36 TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM • ShakespeareÊs complete works • Descartes The Geometry • Karl MarxÊs Das Kapital • Leo TolstoyÊs War and Peace • William JamesÊ The Principle of Psychology The Great Books was criticised as being elitist and giving importance to „dead white males,‰ while ignoring the contributions of females and minorities (such as Afro-Americans). Another destructive criticism was that the books were more to create the illusion of being cultured without any real substance behind them. Source: Great Books of the Western World. Available at http://www.answers.com (a) What other books from the list of The Great Books do you know? (b) What were the main arguments put forward by the perennialists for using The Great Books? (c) Do you agree with the criticisms of The Great Books? Justify. Discuss these questions with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 37 2.5 ESSENTIALISM In this subtopic, we will learn the definition of essentialism and the description of essentialist curriculum. 2.5.1 What is Essentialism? Essentialism comes from the word „essential‰, which means the main things or the basics. Essentialism is an educational philosophy. It was originally popularised in the 1930s by William Bagley and later in the 1950s by Arthur Bestor and Admiral Rickover. As an educational philosophy, it advocates instilling in students the „essentials‰ or „basics‰ of academic knowledge and character development. When it was first introduced as an educational philosophy in American schools, it was criticised as too rigid. In 1957, the Russians launched Sputnik, which caused panic in educational circles as Americans felt they had fallen behind the Soviet Union technologically. A rethinking of education followed that led to an interest in essentialism. Essentialism was grounded in a conservative philosophy that argues that schools should not try to reshape society radically. Rather, they should transmit traditional moral values and intellectual knowledge that students need to become model citizens. Essentialists believe that teachers should instil traditional virtues such as respect for authority, fidelity to duty, consideration for others, and practicality. Essentialism places importance on science and understanding the world through scientific experimentation. To convey important knowledge about the world, essentialist educators emphasised instruction in natural science rather than non-scientific disciplines such as philosophy or comparative religion. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
38 TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 2.5.2 The Essentialist Curriculum Based on the beliefs of essentialism, the curriculum proposed has the following characteristics: • The „basics‰ of the essentialist curriculum are mathematics, natural science, history, foreign language, and literature. Essentialists disapprove of vocational, life-adjustment, or other courses with „watered down‰ academic content. • Elementary students receive instruction in skills such as writing, reading, and measurement. They are gradually moving from less to more complex skills and detailed knowledge. While learning art and music (subjects most often associated with the development of creativity), students are also required to master information and basic techniques. Students are promoted to the next higher grade by mastering the required material for their grade level. • Essentialist programmes are academically rigorous for slow and fast learners – common subjects for all students regardless of their abilities and interests. But, how much is to be learned is adjusted according to the studentÊs ability. • It advocates a longer school day, a longer academic year and more challenging textbooks. Essentialists maintain that classrooms should be oriented around the teacher, who serves as the studentsÊ intellectual and moral role models. • Teaching is teacher-centred, and teachers decide what is most important for students to learn with little emphasis on student interests. Essentialist teachers focus heavily on achievement test scores to evaluate progress. This method will divert the students time and attention from learning the academic subjects. • In an essentialist classroom, students are taught to be „culturally literate,‰ to possess a working knowledge about the people, events, ideas, and institutions that have shaped society. Essentialists hope students will possess basic skills, extensive knowledge, discipline, and practical minds when they leave school. The students should then be capable of applying their knowledge in real-world settings. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 39 • Discipline is necessary for systematic learning in a school situation. Students learn to respect authority in both school and society. • Teachers must be mature and well-educated, know their subjects well, and transmit their knowledge to students. 2.6 PROGRESSIVISM In this subtopic, we will learn the definition of progressivism and the description of progressive curriculum. 2.6.1 What is Progressivism? Progressivism is a philosophical belief that education must be based on the fact that humans are social beings and learn best in real-life activities with other people. John Dewey (1859–1952) was the most responsible for progressivism. Dewey wrote extensively on psychology, epistemology (the origin of knowledge), ethics and democracy. However, his philosophy of education laid the foundation for progressivism. In 1896, while a professor at the University of Chicago, Dewey founded the famous Laboratory School to test his educational ideas. His writings and work with the Laboratory School set the stage for the progressive education movement. The progressive movement stimulated American schools to broaden their curriculum, making education more relevant to the needs and interests of students. 1. What are the THREE main features of the essentialist classroom? 2. Identify the strengths and weaknesses of an essentialist curriculum. SELF-CHECK 2.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
40 TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM According to Dewey, the role of education is to transmit societyÊs identity by preparing young people for adult life. He was a keen advocate of democracy; for it to flourish, he felt that education should allow learners to realise their interests and potential. According to him, certain abilities and skills can only be learned in a group. Learners should learn to work with others because learning in isolation separates the mind from the action. Social and intellectual interaction dissolves the artificial barriers of race and class by encouraging communication between various social groups (Dewey, 1920). He described education as a process of growth and experimentation in which thought and reason are applied to solve problems. Children should learn as if they were scientists using the scientific method proposed by Dewey (1920, cited in Thorburn, 2020) (refer to Figure 2.3): Figure 2.3: Scientific Method Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 41 Students should constantly experiment and solve problems, reconstructing their experiences and creating new knowledge using the proposed five steps. Teachers should not only emphasise drills and practice. Still, they should expose learners to activities that relate to studentsÊ real-life situations, emphasising „learning by doing‰. 2.6.2 The Progressive Curriculum Based on the beliefs of progressivism, the curriculum proposed had the following characteristics: • Progressivists emphasise the study of natural and social sciences. A teacher should introduce students to new scientific, technological, and social developments. Learning should be related to present community life to expand learnersÊ personal experience. Believing that people learn best from what they consider most relevant to their lives, the curriculum should centre on the studentsÊ experiences, interests, and abilities. • Teachers should plan lessons that arouse curiosity and push students towards higher-order thinking and knowledge construction. For example, in addition to reading textbooks, students must learn by making field trips to interact with nature and society. • Students are encouraged to interact with one another and develop social virtues such as cooperation and tolerance for different points of view. • Teachers should not be confined to focusing on one discrete discipline at a time. In fact, they should introduce lessons that combine several different subjects. • Students are to be exposed to a more democratic curriculum that recognises the accomplishments of all citizens regardless of race, cultural background, and gender. • By including instruction in industrial arts and home economics, progressivists strive to make schooling both interesting and useful. Ideally, the home, workplace, and schoolhouse should blend to generate a continuous, fulfilling learning experience. It is the progressivist dream that the dreary, seemingly irrelevant classroom exercises that so many adults recall from childhood will someday become a thing of the past. Students solve problems in the classroom similar to those they will encounter outside school. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
