236 TOPIC 8 CURRICULUM EVALUATION Brodie, K., & Pournara, C. (2005). 2. Towards researching groupwork in mathematics. Researching Mathematics Education in South Africa: Perspectives, Practices and Possibilities, 28. Eisner, E. W. (1976). Educational connoisseurship and criticism: Their form and functions in educational evaluation. Journal of Aesthetic Education, 10(3/4), 135–150. Fox, W., & Gay, G. (1995). Integrating multicultural and curriculum principles in teacher education. Peabody Journal of Education, 70(3), 64–82. McNeil, L. M. (1977). Bibliographical Essay. Curriculum and Evaluation. Arno A. Bellack and Herbert M. Kliebard (eds.). McCutchan Publishing Corp, 627–647. Oliva, P. F., & Gordon II, W. R. (2012). Developing the curriculum. Pearson Higher Education. Ornstein, A. C., & Hunkins, F. P. (1998). Curriculum foundations, principles and issues. Allyn and Bacon. Scriven, M. (1967). The methodology of evaluation. In R. W. Tyler, R. M. Gagne, & M. Scriven (Eds.), Perspectives of curriculum evaluation (Vol. 1, pp. 39–83). Rand McNally. Stake, R. E. (1991). Chapter III: Retrospective on „The Countenance of Educational Evaluation‰. Teachers College Record, 92(6), 67–88. Stufflebeam, D. L. (1971). Critique of the Report of the Phi Delta Kappa Study Committee on Evaluation. [Paper presentation] Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New York. Worthen, B. R., Sanders, J. R., & Fitzpatrick, J. L. (1997). Program evaluation. Alternative Approaches and Practical Guidelines, 2. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
Curriculum Issues and Trends Topic 9 By the end of this topic, you should be able to do the following: 1. Explain how the information age, changing workplace, mass media, and greater democracy impact curriculum development. 2. Evaluate efforts by schools in catering to individual differences. 3. Justify the importance of character education in the curriculum. 4. Support performance assessment as an alternative form of evaluating students. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
238 TOPIC 9 CURRICULUM ISSUES AND TRENDS Topics 2, 3 and 4 discussed the factors influencing curriculum. We examined the curriculum development process in Topics 5, 6, 7 and 8. In this topic, we will focus on certain curriculum issues, which will be discussed in Topic 10. There are different opinions on the direction education should take. Library shelves are filled with documents and books describing current and anticipated societal changes and how education and curriculum should respond accordingly. Despite differing opinions, there is consensus on the broad trends that are likely to have a major impact on the curriculum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 9 CURRICULUM ISSUES AND TRENDS 239 Read the newspaper report and answer the following questions: Developing More Technopreneur The task of developing a strong pool of technopreneurs in the country is important to ensure the sustainability of the information and communication technology (ICT) sector and to create wealth for the local sector in the future. According to Dr. Wilson Tay, Vice-President in-charge of Technopreneur Development, Industry Development, Division of Multimedia Development Corporation (MDC), „there is always the question posed as to whether technopreneurs are created by nature or nurtured‰. The drive of entrepreneurship, which is needed to create technopreneurs for the country, can be taught at schools and universities through engaging students with a passion for business said Tay. Here various methods can be introduced such as entrepreneurial or business projects for students to gain experience and learn to create, start-up, commercialise and manage their enterprises. „As they have little life experiences, they have to learn by experience and doing, and also through mentoring by more experienced entrepreneurs who serve as their business coaches and models‰, said Tay. Other skills and knowledge that can be picked up include how to develop a business plan and understanding of the commercial viability of the business venture and how to grow the venture. These, according to Tay, can be taught through action learning and experimental programmes, and also through business coaching and mentoring. Apart from developing a culture for learning entrepreneurship, a conducive environment is also important to create and nurture technopreneurs for the local ICT sector. Source: Sharifah Kasim (2005, March 3). Venturing into technopreneurship. CompuTimes, New Straits Times ACTIVITY 9.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
240 TOPIC 9 CURRICULUM ISSUES AND TRENDS 9.1 CHALLENGES IMPACTING CURRICULUM The world is changing rapidly, and each day the pace quickens. Many nations are striving to achieve the status of a modern and prosperous state. The rate at which such status is achieved varies, with some countries getting there earlier than others. Decentralisation and empowerment should go in tandem to develop a nation. Hence, this process can be achieved through industrialised, computerised, and practised modern agriculture. As Naisbitt and Aburdence (1989) pointed out, the shift will be towards self-help rather than welfare, networking rather than hierarchy, and a global economy rather than a national economy. Decisions will have to be made based on consideration of multiple options rather than an either/or situation. These developments have prompted society to ask whether the next generation is adequately prepared to meet these challenges, which invariably refers to the education system. There are four main challenges that are faced by the education system and have an impact on the curriculum (refer to Figure 9.1). (a) What is your opinion of the following statement? „⁄..there is always the question posed as to whether technopreneurs are created by nature or nurtured‰. (b) List the strategies suggested to develop technopreneurs. (c) Suggest other ways of developing technopreneurs. Share your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 9 CURRICULUM ISSUES AND TRENDS 241 Figure 9.1: Some Challenges Impacting Curriculum 9.1.1 Information Age It has been reported that more information has been produced in the last decades. In the United States alone, as many as 50,000 books are published annually, and the amount of information doubles every five years. All information is available to anybody, anywhere and anytime. The information can be accessed at the fingertips in all fields. A new disease called „information anxiety‰ has emerged, defined as the ever-widening gap between what one understands and should understand (Wurman, 1989). It is the helplessness of being unable to cope with much information. In addition, the frustration at never finding the time to mull over the mass of information. Has the current curriculum in educational institutions taken into consideration these developments? Do we know how to respond to these developments? 9.1.2 Changing Workplace Automation and computerisation are another development that rapidly changes the workplace and the types of jobs performed. It has been suggested that more individuals will change careers 5 to 8 times in their lifetime. The new generation will have to continuously learn, unlearn and relearn. Occupations and careers in the information age and the knowledge-based economy will revolve around the processing and management of information. The shift towards knowledge-based jobs will require people who can acquire new skills and knowledge efficiently and effectively. Brain power will be the dominant force, Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
