186 TOPIC 7 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION Read the newspaper report and answer the following questions. ÂHomework Must Be More Fun and MeaningfulÊ The Education Ministry is to regulate homework assignment of school pupils to make it more interesting. Homework is clearly one key area in which things can and should improve in the interest of all concerned. Homework should have more quality than quantity. It needs a finer focus with less bulk, and in the process become more interesting to give students an added incentive to studying harder. Young people have energy, imagination and a natural curiosity that can help them to learn if properly chanelled. Otherwise homework can become a hindrance to the learning process. Teachers should be guided to learning rather than be fountains of infinite knowledge. They should present material in intellectually stimulating ways, without spoon-feeding. Pupils need to know that learning is part of their own life experience, not something separate and removed from it. Teachers should therefore avoid dishing out homework mechanically as routine chores, which would make studies boring and brain-deadening. Homework that is interesting to pupils would not only make their learning more meaningful and productive, but also facilitate teaching. When school children are better motivated in their studies, teachers also find their task easier. Students learn better and faster when their innate inquisitiveness is fired with more participatory observation and enquiry of the world about them. Good teachers can make this vital difference. Pupils must constantly be encouraged to do more than answer set questions, as it is essential to think their way to unrehearsed answers. True learning is more than Âspotting exam questionsÊ. It is more important for pupils to experience a sense of achievement in all aspects of study, which would give them a feel of their own development and growth. A more enlightened approach to learning such as this may also apply to regular class work besides homework. Source: Adapted from The Sunday Star, 13 February, 2005 ACTIVITY 7.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION 187 7.1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION? Implementation is an interaction between those who have created the programme and those who are in charge to deliver it. According to Ornstein and Hunkins (1998) implementation: • Requires educators to shift from the current programme they are familiar with to the new or modified programme. • Involves changes in the knowledge, actions, and attitudes of people. • Can be seen as a professional development and growth process involving ongoing interactions, feedback, and assistance. • Is a process of clarification whereby individuals and groups come to understand and practice a change in attitudes and behaviours, often involving using new resources. • Involves change that requires effort and produces a certain amount of anxiety. Organising implementation into manageable events and setting achievable goals to minimise these are useful. • Requires a supportive atmosphere in which there is trust and open communication between administrators, teachers educators and where risk-taking is encouraged. (a) What are some proposed suggestions for making homework fun and meaningful? (b) Do you agree with the statement that teachers should not „spoon-feed‰ but rather guide students to learning? Why? (c) Give other suggestions for making homework meaningful and fun. Share your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
188 TOPIC 7 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION Even though large sums of money are spent on implementing new curriculum, several of these efforts have failed. According to Sarason (1990), the main reason for the failure is the lack of understanding of the schoolÊs cultural experts outside the school system and educators in the system. Successful curriculum implementation requires understanding the power relationships, traditions, roles and responsibilities of individuals in the school system. Implementors (teachers, principals, and district education officers) should be well-versed in the contents of the curriculum. They must be clear about the innovationÊs purpose, nature, and the real and potential benefits of the innovation. As stated by Fullan and Pomfret (1977), „effective implementation of innovations requires time, personal interaction and contacts, in-service training and other forms of people-based support‰ (p. 391). Curriculum implementation requires winning people over, and it takes time. Teachers need to feel appreciated and their efforts recognised. Some may argue that they should even be given financial rewards. Still, there is evidence to suggest that external motivation contributes minimally to the venture. Individuals contribute their best talents when they are internally motivated and derive a good feeling from being involved. 7.2 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION AS A CHANGE PROCESS Implementation is the carrying out of something or the practical application of a method, procedure or desired purpose. Loucks and Lieberman (1983) define curriculum implementation as the trying out of a new practice and what it looks like when used in a school system. For example, a curriculum plan for enhancing technology integration across the curriculum is introduced. You probably would want to know whether what was intended in the plan is being done in the classroom. Your aim for developing a curriculum is to make a difference to learners. Curriculum implementation is bringing about change and, hopefully, improvement. How do you bring about change? In other words, how do you ensure that the curriculum brings about the desired changes? Before you can bring about change, you need to know what change is. You may ask what is the big deal because we all know what change is! You know how your job has changed. You know how government policy changes. But what is a change to the curriculum? Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION 189 Change is doing something differently. Change results from new knowledge. However, the presence of new knowledge is not enough for change to happen. People generally are reluctant to change because they are comfortable with what they are currently doing. So, to change, they must recognise the need for change. People are more likely to recognise the need for change if they understand change and how it works. DonÊt you agree? Kurt Lewin (1951), considered the father of social psychology, suggested a model explaining change (refer to Figure 7.1). Figure 7.1: Force Field Model Source: Lewin (1951) According to Lewin, all people are faced with two competing forces (refer to Table 7.1): Table 7.1: Types of Forces Driving Forces Restraining Forces These forces drive or push you to do something and change in a particular direction. They tend to initiate a change and keep it going. In the workplace, pressure from your boss, financial incentives and competition for promotion may be examples of driving forces. These are forces restraining or preventing you from doing something and changing. In the workplace, apathy, hostility, and obsolete equipment may be examples of restraining forces. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
190 TOPIC 7 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION Equilibrium The status quo is maintained when these two forces (driving and restraining) are equal. In other words, there is no effort towards change, so will you do the same things you did before. For example: In the school setting, the principal is autocratic and constantly pressures the staff, which may bring about change in the short run. The methods used by the principal may lead to increased hostility and antagonism and manifest themselves in teachers refusing to cooperate and being reluctant to do more than is required. In other words, the driving forces have overpowered the restraining forces, and change is initiated when this happens. The change will continue as long as the driving forces are more powerful than the restraining forces. In other words, the restraining forces have increased, and change has slowed down. Lewin emphasised that it is better to reduce the power of the restraining forces to introduce change rather than increase the driving forces. This force has been termed unfreezing, whereby the powers of the restraining forces are decreased to stimulate the driving forces. For example, the principal could instead encourage more discussion and group problem-solving to eliminate hostility and apathy. If teachers fear they will not have the know-how to implement change, they should be trained before implementing the new ideas. 1. What does curriculum implementation involve? 2. How does Kurt LewinÊs model explain curriculum change? SELF-CHECK 7.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION 191 7.3 TYPES OF CURRICULUM CHANGE Curriculum change is a complex and difficult process. It requires careful planning, adequate time, funding, support and opportunities for teacher involvement. If you are responsible for implementing a curriculum, you must understand the nature of change. Understanding the change process can be a challenging and exciting process. Suppose you do not comprehend the complexities of the change, yet you proceed to implement it. In that case, you are likely to introduce ideas and actions that may result in confusion and tension within the school or district. McNeil (2014) categorised curriculum change as follows (refer to Table 7.2): Table 7.2: Aspects in Curriculum Changes Aspect Description Substitution One element may be substituted for another already present – for example, the substituting of a new textbook for an old one. Alteration This change occurs when it is introduced into existing material, hoping that it will appear minor and thus be readily adopted. For example, introducing new content such as road safety in the primary school curriculum; or the use new materials such as the graphing calculator in the teaching of mathematics. Perturbations These are disruptive changes, but teachers adjust to them fairly quickly. For example, the assistant principal changes the timetable or schedule to allow for longer teaching time. Restructuring These are changes that lead to a modification of the whole school system. For example, introducing an integrated curriculum requires team teaching or involving the local community in deciding what to teach. Value orientation These are shifts in the fundamental value orientations of school personnel. Suppose the new teachers who join the school emphasise studentsÊ personal growth. Then the academic performance, schoolÊs value orientations or fundamental philosophies will change. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