42 TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 2.7 RECONSTRUCTIONISM In this subtopic, we will learn the definition of reconstructionism and the description of reconstructionist curriculum. 2.7.1 What is Reconstructionism? Reconstructionism was a philosophy uniquely popular in the US during the 1930s through the 1960s. It was largely the brainchild of Theodore Brameld from Columbia Teachers College. He began as a communist but shifted to reconstructionism. Reconstructionism is a philosophy that believes in the rebuilding of social and cultural infrastructures. Reconstructionists favour reform and argue that students must be taught how to bring about change. Students are to study social problems and think of ways to improve society. Another proponent of reconstructionism was George Counts (1932). A speech titled Dare the School Build a New Social Order suggested that schools become the agents of social change and reform. Students cannot afford to be neutral but must take a position. Most advocates of reconstructionism are sensitive to race, gender, ethnicity, and differences in socioeconomic status. Related to reconstructionism is another belief called critical pedagogy. It is primarily a teaching and curriculum theory designed by Henry Giroux and McLaren (1986), focusing on using revolutionary literature in classrooms aimed at „liberation.‰ Radical in its conception, critical pedagogy was based on a Marxist ideology which advocates equality in the distribution of wealth and is strongly against capitalism. Freire (2020) advocated a revolutionary pedagogy for poor students in his book Pedagogy of the Oppressed. He argued that people must become active participants in changing their status through social action to bring about social justice. He believes people can move through different stages to take action and overcome oppression. 1. What are the main arguments of the progressive movement? 2. List some of the main features of the progressive curriculum. 3. What are the main differences between progressive curriculum and essentialist curriculum? SELF-CHECK 2.4 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 43 2.7.2 The Reconstructionist Curriculum Based on the beliefs of reconstructionism, the curriculum proposed had the following characteristics: • In the reconstructionist curriculum, it was not enough for students to analyse, interpret, and evaluate social problems. They had to be committed to the issues discussed and encouraged to take action to bring about constructive change. • The curriculum is to be based on social and economic issues as well as social service. The curriculum should engage students in critically analysing the local, national, and international community. Examples of issues are poverty, environmental degradation, unemployment, crime, war, political oppression, hunger, etc. • There are many societal injustices and inequalities regarding race, gender, and socioeconomic status. Schools are obliged to educate children towards the resolution of these injustices, and students should not be afraid to examine controversial issues. Students should learn to reach a consensus on certain issues, so group work was encouraged. • The curriculum should constantly be changing to meet the changes in society. Enhancing mutual understanding and global cooperation should be the focus of the curriculum. Students are aware of global issues and the interdependence between nations. • Teachers are considered the prime agents of social change, cultural renewal, and internationalism. They are encouraged to challenge outdated structures and entrusted with bringing about a new social order that may be ideal. • The curriculum generally emphasised the social sciences (such as history, political science, economics, sociology, religion, ethics, poetry, and philosophy) rather than the sciences. 1. What is the main argument of proponents of reconstructionism? 2. What are the recommendations of the reconstructionists about curriculum? SELF-CHECK 2.5 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
44 TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM Identify the Educational Philosophies Which of the following statements reflects the four philosophical traditions that have been discussed? Mark: • E for essentialism • P for progressivism • PN for perennialism • R for reconstructionism Statement Educational Philosophy 1. A school curriculum should include a common body of knowledge that all students should know. 2. The curriculum should focus on the great ideas that have survived through time and are related to present-day challenges. 3. Schools should prepare students to analyse and solve the social problems they will face as adults. 4. Students should determine their curriculum, and teachers should guide and help them. 5. Students must be taught about change and how to bring about change. 6. Teachers and schools should emphasise academic rigour, discipline, hard work and respect for authority. 7. Students must be questioned and probed until they discover the truth in the texts selected. 8. Schools should develop studentsÊ ability to think deeply and rather than focus on temporary issues such as social skills and current trends. ACTIVITY 2.4 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 45 9. For a country to be competitive in the global marketplace, schools should seek to produce more competent workers. 10. Since students learn effectively through social interaction, schools should plan for increased social interaction in the curriculum. 11. Students are too immature to decide what they need to learn, so the school should decide for them. 12. Teaching should emphasise relating what is learnt to the real world through field trips and internships. 13. Education is not primarily concerned with producing future workers but should emphasise learning for its own sake. Students should enjoy reading, learning, and discussing interesting ideas. 14. Education should enable students to recognise societal injustices, and schools should promote projects to redress social inequalities. 15. Students should be active participants in the learning process, involved in democratic class decision-making and reflective thinking. 16. Students should be taught to be more sensitive to race, gender, ethnicity, and differences in general. Check your answers for your score. Since the statements are subjective, you may disagree with the classification. Support your argument in the myINSPIRE online forum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
46 TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 2.8 ABU NASR AL-FARABI Al-Farabi (872–950AD) was born in Wasij, in the province of Farab in Turkestan, into a noble family. He undertook the meticulous study of ancient philosophy (particularly Plato and Aristotle), which he integrated into his Islamic-Arabic civilisation, whose chief source was the QurÊan. He tried to understand the universe and humankind. Al-Farabi used several terms to describe education (refer to Figure 2.4): Figure 2.4: Education According to al-Farabi Source: Al-Talbi (1993) He believed that the first aim of knowledge was knowledge of God and His attributes. He further emphasised the need for the unity of society and the state to be achieved through the unity of thought, wisdom, and religion. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 47 2.8.1 Al-Farabi on Education The following describes Al-Farabi on education in detailed manner: • According to him, the whole activity of education is the acquisition of values, knowledge, and practical skills leading to perfection and the attainment of happiness. The perfect human being (al-insan al-kamil) has acquired: – theoretical virtue (intellectual knowledge) – practical moral virtues (moral behaviour) • Al-Farabi stated that virtue is the state of mind. Human being carries out good and kind deeds such as wisdom, common sense, inventiveness, cleverness, temperance, courage, generosity, and justice. • He stated that, for education to be successful, everyone must work together to attain happiness, theoretical and practical virtue can only be obtained within society. Society nurtures individuals and prepares them to be free. Thus, the educational goal is to create the ideal community. • Another aim of education is to educate political leaders because ignorance among them is more harmful than it is to the common person. • He considered the method of dialogue or debate as important in instruction – the method of argument and the method of discourse which can be used orally or in writing. For the common people, the methods used must be closely related to what they can grasp and understand. • He also emphasised the need for scientific discourse. Knowledge is obtained by asking questions about the thing, from the replies obtained, or by resolving a scientific problem. • Al-Farabi argues that there are two types of learning: learning through speech and learning by imitation (observing other peopleÊs actions to imitate or apply them). • The method of instruction must be appropriate to the level of learners. For example, the method of imagination is encouraged for teaching common people the hard to grasp concepts. The educator resorts to metaphors and illustrations in teaching, especially for people reluctant to learn. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