242 TOPIC 9 CURRICULUM ISSUES AND TRENDS and machines and automation will perform muscle power. The future workforce will need to acquire skills in shorter periods and at a faster rate. This skill is necessary to keep pace with knowledge quickly becoming obsolete, emphasising the need for lifelong learning to stay competitive and relevant. 9.1.3 Mass Media Increasingly, more people have access to television channels, and internet entertainment is within easy reach to many households. The onslaught of the media 24 hours a day and 7 days a week has brought positive and negative content with it. The average household is bombarded with hours of Western and American movies, music and advertisements; some of which may challenge and erode traditional values held by many societies. Increasingly, violence, sex, horror, racism, extremism, stereotypes and misinformation are portrayed in the different types of media. Attempts to „scramble‰ and censor transmission through the airwaves have been a losing battle. A plethora of forces is competing for the attention of children, adolescents and adults. Are schools adequately preparing children with the skills and knowledge to make wise decisions? 9.1.4 Greater Democracy More and more countries are moving towards a democratic system of government. With it comes the practice of free enterprise, which may be alien to some people from a centrally planned economy. Democracy and the free enterprise system require greater involvement of ordinary citizens in decision-making. Relying on a few selected leaders to decide what is best for the people is slowly giving way to more „bottom-up involvement‰. However, involvement in the governing process will only be effective if the young are prepared for such roles. The ability to think is imperative for participation in the democratic process. This process is crucial because it helps citizens form intelligent judgements on public issues and thus contribute democratically to solving social problems (Glaser, 1985). In a democracy, citizens should think deeply about important issues affecting themselves and society. They should be able to think critically, transcending ethnic, cultural and religious barriers. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 9 CURRICULUM ISSUES AND TRENDS 243 9.2 CURRICULUM ISSUES We often hear educational systems claim that they cater to learner differences. This diversity would include gifted students, at-risk students and students with disabilities. Some schools have divided classes according to academic performance, while others have grouped students of varying abilities in one class. Debate is continuing on the merits of each approach, with its proponents arguing the benefits of each method. Though students have been divided according to ability, the one-size-fits-all curriculum continues to be implemented. Then, there is the issue of students with disabilities, such as the physically challenged. Should they be kept in a class with others of similar abilities or be included with normal students without disabilities? 9.2.1 Differentiated Curriculum for the Gifted The purpose of a differentiated curriculum is to provide appropriate learning opportunities for gifted and talented students. The rationale for such an approach is because of the capacity of gifted students to learn faster, solve problems more readily, and grapple with abstract ideas. Gifted students need the opportunity to work through the curriculum at a quicker pace since they take less time to acquire the basics. When tasks are consistently too easy, boredom sets in inhibiting the gifted students motivation to learn and eventually may affect their academic achievement. Students differ in readiness, needs, interest, and abilities. A differentiated curriculum is designed to tap into these differences and academic diversity. 1. How do you think the changing workplace will impact school curriculum development and design? 2. List the kinds of knowledge and skills that students will require to participate in the democratic process effectively and counter the forces of the mass media. Share your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 9.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
244 TOPIC 9 CURRICULUM ISSUES AND TRENDS What is the differentiated curriculum? It is not about giving advanced students extra mathematics problems, extra readings, more independent study, or freedom to do their things. They have mastered the basics. Curriculum differentiation is a broad term referring to the need to tailor teaching environments and practices to create appropriately different learning experiences for different students. It is a philosophy of teaching in which teachers modify lessons to meet the needs, interests, and abilities of gifted and talented students. Gifted and talented students are those whose potential is distinctly above average in one or more of the domains of human ability: intellectual, creative, social and physical, that places them at least among the top 10% of their age peers (Tomlinson, 2000). Numerous models of curriculum differentiation cater to the range of individual differences in the classroom. These models show how an existing curriculum, such as science, economics or history, can be modified, extended or adjusted to cater to the needs of gifted students. This topic discusses the model proposed by Maker (1982), which has been adopted in many American school systems (refer to Figure 9.2). Figure 9.2: MakerÊs Differentiated Curriculum Model (1982) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 9 CURRICULUM ISSUES AND TRENDS 245 Maker (1982) introduced a very practical model of curriculum differentiation. He has shown that content can be adjusted to accommodate the ability of gifted students to manipulate abstract ideas and deal with complexity. The process component of the model involves the methods and learning activities used by teachers to present information, the questions asked of students and the mental and physical activities expected of them. The emphasis is on higher-level thinking, creative problem-solving, decision-making, planning and forecasting. Concerning the product component, students would be allowed to create products that solve real-world problems. It is also important to provide students with the opportunity to present work to various audiences for constructive appraisal. Gifted students benefit from negotiating evaluation criteria and being involved in the evaluation process. However, Maker (1982) argues that not everything in the curriculum needs to be modified or adjusted; only those that will lead to meaningful outcomes for gifted students should be incorporated. 9.2.2 Compensatory Education As primary education is made accessible to more children, an increasing number of children from disadvantaged backgrounds are entering schools. These are students from poor socio-economic backgrounds with a common language and quantitative literacy skills. They also have limited English proficiency and learning styles that are not conducive to success in traditional learning environments. In the formal schooling context, being different has too often meant being deficient, and being deficient has meant „being at risk of academic failure.‰ What can be done to effectively engage and educate students who are at risk of low achievement, failure and, eventually, dropping out of school? Compensatory education was initiated in the 1960s and 1970s. It is to help chronic underachievers and equalise educational resources and opportunities across schools. It was introduced based on the assumption that many students, because of poverty and low academic achievement, are disadvantaged and should be provided with extra help and programmes to „compensate‰ for the disadvantages. Two common strategies adopted were grouping and retention (refer to Table 9.1). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