192 TOPIC 7 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION It should be realised that a particular curriculum change may not fit according to the five categories. But, the categories are general enough to help you plan to change and arrange the resources to bring about the change. However, you should know that change is not synonymous with improvement, and you might decide that the change should not be undertaken. 7.4 RESISTANCE TO CHANGE As mentioned earlier, bringing about change is not an easy task. There are many barriers to the successful implementation of a curriculum. Suppose you are given the job of implementing a curriculum. In that case, you will encounter people resisting change in the school system, college, university or training centre. Many people think that it is easier to keep things as they are. People often say, „If it is not broken, why fix it?‰. People are happy with the current situation in their institution and feel that the change suggested will not meet the objectives of the school, college or training centre. The status quo tends to be maintained when the people introducing change are themselves unclear about the new programmeÊs intent and what is required. In addition, the implementation of the programme may be poorly planned. Teachers who are to implement the curriculum frequently view change as meaning more work. In addition to their already overloaded schedule, there is no extra financial reward for the extra work they have to put in. Also, they view new curriculum programmes will require them to learn new teaching skills and competencies, which will mean attending courses and seminars. 1. What are the five types of curriculum change listed by McNeil (2014)? Give examples of each category other than those given in the text. 2. Identify other types of curriculum change which you have come across but do not fit into those given. Share your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 7.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION 193 It has also been found that teachers or practitioners tend to reject pedagogical strategies or teaching methods that are different from what they are currently using. They are reluctant to change or modify their current instructional strategies and understandings of classroom practice. LetÊs examine in more detail why people resist change. People charged with curriculum implementation must understand how people react to change and how to encourage them to be receptive to change. By knowing why people resist change, it may be possible to plan more effective strategies to overcome resistance and improve receptivity to change. Table 7.3 explains the main reasons people resist change (Harvey, 2010; Woldring, 1999; Lippitt, 1966). Table 7.3: Main Reasons People Resist Change Reason Explanation Outcome People do not understand They do not follow what is being introduced. They do not understand where they are going. They are not clear as to what is required of them. The key is „communication‰. You have to explain „Why.‰ You have to answer the questions of the Why, What, When, How, and Where. Remember, the effectiveness of communication is not the „message sent‰ but the „message received.‰ Lack of ownership Individuals will not accept change if they consider it is coming from the outside or imposed on them. Unfortunately, most curriculum reform efforts are initiated from the outside, whether at the national, state or district level. Involve teachers in exploring the relevance of the new curriculum and give them the freedom to explore the new skills needed for utilising or implementing the curriculum. You have to convince teachers that even though it comes from the outside, their views and opinions have been considered regardless of curriculum developmentÊs planning and design stages. This stage will make them feel important to the curriculum implementation process. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
194 TOPIC 7 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION People do not have the competencies to cope with the changes People naturally resist if they do not have the knowledge and skills to cope with the changes. Nobody wants to be told that they are incompetent. There is the likelihood that the implementation of the new curriculum has been rushed or it had been done due to budgetary constraints. The training period has been greatly reduced, and teachers are not adequately equipped to implement the new curriculum. Adequate time and resources must be set aside to train teachers in implementing the new curriculum. Lack of incentives or benefits Suppose teachers are unconvinced that the new programme will improve things for students (in terms of learning) or themselves (such as gaining greater recognition, respect or reward). In that case, they are likely to resist the suggested change. Make sure that teachers who are actively involved in curriculum change are rewarded. The reward need not necessarily be financial, but their efforts must be recognised. People do not have the time to engage with the change Teachers find it difficult to juggle between bringing about change and handling their current responsibilities. Focusing their energy on change activities may run the risk of neglecting their current responsibilities. Lighten their workload so they can participate in the change. Re-prioritise their work. Do not expect people to have the energy to change when this means failing on the tasks for which they are held responsible. Adapted from: Harvey (2010), Woldring (1999) and Lippitt (1966) Why do people resist change? SELF-CHECK 7.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION 195 7.5 CASE STUDY: CURRICULUM REFORM AND IMPLEMENTATION IN INDONESIA In 1994, the Indonesian government introduced curriculum reform which consisted of a national curriculum of 80% and flexibility given to the provinces in adjusting the curriculum to local needs. The local content curriculum (LCC) was aimed at the local situation and context. In contrast, the national curriculum focused on national development. The Curriculum Development Centre (CDC) transferred 20% of its authority to each provincial level. Both the reformed national curriculum and LCC are shown in Figure 7.2. Figure 7.2: Curriculum Reform in Indonesia Suggest other reasons why people resist change. Discuss your answer with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 7.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