48 TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM • According to al-Farabi, understanding is better than memorisation because the former deals mainly with details which could go on forever and are hardly useful. However, the action of understanding concerns meanings, universals, and laws which are valid for all. 2.8.2 Al-Farabi on Curriculum Al-Farabi on curriculum is described in a more detailed manner as follows: • Al-Farabi classified the sciences and learning not just for listing them but with an educational objective. • Content to be taught as suggested by al-Farabi (refer to Figure 2.5): Figure 2.5: Suggested Content by al-Farabi Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 49 • Mathematics, called „the teachings‰ (taÊalim), was given importance because it trains students towards precision and clarity. The student is, to begin with, studying arithmetic (numbers) followed by geometry, optics, astronomy, music, dynamics, and mechanics. The student moves in stages from the immaterial and the immeasurable to what needs some matter (Al-Farabi, cited in Ammar al-Talbi, 1993). • On evaluation, Al-Farabi emphasised that an examination determines a learnerÊs level in the studied field. He believed that the questions students ask could have either an educational or an experimental character. Educational is when students demonstrate that they have mastered something. Experimental is when students test themselves using instruments (such as a compass, abacus, ruler, or tables) to determine whether they know the rules. • Al-Farabi drew attention to the purpose of educational games and the role of play in human activity. He recommended games that stimulate creativity. Play should be used appropriately to restore the learnerÊs strength to undertake the more serious activity. 2.9 CONFUCIUS Confucius (551–479 BC), born in Quyi in the principality of Lu, is one of ChinaÊs most famous philosophers. He spent a lifetime learning as well as teaching. He stated that education plays a fundamental role in society and individualsÊ development. Education should seek to produce virtuous individuals who will alter human nature. By raising individual moral standards, society will become more virtuous, the country will be well-governed, and its citizens will be law-abiding. He rejected feudalism, in which the status of an individual was passed from one generation to the next based on birth which was prevalent during his time. His recommendations are in the Analects (Lun Yu), a record of 1. What are some of al-FarabiÊs views on teaching? How relevant are they today? 2. What are the main features of the curriculum proposed by al-Farabi? SELF-CHECK 2.6 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
50 TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM his speeches, his disciples, and their discussions. It means „discussions over words.‰ Confucian thought was not confined to China. It spread to Japan, Vietnam, North and South Korea, and Southeast Asia. 2.9.1 Confucius on Education The following describes Confucius on education in detailed manner: • According to Confucius, education is to produce capable individuals (ziancai), whom he called shi (gentlemen) or junzi (men of quality), who possess a combination of competence and virtue. They would serve the government and bring about an ideal managed by men of virtue. The cultivation of virtue was through observation, study, and reflective thought. • ConfuciusÊs teaching includes filial piety (xiao), respect for the elderly (ti ), loyalty (zhong), respectfulness (gong), magnanimity (kuan), fidelity (xin), diligence (min), altruism (hui), kindness (liang), frugality (jian), tolerance (rang), wisdom (zhi), and courage (yong). • Education was to be made available to all, regardless of socioeconomic status or social standing. He denounced favouritism and the passing of office from one generation of nobles to the next. • According to Confucius, Study without thought is labour lost; thought without study is dangerous. He saw learning as a process of observation of some subject matter, whether books, objects or people, followed by reflection. • He saw learning as a highly personal and individual activity. Still, when awakened by real learning, it would be repeated by the student. Teachers should be committed to their work and have a good mastery of the knowledge to be imparted. • A good teacher must love his students, know them well, understand their psychological uniqueness, and think about ways and means of facilitating their access to knowledge. • A mistake is acting on premature knowledge based on insufficient observation and insufficient processing. A lie is having full knowledge and deliberately misrepresenting that knowledge. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 51 2.9.2 Confucius on Curriculum Confucius on curriculum is described in a more detailed manner as follows: • Confucius stipulated that the main emphasis of the curriculum should be moral instruction and the imparting of knowledge. Moral education was, thus, for Confucius, the means whereby his ideas concerning virtue might be realised. • Content to be taught as proposed by Confucius can be seen in the following Figure 2.6. Figure 2.6: Suggested Content by Confucius Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
52 TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM • His emphasis on political and moral principles led to his ignoring the natural sciences, trade, and agriculture. • His curriculum served as the curriculum for 2000 years in feudal China, and the following pedagogical strategies were proposed: – Match learning with studentsÊ aptitudes (consider the age of learners). – Inspire and guide learners by stages. – Instruct oneself while teaching others. – Explain the present in the light of the past. – Combine theory with practice. – Encourage independent thought. – Set a good example. – Correct oneÊs errors and improve oneself. – Welcome criticism. – Curb evil and exalt the good. 1. What are the main features of the Confucian system of education? 2. How relevant are the ideas of Confucius in todayÊs schools? SELF-CHECK 2.7 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 53 2.10 RABINDRANATH TAGORE Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941), born in Calcutta, India, was known for his socio-religious and cultural innovations. In 1901, he founded a school at Santiniketan (that developed into a university) based on the ancient forest schools. He emphasised three basic elements of Indian culture, namely Advaita (non-duality) in the field of knowledge, friendship for all in the field of feeling and fulfilment of oneÊs duties without concern for the outcomes in the field of action (Jha, 1994). 2.10.1 Tagore on Education The following describes Tagore on education in detailed manner: • Education should aim for the all-round development of the individual personality through interaction and union with the environment. Education should provide a good livelihood, fulfilment and completeness of life. Schools should be made fun, attractive, and productive. • The ideal school should be established away from the turmoil of human habitation under an open sky and surrounded by fields, trees, and plants. Classes were held outdoors (whenever the weather permitted), so students gained from being in a natural setting while learning (Tagore, cite in Jha, 1994). • He was against academic learning because it deprives one of learning from the real world. Students should gather knowledge and materials from different sources of nature through their efforts. • On university education, he suggested that it should be based on knowledge of economics, agriculture, health, medicine, and other subjects that reflect life in the surrounding villages. Universities should attempt to push for the growth of rural areas (Jha, 1994). • Emphasis should be more on self-motivation than discipline and fostering intellectual curiosity rather than competitive excellence. • He insisted on an open debate on every issue. He distrusted conclusions based on a mechanical formula, no matter how attractive that formula might seem in isolation. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
54 TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 2.10.2 Tagore on Curriculum Tagore on curriculum is described in a more detailed manner as follows: • He emphasised the use of the national language as the instruction medium at all education stages. The younger generation should be aware of their cultural heritage. Still, at the same time, they should be exposed to the cultures of other countries and learn from them. • He wanted women and men to be offered similar theoretical courses with separate practical courses for women since their roles in life differed from those of men. • In his view, education was not intellectual development alone. It should also develop a studentÊs aesthetic nature and creativity. The quest for knowledge and physical activity in an agreeable environment were integral parts of the process. • Nature walks and excursions were part of the curriculum, and students were encouraged to follow the life cycle of insects, birds, and plants. • Aesthetic development was important as intellectual development, if not more so. The school curriculum should promote music, art, literature, drama, and dance, which should be prominent in the schoolÊs daily life (OÊConnell, 2003). • He advocated a teaching system that analysed history and culture for progress in breaking down social and religious barriers. Such an approach will integrate individuals of diverse backgrounds and narrow the gap between rich and poor (Jha, 1994). • The curriculum should be flexible. Class discussion would move from Indian traditional literature to contemporary as well as classical Western thought and then to the culture of China, Japan, or elsewhere. 1. What are the main aims of education, according to Tagore? 