246 TOPIC 9 CURRICULUM ISSUES AND TRENDS Table 9.1: Strategies in Compensatory Education Grouping Retention Students are placed in homogeneous learning groups within a grade or classroom according to their academic performance. The grouping of students is designed to enable teachers to more efficiently match content with studentsÊ ability levels and learning paces. The labels used for this practice are „ability grouping‰ and „tracking‰. Ability grouping has been criticised because poor and disadvantaged students are disproportionately represented in low-ability classes. The stigma of being in such classes has produced a poor climate for learning and lower expectations for student achievement. Students in these classes are reported to have low selfesteem and are the source of discipline problems. In addition, teachers have not been adequately trained to teach such groups and instead implement teachinglearning strategies similar to high-ability groups. This is the practice of holding back students who fail to demonstrate the required level of achievement. Research indicates that retention, as it is currently practised in most schools, has few positive and mostly negative effects on student learning (Shepard & Smith, 1989). Of late, there has been a shift in thinking about compensatory education and its strategies. Among the emerging strategies suggested and adopted to solve the problem of academic under-achievement in schools are: • Compensatory education programmes focusing only on improving basic skills should emphasise higher-order thinking and problem-solving skills. • Less emphasis should be on compensating for what poor childrenÊs lack, and greater emphasis should be given on teaching-learning techniques. These techniques use studentsÊ strengths and experiences as stepping stones for further learning. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 9 CURRICULUM ISSUES AND TRENDS 247 • Mainstreaming should be encouraged. Mainstreaming or inclusion is an educational method that includes many different kinds of learners (including students with learning disabilities) in the same classroom. Separating them according to their learning abilities should be discouraged. In the mainstream classroom, all students, regardless of ability levels, learn together in the same classroom. The purpose of mainstreaming is to give every student a typical classroom experience. Teachers need to be trained to use teaching methods that provide different things for different students, ensuring something for everyone. Students may be divided into groups and provided with diverse learning situations. Mainstream classrooms have specialised equipment and learning materials at hand. For example, there might be various books for different reading levels. • Early prevention targeted at young children is advocated to reduce the inequalities of academic performance through the grades. Preschools and kindergartens must be more accessible to children from poor socio-economic backgrounds. Preschools should aim to develop language skills and social competencies of disadvantaged children to help them enter school at the same level as their more advantaged peers. For example, the Head Start Project started in the United States in 1965. The schools provide preschool and kindergarten children with the opportunities available to millions of young children to prepare them to enter the main school system. 1. What is differentiated curriculum? What is the rationale for such a curriculum? 2. Explain the TWO common strategies adopted to help low achievers in schools. 3. What are some emerging trends in helping low achievers? SELF-CHECK 9.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
248 TOPIC 9 CURRICULUM ISSUES AND TRENDS • The education system is faced with four main challenges: the information age, changing workplace, the mass media, and greater democracy. • The differentiated curriculum aims to provide appropriate learning opportunities for gifted and talented students. It is a philosophy of teaching in which teachers modify lessons to meet the needs, interests, and abilities of gifted and talented students. • Compensatory education was introduced based on the assumption that many students are disadvantaged and should be provided with extra help and programmes to „compensate‰ for the disadvantages. Two common strategies adopted were grouping and retention. Changing workplace Character education Compensatory education Culture of thinking Differentiated curriculum Grouping Information age Mainstreaming Performance assessment Retention Role of the mass media Schools for all Technology-based learning environment 1. Do you agree with mainstreaming? Justify. 2. „No child left behind.‰ Do you agree with this statement? Discuss these with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 9.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 9 CURRICULUM ISSUES AND TRENDS 249 Glaser, E. M. (1985). Educating for responsible citizenship in a democracy. In National Forum (Vol. 65, No. 1, p. 24). Honor Society of Phi Kappa Phi. Maker, C. J. (1982). Curriculum development for the gifted. Aspen Systems. Naisbitt, J., & Aburdene, P. (1985). Re-inventing the corporation. Warnerbooks. Shepard, L. A., & Smith, M. L. (1989). Flunking Grades: Research and Policies on Retention. Education Policy Perspectives. The Falmer Press, Taylor & Francis. Tomlinson, C. A. (2000). Reconcilable differences: Standards-based teaching and differentiation. Educational Leadership, 58(1), 6–13. Wurman, R. S. (1989). Information anxiety. Doubleday. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