196 TOPIC 7 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION According to LCC policy, schools are supposed to reorganise the curriculum into a new set of subjects. Teachers, principals, and supervisors were given autonomy to closely redesign the curriculum to match the studentsÊ needs and interests. However, in reality, not all teachers took advantage of this opportunity. Teachers have not responded by modifying the curriculum or experimenting with new instructional techniques. Moreover, local parents and interest groups have not been invited to participate in the planning or management of the LCC programme. In some cases, teachers have made connections between the subject matter they disseminate to the world outside. Still, the basic curricular foundations in junior secondary school have remained essentially the same as the previous curriculum. According to Yeom et al. (2002), there are some limitations and obstacles found in the LCC implementation (refer to Table 7.4). Table 7.4: Limitations and Obstacles in the LCC Implementation Limitation Explanation Lack of communication between the provincial and local levels In curriculum decentralisation, some decisions made at the provincial level tend not to meet each districtÊs needs and conditions. Lack of resources/ training Teachers taught most local content subjects with no specific skills and experience, such as teaching specific traditional cultures and local languages in Jambi, Lampung, Maluku Island, South Sulawesi and East Java. TeachersÊ attitudes towards the LCC Teachers did not respond to the innovation because they did not have enough background knowledge or skills for its implementation. They did not have the necessary support from the government and provincial levels to develop their knowledge and skills. While it is easy for the government to establish policies, conditions at the school level are completely different. Most teachers tended to concentrate on the national curriculum. Lack of funding allocation There was a lack of funds to develop the LCC, which required regular meetings at the school or district level for LCC subject development. This matter caused a lack of participation in LCC implementation. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION 197 7.6 INDIVIDUALS INVOLVED IN CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION Implementing a curriculum requires the involvement of many different people. Each is a „key player‰ in the change process. Without the coordinated involvement of these individuals, implementing the curriculum programme will encounter many problems. Among the key players identified are: teachers, students, principals or headteachers, assistant principals, district education officers, state education officers, curriculum developers, academics, parents, interested political officials, and lay citizens. In a centralised system, the national curriculum is developed at the national level. It is then passed on to the individual districts and schools to be implemented. 7.6.1 Teachers Without a doubt, the most important person in the curriculum implementation process is the teacher. TeachersÊ knowledge, experience and competencies are central to any curriculum improvement effort. Regardless of which philosophical belief the education system is based on, there is no denying that teachers influence studentsÊ learning. Better teachers foster better learning. Teachers are most knowledgeable about teaching practice and are responsible for introducing the curriculum in the classroom. Refer to the case study in Subtopic 7.5 and answer the following questions: (a) What are some reasons for poor implementation of the local content curriculum (LCC) in Indonesia? (b) To what extent is such flexibility given to teachers in your country? SELF-CHECK 7.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
198 TOPIC 7 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION The key to getting teachers committed to innovation is to enhance their knowledge of the programme. This commitment means teachers must be trained, and workshops must be organised for professional development. Unfortunately, in any curriculum implementation process, not all teachers will benefit from such exposure. There are just too many teachers and insufficient funds to go around. The most common approach is to have one-day workshops given by experts, with the lecture method being the dominant pedagogical strategy. Among the many extrinsic factors identified that may impede curriculum change are adequacy of resources, time, school ethos and professional support. The intrinsic factors are as follows (refer to Table 7.5): Table 7.5: Factors Influencing the Implementation of a Curriculum in Schools Factor Description Adequacy of resources Appropriate equipment, facilities, and available resources are required for implementing a new curriculum. Time Available time for preparing and delivering the requirements of the new curriculum; e.g. teachers need enough time to develop their understanding of the subject they are required to teach. School ethos Overall, it refers to the school beliefs towards the new curriculum. Status of the curriculum as viewed by staff, administrators and community; e.g. school administration recognises the importance of the subject in the overall school curriculum. Professional support Support for teachers from both within the school and outside, e.g. opportunities to receive ongoing curriculum professional support. Professional adequacy TeachersÊ ability and competence to teach the curriculum include confidence in teaching. Professional knowledge Teachers are knowledgeable and understand the new curriculum, e.g. different teaching methods to foster student learning. Professional attitude and interest TeachersÊ attitudes and interests towards the new curriculum, e.g. keenness to teach the subject. Source: Adapted from the Science Curriculum Implementation Questionnaire (SCIQ). Available at