skeleton
there are 206 bones in the
together like scaffolding to form the skeleton. Without a Maxilla human skeleton, including 28
skeleton, the body would collapse. the skeleton holds the (upper jaw) in the skull, 26 in the spine,
body rigid and gives shape to all the softer parts. It also Mandible 30 in each arm, 30 in each
protects the organs—the skull surrounds the brain, and (lower jaw) leg, and 25 in the chest. the
the ribs act as a protective cage around the lungs and Cervical (neck) largest bone is in the thigh,
heart. the skeleton is also an anchor for the muscles, vertebrae and the smallest ones are the
which move the different parts of the body. ossicles, which are three tiny
Bone is made of living cells surrounded by a
framework of minerals, particularly calcium bones inside each ear.
and phosphate, and tough fibers of a
substance called collagen. In a newborn baby Clavicle
many of the bones are made of a soft, rubbery (collarbone)
substance called cartilage. as a baby grows, the Scapula
cartilage is gradually replaced by hard bone. our (shoulder blade)
wrists and ankles are among the last to become
bone. In later life, bones gradually become more Sternum
fragile and brittle and break more easily. (breastbone)

12 pairs of ribs

Humerus
(upper arm bone)

Internal skeletons Lumbar (lower back)
Humans and other mammals, fish, birds, and reptiles vertebrae
all have an endoskeleton, or inner skeleton, made up of Ulna
many separate (forearm bone)
bones. the central Radius
part of the skeleton (forearm bone)
Lizard has an internal is the spine (vertebral Carpals
skeleton, like other column or backbone). (wrist bones)
vertebrates.
Metacarpals
the spinal joints can (palm bones)
move only a little, but Phalanges
the spine as a whole is (finger bones)
very flexible. some creatures,
such as worms, have no bones. Hip joint Soft, spongy
Instead, the pressure of fluid Pelvic bone inside
inside their bodies helps them
keep their shape. they are said (hip) girdle Hard, compact
to have a hydrostatic skeleton. bone outside
Femur
JoInts (thighbone) Medullary cavity
Bones are linked together at joints. there are several types of Thin, tough outer layer
joints, including fixed, hinge, and ball-and-socket joints. Fixed Patella called the periosteum
joints, such as those between the separate bones in the skull, (kneecap)
cannot move. Hinge joints, such as those Bone
in the elbow, allow movement in one Tibia living bone is tough and slightly flexible—
direction only. Ball-and-socket joints, (shin bone) only dead bone is white and brittle. Blood
such as the hip, allow the bones to The shoulder and Fibula
swing in two directions and also to twist. the hip are both (calf bone) vessels pass through small holes in the
ball-and-socket Tarsals bone’s surface and carry a steady supply
joints and allow (ankle bones) of blood to the bone. some bones contain
the greatest range Metatarsals
A pivot joint of movement. (foot bones) a jellylike substance called red bone
allows the head Phalanges marrow, which makes blood cells.
to turn from (toe bones)
side to side.

The elbow is a The wrist is formed
hinge joint, the by an ellipsoidal
simplest of joint, which can be
joints, and flexed or extended
moves mainly and moved from
back and forth. side to side.

465

skeletons Earthworm The body of an earthworm is
The circular filled with pressurized fluid.
Spine wall of a
Human spine wading pool
the spine, or backbone, runs is held up by
down the back of the body. it the water
supports the skull and upper contained
body and allows them to twist within it.
and bend. Animals, known as
vertebrates, which include
humans, get their name from
the flexible row of spine
bones, called vertebrae that
protect the spinal cord. the
spine can flex and bend
because each vertebra can
move slightly against the
next one.

Beetle hydroStAtiC Skeleton
The many girders that make Some skeletons are made from materials that are
up the Eiffel Tower act in the
not rigid at all. instead, they are divided into
same way as the bones of compartments that can be filled with fluid, and
a skeleton, keeping the
structure upright. this hydrostatic pressure makes them rigid.
Many of the microscopic cells that form

plants and animals keep their shape in this
way, and so do some artificial objects.

Chitin

insects, spiders, and scorpions have skeletons
on the outside rather than the inside of their
bodies. they are made of a tough plasticlike
substance called chitin. this is built up from
layers of fiber arranged in different directions,
similar to plywood.

The spine is Volkswagen “Beetle” externAl Skeleton
made up of Skeletons that cover the outside
26 linked Nicknamed “Beetle” of the body of animals, such as insects,
vertebrae. because of its are called exoskeletons. Many
Fibrous disks objects made by people also have
between shape, this car’s exoskeletons, rather than internal
vertebrae act bodywork is an ones. Modern cars, for instance, are
as shock made like this. Flat sheet metal is
absorbers exoskeleton molded into curved shapes to make a
during walking Chitin strong outer shell to protect the inside.
and allow the
spine to bend. pneuMoStAtiC Skeleton The Portuguese man-of-war
The floats on the surface of
coccyx, Just as hydrostatic skeletons are inflated the ocean supported
or “tail”. with liquid to make them more rigid and by a gas-filled
bladder.
provide support, some animals are
supported by structures filled with gas. Find out more
Gases are much lighter than liquids Animals

so they enable animals, such as human body
the portuguese man-of-war, to Muscles and movement
float on and be blown across

the surface of the water.

Compressed air pushes
the structure of this
inflatable life raft
into shape
and holds
it rigid.

Tentacles hang
from the gas-
filled bladder.

466

Slavery

five ThoUSand yearS ago, the Sumerians put their prisoners to work on
farms as slaves. The workers had no rights and no pay, and their masters regarded
them as property. in ancient greece and rome, slaves produced most of the goods
and also worked as household servants. during the 16th century, european nations
began to colonize the americas, and imported thousands of africans to work
as slaves on their plantations and silver mines. Between 1500 and 1800, european
ships took about 12 million slaves from their homes to the new colonies. By the
19th century, those against slavery set up movements in the United States and
Britain to end it. Slavery was formally abolished, or ended,
roman SlaveS in the British empire and the United States in the mid-1800s.
most wealthy roman Sadly, it continues today in many parts of the world, most
citizens owned slaves. often affecting children and immigrants.
Some slaves lived as part
of the family; others were
treated very badly. Some
earned manumission
(a formal release from
slavery) through loyalty
to a master. NORTH AMERICA Ships sailed Britain
back to Europe
Triangle of Trade
with goods.

The British trade in slaves was known
as the triangular trade. Ships sailed
from British ports laden with goods Tobacco Ships
such as guns and cloth. Traders departed
exchanged these goods with african from Britain AFRICA
carrying guns
chiefs for slaves on the western coast of and cloth.

africa. The slave ships then carried Slave coast
their cargo across the atlantic to the
americas and the Caribbean. here,
slaves were in demand for plantation Ships
work, so the traders exchanged them SOUTH AMERICA carried slaves
for sugar, tobacco, rum, and molasses. Rum, sugar, and molasses across the Atlantic.
The ships then returned to Britain
carrying this cargo, which was sold
at huge profits.

Slave ship
Slave ShipS
Slavers (slave traders) packed their ships with africans to sail
on what was known as the middle passage across the atlantic.
The slaves were chained and kept below deck for most of the

voyage. Unclothed and underfed, thousands of africans
died on the atlantic crossing.

Slave reBellionS Slave markeT
many africans fought against slavery. in 1791, one of the once the slaves reached
most famous rebellions began in the french colony of the West indies or the
haiti. a slave named Toussaint l’ouverture led an army southern states of america,
of slaves against the french soldiers in a rebellion that they were auctioned at
lasted 13 years. l’ouverture was captured and died a slave market. here, they
in prison in 1803. in 1804, haiti gained independence were treated like animals.
and became the world’s first black republic. families were sometimes
separated, and people
were sold singly to
plantation owners. Slaves
were put to work on
cotton, sugar, and tobacco
plantations. many received
cruel treatment. Severe
whipping was a common
punishment for slaves
who tried to escape.

467

slavery
slAvERy And WEAlth

England dominated the
slave trade, and some
british cities became very
rich as a result. bristol
and liverpool, for
instance, imported
goods such as sugar
and tobacco produced
by slaves in the West
indies. ships from both

cities carried slaves from
Africa to American plantations.

Ships in Bristol harbor

Cotton

African slave laborers were made to grow sugar in
brazil and the Caribbean. later, tobacco was

also grown. by the late 1700s, there were huge
cotton plantations in north America and the
british textile industry began to flourish,
stimulating the industrial Revolution.
Cotton was made into cloth
in Glasgow and Manchester.

Abolitionists GRAnvillE shARp
in 1772, british clerk Granville sharp defended
on both sides of the Atlantic, Quakers, evangelical
Christians, and liberal thinkers fought to abolish slavery. a black immigrant named James somerset in a
in britain, Granville sharp and William Wilberforce legal case known as the somerset Case. this
(1759-1833) founded the Antislavery society in 1787-88.
Members campaigned for the abolition of slavery and the established that slavery was not recognized in
freeing of all slaves. As part of the campaign, pottery britain, and a slave who stepped on british soil
owner Josiah Wedgwood produced a special medal. in 1833, was automatically free. the ruling was seen as
the slavery Abolition Act freed slaves in the british Empire.
officially abolishing slavery in England.
AntislAvERy MovEMEnt
in 1840, a World Antislavery olAudAh EQuiAno
Convention took place in Africans themselves played a part in the
london, with delegates antislavery movement. one of the best-known
from the united states. African antislavery campaigners was olaudah
Women took an active Equiano (1745-97). born in nigeria, he was
part in the abolition captured with his sister when he was 11, and
movement, often taken to britain as a servant. his
linking their autobiography was influential and is
situation with that one of the earliest important works by
of slaves. American an African written in English.
feminists lucretia
Mott (1793-1880) Find out more
and susan b. Africa, history of
Anthony (1820-1906)
were leading campaigners. Civil war
industrial revolution
468
tubman, harriet
united states, history of

SNAILS ANd SLUGS

Diameter of SlimY, SlOW-mOVinG SnAilS and slugs belong to a group of
shell increases creatures called gastropods, meaning “stomach foot.” These animals
as snail seem to glide along on their stomachs; in fact, the underside is
grows. itself a special organ that produces movement. There are about
65,000 kinds of slugs and snails, all belonging to the larger
Lip or mouth group of animals called mollusks, a group that also includes
of shell clams and octopuses. in addition to the familiar land snails
Mantle, the fold of flesh and slugs, there are marine gastropods, such as sea slugs, sea
that envelops the body hares, winkles, limpets, and freshwater species, such as pond
Eyes on tips snails, and ramshorn snails. Slugs and snails are
of rear pair of similar in shape. Snails have shells to
antennae
protect their bodies; most slugs have
no shells. Both have antennae on their
heads, with eyes on the ends of the
Sensory antennae. Snails and slugs are
antennae hermaphrodites. This means that

they have both male and female reproductive
organs. most slugs and snails hide away and
hibernate during the cold or dry season.
during hibernation, snails seal the mouth
Mouth with
rasping tongue
Lower surface (radula) of their shell with a film of dried mucus.
or foot

GArden SnAil Dark band on
edge of shell
The snail’s shell protects the animal from predators and prevents
the soft, moist body from drying out. The shell is made of calcium
carbonate and other minerals. As the snail grows, it adds more
material to the mouth of the shell, making it larger. The snail’s
tongue is called a radula. it is small and filelike, with as many
as 150,000 toothlike denticles for rasping at plant food.

YOUnG Slime
After mating, the snail or slug lays Snails and slugs

eggs, either singly or in batches, make several types of
in mucus. The young snails slime. As the slug crawls
and slugs hatch from along, it lays down one
their eggs after kind of slime in patches.
about two to Another kind of slime is
four weeks. given off when the creature
is attacked by a predator.
A slug crawls by waves of muscle
contractions passing along its foot.

SeA SlUG SlUG
There are many beautifully
Slugs are unpopular with gardeners
colored sea slugs in the because some do serious damage to
shallow coastal waters plants and vegetables. most slugs have no
of the world, particularly shells; some have a very small shell embedded
around coral reefs. many
have feathery or tufted gills in the back. Slugs avoid drying
for absorbing oxygen from out by living in damp places
the water. Sea slugs are and emerging only at night
predators, feeding mainly or after rain.
on sponges, barnacles, sea
TOpShell Find out more
mats, and sea anemones. The purple Ocean wildlife
Seashore wildlife
topshell snail Shells and shellfish
lives close to the
high-tide mark.