Topic 10 Future Directions In Topic 1, we have learned the definition of curriculum. Then, in Topics 2 till 4, we have discussed several factors which influencing curriculum such as philosophical beliefs, psychological perspectives, societyÊs roles and significant historical events. After that, in Topics 5 till 8, we have examined the different phases of the curriculum development process, starting from curriculum planning, followed by curriculum design, implementation, and evaluation. On the other hand in Topic 9, we focused on certain curriculum issues such as some challenges that are impacting curriculum, differentiated curriculum for the gifted and compensatory education. In this topic, we will discuss the future direction of education in order to shape children to become morally responsible and self-disciplined citizens. By the end of this topic, you should be able to do the following: 1. Identify some methods of studying the future. 2. Critically evaluate suggestions for retooling schools. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 10 FUTURE DIRECTIONS 251 10.1 CHARACTER EDUCATION Character education (also called moral education or values education) has always been the concern of educators. The focus is on how the curriculum can be designed to teach children about basic human values such as honesty, kindness, generosity, courage, freedom, equality, respect and so forth. Character education aims to raise children to become morally responsible and self-disciplined citizens. It is a deliberate and proactive effort to develop good character in students; or, more simply, to teach students right from wrong. It is assumed that right and wrong exist and that there are objective moral standards that transcend individual choice. Moral standards such as respect, responsibility, honesty, and fairness should be taught directly. Traditionally, good character is shaped by family and religious institutions. With rising crime rates, violence among youths, drug addiction, sexual promiscuity, breakdown of the family unit, disrespect for authority, increasing dishonesty, and drug abuse, schools should seriously engage in character education. There is a kind of values vacuum further reinforced by the influence of television, advertising and movies to the extent that traditional values have been challenged. Religious instruction, formal or informal, parents and schools have also taken responsibility for character education. It attempts to teach students right from wrong and teach them a core set of values that will guide their lives towards building a decent society. The development of good character is part of every childÊs birthright. Parents, schools, and the community are obligated to meet childrenÊs needs. You may have children who have not been brought up in environments where certain values are stressed. For example, there could be children who do not believe that honesty is important. However, Kohn (1997) notes that school character education has tended to be an exercise in indoctrinating students in the ways of right behaviour. The curriculum tends to emphasise drilling students on desired behaviours rather than engaging them in deep, critical reflection on what it means to be a moral individual or to act morally. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
252 TOPIC 10 FUTURE DIRECTIONS Hunkins & Ornstein, (2016) A person unaware of why he or she believes or behaves even when such beliefs or behaviours are good is not really a moral person. A person of good character knows the difference between right and wrong, knows the bases for his or her behaviour, and chooses right over wrong, action that is of benefit to the person and society over that which is not. There is a difference between having a person engage in behaving rightly and behaving morally. The latter implies an awareness of the bases for action or non-action. Problem solving, decision making and conflict resolution are important parts of developing moral character. Through role-playing and discussions, students can see that their decisions affect other people and other things. Through such teaching-learning activities, students will understand and internalise the desired values and habits they will require for living and maintaining their well-being. 10.2 PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT An issue that has often been hotly debated relates to how students are assessed. We have not changed much in how students are assessed in schools. Paper-andpencil tests dominate from primary school until secondary school and even in higher education. Though there is consensus on the need to assess the individualÊs overall development, assessment continues to be confined to a segment of learnersÊ abilities. What about the affective or emotional outcomes of education? What about the problem-solving and critical-thinking skills of learners? They have been acknowledged as important learning outcomes but are not adequately assessed. What options do we have? 1. Why should schools engage in character education? 2. What is the main weakness of teaching character education in schools? SELF-CHECK 10.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 10 FUTURE DIRECTIONS 253 One of these options is performance assessment. Performance assessment is an assessment based on authentic tasks. These tasks are activities, problems or exercises in which students demonstrate what they can do (McBrien et al., 1997). Some performance tasks are designed to have students demonstrate their ability to apply knowledge to a particular situation. For example, in an economic lesson, students examine the price trends and production figures of petroleum in the last five years to determine how supply and demand determine the price per barrel. Performance tasks often have more than one acceptable solution. Performance assessment is about performing with knowledge in a context that relates to the real world. Learners are given opportunities to show their understanding and ability to use knowledge differently. The goal of performance assessment is not only to determine whether students understand but also whether they can do what they have learned after having left school. In other words, have the knowledge learned, skills acquired and values inculcated have long-lasting or enduring effects. • The implementation of performance assessment requires that one works backwards. In other words, think first about the purpose of the assessment and about the performances you want students to be able to do, and then work backwards. For example, you want primary school students to be able to write creatively. What concepts and skills do I want students to know? At what level should my students be performing? • Having agreed upon what you want students to perform and intend to measure than you decide what knowledge is to be emphasised and what skills need to be cultivated. In other words, what activities should be introduced to provide opportunities for students to show what they can do? For example, suppose you want primary school students to show their creative writing skills. In that case, you should provide a topic, time and resources that allow them to show their creative writing skills. • After determining the activity, you need to set the criteria to indicate whether students have acquired the knowledge and skills. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