http://home.cc.umanitoba.ca/~lewthwai/introSCIQ.html Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION 199 To what extent have teacher education programmes required prospective teachers to study curriculum development? Some view teachers as technicians and do not include curriculum development in their teacher education programmes. However, a good teacher education programme should include curriculum development (both the theory and the work of curriculum development) if teaching is a profession and learning is to be improved. Hence, teachersÊ professional development is an important factor contributing to the success of curriculum implementation. The following are some topics to be addressed in designing professional development opportunities for teachers implementing a new programme (refer to Table 7.6). Table 7.6: Topics in Designing Professional Development Opportunities Topic Description Programme philosophy Both the philosophy behind the programme and how the new programme may impact students, parents, administrators, and other stakeholders. Content Teachers may find the curriculum introduces content with which they are unfamiliar, which they have not taught in a while, or is familiar but presented in an unfamiliar way. For example, they use a problem-solving rather than a topical approach. Pedagogy Teachers need opportunities to become familiar with the new programmeÊs pedagogical approach. They may need to work on particular teaching skills emphasised in the new programme, such as teaching values, or perhaps to become familiar with a tool such as the Internet. Components of the programme Teachers will need opportunities to learn about the components of the new programme early in the implementation phase. For example, the new programme might place greater emphasis on school-based assessment. At the same time, teachers are more accustomed to national or centralised assessment. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
200 TOPIC 7 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION 7.6.2 Students There is a tendency among curriculum implementers to ignore the role of students as agents of change. Increasingly, there is the realisation that even primary school children can contribute to meaningful change. Students must be willing to participate in the programme. Suppose the students do not see the relevance of the programme; then, there is the likelihood that they will not be motivated to participate or learn. However, it is still unclear how students should be involved in the curriculum implementation phase, even though they are the main recipients of the programme. Students may be so entrenched in their thinking and behaviour that changes proposed in the curriculum may not be enthusiastically received. For example, students may be used to being given notes by their teachers, and the new programme requires them to make notes. Some students may not know how to make notes and must be taught how to do it. Even getting students to participate in discussions may not be well received if they have been accustomed to being passive recipients of the information. According to Friendenberg (1965), people who go into teaching tend to be conformist and reluctant to innovate. These people have succeeded in the school system as it has existed. They have learned to play it safe and keep a low profile in a bureaucratic system run by administrators who dislike creating waves. They have found success and fulfilment as students, and now as teachers in this system, so many see no reason to change it. (a) To what extent do you agree with FriedenbergÊs views about teachers and curriculum change? (b) Is this the characteristic of other professions? Discuss your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 7.4 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION 201 7.6.3 Principals or Headmasters Principals or headteachers are important players in the curriculum implementation process in a school. • They should understand the need for change and the steps that must be taken along the way. • They should have in-depth knowledge of the planned change and the implementation process. They should be familiar with the curriculumÊs goals and components. Moreover, they should see a shift in teachersÊ roles in the classroom and how teachers interact with students. • Establishing a two-way information flow will give principals or headteachers a chance to stay on top of issues that must be addressed. It will also allow attending to critical problems or concerns before they lead to frustration or even anger among teachers. They should be accessible and willing to communicate with others involved in the process. Lines of communication are best set early to get information to people and provide a platform to voice their concerns. Information gathered from listening and talking to people will also help principals or headteachers decide where to focus and what needs attention. • For example, they may need to speak to parents and the community about the new curriculum. They should be able to convince parents of the merits of the new curriculum and how the new pedagogical strategies can become more meaningful for their children. They must give the message that they have thought carefully about the need for change, anticipated the issues that will arise and have a plan for addressing them. • They should remember that even the best-laid plans can meet unexpected challenges. Among these challenges include a drop in the number of teachers in a particular subject area due to resignation, the unexpected introduction of programmes by the government, and a sudden change of government policy. For this reason, a flexible implementation plan may be necessary, adapted and revisited along the way. • They must be committed to the change and be able to employ many leadership strategies to meet the needs of teachers. The change includes building on the strengths of their staff, being willing to take risks, being positive about the planned change, and using this optimism to motivate others. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