469

SNAKES

lOnG, leGless, sCalY, and slithering, snakes are
a very successful group of reptiles. They are found
everywhere except the coldest regions, highest
mountain peaks, and a few islands. Most
snakes can swim and climb well. all
FanGs snakes are hunters. some, such as
The pair of hollow teeth at the front pythons and boa constrictors,
of the upper jaw are called fangs. The squeeze and suffocate
fangs lie flat along the jaw and swing forward their prey to death;
when the snake strikes. Muscles pump venom
from glands down the fangs into the victim.

raTTle others, such as cobras,
rattlesnakes are so named because they shake the paralyze their victims
tip of the tail (the rattle) to scare off with a venomous bite. snake CharMinG
predators. The rattle consists of Fast-moving snakes, such This is an ancient
a row of hollow tail segments as sand snakes, hunt
that make a noise when the down insects, small entertainment in africa
snake shakes them. birds, and mammals. and asia. snake charmers
fascinate snakes with
Rattle at tip
of tail movements that make the
snakes sway to the music.

Blind snakes are burrowers that eat ants
and termites. More than 1,300 kinds of
snakes are venomous (poisonous), but
only some can give a fatal bite to
humans. Deadly venomous snakes
include cobras, boomslangs, and mambas.

raTTlesnake Snake’s long belly has large
scales called ventral scutes,
up to 7.8 ft (2.4 m) long, the which overlap like tiles on a roof.
eastern diamondback is the largest
rattlesnake, and the most venomous snake in north Emerald tree boa
america. The rattlesnake feeds mainly on rats, rabbits, and constricts or
birds. unlike many other snakes, which lay eggs, the squeezes its prey.
rattlesnake gives birth to about 14 live young in late summer.

Milk snake YOunG snakes COnsTriCTOr
The nonvenomous milk some snakes are described as
snake shown left is found all viviparous, because they Boas and pythons are called
over north america, down to constrictors because they
the north of south america. give birth to fully constrict, or coil, around their prey
The milk snake mimics the formed young. and suffocate it. There are 255
coral snake to fool its Others lay eggs kinds of boas and pythons; they
predators into leaving it in a burrow or include some of the largest snakes
alone. The milk snake under a log, on earth. anacondas are boas of
itself hunts small leaving the the amazon region in south
mammals, birds, and young to hatch america. These massive snakes
other reptiles, and fend for reach more than 25 ft (8 m) in
themselves. length, and weigh 500 lbs (225 kg).
including rattlesnakes. Certain kinds
it coils around its prey of pythons coil
and chokes it to death. around the eggs
and protect them
until they hatch.

The sea snake’s flattened body Young grass snake hatches
follows S-shaped curves, pushing from its egg headfirst and
sideways and backward. flicks its tongue to sense
its surroundings.

sea snake Find out more
There are more than 60 kinds of sea snakes—the yellow-bellied sea animals
snake, shown left, is the most common. it measures up to 32 in (80 cm)
in length, preys on fish, and gives birth to about 4-6 young inside tidal Desert wildlife
pools. sea snakes spend their lives swimming in the warm waters of the indian Forest wildlife
Ocean, around southeast asia, and australia, and in the western Pacific.
reptiles
spiders and scorpions

470

soccer

tHE moSt populAr tEAm Sport in tHE World, soccer is played

around the globe. the roots of today’s game lie in England, where the sport
developed in the 1800s. Soccer is played on a rectangular field, with two
nets, called goals, at either end. two teams of 11 players compete to put
a ball into the opposing team’s goal, using only the feet, head, or body.
one player on each team serves as the goalkeeper. this player must
guard the goal and block shots to prevent the other team from scoring.
A referee ensures that the rules of the game are followed. the team that
scores the most goals during two 45-minute halves of play wins the game.
one of the greatest players in soccer history, Brazil’s pelé, called soccer
“the beautiful game.” today, the beautiful game is one of the most
popular participation sports for young Americans.

HiStory of SoCCEr Goalkeeping gloves
Soccerlike games have been played give a good grip on
for thousands of years, from China the ball and take the
to ancient rome. the birthplace of
modern soccer is England, where a sting out of saving
uniform set of rules was established hard shots.
at trinity College, Cambridge, in
1848. the first professional soccer Shin guards
league, England’s football goAl!
Association, was founded in 1863. there are several ways to score a goal,
including sliding in a low shot with the
Goalkeeping foot, volleying the ball through the air,
gloves and heading the ball. Some goals are set
up with a sequence of precise passes, while
others are the result of individual skill.

Soccer shoe, plAyErS
with cleats (studs) there are 11 players on each
EquipmEnt
Cleated shoes are the most important part of a team—one goalkeeper and
soccer player’s equipment. they enable the player 10 outfield players. the outfield
to use both the inside and outside of the foot players include defenders, who
while passing and kicking the ball. Shin guards try to stop the opposition from
are usually worn inside knee-high socks, to
protect the vulnerable shins from stray moving into goal-scoring
kicks. the ball itself is made of leather. positions, midfielders, who

Goal Penalty area Halfway line switch between offensive
Goal area and defensive play, and
forwards, who try to score

goals. the ball may
be kicked, headed, or

dribbled (moved with
the foot). Each team has
a goalkeeper to defend its
goal. the goalkeeper is
the only player allowed

to handle the ball.

SoCCEr fiEld World SoCCEr CompEtitionS Find out more
A soccer field is a rectangle, divided in two Cup the most famous international soccer Basketball
by the halfway line. the goals stand in the trophy competition is the World Cup, held football
center at each end of the field. Each goal every four years. over 100 national Health and fitness
is 24 ft (7 m) wide and 8 ft (2.4 m) high. all-star teams compete to reach the
the large rectangle in front of the goal is final game, which attracts a worldwide Sports
known as the penalty area; the smaller television audience of a billion people.
rectangle is the goal area. penalties (free
shots) are awarded to players fouled by 471
the defending team in the penalty area.

Soil Types of soil
Soil may be black,
iF yoU ReAch doWn and pick up a handful brown, red, yellow,
of soil, you will be holding one of earth’s most orange, or cream in
basic and valuable resources. Soil teems with color, depending on
life. A plot of earth the size of a small garden may the minerals it contains.
contain millions of insects and microorganisms, Rich, dark, peaty soil is
ideal for garden plants.

plus organic matter from dead or dying plants
and animals. Soil provides the foundation for
FeRTilizeR roots, a source of food for plants, and a home Peaty Clay
Farmers add fertilizers to poor soil. not only for burrowing animals, such as moles, soil soil
The fertilizer is rich in minerals but also for millions of spiders and centipedes.
that help the crops grow.

There are many different types of soil, from thick silt and loose sand, to
waterlogged mud and dry desert. Soil is formed from the wearing down of
rocks and takes many years to develop. each 1 sq in (6.5 sq cm) of soil, for
instance, may take 100 to 2,000 years to form. The quality of soil varies from
region to region. in hot places, such as Africa and Australia, where there
is little rain, the soil is very dry. in temperate regions, such as europe and Chalky Sandy
north America, much of the soil is rich and fertile. but soil can be destroyed soil soil

in just a fraction of the time it takes to form. overfarming the land, for Soil eRoSion
example, has led to soil erosion in many parts of the world. in overfarmed areas, or where
natural vegetation is removed, soil
Soil lAyeRS is no longer protected from rain or
held in place by roots. Winds blow
Soil is formed from several different layers that merge into away the loose particles as dust, and
each other. on top is a layer of humus, consisting of dead rains wash them away as mud.
and rotting leaves. Underneath this layer is the topsoil
where decayed plant and animal matter is broken The land becomes infertile
down and recycled by insects, fungi, and bacteria. and cannot support life.
The subsoil layer, which contains less organic Today, soil erosion
matter, lies below the topsoil, and above a affects more than
loose layer of partly weathered rock. 198,000 sq miles
A hard layer of solid bedrock lies (513,000 sq km) in
below all the other layers. the US alone.

hUmUS compoST
humus is the layer of decaying leaves Fungi, bacteria, worms, and insects
and other plant material in the soil. thrive in a compost heap, helping the
TopSoil contents to decay and be recycled.
Topsoil is full of burrowing bugs, worms, and
other creatures. it also gives anchorage to plants
with shallow root systems.

Slug Snail Caterpillar
Beetle

Moles tunnel in the Earthworm Recycling
All living things
upper part of rich soil, eventually rot away,
where there are many Beetle back into the soil.
worms to eat. Potato The compost heap is a
tuber valuable recycler. in time, it
turns domestic organic garbage such as apple
Centipede peelings, banana skins, eggshells, and grass
cuttings into humus, a food supply for the soil.
SUbSoil poTATo in this way, valuable resources are recycled.
The subsoil layer is reached only by All plants, including the
deep-rooted plants such as trees. potato, use the energy Find out more
pARTly WeATheRed Rock zone in sunlight, mineral Flowers and herbs
This layer of rocks has weathered and nutrients in the soil, water,
been crumbled into loose chunks and carbon dioxide from mushrooms,
and contains no organic matter. the air to grow. The potato
plant stores its food reserves toadstools, and other fungi
in the potatoes that we eat.
plants
Tree roots reach Trees
into subsoil layer.

472

Sound

We live in a noisy World. The roar of city traffic, the loudness and decibels
The sound of a train is louder
music from a piano, the bark of a dog, all come to our ears
as sound waves traveling through the air. sound is generated than the sound
of a whisper

because the train
produces larger
when a disturbance sets air moving—for example, when vibrations in the air.
someone plucks a guitar string. We hear sounds when
The loudness of
sound waves—tiny vibrations in the air—strike our sound also depends
eardrums. sound waves need a substance to travel through. on how close you are
This substance may be a liquid, such as water; a solid, such to its source. loudness
as brick and stone; or a gas, such as air. is measured in decibels
sounds such as musical notes have a certain (db). a jet airliner

taking off is rated at
about 120 db; the rustling
of leaves is about 33 db.
pitch. a high-pitched sound makes the air vibrate ecHoes
backward and forward more times each second if you shout in a large hall or near mountains, you can
than a low-pitched sound. The hear your voice echo back to you. an echo occurs when
number of vibrations per a sound bounces off a surface such as a cliff face,
second is called the and reaches you shortly after the direct sound.
frequency of the sound The clarity of speech and music in a
and is measured in hertz room or concert hall depends
on the way sounds echo
inside it.

(cycles per second).
Humans cannot hear
sounds with frequencies
above about 20,000 hertz
or below about 30 hertz.

speed of sound The distance from one region of Region of high-
highest pressure to the next is called pressure air
sound travels in the wavelength of the sound. Region of low-
air at a speed of The higher the pitch, or frequency, pressure air
about 760 mph of the sound, the shorter
(1,224 km/h). the wavelength.
it travels more
slowly when the The noise of the boat’s engine sends
temperature and sound waves through the water.
pressure of the air
are lower. in the sound Waves
thin, cold air 7 miles
(11 km) up, the speed a sound wave consists of air molecules
of sound is about 620 mph vibrating backward and forward. at each
(1,000 km/h). in water, moment, the molecules are crowded together
sound travels at 3,350 mph in some places, producing regions of high pressure,
(5,400 km/h), much faster and spaced out in others, producing regions of low
than in air. pressure. Waves of alternately high pressure and

resonance low pressure move through the air, spreading
an object such as a glass gives out out from the source of the sound. These
a musical note when struck, because it has sound waves carry the sound to your ears.
its own natural frequency of vibration. if
you sing a musical note of this frequency, Harmonics
the object vibrates at its natural frequency, in a musical note secondary frequencies,
pushed by the sound waves that hit called harmonics, are mixed with the main
it. This is called resonance. a frequency. Harmonics are characteristic of
different instruments, which is why a note
very loud sound can make a glass played on a piano sounds different from the
resonate so strongly that it shatters. same note played on a violin. Harmonics bring
life to the sound of musical instruments: an
electronically produced sound of a single pure
frequency sounds artificial and dull.

Find out more
ears
music

musical instruments
radio

473

SOUTH AFRICA

AFricA’s southErNmost lANd, south Africa is immensely rich in
natural resources, with a varied landscape and diverse animal species. in
the 17th century, the cape town region was settled by dutch colonists, who
were soon followed by the British. From the 1830s, the dutch (or Boers)
began to penetrate the interior. here, they clashed with the black majority,
particularly the Zulus, a disciplined and effective fighting force. in the
20th century, south Africa was dominated by the white minority. the black
population was deprived of the vote until 1994, when south Africa held its
first multiracial, democratic elections. south Africa’s diverse economy is
based on mining and agriculture. it is just beginning to exploit its tourist
potential. two independent countries, lesotho and swaziland, marooned situated at the southern tip of the
African continent, south Africa is
bordered by both the Atlantic and
within south Africa, are economically dependent on their neighbor. indian oceans. much of the

cApE towN country consists of a broad plateau,
cape town, home to the south African bordered in the northeast by the
parliament, is situated along the southwestern arid Namib and Kalahari deserts,
shores of table Bay. the town is dominated by the
distinctive shape of table mountain, which rises to and in the south by mountains and
a sandy, coastal plain.