254 TOPIC 10 FUTURE DIRECTIONS Why is performance assessment given importance? The reason is simple. It is what people want from students in the real world; the ability to use wisely and effectively what they know. We often hear society complaining that students cannot „apply‰ their knowledge and skills in authentic situations. Society complains because students are not provided with settings where they can apply such knowledge and be assessed accordingly. For example, in a language test, students may indicate that they know a story has an introduction, body and conclusion. However, we cannot be sure that students can write a story with these criteria. Performance assessment is vital to link school and the real world; and give students the confidence to bridge the gap. From the studentsÊ point of view, there is no guessing in performance assessment. Teachers and students work together and state what needs to be improved. The role of the teacher is more of a coach. While there are many benefits of performance assessment, some teachers are hesitant to implement it in the classrooms. One reason is that teachers are not confident enough to adopt this assessment approach. The second reason is that earlier failure with the approach have prompted some teachers to reject the approach and to implement performance assessments in the classroom. 1. What is performance assessment? 2. What is the rationale for encouraging the widespread use of performance assessment in the classroom? 3. Briefly describe how performance assessment can be implemented in the classroom. SELF-CHECK 10.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 10 FUTURE DIRECTIONS 255 Read the following text and answers the questions. Critical Issues in Science Curriculum The science curriculum has remained largely unchanged for decades. Often, the natural curiosity of children, eager to understand their surroundings, is diminished by instruction that discourages inquiry and discovery. Science instruction has become increasingly textbookcentred. Even though laboratory experiences are included, students are rarely encouraged to use scientific methods to solve problems relevant to their world perception. A new vision of science learning is needed, calling for instructional strategies far different from most traditional approaches. The new paradigm for science learning should emphasise engagement and meaning in ways that are inconsistent with past practices. The constructivist teaching and learning models call for learning that is: • Hands-on: Students can perform science as they construct meaning and acquire understanding. • Minds-on: Activities focus on core concepts, allowing students to develop thinking processes and encouraging them to question and seek answers that enhance their knowledge. • Authentic: Students are presented with problem-solving activities that incorporate authentic, real-life issues in a format that encourages collaborative effort, dialogue with informed expert sources, and generalisations to broader ideas and applications. ACTIVITY 10.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
256 TOPIC 10 FUTURE DIRECTIONS 10.3 RETOOLING SCHOOLS FOR THE FUTURE Mental models are how one views the world and makes decisions, which often go unrecognised as one of the main obstacles in bringing about change in an organisation (Senge, 1999). In education, they refer to the invisible assumptions or beliefs educators have about their studentÊs ability to learn. According to Senge (2000), current school systems evolved on a set of beliefs or „theories in use‰ that (refer to Figure 10.1): This approach to teaching and learning will enable students to participate fully in a learning community where the teacher is not the only source of knowledge and information. Technology (the Internet) becomes a tool, supporting the learning process as students seek new knowledge and understanding. Accordingly, teachers will use a variety of alternative assessment (e.g. performance assessment, portfolio assessment) tools to allow students to demonstrate their understanding of science by solving authentic, real-life problems. Source: Adaptation from Christensen (1995) (a) What are the critical issues with regard to the science curriculum? (b) Are these issues similar to the science curriculum in your school system? Justify. Share your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 10 FUTURE DIRECTIONS 257 Figure 10.1: School Systems' Beliefs According to Senge (2000) These are mental models that influence almost everything that is done in schools today. For instance, knowledge is divided into sensitive topics ranging from the Melaka Sultanate to NewtonÊs laws of motion. Each topic is taught at appropriate time slots to learners sitting in rows listening passively, monitored and motivated by grades. While this approach is not necessarily wrong, research in cognitive science reveals that this approach is not compatible with how humans learn best. Retooling schools to meet the challenges of the knowledge economy does not mean replacing existing mental models with new ones but rather recognising the power of mental models in limiting an educator from thinking differently about their educational practice. More important is for educators to suspend their mental models long enough to seek new knowledge and to reconsider some of their beliefs about learning, thinking, and the role of technology. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
258 TOPIC 10 FUTURE DIRECTIONS Bransford, Brown and Cocking(1999) Human learning is a multifaceted process that invokes the prior knowledge of learners, is innately motivated by the search for meaning, is influenced by emotions, is reinforced by social negotiation, is regulated by knowledge of cognition, is led by the construction of reality and is enhanced in authentic situations. In other words, learning is dynamic, and the role of educators is to facilitate the making of dynamic knowledge. Learners need to be introduced to a world beset with uncertainty, multiple answers and infinite possibilities involving trial and error because that is reality. Emanating from these revised beliefs about learning, thinking, and the role of technology, it is argued that retooling schools be based on four guiding principles (refer to Figure 10.2): Figure 10.2: Retooling Malaysian Schools Based on Revised Mental Models about Learning, Thinking, and Technology 10.3.1 Schools for All Malaysia can be proud of having made schooling accessible to most children. Still, there is increasing awareness that it is not working for all children and is ironically acknowledged as normal. The bell curve has made it legitimate to say, „we canÊt educate all children because not all children are educable.‰ The tests pinned to a bell curve allow us to say that some will fail, some will succeed, and the majority will fall in the middle. Few people realise that the tool was designed for inanimate objects and low-level organisms and may not necessarily apply to human beings engaged in learning. It is common practice in our schools to label children early on. It responds to them according to the Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 10 FUTURE DIRECTIONS 259 labels created because of the belief that there is a certain percentage of gifted, average, and low achievers in any classroom. Throughout the year, newspapers, radio and television stations proudly announce schools that have obtained nearperfect scores in national examinations. High scorers are given extensive media coverage, but there is no mention of the number of adolescents deficient in language, quantitative and scientific literacy skills. There is less concern with „Why Ahmad canÊt read?‰ and a decade later „Why Ahmad still canÊt read?