2. What are the main features of the curriculum proposed by Tagore? SELF-CHECK 2.8 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 55 • Philosophers seek wisdom, are curious about the world, and seek to understand the nature of things. • Philosophy is the starting point in any curriculum decision, and it becomes the criteria for determining the aims, selection, organisation, and implementation of the curriculum in the classroom. • The perennialists believe that education aims to develop the rational person and uncover universal truths by training the intellect. • The essentialists argue that schools should transmit the traditional moral values and intellectual knowledge students need to become model citizens. • The progressivists believe that education must be based on the fact that humans are naturally social and learn best in real-life activities with other people. 1. What is your philosophy of education? 2. What is the current „status‰ of the essentialist orientation to curriculum? How widespread is this approach in curriculum planning at the elementary, middle, secondary, and higher education levels? 3. What is the current „status‰ of the progressive orientation to curriculum in primary and secondary schools? 4. To what extent do you agree with the reconstructionist perspective on curriculum? 5. Which ideas of al-Farabi, Confucius, and Tagore are practised in the school curriculum in your country? Share your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 2.5 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
56 TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM • The reconstructivists favour reform, and students must be taught how to bring change. • According to Al-Farabi, the whole activity of education is the acquisition of values, knowledge and practical skills leading to perfection and the attainment of happiness. • According to Confucius, education is to produce capable individuals whom he called gentlemen or men of quality who possess a combination of competence and virtue. • According to Tagore, education should aim for the all-round development of the individual personality through interaction and union with the environment. Al-Farabi on education Confucius on education Educational Philosophy Essentialism Perennialism Philosophy Progressivism Reconstructionism Tagore on education Adler, M. (1982). The Paideia proposal: Rediscovering the essence of education. American School Board Journal, 169(7), 17–20. Al-Talbi, A. (1993). Al-Farabi. Prospects, 23(1), 353–372. Cole, B. A. (1976). Hutchins and his critics, 1936– 953. University of Maryland, College Park. Counts, G. S. (1932). Dare the School Build a New Social Order. Education (11). Freire, P. (2020). Pedagogy of the oppressed. In Toward a Sociology of Education (pp. 374–386). Routledge. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 57 Giroux, H., & McLaren, P. (1986). Teacher education and the politics of engagement: The case for democratic schooling. Harvard Educational Review, 56(3), 213–239. Hutchins, R. M. (1936). What is a general education? Bulletin of the Department of Secondary-School Principals of the National Education Association, 20(63), 64–66. Jha, N. (1994). Rabindranath Tagore. Prospects, 24(3), 603–619. OÊConnell, K. (2003). Siksar Herfer: Education out of whack. Rabindranath Tagore: Universality and tradition, 65–84. Thorburn, M. (2020). Embodied experiences: Critical insights from Dewey for contemporary education. Educational Research, 62(1), 35–45. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
Topic 3Psychological Foundations of Curriculum In Topic 2, we discussed how different philosophical orientations and beliefs influence curriculum. We examined Western and Eastern philosophers and their beliefs on how schools should educate the young. Just as there are varying philosophical orientations, there are also varying conceptions of human learning and how the curriculum should be conceived, especially regarding learning in the classroom. This topic will focus on how different psychological perspectives By the end of this topic, you should be able to do the following: 1. Explain why curriculum developers need to understand how humans learn. 2. Compare the four major theoretical perspectives explaining human learning. 3. Identify the application of behaviourist, cognitivist, constructivist, and humanist principles in the classroom. 4. State your values and beliefs about the nature of learning. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 59 impact the curriculum. Psychology deals with how humans learn and behave. After all, the main goal of any curriculum is to bring about learning. Hence, curriculum developers need to know how humans learn to incorporate psychological principles when designing, developing, and implementing the curriculum. „Strokes of Genius from a Wonder Boy‰ Lost in his own world, 11-year-Yeak Ping Lian kneels on the floor, humming softly as he doodles on a yellow paper. He is oblivious to my presence. „Say hello to the lady‰, Sarah Lee said to her son who reluctantly moved away from his drawing. „Hello‰, he mumbles while engulfing me in a hug. His eyes settle on the flowery motif of my dress. „Paint‰, he retorts in a clear voice and then runs to his worktable and waits. „Paint flower!‰ he repeats louder. The home is swamped with Ping LianÊs art – on the walls, stacked up against banisters and under the tables. They are done in charcoal, pencil, ink and marker pens with watercolour and acrylic. While some resemble infantile scratchings, there are others that seem impossible for an 11-year-old to produce, such as the Petronas Twin Towers, the Kuala Lumpur. Railway Station and charcoal etchings of Tun Mahathir Mohamad and Datuk Seri Abdullah Badawi, the Prime Minister of Malaysia. Ping LianÊs artistic talent is extraordinary. But, like any ordinary child, he is hyperactive and has a short attention span, loves root beer float and biscuits, and enjoys watching Sesame Street and Toy Story. His latest preoccupation is the electronic keyboard. Unlike ordinary children, however Ping Lian is autistic and diagnosed with Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder. Although he has an excellent memory and reads well, he has limited speech vocabulary, usually expressing himself in single or double words. He is home-tutored and attends supplementary lessons for special needs children at the Emanuel Care Centre. He also takes Kumon classes in mathematics. Source: Strokes of genius from an 11-year-old autistic child, by Vivienne Pal, New Straits Times, February 3, 2005 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
60 TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 3.1 UNDERSTANDING LEARNING The scientific study of human learning began only in the late 19th century. However, philosophers such as Aristotle, Socrates, al-Farabi, and Confucius have attempted to explain human learning much earlier. For example, John Locke, an 18th century philosopher, compared childrenÊs minds to blank slates or tabula rasa. He believed that childrenÊs experiences are etched or carved into their minds in much the way that one writes on slates with chalk. Learners are visualised to be empty buckets into which the teacher pours information. However, today we know children are not empty vessels but come to school with many different experiences, prior knowledge, and expectations. There is so much interest in studying human learning, and various disciplines besides psychology have inquired into the mysteries of the mind. Many experts engage in brain study. They hope to unravel its mysteries and better understand how humans learn and think. Various research approaches and methods have evolved in studying how humans learn. Introspection and the use of computers produced much research in cognitive psychology. They increased our understanding of human competence, memory, knowledge representation, problem-solving ability, and decision-making skills in mathematics, science, and economics. Developmental psychology provided some answers to how children think and understand concepts as they grow chronologically. In contrast, social psychology work revealed that learning occurs in cultural settings. Read the newspaper report on Stroke of Genius from a Wonder Boy. (a) What are the unusual abilities of Yeak Ping Lian? (b) How is he presently educated? (c) Are there special schools in your country to educate autistic children? Describe one of the special schools. Share your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 3.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 61 Psychology is derived from the Greek word psyche, which means soul. It is a discipline devoted to studying behaviour, mind, and thought. Specifically, it studies mental processes that determine a personÊs behaviour and thinking. When applied to teaching and learning, it provides the basis for understanding how students learn and understand a body of knowledge. The curriculum developer must know how students learn and consider individual differences when designing a curriculum. The curriculum will be considered successful only when students learn and gain from the curriculum. The curriculum developer is interested in knowing how the organisation of the curriculum can enhance learning. Ralph Tyler is a well-known scholar in curriculum development. He proposed in the 1960s that anything taught in the classroom should be subjected to a psychology „screen‰ to establish whether they are congruent with how humans learn. We will examine in detail about Ralph Tyler in Topic 5. While there is a great deal of interest in studying human learning, anyone involved in curriculum work should also be aware of various explanations of human learning. We have not been able to say with certainty how people learn. Generally, there are four psychological perspectives or schools of thought that have had an impact on the curriculum. These perspectives are behaviourism, cognitivism, humanism, and constructivism (refer to Figure 3.1). Figure 3.1: Psychological Perspectives Influencing Curriculum and Their Proponents Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