3,300 ft (1,005 m). cape town was the first place thE drAKENsBErg
to be settled by dutch colonists in the 17th
century. it was strategically placed on the main the drakensberg, or dragon
shipping routes between Europe and Asia. today, mountains, are a large range in the
it is still a major port and commercial center. southeast of south Africa. they form a
steep escarpment, reaching the height
sErviNg Food of 11,424 ft (3,482 m), which rises out
wooden vessels are
used throughout the of south Africa’s central plateau. much
African continent. of south Africa’s interior is dominated
Bowls like this one by tableland. this is an area of dry,
from lesotho are rolling grassland (veld), with scattered
traditionally carved trees. in places it is more than 3,900 ft
from a single block of wood. (1,200 m) above sea level. it is grazed by
both sheep and cattle.

towNships miNErAls
until 1994, the “apartheid” south Africa is the world’s largest
system enforced the gold producer. it also exports large
separation of the black quantities of diamonds, manganese,
majority from the ruling
white minority. many chromium, and platinum.
black people were
forced to live in purpose-
built “townships,” and still
live there today. soweto is a
sprawling group of townships with
a population of about two million.
it is situated outside Johannesburg,
where most of its inhabitants work,
forcing them to travel long distances each day.

A fertile lAnd Find out more
south Africa, with its fertile soils Africa

and warm climate, is ideally Africa, history of
situated for agriculture. the main Elephants
crops grown for export are wheat, Farming

sugar cane, potatoes, peanuts, National parks
citrus fruits, and tobacco.

sheep and cattle graze the veld.
European settlers brought vines to

south Africa in the 17th century.
the cape province is a major wine-
producing area, and south African
wine is exported all over the world.

474

SOUTH AFRICA

Sangoma
Volcano Mountain Ancient Capital Large Small In some communities of South africa, a
monument city city/ city/ person known as a sangoma (sometimes
town town

called a “witch doctor”) performs many
functions. He or she heals people, predicts
statistics the future, and communicates with
area: 470,693 sq miles ancestors. music and dance are central
(1,219,090 sq km) to these cults; music is used to summon
Population: 53,675,500 spirits and accompany healing rituals.

capital: Pretoria/Tshwane
(administrative), Cape A South African
Town (legislative), “witch doctor”
Bloemfontein (judicial) discusses the
Languages: English,
afrikaans, Zulu, Xhosa, healing properties of his
ndebele, Setswana, Siswati, medicines with a patient.
north Sotho, South Sotho, SWaZIland
Tsongo, Venda
Religions: Protestant, The tiny kingdom of Swaziland is bordered on three sides by
Roman Catholic, South africa and, to the east, by mozambique. most of the
Hindu, muslim
currency: Rand country consists of high plateaus and mountains. The economy
is dominated by agriculture, and sugar cane is the main export.
most of the people live in traditional clans, centered on scattered

villages. Swaziland is ruled by a king; his mother, known as
the “great She Elephant,” is a powerful figure. South african

tourists come to Swaziland for its game reserves and casinos.

Main occupations: ZiMBaBWE
Tourism, manufacturing
Main exports: gold,
diamonds, manganese, scaLE BaR km (Messina) Musina
chrome ore, vanadium 0 100 200 So
b e r g MOZaMBiQUE
popo p a n s
0 100 200 miles u t
Tropic of Capricorn Lim e Louis
n Trichardt
BOts W a N a Polokwanesb e r g Tropic of Capricorn
(Pietersburg) Phalaborwa

Waterberge Olifa nts

Modimolle
(Nylstroom)

Kalahari PREtORia Nelspruit
Desert (tsHWaNE)
South Africa has three capital Mmabatho Johannesburg
cities. Pretoria, the principal city, u soweto MBaBaNE
is the administrative capital,
Cape Town the legislative Ghaap Platea Vaal
capital, and Bloemfontein Molopo Hotazel Harts Klerksdorp sWaZiLaND
is the judicial capital.
Kroonstad
NaMiBia Langeberg
Upington Welkom Bethlehem
Orange River
O Kimberley Dundee

range River Vaal Modder LEsOtHO Tugela Cape St. Lucia
Richards Bay
A TLANTIC
BLOEMFONtEiN MasERU

Thabana-Ntlenyana
3482 m

Orange River

Aliwal North
Port Nolloth Pietermaritzburg
CEAN
s O U t H kSpringbok Kokstad Durban
De Aar
O
Colesberg
a F R i cD ra aSt.Helena
AN WIldlIfE
Bellville The South africans
caPE tOWN
Rogge Umtata are pioneers in
Grea t Karoo IDoring I
Sutherland
OCEAN rvelderge Nuweveldberge Middleburg Queenstown D wildlife conservation.
Beaufort West Cradock
N Kruger national Park
Bay Mdantsane (below) is a sanctuary for
Gre
Groot at Fish large herds of elephants.
Uitenhage East London
Little Karoo
Worcester
StellenLbiotstlcehKaroo George Port Alfred
Mosselbaai
Port Elizabeth

Cape of Agulhas N
Good Hope Cape Agulhas

lESoTHo SWaZIland WE
area: 11,720 sq miles area: 6,704 sq miles S
(30,355 sq km) (17,364 sq km)
Population: 1,948,000 Population: 1,436,000
capital: maseru capital: mbabane

475

South america

Three very differenT Types of landscape dominate the triangular
continent of south America. Along the western coast, the towering Andes
Mountains reach to more than 22,600 ft (6,900 m) in height. dense rain
forest covers the hot and humid northeastern area. farther south, are
great open plains of grass and scrub. There are also huge mineral deposits
and rich farming lands. despite this, some of the 12 nations that make up
the continent are underdeveloped.
Until about 195 years ago, spain and portugal ruled
almost all of south America. Most people still speak south America lies south of the
spanish or portuguese. The population is made isthmus of panama, between
up of three groups: those descended from
european settlers, native Americans, and people the Atlantic and pacific oceans.
it covers 6.9 million sq miles
(17.8 million sq km).

of mixed ancestry. Many people are desperately poor and can barely afford
to buy food. Large sections of the population are uneducated and cannot
read or write. Many south American governments are insecure or unstable.
Most have borrowed large sums of money from wealthier nations. The cost of
repaying these debts makes it hard for some
countries to develop. But Brazil and
Argentina are emerging as major
economic powers.

Care of the Argentine cattle is the job Using The LAnd
of cowboys called gauchos. Large herds of cattle roam
the grasslands of the pampas,
Andes MoUnTAins supporting the meat-packing
stretching the entire length of the continent, trade in Argentina, Uruguay,
the Andes mountain chain is 4,500 miles and paraguay. Corn is grown as
(47,250 km) long. As well as mineral a staple crop across the continent.
deposits, the Andes have rich Coffee is grown as a cash crop in Brazil
farming land in mountain valleys and Colombia, while coca plants grown in
and on the Altiplano, a large Bolivia, peru, and Colombia provide most of
plateau in peru and Bolivia. the world’s cocaine, an illegal drug.

Roads LAke TiTiCACA
crossing
the Andes follow in the Andes Mountains on
routes through the few low passes. the border between peru and
perU
With a population of more than Bolivia, Lake Titicaca is the
30 million, peru is one of the larger highest large lake in the world.
south American countries. it includes a
long stretch of the Andes and part of the The lake’s surface is 12,507 ft
rain forest. Many people live on mountain (3,812 m) above sea level.
farms and are very poor. others work on
plantations growing coffee, sugar, and cotton Coffee is some parts are 600 ft (180 m)
for export. oil has recently been discovered still picked by deep. Although large ships
and is bringing some wealth to peru. hand in parts of
South America. operate on the lake, the local
people still use reed to build
their traditional fishing boats.

476

SOUTH AMERICA

BolIvIA Soccer
The mountain nation of Bolivia Supported passionately, soccer
has no coastline. Its only links is a favorite sport in most South
with the rest of the world American countries. Argentina,
are railroads and roads Brazil, and Uruguay have been
running through Peru very successful in international
and chile. Although competitions. In 1930, Uruguay
there are large deposits
of oil, tin, and silver in became the first country
the high Andes, the to host the World cup.
nation remains very
poor. About 70 percent Uruguay also managed to win
of the population are the tournament in the same
of Aymara or Quechua year. World cup victories in
ancestry, who grow 1958, 1962, 1970, 1994, and
just enough food
in the mountains 2002 mean that Brazil has won
to feed themselves. this fiercely contested event
Some farmers more times than any other
make extra country in the world.
money by
A woman growing the Argentinian soccer
from Bolivia in coca plant, fans parade the streets,
traditional dress which is demonstrating support
processed to
for their national
make the illegal soccer team. Argentina
drug cocaine.
won the Fédération
Internationale de

Football Association
(FIFA) World Cup in

1978 and 1986.

The Native Americans of South American
forests live in large huts shared by many
families. They sleep in hammocks hung

between the posts of the huts.

nATIve AmerIcAnS

The first peoples of South America were
native Americans. In the lowlands native

Americans lived in small villages and gathered
food from the forest, but in the Andes they
built great civilizations. The arrival of
european explorers destroyed these great

cultures, and today only a few remote tribes still
live in the forest as their ancestors did.

However, the destruction of the rain forest for
farming and mining threatens to eliminate

even these last traces of native American society.

Falkland islands AmAzon
located in the Atlantic ocean, the Falkland The longest river in South
Islands were discovered by the english America is the Amazon, which
navigator John Davis, in his ship Desire in rises in the Andes and flows
1592. In 1690, the islands were named after 4,050 miles (6,516 km) to
viscount Falkland, treasurer of the British the Atlantic. For most of
navy. Islas malvinas, the Argentinian name, its length, the river flows
comes from “les malouines,” the name given through a rain forest that
to the islands by French sailors in the 1700s. covers 2.5 million sq miles
The islands were occupied at various times (6.5 million sq km).
by england, Spain, France, and Argentina. In recent years, much
of the rain forest has
Rockhopper, Magellanic, and Gento penguins are common been cut down to provide
on the Falkland Islands. farmland. Although the
destruction continues,
it is now beginning to
slow down.

Find out more
Argentina
Brazil
colombia
Incas
Soccer

477

south america

Minerals in Chile ParaGuay
Copper is Chile’s largest export. Chuquicamata (above) is the country’s Area: 157,048 sq
most productive copper mine. Metallic minerals are plentiful along the miles (406,752 sq km)
length of the andes mountains. They are formed over thousands of Population: 6,783,000
years by pressure and heat during mountain-building processes. Capital: asunción inCa TerraCes
The atacama Desert in the northern Language: Guaraní,spanish These terraces near Cuzco, Peru,
third of the country stores copper, Religion: roman Catholic were built by the incas to enable
silver, gold, and abundant ColoMBia * Currency: Guaraní cultivation of the hillside. They are
deposits of sodium nitrate. Area: 439,736 sq Main occupation:
miles (1,138,910 sq km) agriculture still farmed by descendants
* Countries covered on other pages. Population: 46,737,000 Main exports: energy, of the inca people today.
Capital: Bogotá cotton, oilseeds, soyabeans
arGenTina * venezuela
Area: 1,073,518 sq eCuaDor Peru Area: 352,144 sq
miles (2,780,400 sq km) Area: 109,483 sq Area: 496,225 sq miles miles (912,050 sq km)
Population: 43,432,000 miles (283,561 sq km) (1,285,216 sq km) Population: 29,275,500
Capital: Buenos aires Population: 15,868,000 Population: 30,445,000 Capital: Caracas
Capital: Quito Capital: lima Languages: spanish,
Bolivia Languages: spanish, Languages: spanish, amerindian languages
Area: 424,164 sq Quechua, other amerindian Quechua, aymará Religions: roman Catholic,
miles (1,098,581 sq km) languages Religion: roman Catholic Protestant
Population: 10,801,000 Religions: roman Catholic, Currency: nuevo sol Currency: Bolivar
Capital: sucre, la Paz Protestant, Jewish Main occupations: Main occupations: Mining,
Languages: spanish, Currency: us dollar subsistence farming, agriculture, oil production
Quechua, aymará Main occupations: oil fishing, manufacturing Main exports: Coal, bauxite,
Religion: roman Catholic production, agriculture, Main exports: oil, fish, iron, gold, bitumen fuel,
Currency: Boliviano fishing cotton, coffee, textiles, steel, aluminum, oil, coffee
Main occupations: Main exports: oil, copper, lead, coca leaves,
subsistence farming, bananas, fish sugar At a height of 979 m (3,212 ft), the
mining, trading majestic Angel Falls in Venezuela
Main exports: Gold, silver, FrenCh surinaMe (above), is the highest uninterrupted
zinc, lead, tin, oil, Guiana Area: 63,251 sq miles waterfall in the world. It was named
natural gas Area: 34,750 sq miles (163,820 sq km) after bush pilot Jimmy Angel.
(90,000 sq km) Population: 580,000
Brazil * Population: 267,000 Capital: Paramaribo
Area: 3,287,957 sq Capital: Cayenne Languages: Creole english
miles (8,515,770 sq km) Status: French department (Taki-Taki), Dutch, hindi,
Population: 204,260,000 Javanese, saramacca, Carib
Capital: Brasília Guyana Religions: Christian, hindu,
Area: 83,000 sq miles Muslim
Chile (214,969 sq km) Currency:
Area: 291,933 sq Population: 735,000 suriname dollar
miles (756,102 sq km) Capital: Georgetown Main occupations:
Population: 17,508,000 Languages: english Creole, agriculture, forestry,
Capital: santiago hindi, Tamil, amerindian mining, fishing
Languages: spanish, languages, english Main exports: Bauxite, gold,
amerindian languages Religions: Christian, hindu, oil, rice, bananas, citrus fruit,
Religions: roman Catholic, Muslim shrimp, aluminum
nonreligious Currency: Guyana dollar uruGuay
Currency: Chilean peso Main occupations: Area: 68,037 sq miles
Main occupations: Mining, subsistence farming, mining, (176,215 sq km)
agriculture forestry Population: 3,342,000
Main exports: Copper, fresh Main exports: Gold, Capital: Montevideo
fruit, fishmeal, salmon, sugar, bauxite, diamond, Language: spanish
wine, lithium, timber, rice Religions: roman Catholic,
molybdenum, gold Protestant, Jewish,
nonreligious
Currency:
uruguayan peso
Main occupations:
agriculture, tourism,
manufacturing
Main exports: Wool,
meat, rice