‰ One can only imagine how Ahmad feels being in a class of low achievers throughout his schooling and repeatedly told he is not good enough. Theoretically, Ahmad should be taught by the best teachers in the system. Still, unfortunately, the Matthew effect prevails, that can be loosely interpreted as „those who need it donÊt get it and those who need it donÊt get.‰ It is common knowledge that learners do not do as well in environments where adults are continually critical, constantly accentuating the negative and not accepting them for who they are. On the contrary, students learn and thrive in a nurturing environment. Schools must foster a warm and caring environment in which children will bloom. From this realisation, the impetus comes to creating schools that work for all children. Malaysian society is rapidly changing, so educational beliefs underlie the goals of schooling. For example, it is time that tribute is given to schools that record the lowest number of students who cannot read and write. Schools can ill-afford to educate just some students and ignore the rest because of examination priorities. „No child left behind‰ (Education Act, 2001) should be the slogan for all schools in Malaysia to ensure that schools work for all students, not just for some. Schools should set high expectations for all students as students have a natural inclination to rise to the level of expectation held of them (Edmonds, 1986). Students immediately feel expectations communicated overtly or subtly by educators. Unfortunately, many educators and schools do not effectively communicate high expectations to all students, either because they do not have them or because they do not believe that all children can learn. Some believe that not all students need to realise their full potential as there are always jobs on the farms, in the factories and low-level jobs in the service sector. These beliefs must be revised, and educators need to believe in the incredible potential to learn in all children and that it can be realised in all children in any school and any classroom if the conditions are right. From the onset, students from disadvantaged backgrounds who are at risk should be identified and given all the cognitive coaching to succeed and not be left behind. Cognitive strategy instruction (CSI) should be given to all academically weak students, where „learning how to learn‰ is embedded in all instructional practices (Phillips, 1993). In addition, schools for all must also be grounded in a value Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
260 TOPIC 10 FUTURE DIRECTIONS system of cooperation and relationships, in contrast to the ethic of competition and individualism. The value system of cooperation and relationship does not discard competition, but puts it in the context of cooperation and how people get along. Reaching goals is important, but how they are reached and with whom is just as important. In our increasingly diverse world, creating schools for all children is the right thing to do, while acknowledging it is not easy. It means a major rethinking of the core values upon which schools are built. It means focusing on both equity and excellence in the same classroom in the same school for all children. 10.3.2 Thinking Goes to School While some people would agree that developing studentsÊ thinking skills is the main aim of education, there is less agreement on what is thinking. Over the decades, a range of terms and definitions have been proposed, leading to further confusion. Among the common terms used to describe thinking are reflective thinking, critical thinking, creative thinking, lateral thinking, whole-brain thinking, analytical thinking, mechanical reasoning, spatial thinking, logical thinking, deductive thinking, inductive thinking, and analogical thinking to name a few. Fraenkel (1992) defines thinking as forming ideas, reorganising oneÊs experience and organising information in a particular form. Chafee (1992) characterises thinking as an unusual process for making decisions and solving problems. According to Bourne et al. (1971), thinking is a complex, multifaceted process; it is essentially internal, involving symbolic representation of events and objects not immediately present but initiated by some external event. Its function is to generate and control overt behaviour. Nickerson et al. (2014) look upon 1. Do you agree with „the school of all‰ concept? Why? 2. To what extent is the Matthew effect common in your school? 3. „When it comes to the education of our children, failure is not an option.‰ Do you agree with this statement? Justify your answers to your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 10.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 10 FUTURE DIRECTIONS 261 thinking as a collection of skills or mental operations used by individuals. Since thinking is a collection of mental skills, it can be performed well or poorly. In other words, Nickerson et al. (2014) All people classify, but not equally perceptively, All people make estimates, but not equally accurately, All people use analogies, but not equally appropriate, All people draw conclusions, but not with equal care, All people construct arguments, but not with equal cogency. A synthesis of the various definitions reveals certain common threads running through these descriptions. Thinking is a process that requires knowledge because it is quite impossible to think in a vacuum. Thinking involves the manipulation of mental skills; is targeted at the solution of a problem; is manifested in an overt behaviour or ability; and is also reflected in certain attitudes or dispositions that are indicative of good and poor thinking. For example, a good thinker welcomes problematic situations, is open to multiple possibilities, uses evidence skilfully, makes judgement after considering all angles, listens to other peopleÊs views, is reflective and perseveres in searching for information (Barron, 1987; Nickerson et al., 2014). (a) Why has Thinking Not Been Widely Emphasised in Schools? First, there is the belief among some educators that the development of thinking skills should be confined to academically superior students because they „can think‰. Teaching thinking to weak learners would be futile and even frustrating because it is a serious mental activity involving philosophising, deep thought, contemplation and deliberation that would be too arduous for low achievers. Second is the belief that students should have a complete understanding of a subject area before they can deliberate and think about the facts, concepts and principles. Understanding is the consequence of thinking and if learners are taught to think about the content, then understanding is enhanced. Educators who subscribe to this belief are preoccupied with coverage of course content rather than ensuring understanding. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