62 TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 3.2 BEHAVIOURISM In 1879, Wilhelm Wundt established the first laboratory in Germany. He dedicated himself to the scientific study of human thought processes, often used as the beginning of modern psychology. His approach to using experiments to study the human mind moved psychology from the domain of philosophy to the laboratory. The behaviourist school is the work of WundtÊs introspection method. Through introspection, Wundt and his colleagues tried to get their subjects to reflect on their thought processes. Behaviourists argued that the introspection method was too subjective. They felt that the scientific study of psychology must be restricted to studying behaviours that can be observed and the stimulus that brings about the behaviour. The behaviourist approach can be traced back to Aristotle, Descartes, and Locke. They argued that behaviour could be conditioned by altering the environment. In other words, a certain response can be produced by manipulating and giving a certain stimulus. The motivation to learn was assumed to be driven by hunger, reward, and punishment. 3.2.1 Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) Learning results from an association between a stimulus (such as food) and a response (the animal salivating). The famous Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov introduced classical conditioning theory through a series of experiments with dogs (refer to Figure 3.2). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 63 Figure 3.2: PavlovÊs Experiment with Dogs Source: https://bit.ly/2Nq13ea Based on the law of association proposed by Greek philosophers such as Aristotle, he showed that an organism could associate a particular stimulus (S) such as food with a particular response (R) like salivating. Later, one could substitute „food‰ with the sound of a bell (a neutral stimulus), yet the animal still responds by salivating. Such association or „habit‰ becomes strengthened or weakened by the nature and frequency of the S-R pairings. For example, when the organism realises that the sound of the bell does not result in food, the animal stops salivating, and the behaviour is said to be extinct. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
64 TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 3.2.2 Edward Thorndike (1874–1949) Thorndike also worked with animals and defined learning as habit formation. In his experiments, a hungry cat was placed in a box and could escape and eat the food by pressing a lever inside the box (refer to Figure 3.3). Figure 3.3: ThorndikeÊs Puzzle Box Source: https://bit.ly/3lQPfn8 After much trial and error behaviour, the cat learned to associate pressing the lever (stimulus) with opening the door (response). This S-R connection, when established, resulted in a satisfying state of affairs (escape from the box). Each time the animal was put into the box, it took less time to press the lever and escape because the animal learned how to open the door. Based on these experiments, Thorndike proposed three laws which collectively is called, the law in learning. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 65 • Firstly, is the law of effect. Suppose a pleasurable or rewarding experience follows a response. For instance, after a student gives a response (gets the right answer after doing a mathematics problem) he or she receives a pleasurable or rewarding experience (praised by the teacher in front of other students). In that case, the response will be strengthened and become habitual. • The second is the law of exercise. Connections between stimulus (e.g. getting the right answer) and response (e.g. doing a mathematics problem) are strengthened with practice and weakened when practice is discontinued. • The third law Thorndike introduces to us is the law of readiness. Certain behaviours are more likely to be learnt than others because the organismÊs nervous system is ready to make the connection leading to a satisfying state of affairs. It is preparation for action. The teacherÊs task is to arrange the classroom and learning activities to enhance the connection between a stimulus and a response. 3.2.3 B. Frederick Skinner (1900–1980) The theory of Skinner was based upon the idea that learning is a function of change in overt behaviour. He worked with rats and pigeons. He introduced the term „operant‰, which means to act upon. He put a hungry rat in a box, and a food pellet would be given each time the rat pressed the lever. This experiment resulted in the rat pressing the lever each time it wanted food. The ratÊs change in behaviour or learning resulted from the animalÊs response to events (stimuli) in the environment. The individual is conditioned to respond when a particular response or behaviour is reinforced (rewarded). For example, a child will do her homework because she knows she can watch her favourite TV programme. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
66 TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM Reinforcement is the key element in SkinnerÊs S-R theory. A reinforcer could be anything. It could be a parent saying „good work‰ or the child obtaining an „A‰ in history which gives the child a feeling of accomplishment and satisfaction. These are examples of positive reinforcement. However, there are also negative reinforcers which are any stimuli that give rise to a response when it is withdrawn. For example, the rat will press the lever to stop the electric shock given (refer to Figure 3.4). Figure 3.4: SkinnerÊs Box Source: https://bit.ly/3Zo9zer Hence, a mother will pick up her crying child because she cannot bear to hear him cry. Similarly, when you enter a car, you put on the safety belt to stop the irritating sound of the buzzer. In other words, the behaviours of „picking up the baby‰ and „putting on the safety belt‰ are performed to avoid unpleasantness. On the other hand, punishment is administered when you want to reduce the occurrence of a particular behaviour. For example, a boy who does not help his mother is not allowed to go out to play football. In other words, the mother deprives the boy of the pleasure of playing football. Based on a schedule of rewards and punishment, the behaviour of an organism can be modified. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 67 What is the difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning? In classical conditioning, the organism is not able to change the environment. For example, in PavlovÊs experiments, the dog had no choice but to salivate when given food or upon hearing the sound of the bell. In operant conditioning, the organism can act or not because its response is determined by the stimulus or the food given. Operant conditioning has been widely applied in behaviour modification, classroom management and instructional design. Programmed instruction based on SkinnerÊs ideas was widely adopted in the 1960s and is still used today (with modifications). For example, in programmed instruction, students are presented with manageable chunks of information in gradual steps and feedback is immediately provided to reinforce understanding. Good performance is provided with reinforcers such as verbal praise, prizes, and good grades. Do you remember the gold or silver star you would get next to your name in primary school for good behaviour or grades? Behaviour that is positively reinforced will be repeated, and information presented in small amounts can reinforce and shape the formation of the behaviour desired. 3.2.4 Walter Bandura (1925–Present) The social learning theory of Bandura emphasised the importance of observing and modelling the behaviours, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. According to Bandura, learning would be slow if people had to rely solely on their efforts to do anything. Fortunately, a substantial amount of human behaviour is learned by observing others. For the student to learn, they must watch and pay attention to the model and the modelled behaviour. The information observed must be retained in some form in memory. Next, the student must have the necessary motor and cognitive skills to reproduce the modelled behaviour. The motivation to observe and reproduce the modelled behaviour depends on whether the student will derive satisfaction from reproducing the behaviour observed. Television advertisements are among the most pervasive examples of social learning situations. Advertisements suggest that drinking a certain beverage or using a particular hair shampoo will make us popular and win the admiration of attractive people. Depending upon the component processes involved (such as attention or motivation), we may model the behaviour shown in the advertisement and buy the advertised product. Individuals are more likely to model behaviours that result in something valued or the model is similar to the observer and has admired status. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