478

south america

n

Sea
Volcano Mountain Ancient CapitalLargeSmall
city/ city/
A T Lmonument citytowntown
Caribbean w e
A N Tstatistics Lake CARACAS
I Carea: 6,881,246 sq miles Gulf of Maracaibo (Claimed by s
Venezuela)
(17,822,346 sq km) Central Darien VENEZUELA
Population: 410,033,500America Magd a l e na Lla n o s
Highest point: cerro Orinoco GEORGETOWN
Aconcagua (Argentina) Gulf of Angel Falls
22,826 ft (6,959 m) Panama w GUYANA PARAMARIBO OC
Longest river: Amazon Guiana CAYENNE
(Brazil) 4,050 miles Río Negro SURINAM French Equator
(6,516 km) BOGOTÁ maz Guiana E
Largest lake: Lake titicaca
COLOMBIA BrancoHighlands (to France) A
B R A Z I L(Bolivia/Peru) 3,220 sq miles
Equator QUITO (Claimed by Mouths of N
Surinam) the Amazon
ECUADOR Cotopaxi 5897mPutumayo
A on Amazon

Gulf of Chimborazo Amazon B a s i Mnadeir a
Guayaquil 6M31a0rmañó n Tapajós
Xingu
Tocantins

Nevado Huascarán Juruá

(8,340 sq km) 6768m A Ucayali Araguaia
Tocantins
PAC I F I C
n
P EdR U
LIMA e Lake BRASÍLIA B r a z i l i a n H i SgãholFraanncidssco
Chavín de Titicaca
Huantar

s LA PAZ L I V I A

Tiahuanaco BO

SUCRE

Atacama Desert P GCrhailcaoPmAayRo AGUAAYSUNCIaÓnáN São Paulo Rio de Janeiro
Tropic of Capricorn L A N T I C Par
es Salado Tropic of Capricorn
OCEAN
co n N

Paraguay

E Cerro Ojos del Salado Urugu ay
6880m
d
A araná OCEA

GrOwInG cItIes Cerro N P Lagoa dos
Many south American cities, including Lima, santiago, Aconcagua
rio de Janeiro, and Buenos Aires, are heavily populated 6959m s URUGUAY Patos
and desperately overcrowded. they have grown to their L
present size as a result of the migration of people from a
agricultural areas to centers of industry and commerce. n
these people, who travel to the cities seeking work, I
often find there are no homes for them. Many are
forced to live in shantytowns or on sidewalks. p

SANTIAGO m RiMverOPlaNte TEVIDEO
BUENOS
AI T AIRES

Pa

N RCíooloNraegdroo

CH a

E

MInerAL resOurces Isla de ni
Chiloé
Over one quarter of the world’s known G
copper reserves are located in northern
chile. Other metallic minerals are found o AT
along the Andes. Oil deposits discovered
in Lake Maracaibo (below) in the 1920s ag SCALE BAR
have turned Venezuela into one of the 0 400 800
world’s leading oil producers. R
Deseado 0 400 km
800 miles
at Falkland
Islands
A
(to UK)
P Bahía
Grande

Tierra
del Fuego

Cape Horn

Industry

south American
industry is generally
underdeveloped. It is
largely confined to the

cities, and mainly
consists of the processing

of farm products. textile
workers spin and weave

cloth from the wool of sheep
and llamas. Other factory workers
process and can meat or prepare and

freeze the meat for export. Many people are also
employed in mining, forestry, and fishing.

479

S hiStory of

outh AmericA

Attendants, uniformly Gold mask Dead Chimu king is Chimu burial ceremony
dressed, carry the prepared for burial
in a sitting position.
dead king on a bier.
For thousands oF years, the continent of south america
ChIMu eMPIre developed independently from the rest of the world. Great cultures
rose and fell, among them the nazcas, Chimus, and Incas, all of which
the Chimu empire developed highly advanced civilizations of great wealth and achievement.
centered on the vast capital In 1532, the spaniards invaded the Inca empire, and within a few years
city of Chan Chan, in what ruled over most of the continent. the Portuguese established control
is now northern Peru. the over Brazil. soon, spanish and Portuguese became the
empire covered much of Line of main languages of south america, and for the next
the Pacific coast of south demarcation 300 years the affairs of south america were decided
america and reached the 1494 in europe. the native peoples were almost wiped
height of its power in the out by disease and ill treatment. When spain and
15th century. around 1470, Portuguese
the Incas conquered the territories
Chimu empire, and Chan
Chan fell into ruin. the Spanish Portugal became involved in the napoleonic wars
Chimu are remembered as territories
a highly civilized society. in europe, the south americans seized the chance to
the royal dead were win their independence. afterward, the new countries
buried with a wealth of were ruled by european families who had settled in south
funeral offerings. america. Many more europeans arrived during the 19th
and early 20th centuries. the nations of south america have
south america only recently begun to control their destinies.
200 bce-600 ce nazca empire
in Peru. treaty oF tordesIllas sPanIsh doMInatIon
600 City-states of tiahuanaco In the 1494 treaty of
and huari in Peru. tordesillas, spain and From 1532 to 1810, spain controlled
1000-1470 Chimu empire Portugal divided the the whole of south america, apart
in Peru. non-european world
1200 Inca empire in Bolivia, between them. they drew from Portuguese-owned Brazil. the vast
Chile, ecuador, and Peru. a rough line down the spanish empire there was divided into
1494 treaty of tordesillas south american continent, three viceroyalties—new Granada in the
divides new World between giving spain the lands to north, Peru in the center, and rio de la
spain and Portugal. the west, and Portugal the Plata in the south. on the right is santiago,
1499-1510 amerigo vespucci lands to the east of the line.
explores coast of south the patron saint of spanish soldiers.
america; the continent is natIve aMerICans 480
named after him. the native americans
1530 Portuguese colonize
Brazil. were put to work as
1532-33 spanish, led by slaves in the silver mines.
Francisco Pizarro, conquer
Inca empire. they were also forced
1545 silver discovered in to labor in the big
Peru.
1808-25 liberation wars: plantations of sugar and
spanish and Portuguese other crops that were
colonies exported to europe.
1822-89 empire of Brazil
1879-84 Border wars between Most native americans
Peru, Chile, and Bolivia. died of poor conditions,
1932-35 War between overwork, and european
Paraguay and Bolivia over
disputed territory. diseases they had no
1946 Juan Perón becomes immunity against.
President of argentina.
1967 “Che” Guevara killed in
Bolivia.

south america, history of

SImón BolívaR

In 1808, Spain was involved in a war with French
emperor napoleon Bonaparte; the South american

colonies took this opportunity to declare their
independence. led by Simón Bolívar (1783-1830),

and José de San martín (1778-1850), the colonies
fought against Spanish control; all gained their
freedom by 1825. Bolívar hoped to unite
all of South america, but many disliked his
dictatorial approach. In 1822, Brazil declared
its independence from portugal, leaving only
Guiana in the north under European control.

Roman CatholIC ChuRCh

When the Spanish arrived in South america, they brought
the Roman Catholic religion with them. Catholic priests
tried to stamp out local religions and convert the native
americans to their faith. In the end, the priests were
forced to include parts of the old native american
religions in their services. In some places, the priests tried
to protect the native americans against Spanish rulers who
were cruel to them, but most priests upheld the Spanish
colonial government. During the 20th century, the Roman
Catholic Church took a more active role in supporting the
poor against powerful landlords and corrupt governments.

Bolívar leads soldiers
into battle

Stamp bearing BRazIlIan EmpIRE
a portrait of From 1822 to 1889, Brazil was an empire.
Pedro II under Emperor pedro II (1825-1891) roads
and railroads were built and the coffee and
rubber industries began to prosper. thousands
of immigrants poured into the country from
Italy, portugal, and Spain. In 1888, the african
slaves who had been brought over to work the
plantations were freed. this angered many
landowners, since they had been using the slaves
as cheap labor. the landowners withdrew their
support from pedro, and in 1889 the army took
over the empire and a republic was declared.

Pedro arrives in Recife (formerly Pernambuco), ERnESto “ChE” GuEvaRa
a prosperous town in the empire. one of the most popular heroes of the
20th century, “Che” Guevara (1928-67)
Juan pERón was born into a rich argentinian family.
Guevara was a doctor before choosing
From 1946 to 1955, to spend his life supporting revolutions
argentina was ruled by against oppressive South american
president Juan perón governments. In 1959, he helped
(1895-1974). poor people
living in the cities supported Fidel Castro overthrow the Cuban
perón and his wife, Eva. government. Guevara served
he introduced many reforms under Castro until 1965. In
but did not allow anyone to late 1966, he went to Bolivia,
oppose him. after the economy weakened in the where he based himself in
early 1950s, and after Eva’s death in 1952, perón the countryside among poor
became much less popular. he was overthrown by peasants. In 1967, he was
the army in 1955. In 1973, he again held power killed by the Bolivian army.
but died the following year. his third wife, Isabel his death made him a
martínez de perón, succeeded him as president. hero for revolutionaries
everywhere. In 1997, he
was reburied in Cuba.

Find out more
Central america
Conquistadors

Incas
South america

481

southeast asia

AT ITS SouTheAST Corner, the continent
of Asia extends far out into the sea, in two great
peninsulas and a vast chain of islands. In this region, which
is called Southeast Asia, more than 637 million people live in
11 independent countries. The area has a rich and varied
culture, and music and dancing are particularly important.
Their performance is often governed by strict rituals and rules,
some of them religious. There are several different religions in
the area: most people on the mainland are Buddhist; Indonesia
is chiefly Muslim; and Christianity is the religion of most
Southeast Asia is the part of Asia people in the Philippines. For much of last century, the lives
to the south of China and east of many Southeast Asian people were disrupted and
of India. The mainland portion destroyed by wars. The fighting made normal trade,
has an area of 640,000 sq miles agriculture, and industry impossible and turned Laos and
(1.6 million sq km). The region Cambodia into the two poorest nations on earth. Conflict
continues to the south as a chain of between the government and Islamists in the
islands that separate the Pacific and southern Philippines continues to claim lives. ThAILAnd
Indian oceans. The island of There are about 68 million people in
Sumatra is 1,070 miles (1,720 km)
long; other islands are tiny.

other Southeast Asian countries, such as Thailand, and the country is among
Singapore, have become the wealthiest in the region. Most
more peaceful
people in the cities work in mining
and industry; in the countryside
most are farmers growing rice, sugar,
and prosperous. and rubber trees. The country’s rich

Sap is extracted by tapping— heritage includes ritual temple
dances and beautiful architecture.
cutting or shaving the bark with
a sharp knife.
Singapore City began as a small
British trading station; today
giant skyscrapers dominate
the skyline.