262 TOPIC 10 FUTURE DIRECTIONS Third, it relates to assessment and, in particular public examinations, which tend to test the acquisition of facts and how well learners can remember the facts. There are few questions that demand higher-order thinking, so schools are reluctant to venture into teaching for higher-order outcomes. (b) What is a „Culture of Thinking‰? „Thinking goes to schools‰ is the title of a book by Furth et al. (1975), which reports on a project aimed at developing the thinking ability of primary and secondary school students based on Piagetian principles. „Thinking will go to school‰ to when a culture of thinking permeates all Malaysian schools where language, values, expectations, habits, and behaviour reflect the enterprise of good thinking. Tishman et al. (1995) identified four ways of bringing the culture of thinking to the classroom. • First is to have models or people who demonstrate good thinking practices and exhibit behaviours of good thinking, such as checking the credibility of sources or suspending judgement until all information is available or tolerating ambiguity. • The second is to develop thinking through explanation, whereby teachers explicitly explain why a particular thinking skill needs to be used, when it is to be used, and how it is to be used. • Third is through interaction with other students, where opportunities are given to work in groups when solving a problem, brainstorming, and exchanging and accepting ideas. • Fourth is feedback when teachers provide evaluative or corrective information about studentsÊ thinking processes. For instance, a teacher may praise students for how they arrived at a particular conclusion or for the views expressed. Such feedback provides students with information about their thinking behaviours which helps them become better thinkers. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 10 FUTURE DIRECTIONS 263 (c) What is the Role of Teachers? Teachers play a crucial role in the creation of a thinking culture as they are the ones who establish the educational climate, structure learning experiences and have almost complete power over the processes that take place in the classroom. In students from more affluent homes where the parentÊs level of education is higher, questions are more frequently asked, and the language used is relatively more complex (Sternberg & Caruso, 1985). However, students coming to school lacking the experiences of their more affluent counterparts „succeed because of teachers who serve as mediators of their environment; by discussing, asking questions, modelling and teaching (Swartz and Lowery, 1989, p. 4). Teachers have at their disposal a variety of ways to organise their classrooms to stimulate thinking. Students need to be involved, which might take the form of teacher-led Socratic-type discussions and cooperative small-group or total-group investigations (Fisher, 1995). The underlying principle of classroom organisation is to encourage greater participation of learners in the teaching-learning process; it would be quite impossible to develop studentsÊ thinking skills if the teacher did most of the talking. The teacherÊs response to behaviours has a significant effect on stimulating thinking. Most important is how teachers or even parents react to answers given by students and whether these behaviours extend or terminate thinking. For example, what would happen when a teacher or parent responds to a childÊs idea with such statements as „What a dumb idea‰ or „YouÊre not good enough‰? The child might later on be reluctant to give ideas in the future, for fear of being ridiculed or humiliated. The language of thinking is important in encouraging thinking in the classroom. Using specific thinking terminologies will show learners how to perform particular skills. When used repeatedly, chances are they will become part of their repertoire of vocabulary (Costa & Marzano, 1987). For example, instead of saying, „LetÊs look at these two pictures‰, it would be more precise to say, „LetÊs compare these two pictures‰. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
264 TOPIC 10 FUTURE DIRECTIONS 10.3.3 Personalised Schools Many schools have become too large and impersonal, and students are just statistics. This observation is especially evident in urban areas where schools have an enrolment of 1,000 to 2,000 students and some with as many as 2,500 students, which inadvertently disconnects most learners from teachers and other adults, possibly leading to alienation, boredom and even conflict. Why should a teenager respect a teacher who knows nothing about them? Personalised schools are schools with a smaller student enrolment. Research is inconclusive as to the appropriate size of such schools. Still, there is some consensus that a primary school should not exceed 400 students and not more than 800 students for secondary schools (Cotton, 1996). In smaller schools, teachers and students build strong relationships. Teachers can help students learn more effectively because they know their students as individuals. „Everybody knows your name‰. There is also greater bonding among students as they get to know and learn from each other. However, even though a school may be small, it need not necessarily be „personalised‰. Personalised schools are learning communities where students, teachers and parents know each other personally and work together to help young people learn and succeed. In personalised schools, students are cared for, nurtured, and supported. This idea is significant given the increasing number of students experiencing a lack of relationships with caring, attentive, engaged adults when parents are working full-time. Partnerships between parents, teachers, and administrators tend to be stronger because the opportunity to communicate and understand each other is enhanced. 1. What is thinking? 2. Why has development thinking not been emphasised in schools? 3. How does one create a culture of thinking? 4. What is the role of teachers in developing thinking among students? SELF-CHECK 10.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 10 FUTURE DIRECTIONS 265 Generally, personalised schools have lower rates of negative social behaviour such as classroom disruptions, vandalism, fights, thefts, substance abuse or gang membership (Cotton, 1996). Such schools report higher school attendance and lower dropout rates compared to larger impersonal schools. Students in smaller schools have a greater sense of belonging, and relationship tends to be more cordial. With the decline of the extended family and parents having to work full time, students turn to teachers for advice and role models, which may be more readily available in personalised schools. 10.3.4 Technology-based Schools The unprecedented advances in internet interactivity and multimedia capabilities are seeing the emergence of the technology-based learning environment, which has given a new perspective to classroom learning. According to Phillips et al. (2010), the technology-based learning environment based on a cognitiveconstructivist theoretical perspective emphasises the following seven processes (refer to Table 10.1): Table 10.1: Processes Implemented in Technology-based Learning Environment Process Description Situated cognition Learning certain knowledge and skills is best done in situations or contexts that reflect how the knowledge will be useful in real life. In other words, students are introduced to authentic tasks, and the many technology tools enable the creation of microworlds (Jonassen et al., 1998). These are miniature environments that mimic real-world situations, providing learners with the opportunity to apply concepts, principles, and skills learned. For example, telecommunications and the Internet provide access to emerging disciplinary and interdisciplinary databases, real-time phenomena, and social communities not accessible through print-based curricula. Cognitive flexibility The ability to represent knowledge from different perspectives tailored to the needs and levels of the learner. Multimedia technology, such as virtual reality, permits knowledge and skills to be presented in various ways, adapting content to individual student learning styles. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