202 TOPIC 7 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION 7.6.4 Parents Besides teachers, students, and school administrators, parents play an important role in the implementation process. For example, when parents see a subject being taught in an unfamiliar way, they naturally have questions about what is going on. When children bring homework from school that parents feel unable to help with, they feel confused and lost. In any new programme, parents need to embrace it as well, so that the implementation becomes a success. One way to reach out to parents is to organise workshops focusing on the new curriculum. The workshops should be designed to help parents better understand the content and philosophy of the new programme. Parents need an opportunity to share their concerns and voice their support in an open forum. These workshops should be conducted by teachers so that they may explain what is going on in the classroom. Another approach to reaching out to parents is to provide information on curriculum change on the Internet for parents containing information on subjects offered, programmes and courses available in all schools. Similarly, print-based newsletters can be made available to parents, informing them of the changes that are taking place with the introduction of the new curriculum. 1. What should principals or headteachers do to ensure the successful implementation of any curriculum? 2. How should parents be involved in the curriculum implementation process? SELF-CHECK 7.4 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION 203 7.7 CASE STUDY: ENGLAND’S NATIONAL CURRICULUM FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS The law requires all schools in England to provide pupils with a balanced and broad curriculum. The curriculum provides pupils to learn and achieve; promotes spiritual, moral, cultural, mental and physical development; and prepares students for adult lifeÊs opportunities, responsibilities and experiences. The following subjects must be taught: • English • Mathematics • Science • Design and technology • Information and communication technology • History The core subjects: English, mathematics and science, will be prioritised to ensure they are secure. Other statutory requirements are religious education, sex and relationship education, and careers education (from Year 9). Each school can decide which subject to give more time to and, within a subject, which aspects or skills to emphasise. The priority or emphasis might apply across subjects, to particular year groups, to groups of pupils or individuals. For example: • A school with particular strengths in its ICT and language departments offers Spanish as a second foreign language using ICT facilities for weekly video conference sessions with students in a partner school in Spain. • A school with substantial low-achieving students emphasises literacy across the curriculum. Teachers plan in their schemes of work where and how they will teach literacy objectives in their subject. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
204 TOPIC 7 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION • The school prioritises mathematics and science to help its students make the most of local job opportunities in high-technology industries such as computing and pharmaceuticals. Year 9 students undertake project work to achieve Creativity in Research, Engineering, Science and Technology (CREST) awards. Scientists from local companies visit the school as part of the Science and Engineering Ambassadors scheme. Source: The National Curriculum. Key Stage 3 and 4. https://www.gov.uk/national-curriculum/key-stage-3-and-4 7.8 IMPLEMENTING CURRICULUM IN THE CLASSROOM The final destination of any curriculum is the classroom. As we enter the classroom, decision-making becomes the responsibility of the teacher. Up to this point, curriculum implementation was discussed at the programme level, and decision-making was programmatic (though we briefly discussed the teacherÊs role). Now classroom teachers will take over and make decisions of a methodological nature. They will be answering questions like: • What objectives do I hope to accomplish as a result of instruction? • What topics or content will I have to cover? 1. What flexibility is given to teachers in EnglandÊs secondary school curriculum? 2. Do you agree with the flexibility given to schools in meeting local needs? Give reasons. 3. Do you think such flexibility should be given to schools in your country? Why? Explain your answers to your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 7.5 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION 205 • What teaching methods or strategies should I use to direct learning and achieve the objectives? • How do I evaluate instruction to determine whether I have successfully achieved the objective? Where and how does the teacher begin to plan for instruction? In instruction implementation, the process include formulating learning goals, content, learning experiences, and assessment (refer to Figure 7.3). Figure 7.3: Instruction Implementation LetÊs look at three examples of planning for instruction. • Teacher X takes the textbook and divides the topics by the number of weeks in the school year. He or she may prepare some notes for students, ask some questions during class (which may come from the textbook) and give group assignments to clarify points in the topic or topics. For example, one topic may be taught over two or three lessons. The sequence and subheadings of the respective topic guide the presentation of content. • A problem-solving approach is adopted where students look through various sources of information to solve a problem. Teacher Y selects a topic for study for the week or over several lessons using all kinds of resources related to the topic. The resources may include textbooks, reference books, websites, magazines, etc. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