Plantation workers drain the sticky
sap from the trees in the morning
when the flow of sap is fastest.

ruBBer SIngAPore
one of the most important products of Southeast Asia is rubber.
The industry began about a century ago, when British traders The tiny island state of Singapore occupies just
brought rubber trees to the region from Brazil. The sap of the 269 sq miles (697 sq km) off the coast of Malaysia.
trees is collected and then mixed with acid to form solid sheets
of latex, which are hung out to dry. The nation is highly industrialized and very
The Borobudur Temple rich. Most of Singapore’s 5.6 million
was built with about
JAvA 2,000,000 cubic ft people earn their living from industries
(56,600 cubic m) of such as textiles and electronics.
The country of Indonesia is made gray volcanic stone.
up of 13,677 islands. Java is the most BoroBudur TeMPLe
populated island, with 140 million A massive Buddhist monument in Java,
people. Many are farmers the Borodubur Temple was constructed
producing large quantities of between 778 and 850 ce. From about
rice. The capital city, Jakarta, is a 1000 bce, it was buried under volcanic ash
center for the textile industry. until its discovery by the english lieutenant
The island has much unique governor Thomas Stamford raffles in 1814.
wildlife, including a species A team of dutch archaeologists restored
of rhinoceros found the site in 1907-11 and a second restoration
nowhere else. was completed by 1983.

482

southeast asia

Protected by law, orangutans still Vietnam
face hunting and destruction Vietnam is a mountainous land that occupies the
of their rain forest habitat. eastern part of the indoChina Peninsula in
Orangutan is the Southeast asia. its population, which is
Malaysian for “person mainly rural, mostly lives in the lowland
of the forest.” deltas of the Red and mekong rivers.
more than half of its people work in
ORangutan agriculture. Rice takes up more land
the orangutan is a large, area than all other crops produced
humanlike ape that is in Vietnam put together. Other crops
now restricted to include rubber, corn, sugar, bananas,
lowland swamp forests in coconuts, pepper, tea, tobacco, and
borneo and a small part sweet potatoes. northern Vietnam is
of Sumatra. Orangutans more industrialized than the
once lived in the jungles of agricultural south. it has mineral
mainland Southeast asia as well, but resources, which include coal, salt, tin, and
numbers have been depleted by human iron. Farmers often work in salt farms (left)
hunters. With its short, thickset body, to supplement their earnings from agriculture.
long arms, and short legs, the
orangutan displays many physical similarities to gorillas and chimpanzees. Dao people
however, a shaggy, reddish coat, and an even greater disproportion between ethnic minorities make up about
arm and leg lengths, sets the orangutan apart from its related primates. the 14 percent of Vietnam’s population.
male orangutan may be about 4.5 ft (1.37 m) tall and weigh about 185 lbs One of these groups is the Dao,
(85 kg) when grown, while females usually weigh about 90 lbs (40 kg).
who live in the northern
myanmaR (buRma) regions. the Dao can
also be found in
myanmar gained independence from british colonial control the neighboring
in 1948 and immediately adopted a policy of political and countries of China,
economic isolation. Once a rich nation, the country was laos, and thailand.
subsquently reduced to one of the world’s poorest despite the origins of the first
its plentiful natural resources. the irrawaddy River basin Dao groups in Vietnam
occupies most of the country and provides rich farming land. are uncertain, but it
until 2010, myanmar was ruled by a military government that appears that they
excluded all foreign influences. about three out of four emigrated from their
native provinces of
people are buddhists, but in the countryside southern China
many still worship the nats—ancient spirits in the 18th and
of the forest and mountains. Devotees of 19th centuries.
buddhism pray at temples such as the

Shwedagon Pagoda (below)
in Rangoon (yangon).

elePhant SChOOl

elephants in thailand are trained to work for a living.
they have proved themselves to be far more cost-efficient
than modern tractors. they need little fuel and do not rust

or need spare parts. tractors last for about six years, an
elephant lives for 30. in addition, elephants are

less harmful to the environment. they move timber and
take tourists for rides in the rain forest.

483

southeast asia

BRunei indonesiA MYAnMAR Languages: Chinese, Malay,
Area: 2,226 sq miles Area: 735,358 sq (BuRMA) Tamil, english
(5,765 sq km) miles (1,904,569 sq km) Area: 261,228 sq miles Religions: Buddhist,
Population: 430,000 Population: 255,994,000 (676,578 sq km) Christian, Muslim
Capital: Bandar seri Capital: Jakarta Population: 56,320,000 Currency: singapore dollar
Begawan Languages: Javanese, Capital: nay Pyi Taw
Languages: Malay, Madurese, sundanese, Languages: Burmese, ThAilAnd
english, Chinese Bahasa indonesia, dutch Karen, shan, Chin, Kachin, Area: 198,116 sq
Religions: Muslim, Religions: Muslim, Mon, Palaung, Wa miles (513,120 sq km)
Buddhist, Christian Protestant, Roman Catholic, Religions: Buddhist, Population: 67,976,500
Currency: Bruneian dollar hindu, Buddhist Christian, Muslim, hindu Capital: Bangkok
CAMBodiA Currency: Rupiah Currency: Kyat Languages: Thai, Chinese,
Area: 69,898 sq miles lAos PhiliPPines Malay, Khmer, Mon, Karen,
(181,035 sq km) Area: 91,429 sq miles Area: 115,831 sq Miao
Population: 15,709,000 (236,800 sq km) miles (300,000 sq km) Religions: Theravada
Capital: Phnom Penh Population: 6,911,500 Population: 100,998,000 Buddhist, Muslim, Christian
Languages: Khmer, French, Capital: Vientiane Capital: Manila Currency: Baht
Chinese, Vietnamese, Cham Languages: lao, Miao, Languages: Filipino, VieTnAM
Religions: Theravada Yao, Vietnamese, Cebuano, hiligaynon, Area: 127,880 sq
Buddhist Chinese, French samaran, ilocano, miles (331,210 sq km)
Currency: Riel Religions: Buddhist, Animist Bikol, english Population: 94,349,000
eAsT TiMoR Currency: new kip Religions: Roman Catholic, Capital: hanoi
Area: 5,743 sq miles Protestant, Muslim, Buddhist Languages: Vietnamese,
(14,874 sq km) MAlAYsiA Currency: Philippine peso Chinese, Thai, Khmer,
Population: 1,231,000 Area: 127,355 sq singAPoRe Muong, nung, Miao,
Capital: dili miles (329,847 sq km) Area: 269 sq miles Yao, Jarai
Languages: Tetum, Bahasa Population: 30,514,000 (697 sq km) Religions: Buddhist,
indonesia, Portuguese Capital: Kuala lumpur, Population: 5,674,500 Christian, non-religious
Religions: Roman Catholic Putrajaya Capital: singapore City Currency: dông
Currency: us dollar Languages: Malay,
Chinese, Tamil
Religions: Muslim, Buddhist,
Chinese faiths, Christian,
traditional beliefs
Currency: Ringgit

BRunei The magnificent, PhiliPPines
golden-domed Most of the islands in the Philippines are mountainous and forested. The
lying on the northwestern Omar Ali Saifuddin Filipino people live in towns and villages on the narrow coastal plains, or
coast of the island of Borneo, mosque, in Brunei
Brunei is ruled by a sultan. on plateaus between the mountain ranges. The volcanic cone of Mount
since gaining independence Mayon, 200 miles (320 km) southeast of Manila, is one of the most
from Britain in 1984, the
country has become beautiful in the world. however, its beauty hides its dangerous character.
increasingly influenced The volcano is still active, and past eruptions have destroyed parts of
by islam. its interior is the nearby city of Albay.
mostly rain forest, and
the nation’s abundant indonesiA
oil and gas reserves have Although more than 13,500 islands make up the
brought its citizens one Republic of indonesia, only about 6,000 are
of the highest standard of
living in the world. inhabited. Most indonesian people live in the
countryside and work on farms. however, some
cities are densely populated. For example, the city
of Yogyakarta (left), on the southern coast of the
heavily populated island of Java, has a population
of about 433,500.

The bustling city of Find out more
Yogyakarta lies at the foot islam
of a volcano.
Vietnam war
Volcanoes

484

southeast asia

Volcano Mountain Ancient Capital Large Small MaiNLaNd ScaLe BaR 500 km
monument city city/ city/ SoutHeaSt 500 miles
town town aSia 0 250

Hkakabo Razi 0 250

a 5885m

n
StatiSticS IND
area: 1,735,334 sq miles Irra Chindwin I
(4,494,495 sq km)
Population: 637,007,500 dd y KR ua nmgoen
No. of independent BaNG L MYaNMaR T H aLI L aaN D V I e T N a McaMBODIaaDSiettwPePaHakMtioAhnMIokrnetrnokhaiduyunN(awatwThdBmaaasaa(daYYuRUodnPfnaayPMytgnRnhaYggyeygyiwoMIMDnBioaoTgaannBayawga)anoaeWTn)PidNMlhlwSahaaeaGteaetlwnanoaVKulnyaLICMOmeoUhaKuyNiidiaanoTnnPenggBIchapTaithtNshdaaRXaaenbPinomPaualiihnanlbnREgtoCegkuHaetakPhhdmnKulouaRgoaodDtirneverSTaaagatunopngHrlDKNeeIakhianNamVhnOitnhTHhIHGaonuNbuSagoelafCkiumionaflPgmiahkDhPohiaaxnQaaNgiuyaNnCgShonSoh
countries: 11 Mekong
Religions: Buddhism, SH Sittang
Islam, Taoism,
Christianity, Hinduism INDI AN Arakan Yoma Sa S Mekong
Largest city: Jakarta er O
(Indonesia) 10,323,000 u t h
Highest point: Hkakabo i n a
Rasi (Myanmar) 19,303 ft e a
(5,885 m)
Longest river: Mekong Islands Myeik Kampong Cham Nha Trang
2,600 miles (4,184 km) (to India) PHNOM PeNH
Main occupation: Da Lat Cam Ranh
Farming Bien Hoa
Main exports: Sugar, Isthmus of Kra Ho chi Minh
fruit, timber, rice, rubber, OCEAN Andaman Gulf of My Tho
tobacco, tin Sea Thailand Rach Gia Can Vung Tau
Main imports: Machinery, Sichon Mouths of
iron and steel products, Tho the Mekong
textiles, chemicals, fuels Nakhon Si
Phuket Thammarat
Nicobar Islands
(to India)

populaTIon NDONStrait of MalaccaI MaLaYSIa N
The population on mainland Southeast WE
asia is concentrated in the river valleys,
plateaus, or plains. The population of eSIa S
maritime Southeast asia is unevenly
distributed; Java is densely settled, while
other islands are barely occupied.

MaRitiMe Tuguegarao ScaLe BaR km
SoutHeaSt aSia Ilagan 0 250 500 500 miles
0 250
South Baguio CabLanuaztuoann
Dagupan MANILA Philippine

Angeles

China Sea Batangas Lucena Sea
Naga
Legaspi

Calbayog

P H I L I P P I N E SSPRATLY Roxas City Tacloban P A C I FIC BoRneo
Borneo is the world’s third-
THAILAN Puerto Iloilo Cebu largest island with a total
area of 292,297 sq miles
M A IL A Y NS B o rDn e o O N E S I ABanda APecemhatLaMnangesgidsaSaSantPrPunatGanaiUtrdgeToTfaoaoMRirBnwpgaAegOelneaJnnDcBABcguaaYakhCtnAuuBIdlKpuhPPaooEaeartrlhkKhaauaTaUmntAaKAabpKiSBLpSuLauJuuSaeiaraAnanamukrhNlBIngnaagaLaCPNobntdSbTtMUagiiaiguurnneCoGMlaemnregPrgibPelPkgmioAeaonaaJUlncnngawbPAatRggnTipaaaOKkagnennnaJggAglauYaRapklRvoinEagPTaMyeTn(aASkadaglkiKiaeaswSpBlIJayumaouSusMranicLntrRaetahKa,a&dAgavPrkPidUeabnNahaeyVidnMaigugrnDNiClBiMeituKnrBipthgSaarGninpiiEainnaai4nuunlSmaJlji1IanSena,kea)s0bgru,mupneaa1mnarlngmbuBpgaaaMeaAsbPrinNnKarMiyonDaatctAaSaeSRarKsaamiZuSSmnPaaaEaanlrmRbSi(rdunCaeubICadlpelUGoBuPkalaaaeaaaowESgbjrnlnueraeeGKusgoesyn)iCuaAanagpnWtpaeaISdlGAlnaloiegNnSgeeeaaOndabnnearMtreonoaoTssglluMimcBcaDBaoEDnaurSaaAIBtMdvnLuTiaoSsiaIdnolSniiTdgameaAanTomSaroIbeMoanORAPDenoribnesraualia fIAMakassar Strait ullerC (757,050 sq km). Lying on
ea O the equator and in the path
of two monsoons, the island
is hot, and one of the wettest
places on Earth.

tr E
a AN
m
u PegununJgaaynaMpauorkae PAPUA
S Puncak Jaya NEW
5040m
N GUINEA
IA Papua
IND (Irian Jaya)