68 TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 3.2.5 Behaviourism in the Classroom The following is a list of behaviourist principles applied in teaching and learning: • Use a system of rewards to encourage certain behaviours and learning. • When learning factual material, provide immediate and frequent feedback for complex and difficult concepts. • Provide practice, drill and review activities to enhance the mastery of facts. • Break down a complex task into smaller and manageable sub-skills. • Sequence material to enhance understanding e.g. teaches simple concepts before proceeding to more difficult and abstract concepts. • Model, the behaviour students are to imitate and repeat demonstrations when necessary. • Reinforce when students demonstrate the modelled behaviour. • State the learning outcomes desired for the benefit of both teachers and students. • Establish a contract with students on the work to be done and what rewards will be given. What are the differences and similarities between operant conditioning and social learning? SELF-CHECK 3.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 69 3.3 COGNITIVISM In the 1950s, there was a realisation that behaviourism did not fully explain human learning. Although behaviourism emphasised learning that was observable and measurable, something was missing, namely, mental events. In other words, behaviourism excludes the minds of the learner when they are learning or thinking. Hence, cognitivism is also important in studying the human thought process, and it involves the unravelling of the mysteries of the black box (refer to Figure 3.5). 1. Which behaviourist principles listed in Subtopic 3.2.5 are widely practised in classrooms? Give specific examples. 2. Select a textbook and examine how behaviourist principles have been used. 3. Give examples of classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning in daily life. Share your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 3.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
70 TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM Figure 3.5: The Mysteries of the Black Box Cognitivism felt that it was necessary to investigate how learners make sense of what they learn, even though such mental events are difficult to observe and measure objectively. By observing individualsÊ responses to different stimuli, cognitivism makes inferences about the mental processes that produce those responses. For example, when students are asked, „What is the capital of China?‰, one student responds „Beijing‰ while another responds „Shanghai‰. Why did one student answer correctly, while the other got it wrong? Cognition can be defined broadly as the act or process of knowing. Cognitive theories of learning focus on the mind or „black box‰ and attempt to show how information is received, assimilated, stored and then recalled. However, it should be noted that, unlike behaviourism, no single theory explains cognitive processes or the mysteries of the black box. Research in cognitive psychology has been prolific, and many theories have been proposed based on empirical evidence. The evidence indicates that learning is a multi-faceted, complex and dynamic process. This finding is not surprising since the human mind is so complex, and attempting to unravel its mysteries is beginning. For this reason, there are many explanations of how humans think, solve problems, make decisions, and learn. The various theories proposed to examine a small facet of cognition. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 71 3.3.1 The Information Processing Approach All aspects of learning have to do something with memory. If we cannot remember what we have experienced, we will never be able to learn anything. For example, one morning, you are introduced to Shalin. That afternoon you see her again and say something like, „YouÊre Shalin. We met this morning‰. Clearly, you have remembered her name. Memory is crucial in learning, and the „Three Stages of Memory‰ theory (refer to Figure 3.6) proposed by Atkinson and Shriffin (1968) argues that information is received, processed, and stored in three different stages. This theory is also known as the Information Processing Approach. Figure 3.6: Three Stages of Memory Source: Atkinson & Shriffin (1968) The sensory memory receives information from various sources (visual, auditory, smell, touch, and taste), and the brain focuses only on specific information. For example, we normally are unaware of the sensory properties of stimuli or what we are exposed to unless we are asked to identify such information. People are more likely to pay attention to information that is interesting or important to them. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
72 TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM Sensory memory is very short and lasts for about 3 seconds. Information attended to is encoded into short-term memory (STM). Encoding transforms information received into a form that can be deposited or stored in memory. A striking feature of short-term memory is its very limited capacity. On average, it is limited to seven chunks, give or take two, i.e. 7 plus or minus 2 (Miller, 1956). A chunk is a unit that could be several words, digits, sentences, or even paragraphs. To keep information „active‰ in STM, you must do something to it. For instance, when you look up a phone number, you utter it repeatedly in your mind to retain it until you have dialled the number. We can also keep information active by rehearing it. Information can be retained by repeating it (maintenance rehearsal). It can also be meaningful by relating it to something we already know (elaborative rehearsal) to prevent it from fading from STM. Encoded and rehearsed information is stored in long-term memory, consisting of information that just happened a few minutes ago or as long as a lifetime. It has been said that all you have learned and experienced in your lifetime is stored in long-term memory; nothing is lost. Long-term memory has an unlimited capacity or storage area. The failure to recall from your long-term memory, is a result from a loss of access to the information rather than from a loss of the information itself. Poor memory may reflect a retrieval failure rather than a storage failure. Failure to find car keys does not necessarily mean it is not there. It is there but cannot be found. You may be looking in the wrong place, or it may be misfiled in your brain and, therefore, inaccessible. Research has identified that successful retrieval from long-term memory is enhanced when the information is properly organised and when the information is similar to the context encoded in it. For example, you met various professionals at a meeting – doctors, teachers, journalists, and accountants. When you later tried to recall their names, you would do better if you organised your recall by profession. For instance, you can ask yourself the following questions: Who were the doctors I met?, Who were the teachers? and so forth. A list of names or words is far easier to recall when you sort the words into categories and then recall the words on a category-by-category basis. Good information organisation improves retrieval, presumably by making memory search more efficient. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 73 Information is stored in the long-term memory as a network; the more we elaborate on it, the more we will remember. Also, the more connections between the new information and what is already stored, the greater the retrieval established. Information in long-term memory is usually encoded in terms of its meaning. Memory can be improved by connecting what is known with new information. 3.3.2 Meaningful Learning The search for meaning or making sense of oneÊs experiences is innate, and the need to act on oneÊs environment is automatic. Our brain has been described as an artist and a scientist to generate information patterns. When confronted with meaningless or unrelated pieces of information, the brain will try to make sense of the information pattern or perceive and create meanings all the time in one way or another. Information is processed at multiple levels depending on its characteristics. The deeper the processing, the more that will be remembered (Craik & Lockhart, 1972). Information with strong visual images or many associations with existing knowledge or elaborations will be processed deeper. Things and events that are meaningful are better remembered because it requires more processing than meaningless stimuli. The greater the processing of information during learning, the more it will be retained and remembered. John Polanyi (Noble Laureate) Learning is seeing patterns; teaching is surrounding learners with the patterns that are already known by the culture. And the difference between Nobel Prize winners and others is that they see patterns that have not been seen before. Schools cannot stop learners from creating meaning but can influence the direction. Although much of what students learn is predetermined by the curriculum, the ideal process is to present information so that the learner can extract patterns rather than try to impose the patterns. The learning environment needs to be stable and familiar. At the same time, provisions must be made to satisfy the learnerÊs need for curiosity and hunger for discovery and challenge. Lessons need to be exciting and meaningful and offer students abundant choices. All students must have a rich environment with complex and meaningful challenges. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