206 TOPIC 7 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION • Teacher Z comes to class without knowing what they will cover. A theme or issue is written on the blackboard. Students must contribute their understanding and interpretation of the theme or issue. While some may argue that this is spontaneity, others, less kind students, might term it as non-planning. These three approaches may be extreme, but many teachers fall into one of these categories. These teachers may follow the curriculum or follow the plan in general terms. All three approaches may not specify the instructional objectives or learning outcomes students are expected to accomplish. In most cases, teachers adopt an eclectic approach, i.e., combining one or more methods. Instructional objectives or learning outcomes indicate what you want students to know, do and value after completing a lesson. Why instructional objectives? The issue of instructional objectives has been discussed in Topics 1 and 5. There are several instructional objectives as follows (refer to Figure 7.4): Figure 7.4: Instructional Objectives Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION 207 In planning for instruction, lesson plans are used. A lesson plan is „simply an outline prepared in advance of teaching, so that time and materials will be used efficiently‰ (Nodirovna & Temirovna, 2022). Ideally, different lessons require different lesson plans and different students require different lesson plans as well. The following is a generic outline for a lesson plan which consists of (refer to Figure 7.5): Figure 7.5: Elements in Lesson Plan The teacher with less experience will include more details in the lesson plan. However, experienced and inexperienced teachers should prepare complete lesson plans to communicate their ideas fully. It is common practice for experienced teachers to simplify or shorten their lesson plans (refer to Figure 7.6). As teachers gain experience, less detail in planning is possible. Once the lesson plan is complete, the teachers can begin to demonstrate their style and skills of teaching. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
208 TOPIC 7 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION Figure 7.6: Generic Components of a Lesson Plan Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION 209 • Curriculum implementation is an interaction between the programme creator and those who deliver it. • Implementation is the carrying out of something or the practical application of a method, procedure or desired purpose. • According to Lewin, change is determined both by the driving forces and restraining forces. In the change process, it is better to reduce the power of the restraining forces rather than increase the driving forces. • People resist change because they lack understanding, competencies, ownership, incentives, and time. • Curriculum change can take the following forms: substitution, alteration, perturbations, restructuring, and value orientation. • The factors influencing school curriculum implementation are adequacy of resources, time, school ethos, professional support, professional knowledge, professional attitude and interest. 1. Identify some problems in implementing the Primary School Integrated Curriculum (KSSR) and the Secondary School Integrated Curriculum (KSSM). 2. Describe how the teaching of science and mathematics in English was implemented in your school. 3. „New curriculum often fail to become established in schools because the importance and complexity of the implementation phase are not understood.‰ Do you agree with this statement? Explain your answers to your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 7.6 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
210 TOPIC 7 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION • An instructional model consists of four components: learning objectives, content, learning experiences, and assessment tasks. • Principals and headteachers play an important role in successfully implementing the curriculum. Curriculum change Curriculum implementation Curriculum in the classroom Driving forces Force field model Lesson plan Local curriculum National curriculum Restraining forces Roles of students Roles of teachers Friedenberg, E. Z. (1965). Coming of the age in America. Random House. Fullan, M., & Pomfret, A. (1977). Research on curriculum and instruction implementation. Review of Educational Research, 47(2), 335–397. Harvey, T. R., & Broyles, E. A. (2010). Resistance to change: A guide to harnessing its positive power. R&L Education. Lewin, K. (1951). Theory of social science. Harper and Row. Lippitt, G. L. (1966). Managing change: 6 ways to turn resistance into acceptance. Supervisory Management, 21–24. Loucks, S. F., & Lieberman, A. (1983). Curriculum implementation. Fundamental Curriculum Decisions, 126–141. McNeil, J. D. (2014). Contemporary curriculum: In thought and action. John Wiley & Sons. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION 211 Nodirovna, N. N., & Temirovna, P. M. (2022). Principles of designing lesson plans for teaching ESL or EFL. Eurasian Journal of Learning and Academic Teaching, 5, 10–12. Ornstein, A. C., & Hunkins, F. P. (1998). Curriculum: Foundations, principles, and issues (3rd ed.), 237–240. Woldring, H. (1999). On the purpose of the state: Continuity and change in political theories. The Failure of Modernism: The Cartesian Legacy and Contemporary Pluralism, 155–170. Yeom, M., Acedo, C., & Utomo, E. (2002). The reform of secondary education in Indonesia during the 1990s: Basic education expansion and quality improvement through curriculum decentralisation. Asia Pacific Education Review, 3(1), 56–68. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