New Guinea N

u ra Sea

W E

AUSTRALIA S

485

southeacenstrtal europe

THe noBle danuBe riVer cuts central
southeast europe in half, providing fertile
farmland along its lower course, in the heart
of the region. This area of flatland, called the
danubian Plain, is surrounded by mighty
mountain systems, including the
Carpathians to the north and the Balkans
and rhodope mountains in the south.
Following World War ii, the countries of
lying to the south of the alps, the central southeast europe were governed
west of the region is mountainous, for more than 50 years by strict Communist
with deep wooded valleys. The regimes, until the collapse of the soviet
rocky coast of the adriatic sea union in the early 1990s. serbia was once
lies to the southeast of the region. part of federal yugoslavia. The collapse of the
To the east lie the flat plains of federation led to civil war in 1991, after which five
the danube, which drains into the
Black sea, and rolling steppelands.

separate states emerged. Kosovo, an area in
southern serbia inhabited by Muslim
albanian-speakers, declared itself Bulgarian ToBaCCo
an independent country in 2008. Bulgaria has fertile soils and a mild climate,
and a wide range of crops is grown there,
including cereals, sunflower seeds, grapes,
and tomatoes. High-quality red wine, made
from grapes grown on the danubian Plain,
is exported. in the south of the country,
Turkish-style tobacco is grown; it is
processed in factories around the town of
Plovdiv. Here, women can be seen stringing
the harvested tobacco leaves together. They
are then left to cure in the heat of the sun
A Romanian gypsy before being graded by size and color.
makes a living by
selling berries.

rural MoldoVa gyPsies
romania has the largest gypsy
once a part of romania, Moldova became a (or romany) population in
soviet state in 1940. in 1991, with the breakup of europe. gypsies, who have a distinct
the soviet union, Moldova became independent. language and culture, are thought to
This small country is dominated by fertile rolling have originated in india and moved
steppes. Most of the population works in agriculture. to europe via the Middle east.
Warm summers and even rainfall provide ideal conditions Traditionally, they wandered from
for growing vegetables, fruit, and grapes, and Moldova is place to place, selling goods, repairing
internationally famous for its wines. although the soviets metal utensils, and dealing in horses
mechanized state-owned farms, there are now many small-scale and livestock. They have suffered many
farmers, who cultivate their land using traditional methods. centuries of persecution from the countries
in which they settled, where
some people found it difficult
to understand their different
customs and ways of life.

TransylVania roses
Vast fields of roses are
The romanian region of Transylvania is a grown in Bulgaria. Petals
high plateau, surrounded by the Carpathian are picked at dawn to produce
Mountains. To the east and south the attar, the essential oil of roses.
mountains form an impassable barrier.
The region, a place of rugged scenery and Find out more
dramatic castles, has had a colorful history, Communism
passing from Hungarian, to ottoman
Turkish, to Habsburg (austrian) rule. among dance
its tyrannical rulers was the 15th-century europe
prince, Vlad the impaler, notorious for his Flowers and herbs
cruelty. When the author Bram stoker wrote Mountains
Dracula in 1897, he borrowed from slavic
and Hungarian legends. His blood-sucking
vampire is based on Vlad the impaler.

486

southeast europe, central

Volcano Mountain Ancient Capital Large Small the iron gates
monument city city/ city/ the Danube, europe’s second longest river, flows
town town from germany to the Black sea. on the romanian-
serbian border the river is forced through a narrow
Bulgaria gorge, the iron gates. a power station has been built
Area: 42,811 sq miles here, which uses the water’s energy to make electricity.
(110,879 sq km)
Population: 7,187,000 Carpathian mountains
Capital: sofia The Carpathians are a major mountain
Currency: lev system that extend 830 miles
(1,500 km) along the northern and
eastern side of the Danubian Plain.
They link the Alps with the Balkans.

AdSreiaatic R O M A N I A ∞C(CPCCC(CCPPmCPPmCmC(CP217ooooooauauuuaaauaiii507lllpppppppppppprrrrreee,,,rrrrr784uiiuuiuiiiuussstttttteeeee187llllllaaaaaa(((nnnnnaaaaaa734llllll213tttttt::::::ccccciiiiiiAsAr333sssAKyyyyysBpCBpooooooqqqeAm8,,:::::rrokAmronnnnnnro88uehAmee,mmelerierokkk351ld::::::rcosmiaaergsoaeuuse‚Bpmmmta92127h2631ge::oaiairo:unarran1j,,4,1n,iolCaac29a:lsse0185)))4oo:ad7,˘va:erqqrëndt29D5es96774,1ueio,d29q,,oe,ce661707Di3kko90s30v,oaa,,,,60t9n,mmk143a00003o0nv0,2m33n300000e7))ais8na000000ssqsg)lnqqe0qsisqrmauqPdmomiOelienlieDslaesrGMsCOROHDWORNi0n0SSIacCTCurLiUtSaAcEaAukrANLeiNblNiSopEkD7stE#bri5iVeicNBánGSaoaZAjvGvRe7aRKormM2S5edrO6NVEauGaa1PE9ialnjtn5r3ojaleija0RmHzevvervouiJeoBenAnSBzKgeTaraIEeLOcIOMd(rbëAtadihsoaLLa1kirrvsSneieAPL5Gpodsr0a(PuOkeCPktRsTSAoeRmepkBeRdvVraTimESArai)aiNmItIblcdoOrKSePSiDDeDalOsKiarHgaNTO∞RirEuorlnOooTieeamtI#SbTpiPs∞daAMVINnGeZieMareNNπrypivJtaanaduaaAaeuuAlElËonin-ârrslIvnTvibeuπe)RsCn∞uAoanaMSyiriiMranl2Inovatu9uuuinEDaTil2siaoBtnaMaa5raTBnvlimanaaaWâSaB(SluaEaaClrrSnibabegOkgCYeaOisloiuaaauauylezFFDCMnrJjhlovliBBp-IvvogIPuaMNaaYdaiirAianrsrotacAtoteae2upIhVrMdnUEls∞)hd5eSipbâikMTtπio4aliaruiMooaiavâf4nauruteuracLLmnioKnarSglnMaunoenuhuPa∞PnvuAtcaGGe2Bltaelsacol3iUakoauihpit7ovviennAraT6nvvsdAgrBssomgâMiieurrSsvKgNiBPafReMSoâiBoe∞ratnvaAcPtaoaaRtiotu(Birmr∞rctuRIuvlSdB∞staarâoaeashπa-UeuGUeZnLisAauUehai-iCSmCCpgRne∞SIlALaoiicUoIteigaHVuBvlulaairnrzhoiBeBac∞RudasnGBggmneiMtsuATazhirrârlEniârauaaâlπeICKRgaitufldilUCiiaaialTamaEsaπdhcIihRSNi)RuiryDlTîaLbKuunbVniEEπâTgaasCaiargYrnhBUHi CianSIloaKLaenaLIcsRaaTcuNtclaiurkASÂnalisRnπUpaoaoizelimRO L D O VPrAut
Plain Y
Currency: Dinar Siret
ountains
Danube
Tisza
Danu INE

ATIA

Velika Morava Olt
Jiu
HEBROZSENGIAOVAINNAD a

Iskur

A r

Black Drin Vardar R

LBA

N

I

A

serBian monastery
the serbian Church is an independent part of the

eastern orthodox Church, and is estimated to
have some six million followers. many of serbia’s
finest and most historic monasteries are located
in northern Kosovo, and are valued by

the serbian people.

Copsa miCa
at Copsa mica, romania,
a factory producing
carbon black, used in tire
manufacturing, belched
out clouds that covered
the town in grime.
although the factory
has since closed, the
huge environmental
damage caused by
industrialization
still remains.

487

SouthmeedaiteSrrtaneeanurope

Mediterranean southeast europe The landscape of Mediterranean southeast europe is composed
is largely mountainous. ranges
including the dinaric alps run of rugged mountains, rocky coasts, and isolated valleys. The region has
from the north to the south, experienced many centuries of conflict and invasions from both europe
parallel to the western coast. and asia. croatia, Bosnia and herzegovenia, and albania were once part
The western shores of the region of the Turkish Ottoman empire. slovenia was annexed
are washed by the adriatic sea, by the habsburg and austria-hungarian
an arm of the Mediterranean sea. empires, and the cultural influences of these
two dynasties remains. after World War II,
most of southeast europe became
part of the communist bloc. In 1990,
slovenia elected a noncommunist
government, which led to civil
strife and the final breakup of the
Yugoslavian Federation. slovenia

joined the european Union in
2004 and croatia became
a member in 2013.

Slovenian dancers wear slOvenIan TOUrIsM
leather pants and
dirndl skirts.
slovenia is an increasingly popular
tourist destination, especially for
people from the German-speaking
countries. More than 3.4 million
tourists visit each year to see the
adriatic coastal resorts, historic spa
towns, and the mountains, where they
can enjoy skiing, hiking, boating, and
fishing. lake Bled (above), at the foot
sarajevO of the julian alps is a popular resort,
famous for bathing in the summer
The capital of Bosnia and herzegovina, which and as a winter sports center.
straddles the Miljacka river, has a strongly
Muslim character, with mosques, wooden
houses, and an ancient Turkish marketplace.
In 1992, when Bosnia declared independence slOvenIan dancers
from Yugoslavia, sarajevo became the focus of slovenia shares a long history with its
a civil war. Thousands of Muslims were driven northern neighbor, austria. culturally,
slovenia has more in common with its
from the countryside by the fighting and fled alpine neighbors, switzerland and austria,
than the countries to the south. cultural
to sarajevo. The city suffered terrible damage traditions are kept alive through music and dance.
in 1993, when it was surrounded by serb national costumes are distinctly alpine.
forces and bombarded.
zaGreB
The croatian capital is a major commercial
center. vegetables and fruits produced by
dUBrOvnIk local farmers are sold in markets in the
The most picturesque city on the town’s squares. Much of the city dates to
adriatic coast, dubrovnik has the 19th century, although there are some
a history that dates back 1,000
years. With its steep and medieval buildings dating from the
twisting narrow streets, 13th century. zagreb is croatia’s main
ancient city walls, and
industrial center, specializing in
manufacturing, textiles, and chemicals.

historic fortifications,
dubrovnik was once one
of croatia’s main tourist
attractions. In 1991, this
beautiful city came under
fire as a result of croatia’s
independence struggle. The
tourist industry has now recovered
from the effects of civil war.

488

SoutheaSt europe, MeDIterraNeaN

Tirana
The capital of albania was founded
Volcano Mountain Ancient Capital Large Small by Turks in the 17th century.
monument city city/ city/ Strategically situated at the
town town

albania junction of several trade
routes, it became an
important commercial
Area: 11,100 sq miles center. The city
(28,748 sq km) became capital of
Population: 3,029,000
Capital: Tirana albania in 1920. in
Currency: lek the 1930s, italian
architects were
employed to replan
its center. From 1946,
boSnia and communist albania
herzegoVina received aid from both
Area: 19,767 sq miles russia and China. The
(51,197 sq km) Soviets built the Palace of
Population: 3,867,000 Under Communist Culture, which flanks Tirana’s
Capital: Sarajevo rule, there were few central square. Today, Tirana is
Currency: Marka albania’s main industrial center. The
cars in central Tirana. Car city specializes in glass, porcelain, metal
ownership was then banned.

CroaTia working, tractor repairs, and food processing.