74 TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM A medical practitioner, David Ausubel (1960), argued that learning occurs when oneÊs current knowledge organisation is changed. The change indicates that meaningful and coherent knowledge is based on prior knowledge. The change is either due to the subsuming concept having been elaborated with the new information or because a new subsuming concept now connects existing concepts. Students come to school with sophisticated theories about the world and an intuitive understanding of language, numbers, and science based on their previous experiences. They are capable of complex thinking, which they apply to problems in their daily lives, even without mastering some basic skills. However, this prior knowledge includes preconceived ideas and misconceptions such as stereotypes (e.g. of race, gender, etc.) and simplistic notions about the workings of the real world. When you ignore prior knowledge, you miss a tremendous opportunity to contextualise new knowledge and challenge pre-existing mistaken ideas. If students do not figure out their beliefs and then confront their flawed or incomplete notions about the world, they will continue to hold on too many misconceptions. Some will make it impossible for them to understand more complex concepts. 3.3.3 Levels of Cognitive Development According to genetic epistemologist Jean Piaget (1955), the senses absorb information. The human mind organises and imposes personal understanding by relating it to what it already knows. When new information is assimilated through existing ideas and beliefs, it is usually combined with existing knowledge and reinforces the existing views. In contrast, learners need to consider information through a new schema when they must transform their beliefs to accommodate the information, which is the basic process for conceptual change. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 75 Through observation of his children, Piaget proposed the following theory of cognitive development (refer to Table 3.1): Table 3.1: Theory of Cognitive Development Development Description Sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2) In the early stage, the childÊs reactions are based on reflex operations and progress towards differentiating the self from objects. By this stage, the child achieves object permanence and realises that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen or felt. Preoperational stage (2–7 years) The child can use language and see symbolic objects. For example, a chair is used for sitting. Thinking is egocentric in which the child finds it difficult to consider the viewpoints of others. Can classify objects by a single feature. For example, the child can group all red objects regardless of shape and colour. Concrete operational (7–11 years) The child can think logically about objects and events. The child can also classify objects according to several features and order them in series along a single dimension, such as size. For example, by age 7, the child knows that when 500 millilitres of water in a tall glass is poured into a flat container, the volume of water is the same. Formal operations (11 years and onwards) The young person can think logically about abstract ideas, evaluate data, and test hypotheses systematically. They can analyse ideas and comprehend spatial and temporal relationships. At this stage, there are few or no limitations on what the young person can learn depending on his intellectual potential and environmental experiences. PiagetÊs view on how children think and develop has significantly impacted educational practice and curriculum development. His ideas have been the basis for designing kindergarten and primary school curriculum. For example, learning materials and activities are designed to meet the appropriate level of cognitive development and avoid asking students to perform tasks beyond their cognitive capabilities. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
76 TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 3.3.4 Metacognition For many people, learning feels like a spontaneous activity; it just happens (or it does not). However, this is not true because learners who order their thoughts and focus to make sense of the information, such as relating it to prior knowledge, engage in metacognitive thought (Flavell, 1981). Metacognition is thinking about thinking and it involves three elements (refer to Figure 3.7 and Table 3.2): Figure 3.7: Metacognition Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 77 Table 3.2: Elements of Metacognition Element Description Knowledge Unless you know how to order your thoughts, attention goes to whatever is in the surroundings. Awareness Awareness of your cognitive behaviour includes being aware of: • The purpose of the task • What you know about the task • What needs to be known • The strategies which facilitate or impede learning Action Action is the ability to use self-regulatory mechanisms to ensure the successful completion of the task, such as: • Planning your next move • Checking the outcome of any move made • Evaluating the effectiveness of any attempted move Experts in any field carry very well-developed patterns of knowledge in their field. They draw on these known patterns whenever they encounter new information and recognise patterns and features not noticed by novices. But how do they acquire the patterns in the first place? They start with prior learning, organise it into accessible categories or patterns, and routinely question what they know when confronted with new patterns and contexts. They learn for understanding by observing their learning and monitoring what they learn. They also use feedback from self-monitoring to make adjustments, adaptations and even major changes to what they hold as understanding (Brown, 1982). Students can enhance their metacognitive skills to control their learning. They enhance metacognitive ability when they have skills like planning, organisation, monitoring, revising, and refocusing. 1. What are the characteristics of the three memory stores? 2. What is meant by meaningful learning? 3. What is metacognition? How does it influence learning? SELF-CHECK 3.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
78 TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 3.3.5 Cognitivism in the Classroom According to Huitt (2003), the following is a list of cognitivist principles that may be practised in the teaching and learning of various subject areas (refer to Table 3.3). Table 3.3: List of Cognitivist Principles Principles Details Gain the studentsÊ attention • Use cues to signal when you are ready to begin. • Move around the room and use voice inflexions (changing tones). Bring to mind relevant prior learning • Review the previous dayÊs lesson. • Discuss the previously covered content. Point out important information • Provide handouts. • Write on the board or use transparencies. Present information in an organised manner • Show a logical sequence of concepts and skills. • Go from simple to complex when presenting new material. Show students how to categorise (chunk) related information • Present information in categories. • Teach inductive reasoning. Provide opportunities for students to elaborate on new information • Connect new information to something already known. • Look for similarities and differences among concepts. Show students how to use coding when memorising lists • Make a silly sentence with the first letter of each word in the list. • Use mental imagery techniques such as the keyword method. Provide for repetition of learning • State important principles several times in different ways during a presentation of information (STM). • Have items on each dayÊs lesson from the previous lesson (LTM). • Schedule periodic reviews of previously learned concepts and skills (LTM). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 79 3.4 CONSTRUCTIVISM A baby is born and soon takes her first step. The amount of learning and understanding her immediate environment is enormous within that short period. Learning in the early years is significant because it provides the basis for language, physical dexterity, social understanding, and emotional development for the rest of the childÊs life. Just imagine the vast amount of knowledge that would have been acquired by the time the child enters school. Increasingly there is evidence to suggest that adults do not teach everything the child learns. Instead, the child teaches herself by absorbing information and experiencing the world around her. Such learning is the basis of constructivism, which has generated much excitement and interest among educators. 3.4.1 Learning is the Active Construction of Knowledge Constructivism is a learning perspective that originates in the works of Bruner, Piaget, and Vygotsky. The knowledge, beliefs, and skills an individual brings to a learning situation should be important. Learners are not passive recipients of information but active agents engaging in constructing their knowledge. According to Piaget (1955), knowledge construction can occur through three mechanisms. The first mechanism is assimilation. The learner tries to fit a new experience into an existing mental structure – secondly, the accommodation where the learner revises an existing schema because of a new experience. 1. Which of the cognitivist principles listed in Subtopic 3.3.5 do you think are widely practised in classrooms? Give specific examples. 2. Do you think schools should teach students how to learn? Why? Discuss your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 3.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