266 TOPIC 10 FUTURE DIRECTIONS Exploration Learners try out different hypotheses, methods and strategies to see their effects. Computers and ancillary electronic devices facilitate the manipulation of data and visualisation which assists with experimenting and understanding actual, futuristic, and hypothetical concepts, principles, relationships and probabilities. The resources of the web and the related internet tools allow learners to make these discoveries on their own. Cooperative learning Learners work in groups by questioning each other, discussing and sharing information towards the solution of a problem using communication tools such as e-mail and chat rooms. Collaborative learning Learners or groups discuss and try out their ideas and challenge the ideas of others across state and international borders. For example, a group of learners in Malaysia could be working on a project in cyberspace on „what teenagers do besides schooling‰ with a group of learners in Canada or Kuwait using both asynchronous and synchronous tools. Cooperative and collaborative learning practice are skills required in the workplace. Articulation Getting learners to make their tacit knowledge explicit through websites and electronic portfolios. When learners make available to others (even across long distances) what they have done, learners can compare strategies and provide insight into alternative perspectives. Reflection Learners looking back over what they have done and analysing their performance. It enables them to see the thinking processes they used in solving problems based on the product and determine if their strategies were appropriate. Technology integration into teaching and learning has not been widespread because of defective equipment and internet connection, inadequate training of teachers and, more importantly, a lack of understanding on how to use the new technologies. As more schools are wired with the relevant hardware and software, the technology-based learning environment provides a convenient framework with a theoretical basis for the realisation of technology-based schools. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 10 FUTURE DIRECTIONS 267 • Character education is designed to teach children about basic human values to raise children to become morally responsible and self-disciplined citizens. • Performance assessment is an assessment based on authentic tasks. These tasks are activities, problems or exercises in which students demonstrate what they can do. • Schools for all emphasise that an environment should be provided for all students to realise their potential and set high expectations so that all students will be encouraged to excel. • A culture of thinking has to be created to encourage students to think. • A technology-based learning environment has to be developed in as many schools as possible in order to provide a more convenient learning environment then the present. 1. What do you understand by personalised schools? 2. What are the processes emphasised in a technology-based learning environment? SELF-CHECK 10.4 1. To what extent is performance assessment practised in your school? 2. Do you agree that students lack sufficient opportunities to develop their thinking skills? 3. What do you think the curriculum of the future should be? Explain your answers to your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 10.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
268 TOPIC 10 FUTURE DIRECTIONS Character education Culture of thinking Performance assessment Personalised schools Schools for all Technology-based learning environment Barron, C. T. (1987). The process behind the process: A writing curriculum based on theories of cognitive development. https://scholarworks.umass.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5246&conte xt=dissertations_1 Bourne, L. E., Ekstrand, B. R., & Dominowski, R. L. (1971). The psychology of thinking. Prentice Hall. Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (1999). The design of learning environments. How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school, 117–142. Chafee, J. (1992). Critical thinking skills: The cornerstone of developmental education. Journal of Developmental Education, 15(3), 2. Christensen, M. (1995). Critical issue: Providing hands-on, minds-on, and authentic learning experiences in science. North Central Regional Educational Laboratory. [On-line] Available: info@ ncrel. org. Retrieved on January, 3, 2006. Costa, A. L., & Marzano, R. (1987). Teaching the Language of Thinking. Educational Leadership, 45(2), 29–33. Cotton, K. (1996). Affective and social benefits of small-scale schooling. ERIC Digest. Fisher, R. (1995). Socratic education. Thinking: The Journal of Philosophy for Children, 12(3), 23–29. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 10 FUTURE DIRECTIONS 269 Fraenkel, J. R. (1992). Hilda TabaÊs contributions to social studies education. Social Education, 56(3), 172–178. Furth, H. G., & Wachs, H. (1975). Thinking goes to school: PiagetÊs theory in practice. Oxford University Press, USA. Hunkins, F. P., & Ornstein, A. C. (2016). Curriculum: Foundations, principles, and issues. Pearson Education. Jonassen, D. H., Carr, C., & Yueh, H. P. (1998). Computers as mindtools for engaging learners in critical thinking. TechTrends, 43(2), 24–32. Kohn, A. (1997). How not to teach values: A critical look at character education. Phi Delta Kappan, 78, 428–439. McBrien, J. L., Brandt, R. S., & Cole, R. W. (1997). The language of learning: A guide to education terms. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Nickerson, R. S., Perkins, D. N., & Smith, E. E. (2014). The teaching of thinking. Routledge. Phillips, S. (1993). Young learners. Oxford University Press. Phillips, R., McNaught, C., & Kennedy, G. (2010, June). Towards a generalised conceptual framework for learning: the Learning Environment, Learning Processes and Learning Outcomes (LEPO) framework. In EdMedia+ Innovate Learning (pp. 2495–2504). Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE). Senge, P. (1999). ItÊs the learning: The real lesson of the quality movement. The Journal for Quality and Participation, 22(6), 34. Sowell, E. (2000). Curriculum: An integrative introduction. Prentice-Hall. Sternberg, R. J., & Caruso, D. R. (1985). Chapter VIII: Practical modes of knowing. Teachers College Record, 86(6), 133–158. Tishman, S., Perkins, D. N., & Jay, E. S. (1995). The thinking classroom: Learning and teaching in a culture of thinking. Allyn and Bacon. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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