Area: 21,851 sq miles
(56,594 sq km)
Population: 4,465,000 N

A U S T R I A UMaribor
Capital: zagreb Y NKranj a W E
Currency: kuna e
H DS
SloVenia
Area: 7,827 sq
(20,273 sq km)
Population: 1,983,500
Capital: ljubljana

a t i cCurrency: euro
S L O V E N I AC R O A T I A G A R YWmatiweleremcslolo edulfeou bnxtnrlhotiapsnrsfizagyusa gipnnmgrriApgorsdurhmilwoaaibisvhgcnepeaaagolgulgrltnutebfsfler.i-tld.asltauaiay’uhsCtrl-nlifoeaetoufhniwi,anaclodanilnTneiubescndugadaetnhnrmtfiihanoaebprennemnlnoleyfsyuaaeoirmPrsdmnTloynboIesieltoesnLa-Kmodqtrlwovjlur,#innaiitaanthrsjeteCDKOPLrRruaretJkoisggjUkei kSBKaSiebaLobvZeâiJaneatAGdvikjaNoVeSKrKsippsrABaDK#BirrlkáoailKaiorothPâZâHrlvaauamaAválplacHaaaBigGrnrBT1jtKeuaEi9rRlªooMaO1oazgR3vaDESllaajmMrleSuZaarBvtLBbovPiNDoErsaBunatonrpraanakGIuvsovrkSnkaajArdaiiOAikcORAVVsAiANujIeklJkNoDSpEvcTuaLsAVurtazaOklraeiGDbrRSeiSJnaeOh2Mvz6kauea9omrj3acdimëëeisrDrITALÂakovec

S

Danu

arner

Vel i SERBIA
r a

d
A

MONTENE KO(dSisOpuVtedO)init Black Drin MACEDONIA

L

main crops. it grows wheat, corn, sugar beets, cotton, TIRANA Lezhë Lake
sunflower seeds, tobacco, potatoes, and fruit. Yet albania’s (TIRANË) Ohrid
vast agricultural potential is hindered by very traditional
methods of farming. Elbasan

ALBANIA
Fier Berat
lake ohrid Korçë
lake ohrid, on the Macedonian-albanian border
Vlorë
SOt rt GREECE

is Macedonia’s main tourist attraction. Visitors a
come to the lake for fishing and swimming, r

it Gjirokastër
an

and to visit the town of ohrid, on its of
to

northeastern shore. ohrid has many
historic buildings, including this
medieval church (right), which
stands on the shores of the lake
just outside the town. Macedonia
is dominated by Slavs, who make
up about two-thirds of the
population, and are followers, like
Serbia, of the eastern orthodox
Church. however, about 30 percent
of the Macedonian population is
ethnically albanian. This situation is
causing some tension within the country, SCALE BAR km
0 75 150
especially since the albanian population
is growing very rapidly. 0 75 150 miles

489

SOUTHERN AFRICA

Bordered on the west by the the countries of southern africa are dominated by dry
atlantic ocean, and on the east
by the indian ocean, much of savanna and woodland, with humid subtropical forests in the north
southern africa lies within the and, to the center and west, the Kalahari and namib deserts.
tropics. the landscape includes traditionally, agriculture has been the mainstay of these
the namib and Kalahari deserts. countries’ economies, but rich mineral deposits, in particular
madagascar, the fourth-largest diamonds, uranium, copper, and iron, are being discovered
island in the world, lies to the east. and exploited, especially in namibia, Zambia, and Botswana.
economically, the region is dominated by south africa,
with its well-developed mining industries and large cities.
Zimbabwe has reserves of coal, gold, and nickel, but the
country’s economy has been brought close to collapse by
drought and misgovernment. Both angola and
mozambique, former Portuguese colonies, have been
devastated by civil wars since independence and are only
now beginning to rebuild their
shattered economies.

uranium wealth desert nomads
the nomadic san of the
the largest open-pit uranium mine in the world is Kalahari in Botswana live by
located at rössing in the namib desert. the mine was gathering fruits and vegetables
opened in 1976 by a group of British, south african, and hunting springbok
french, and canadian companies. as well as being the
world’s fifth-largest uranium producer, namibia also and wildebeest (gnu).
has extensive reserves of tin, lead, zinc, copper, silver,
and tungsten, and produces 30 percent of the world’s Gold city
diamond output.
founded in 1886,
Johannesburg was the
center of south africa’s
gold-mining industry
for nearly a century, and
remains the country’s chief
industrial, commercial,
manufacturing, and
financial center. Greater
Johannesburg is one of africa’s
largest cities, the heart of an
expanding highway system and
the south african rail network.

Victoria falls namiB desert Find out more
located on the Zambezi river, the namib desert extends up africa
on the border between Zimbabwe to 100 miles (160 km) inland along
and Zambia, the Victoria falls are the coast of southwest africa. sand africa, history of
5,500 ft (1,700 m) at their widest dunes can reach heights of 800 ft desert wildlife
point, and fall to a maximum (240 m). moisture from coastal fogs south africa
depth of 354 ft (108 m) in the supports some vegetation.
chasm below. the huge volume
of plummeting water creates a
mighty roar, known to locals as
“the smoke that thunders,”
which can be heard 25 miles
(40 km) away. from the chasm,
the river carves a narrow gorge
before plunging into a deep pool
known as the Boiling Pot.

490

SOUTHERN AFRICA

MOzAMbIque recOvery
After its independence in
Volcano Mountain Ancient Capital Large Small 1975, civil war devastated
monument city city/ city/ Mozambique, one of Africa’s
town town

CONGO poorest countries. The uN
negotiated a fragile peace

agreement in 1992.
refugees have returned
DEM. REP. CO and are rebuilding their
Cabinda Congo shattered land.
Bricks are made
(to Angola) for new homes in
Cabinda

M'Banza Congo

Uíge Cuango a refugee camp
N in Mozambique.
Caxito Lucapa NGO

LUANDA N'Dalatando

Malanje Saurimo TANZANIA

ANGOLA WE Cabo Delgado
S Pemba
Sumbe Môco Cuanza Luena Z ambezi Rio Rovuma
Benguela 2619m Lungué-Bungo
Kuito o MALAWI Lake ugenda
Bié Nyasa
ATLANTIC Huambo M O Z AMB
Rio L
Cubango Plateau INDI
OCEAN
Namibe Lubango Menongue Z A M BIA Lake Cabora Bassa Nampula
Cu

Huíla bango Tete

Plateau Caprivi ShaZambeziLake HARARE Zambe I Q U EQuelimane
StripCuando Kariba
Cun enee N’Giva Victoria Falls Chinhoyi zi
Kunen Oshakati Rundu
Livingstone
Z I M B A B W EChitungwiza Inyangani AN
Opuwo 2592m
ib
Nam Etosha Tsumeb Okavango Mutare
Pan Grootfontein Delta Gweru Chimoio
Bulawayo
NAMIBIA Maun
Masvingo Beira FISHING

Brandberg The waters
2574m of the Indian
Ocean provide
Omaruru

BOTSWANAGobabis
Ghanzi Francistown she

Rio Save

D Serowe rich fishing

Walvis Bay e WINDHOEK MoMlepaohlaolleapMyeochudLiimpop Limpopo grounds for
Tropic of Capricorn
s K a l a h a r iMariental Tropic of Capricorn Mozambique.

Namaqualand PRETORIA Inhambane Shrimp accounts
e GABORONE
(TSHWANE) Nelspruit for more than 40 percent of
rt D e s e r t SWAZILANDKeetmanshooKpGarroaostbeKragreasburg Xai-Xai export earnings. Maputo,
JohannesburMg BABMAANPEUTO Africa’s second largest harbor, is
O Mmabatho
being developed to service
C Soweto Africa’s land-locked regions.
Vaal Welkom
E Orange River n
Kimberley sber g
LESOTHO
A BLOEMFONTEIN Pietermaritzburg

N SOUTH MASERU Durban
AFRICA D rake

* countries covered CAPE TOWN Great Karoo Mdantsane
on other pages. Bellville East London
Cape of
Port Elizabeth

ANGOlA Good Hope SwAzIlANd *

Area: 481,354 sq SCALE BAR Area: 6,704 sq miles
miles (1,246,700 sq km) 0 200 400 (17,364 sq km)
Population: 19,625,000 km NAMIbIA Population: 1,435,500
Capital: luanda 0 200 400 miles Area: 318,261 sq miles Capital: Mbabane
(824,292 sq km)
Population: 2,212,000
bOTSwANA MAlAwI Capital: windhoek zAMbIA
Area: 224,607 sq Area: 45,747 sq Area: 290,587 sq
miles (581,730 sq km) miles (118,484 sq km) miles (752,618 sq km)
Population: 2,183,000 Population: 17,964,500 SOuTH AFrIcA * Population: 15,066,000
Capital: Gaborone Capital: lilongwe Capital: lusaka
Area: 470,693 sq
miles (1,219,090 sq km)
leSOTHO * MOzAMbIque Population: 53,675,500 zIMbAbwe
Area: 11,720 sq Area: 308,642 sq Capital: Pretoria/Tshwane Area: 150,872 sq
miles (30,355 sq km) miles (799,380 sq km) (administrative), cape miles (390,757 sq km)
Population: 1,948,000 Population: 25,303,000 Town (legislative), and Population: 14,229,500
Capital: Maseru Capital: Maputo bloemfontein (judicial) Capital: Harare

491

sovhiisetotry ouf tnheion industRialization
stalin introduced a series of Five-Year plans to
in 1922, a new nation came into being. the union increase production of coal, steel, and power.

of soviet socialist Republics, or the soviet union, was the plans were successful for the
country, but workers had little
reward for their efforts
the new name for Communist Russia, led by Vladimir and many were used
lenin (1870-1924). the years following the 1917 as slave labor.
Revolution were difficult. Civil war between
Communists and anti-Communists had torn
Russia apart. More than 20 million people had
died. when lenin died, Joseph stalin took over
as dictator. in a reign of terror, he eliminated
all opposition to his rule. he started to
transform the soviet union into a modern
industrial state. the huge industrial effort
made the soviet union strong. it survived
German invasion in 1941, although
world war ii (1939-1945) cost the
nation many lives. after 1945, the
soviet union became a superpower,
but it still had difficulty providing
enough goods for its people. in
1985, Mikhail Gorbachev came
to power. he introduced reforms
and began a policy of openness
with the west. in 1991, the
Communist party was declared
illegal, and the soviet Posters showing
union broke up. muscular workers
encouraged people
to work hard.

This shows how collective farms were organized under
Stalin. The collective included a school where children
were educated, a factory, and a hospital. The collective
had to send fixed deliveries of crops to the State.

School, hospital, Joseph stalin
and factory Born in poverty in Georgia, in the
southwest of the Russian empire, Joseph
Workers’ homes stalin (1879-1953) was a follower of Vladimir
Private plots
for fruit, lenin. after lenin’s death, stalin seized
vegetables, power and destroyed his opponents. he
and poultry formed a secret police force to arrest, torture,
Grazing land and execute millions of suspected enemies.
for pigs, sheep, these ruthless “purges” enabled stalin to remain
and cattle unchallenged as soviet leader until his death.

Land for alexandRa Kollontai
growing crops Communism was supposed to introduce
ColleCtiVe FaRM equality into soviet society. however,
stalin wanted to get rid of all the old-fashioned peasant farms and increase
productivity. he reorganized the land into kolkhozy (giant collective farms) while women worked alongside men
controlled by the government. the government took the land and livestock in heavy industry, they were not
of millions of kulaks (richer peasants). those who protested were sent to allowed to hold real power. But a
work in prison camps. Most of the collective farms’ products were exported, woman named alexandra Kollontai
or sent to the government to feed the city workers. (1872-1952) did become a member of
stalin’s government. she made many
important speeches and wrote several
articles about peace and women’s rights.

492

soviet union, history of

chernObYl WOrld War II Soviet Union
In 1986, there was a major disaster In 1941, German armies invaded the Soviet Union 1917 russian revolution.
at chernobyl, near Kiev. a nuclear and reached the gates of Moscow, the capital. 1922 Soviet Union formed.
The Soviets resisted heroically. Stalingrad and 1924 lenin dies and is
power station exploded, killing leningrad survived long and bitter sieges. new replaced by Stalin.
at least 30 people and injuring 1941-45 More than 20 million
hundreds more. radioactive dust factories in the east began to Soviets die in World War II.
and smoke blew all over europe produce advanced weapons, 1955 Warsaw pact, an alliance
and exposed thousands of people such as the T-34 tank, in large of communist states, created.
numbers. In 1943, Soviet 1962 Soviet Union builds
to contamination. Instead of armored forces, led by missile bases on cuba. US
keeping this disaster secret, the navy blockades island. Soviet
Soviets followed their new policy of Marshal Zhukov, fought Union removes missiles.
glasnost, or openness, and warned and won the largest tank 1980 Soviet invasion
the rest of the world of the danger. battle ever. but the of afghanistan.
cOllapSe OF cOMMUnISM Soviets paid a high price 1988 Soviet troops withdraw
after his appointment in 1985, for victory. They suffered from afghanistan.
Soviet premier Mikhail more military casualties than 1991 Soviet Union breaks
Gorbachev introduced policies any other country in the war. up as lithuania, latvia,
of glasnost (openness), and More than 20 million people died. and other republics declare
perestroika (economic reform), Space race their independence.
to improve the poor state of On October 4, 1957, the whole world
the Soviet economy. people listened in amazement to a strange
under Soviet control began to beeping sound that came from space.
demand more freedom. The The Soviet Union had launched
communist party ceased to be the first satellite, called Sputnik 1,
the only political party. In into orbit around earth. It was
romania, the communist followed four years later
dictator, nicolae ceausescu, by Yuri Gagarin (left), the
was overthrown and executed first human in space.
in 1989. In the Soviet Union,
anti-communist demonstrations GOrbachev and YelTSIn
took place. people destroyed Throughout the late 1980s, Soviet people suffered from
statues of lenin and other terrible economic hardship. Many thought that the changes
communist leaders. In Moscow, brought about by Gorbachev’s policy of perestroika were too
the statue of Felix dzerzhinsky, slow. Mikhail Gorbachev (right) resigned in 1991. boris
head of the hated KGb, or Yeltsin (left) became the leader of the new russian
security police, was toppled. Federation. The Soviet
Union broke up as the Find out more

republics formed their own caucasus republics
governments. Yeltsin resigned cold war
in 1999 and was replaced by communism
vladimir putin, who served
as president until 2008 and russian revolution
was reelected in 2012. Women’s rights
World war ii

493

Space flight

space shuttle until the Middle of last century, stories about space flight were
Between 1981 and 2010,
us space shuttles made more found only in science fiction books. today, rockets blast off regularly.
than 130 flights to earth orbit, they place satellites in earth orbit, send astronauts and cargo to the
carrying a crew of several international space station, and launch spacecraft to explore the
astronauts. they took off like solar system. space flight became a reality after the development of
rockets, but landed like powerful rocket engines, capable of giving a spacecraft or satellite the
aircraft. each shuttle had a speed it needs to reach earth orbit. for its journey from earth into space,
cargo bay large enough for a a spacecraft is attached to the top of a launch vehicle (rocket), which is
satellite. two shuttles were powered by rocket engines and carries huge amounts of fuel. the
destroyed in accidents— exploration of the solar system is one of the most exciting aspects of space
Challenger in 1986 and flight. humans have only traveled as far as the moon, a journey of just
Columbia in 2003. three days. however, robotic spacecraft have traveled for years to explore
the distant planets, sending back to us amazing images and information
This module has a collected by their cameras and instruments.
toilet, communication
equipment, and storage The astronauts sit
space for astronauts. elbow to elbow during
launch and return.