80 TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM The third mechanism is equilibrium. The learner seeks mental stability through assimilation and accommodation. In other words, learning involves constructing new understanding by combining prior learning with new information. In other words, knowledge is constructed in the learnerÊs mind (Null, 2004). If this is the case, knowledge is seldom transferred from the teacherÊs mind to the studentÊs. Knowledge results from the learnerÊs constructive activity, not residing outside the knower, and can be conveyed or instilled by diligent perception or linguistics communication (von Glaserfeld, 1990). Individuals actively construct knowledge to give meaning to that knowledge. Learners construct their knowledge by looking for meaning and order; they interpret what they hear, read, and see based on their previous learning, habits, and experiences. Students who do not have appropriate background knowledge will be unable to accurately „hear‰ or „see‰ what is before them. What does this mean for classroom learning? Students should not be treated as passive learners but as active learners exploring and going beyond the information given. They should be provided with authentic and challenging projects to encourage students and teachers to work together. Authentic settings allow learners to see a problem from different perspectives; and negotiate and generate solutions through sharing and exchanging ideas. In an authentic environment, learners assume responsibility for their learning. The goal is to create learning communities that are more closely related to collaborative practice in the real world. 3.4.2 Learning is a Social Activity Constructivism emphasises that learning is a social activity. The environment in which young people learn has a very powerful influence on them. The subtle and overt cues that pervade a community has an influence on them. Social experiences, rather than what is taught in schools, often account for much of the variation in student learning. The community is the basic fabric of student learning encompassing a cultureÊs values, beliefs, norms, habits, and behaviours (Vygotsky, 1978). As students enter adolescence, the social fabric of their learning expands as their contacts broaden and they become more closely identified with peers. Within their peer group, young adolescents encounter many new ideas and points of view. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 81 Suppose learning is social, and students are social. In that case, it seems logical that social engagement is a powerful vehicle for enhancing learning. Learning is enhanced when students learn how to learn together. They also engage in serious discussion, examine important topics, and have shared responsibility for applying what they know to new situations. Cooperative, collaborative, and group investigation methods allow students to discuss ideas, beliefs, conceptions, inconsistencies, and misconceptions with their peers and teachers. Organising this kind of learning is a much more complex type of teaching compared to lecturing or demonstrations. Every childÊs learning develops in the context of culture. Culture teaches children both what to think and how to think. Through culture, students acquire much of the content of their thinking and the tools of intellectual adaptation. Through problem-solving, share experiences with others such as the teacher, parent, sibling or significant others. A difference exists between what a student can do on his own and what the student can do with help or the zone of proximal development (Vygotsky, 1962). What learners can do on themselves is on the level of actual ability and what they can do with help is their level of potential ability. So, with appropriate adult help, students can often perform tasks they cannot complete independently. Schools need to create conditions within which students can recognise their own beliefs and engage in challenging phenomena in their environment. It can be done through investigations, reading, laboratory investigations, debates, etc. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
82 TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 3.4.3 Constructivism in the Classroom The following discussion will provide ways teachers can help students construct meaning in a classroom setting, as suggested by Brooks and Brooks (1993) (refer to Table 3.4). Table 3.4: Constructivist Approaches Approach Description Student autonomy and initiative are accepted and encouraged • Respect studentsÊ ideas and encourage independent thinking. • Teachers help students attain their intellectual potential. • Students take responsibility for their learning. Higher-level thinking is encouraged • Teachers challenge students to make connections, analyse, predict, justify, and defend their ideas. • How teachers ask questions will influence student response. • The teacher asks open-ended questions and allows wait time for responses. Students are engaged in dialogue with the teacher and with each other • Students present what they have and build their knowledge. • Comfortable expressing their ideas to allow for meaningful learning. Students are engaged in an experience that challenges hypotheses and encourages discussion • Students generate varying hypotheses about phenomena. • Provide an opportunity to test their hypotheses through dialogue. • The class use raw data, primary sources, and manipulatives, physical and interactive materials. • Involve students in real-world situations. Curriculum • The curriculum emphasises big concepts, beginning with the whole and expanding to include the parts. • Knowledge is seen as dynamic and ever-changing with experience. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 83 3.5 HUMANISM The humanistic approach to learning refers to various ideas and techniques. While there may be many interpretations, they all advocate humanising teaching and learning. A learner is a person who has feelings, attitudes, and emotions. Students learning approaches are influenced by their emotions. Self-efficacy, self-assurance, and motivation have an influence on emotions. However, not all emotions facilitate learning. Stress and constant fear for instance, profoundly affect learnersÊ thinking and learning ability. Past experiences, such as grades and failures, greatly impact a studentÊs learning ability. Three noteworthy personalities who have had an impact on the emergence of humanistic psychology are Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, and Arthur Combs. 1. Which of the constructivist principles listed in Subtopic 3.4.3 are widely practised in classrooms? Give specific examples. 2. What are some problems with implementing constructivist principles in the classroom? Share your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 3.4 1. What does it mean by students constructing their knowledge? 2. What does it mean by learning is a social activity? 3. Why are authentic and real-world situations important in learning? SELF-CHECK 3.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
84 TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 3.5.1 Abraham Maslow He observed that humans are constantly striving to control their behaviour and seeking to gratify themselves. He proposed his well-known theory, MaslowÊs Hierarchy of Needs (1954). According to this theory, individuals satisfy their needs as follows (refer to Figure 3.8): Figure 3.8: Hierarchy of Needs Everything possible should be done to ensure that the lower-level needs of students are satisfied so that they are more likely to function at the higher levels. Parents and society play a significant role in ensuring that childrenÊs physiological, safety, love, belonging, and esteem needs are satisfied. While schools cannot control all the influence impinges on a learner, they can create an atmosphere of trust, warmth and care. Schools need to create a non-threatening environment where students feel safe and comfortable. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 85 3.5.2 Carl Rogers Carl Rogers (1986) was a psychotherapist who believed that the client was the most important person and developed what he called a person-centred approach. The therapist was not to tell the client what to do, but rather the client should learn how to control their behaviour. He established a warm, positive, and acceptant atmosphere in which he could empathise with his clients and sense their thoughts and feelings. When applied to education, he proposed that classrooms become learner-centred and teachers should facilitate learning. The teacher helps students explore new ideas about their lives, school work, relations with others, and interaction with society. Letting students talk about their feelings and finding ways to vent their emotions productively can help them to learn. 3.5.3 Arthur Combs Combs (1972) believed that how a person perceives themselves is most important. He posits that the basic purpose of teaching is to help each student develops a positive self-concept. The teacherÊs roles are facilitator, encourager, helper, colleague and friend of their students. Combs elaborated on these points by listing six characteristics of good teachers (refer to Figure 3.9): Figure 3.9: Characteristics of Good Teachers Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)