Fuel storage

Descent Solar panels
module generate power

Service
module

Orbital Module soyuz spacecraft The Ariane series of
rockets have been
the russian soyuz widely used by the
spacecraft can carry three ESA (European
cosmonauts. it is launched Space Agency).
on a rocket and is used to ferry
people to and from the international space rocket
space station. the habitable parts spacecraft are carried
are the orbital module and the into space by launch
descent module. the cosmonauts vehicles, or rockets. the
travel back to earth in the descent launch rocket consists of
module. the orbital and service several parts called stages,
modules separate from the each with its own rocket
descent module and burn engine. each stage breaks
up in the atmosphere. away as it uses up its fuel,
eventually leaving only the
orion spacecraft spacecraft to fly in space.
the orion spacecraft is expected to take spacecraft that return to
its first astronauts into space in the near earth use a small engine
future. it is nasa’s replacement for the to slow them down until
space shuttle and will be launched by a they fall out of orbit.
the us’s space launch system (sls)
rocket. at first, it will be used to go to
and from the international space
station. later it may take astronauts to
the moon or Mars.

494

Space flight

Firsts in space iNTERPLANETARY Radio dish
fLiGHT
1957 The first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1
(Soviet Union), goes into orbit around Earth. Some aircraft are
1959 Luna 3 (Soviet Union), the first successful designed to explore
space probe, flies past the moon and sends back the first objects in the solar system.
picture of the moon’s far side. They are equipped with
1961 Russian Yuri Gagarin becomes the first person cameras and all kinds of
to fly in space, making one orbit of Earth. sensors that take images
1962 Mariner 2 (US), the first successful planetary and collect information,
space probe, flies past Venus. which is beamed back to
1969 Neil Armstrong (US) becomes the first person Earth by radio.
to walk on the moon.
1971 The first space station, Salyut 1 (Soviet Union), Cameras
goes into orbit.
1981 US space shuttle Columbia makes its first Fuel tank
test flight into space.
1990 Hubble Space Telescope put into Earth orbit by the
space shuttle Discovery (US).
1995 Discovery (US) is the first shuttle mission to be flown
by a female pilot, Eileen Collins.
2001 Businessman Dennis Tito becomes the first space
tourist, aboard the Russian craft Soyuz.
2014 Rosetta spacecraft’s Philae probe becomes first probe
to land on a comet, 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko.

Parachute to CASSiNi
slow the speed in 1997, the Cassini
of the probe spacecraft left Earth on its

seven-year journey to Saturn.
About the size of a small
bus, Cassini has studied the
Heat shield to protect the gas giant, its rings, and its
probe during its descent Huygens probe moons. on board the
through Titan’s atmosphere
spacecraft was a small probe
called Huygens that landed
iNSiDE THE iSS on the surface of Titan,
While on board the international Saturn’s largest moon.
Space Station (iSS), astronauts
conduct experiments and repair The probe was named
equipment under weightless after Dutch astronomer
conditions. The space station Christiaan Huygens,
became fully operational in the discoverer of
2009, but there are plans to Titan. Huygens
add new modules in the collected and sent
years to come. back data during its

Radiators Solar panels Spacecraft dock Pressurized Thermal control descent and for about
turn edge-on rotate to point at ports in modules provide panels regulate 1.5 hours after landing.
to the sun to at the sun positions like living quarters and temperature
lose excess this one laboratories SPACE STATioN
heat
People can make the longest space flights on
board space stations—large spacecraft that
spend several years in orbit around Earth.
Smaller spacecraft carry teams of astronauts

to the international Space Station,
where they live and work for weeks or
months at a time. Supplies and relief
crews come aboard in spacecraft that
dock (link up) with the international
Space Station.

Remote sensing Find out more
instruments look Astronauts and space travel
down on Earth
International Space Station Comets and meteors
Gravity
Moon
Planets

Rockets and missiles
Satellites

495

spain

SPAin ShAReS The iBeRiAn PeninSulA with Portugal. it
is the fourth-largest country in europe, and both its landscape
and its people are varied. The center of Spain is a hot, dry
plateau with snowy mountain ranges to the
north and south. The southern region of Spain
contains europe’s only desert. Spain has some
large minority groups, including the Catalans
in the northeast, galicians in the northwest,
and Basques in the north-center. Most of the rest
are Castilian Spanish. The country was torn apart
Spain is situated on the iberian
Peninsula in the southwest corner of
europe. France and the Bay of Biscay by a vicious civil war from 1936-39, and In many parts of Spain and Portugal,
are to the north, the Mediterranean right-wing dictators ruled Spain for the donkey cart is still a common
Sea to the east, the Strait of gibraltar form of transportation.
and Africa are to the south, and much of the 20th century. however, in
Portugal is to the west. the mid-1970s the country formed a democratic

FlAMenCo government. This change allowed Spain to join the european
Flamenco music and dance Community—now known as the european union (eu)—in
were developed by gypsies in 1986, and to benefit from the higher standard of living
Andalucia, in southern Spain. in the rest of europe. once reliant on farming and
Flamenco songs deal with
the entire range of
human emotion, fishing for its income, Spain experienced economic
from despair to growth after joining the eu. however, the global recession
ecstasy. Dancers
dress in traditional of 2008 caused widespread unemployment, forcing the
government to take strict measures to save the economy.
costume and are
usually accompanied by
guitars and their own TouRiSM
handheld percussion
More than
instrument, called 60 million tourists
castanets. The men’s steps from all over the
are intricate, with toe and world visit Spain.
Tourism employs
heel clicking; women’s five percent of the
dancing depends on the workforce and is

grace of the hands and body,
rather than on footwork.

a major source of
income. Tourists come
to enjoy the sun, as the
climate is mild in the
winter and hot in the
summer. The country
boasts fine beaches, and its
old towns are full of interesting
buildings and fine works of art.

Religion In Spain, bullfighting is a national sport. It is
very popular, but many people consider
The Roman Catholic Church plays an it to be a cruel activity. This bullfighter
important part in the lives of most Spanish is shown wearing a typically
people. nearly everybody is a member of elaborate costume.
the church and attends Mass on Sundays. BullFighTing
The priest is an influential member of the Following ancient tradition,
community, and the church is a center men fight with bulls to
of local activities. entertain crowds in Spain.
The matador, or bullfighter,
stands in the bullring and
teases the bull into a rage by
waving a red cape. When the
bull charges, the matador sticks
long, pointed barbs into the bull’s
shoulders. once it is exhausted, the

matador uses a sword to kill the bull.

496

spAin

Old-fashioned horse drawn King juan CarloS
carriages carry tourists The Spanish Civil War of 1936-39 resulted in a
around a number of dictatorship by general franco. in 1975, franco died and
Spanish cities. These
carriages (left) are was succeeded by King juan Carlos, grandson of the last
pictured in the Spanish king. under his rule, Spain became a multiparty
Plaza de
España,
Seville. democracy, and attained membership in the eu. in 2014,
he abdicated in favor of his son, King felipe Vi.

Juan Carlos and Princess
Sophia of Greece (right)
were married in Athens
on May 14, 1962.

SeVille Salt-cured ham
(above), Spanish
Seville is a major port as well as an important omelette – a tasty
industrial, cultural, and tourist center. With the dish of potato
discovery of the new World, Seville entered its and onion (left) –
greatest period of prosperity, being the chief and mussels in an
port of trade with the new colonies until 1718, onion and garlic
when it was superseded by Cádiz. The city is the sauce (below)
capital of bullfighting in Spain and a center
of the andalusian gypsies, famed for their
songs and dances.

regional food
Spain boasts a variety of regional dishes,
The splendid the most famous of which are paella
gardens and and tapas. Paella is a classic dish from
architecture of the
Moorish palace
in Granada the Valencia region, where rice is
grown. it consists of a variety of meat,
fish, fresh vegetables, and saffron-flavored
granada rice. Tapas, sometimes known as pinchos,
north african Muslims, are small snacks that originated in andalusia
known as the Moors, once
ruled most of Spain. The town of in the 19th century to accompany wine.
granada was the capital of their Stemming from a bartenders’ practice of
kingdom, and the alhambra
fortress overlooking the town covering a glass with a saucer or tapa
enclosed a magnificent (cover) to keep out flies, the custom
Moorish palace that progressed to food being placed on
remains to this day. The
palace and its gardens a platter to accompany a drink.
(left) gradually fell Tapas range from cold meats or
into ruin after the cheeses to elaborately prepared
Moors were defeated hot dishes of seafood, meat, or
in 1492, but they have
vegetables. a tapa is a single
serving, while a ración serves

two or three.

since been restored to The climax of Pamplona’s
their former glory. (left) annual fiesta, Los

SPaniSh guiTar Sanfermines, is when bulls
The guitar originated in Spain in the 16th century. it plays stampede through the city.

a central role in flamenco, traditionally accompanying the fieSTaS
singer. The flamenco guitar developed from the modern
classical guitar, and evolved in Spain in the 19th century. More than 3,000
flamenco guitars have a lighter, shallower construction fiestas take place each
year in Spain. on any day
and a thickened plate below the soundhole,
used to tap rhythms. Today, flamenco
guitarists often
perform solo. of the year there is a fiesta
happening somewhere—usually more
than one. fiestas are a means for a village, town, or
city to honor either its patron saint, the Virgin Mother,
or the changing seasons. fiestas can take the form of
processions, bullrunning (above), fireworks, reenacted
battles, ancestral rites, or a mass pilgrimage to a rural
The classical
guitar is Spain’s
national instrument. shrine. Whatever the pretext, a fiesta is a chance for
everybody to take a break from everyday life and let off
steam, with celebrations going on around the clock.

497

spain

PaInTInG

Many great artists lived and worked in Spain. Diego velasquez
(1599-1660) was famous for his pictures of the Spanish royal
family. Several modern painters, including Pablo Picasso
(1881-1973), and Salvador Dalí (1904-89), were born in Spain.

Velasquez
included himself
as the painter
in his picture
The Maids
of Honor.

InDuSTry

Farming and fishing were once
the basis of the Spanish
economy. The country
has now developed
additional industries,
including textiles,
metals, shipbuilding,
auto production, and
tourism. Iron, coal, and
other minerals are mined
in the cordillera cantabrica
in the north of Spain. In the
1980s, many foreign-owned
electronics and high-tech
industries began to locate in the
country. Major agricultural products
include cereals, olives, grapes for wine,
and citrus fruits, especially oranges from

around Seville.

Barcelona In the coastal towns of Spain many people work in fishing
The city of Barcelona lies on the or in the related industries of boatbuilding and netmaking.
Mediterranean coast of eastern Spain.
It is the second-largest city in the Gibraltar
country (Madrid is the largest) and Spain claims that Gibraltar, at its southern tip,
is a bustling port of almost two million is Spanish. However, since 1713 this rocky outcrop
people. Barcelona is the capital of the has been a British colony.
province of catalonia. It lies at the Gibraltar is just 2.5 sq miles
heart of a large industrial area and (6.5 sq km) in area. Most
of the 29,000
was the site of the 1992 inhabitants work
olympic Games. Its people in tourism.
speak catalan, a
language that sounds The Rock of Gibraltar
similar to Spanish but towers over the
has many differences. entrance to the
The city is renowned
for its beautiful Mediterranean Sea.
architecture and many
historic buildings.
The Cathedral of Sagrada
Familia in Barcelona was
designed by Antonio Gaudí
and begun in 1882. It is
still not finished today.

olIveS Find out more
The deep fertile soils and europe, history of
warm climate of southern
and eastern Spain are ideal european union
for olive cultivation. The Painters
country is one of the world’s
leading olive producers. Most Trade and industry
of the crop is made into olive oil.

498