Topic 8 Curriculum Evaluation By the end of this topic, you should be able to do the following: 1. State what curriculum evaluation is. 2. List reasons for evaluating the curriculum. 3. Explain the characteristics of the CIPP model. 4. Describe the features of Stake's model of curriculum evaluation. 5. Explain the characteristics of Eisner's connoisseurship model. 6. Compare the different instruments of data collection. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 CURRICULUM EVALUATION 213 In Topic 7, we discussed the implementation of the curriculum plan. We looked at why people resist change and the role of teachers, students, administrators, and parents in ensuring the successful implementation of change. This topic will determine whether the implemented curriculum plan has achieved its goals and objectives. Various stakeholders want to know the extent to which the curriculum has been successfully implemented. In other words, the curriculum has to be evaluated to determine whether all the efforts in finance and human resources have been worthwhile. The information collected from evaluating a curriculum forms the basis for making judgements about how successfully the programme has achieved its intended outcomes and the worth or value of the programme. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
214 TOPIC 8 CURRICULUM EVALUATION Read the newspaper report „DonÊt Make Physical Education (PE) an Examination Subject‰ and answer the following questions. DonÊt Make Physical Education (PE) an Examination Subject The Ministry of Education has asked ministry officials to look into introducing physical education (PE) as an examination subject. I think PE should not be an exam subject. In the 1950s, 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, PE was never an exam subject and yet the country produced world-class sportmen and sportwomen in badminton, weightlifting, hockey, athletics and other events. People like Jegathesan, Mokhtar Dahari, Tan Aik Huang, Rajamani, Ng Boon Bee, Nurul Huda, Marina Chin, Karu Selvaratnam, Nastar Singh, Zaiton Sulaiman, Ghani Minhat, Tan Aik Mong, Dhanapal Naidu, and many others. We had no sports schools in those days. All schools were sport schools. How did we produce excellent sportmen and sportwomen? We had supportive parents, interested headmaster, dedicated and comitted PE teachers, coachers and disciplined sportmen and sportwomen. The sporting calendar for Term 1 (January to April) had football, athletics, cross country. In term 2 (May to August), it was athletics and cricket. In term 3 (September to December) it was hockey and rugby. As for the court games, they were played all around the year. There were inter-house games and if your school has six houses would paly at least five matches for your house. There were interschool gamesare extinct and even they do have them, it is on a knockout basis. It is the same for interschool games. Sporting activities have become a burden for schools. There is little organisation and the faster they are over, the better. The school saves money and teachers have more time for completing the syllabus and revision in preparataion for national examinations. – Retired Physical Education Teacher Source: Letters to the Editor, New Straits Times, February 1, 2005 ACTIVITY 8.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 CURRICULUM EVALUATION 215 8.1 CURRICULUM EVALUATION What is evaluation? Evaluation is collecting data on a programme to determine its value or worth to decide whether to adopt, reject or revise it. Programmes are evaluated to answer the questions and concerns of various parties. The public wants to know whether the curriculum implemented had achieved its aims and objectives. Teachers want to know whether what they are doing in the classroom is effective, and the developer or planner wants to know how to improve the curriculum product. Table 8.1 lists some definitions of curriculum evaluation from scholars. Table 8.1: Definitions of Curriculum Evaluation Source Definition McNeil (1977) Curriculum evaluation attempts to throw light on two questions. How can the curriculum offerings best be improved? Do planned learning opportunities, programmes, courses and activities, as developed and organised, produce desired results? Ornstein and Hunkins (1998) Curriculum evaluation as a process or cluster of processes people perform to gather data. This process can allow them to decide whether to accept, change or eliminate something – the curriculum in general or an educational textbook in particular. Worthen and Sanders (1987) Curriculum evaluation as „the formal determination of the quality, effectiveness or value of a programme, product, project, process, objective or curriculum‰ (p. 22–23). (a) Do you think physical education should be made an „examination subject‰? (b) Do you agree with the writer's opinions on the state of sports in schools? Justify your answers to your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
216 TOPIC 8 CURRICULUM EVALUATION Fox and Gay (1995) Curriculum evaluation implementation aims to identify its weaknesses, strengths and problems encountered to improve the curriculum development process; to determine the effectiveness of the curriculum and the returns on finance allocated. Oliva (1988) Curriculum evaluation as delineating, obtaining and providing useful information for judging decision alternatives. Based on the evaluation results, the alternatives are to maintain the curriculum, modify it or eliminate it. Evaluation is a disciplined inquiry to determine the worth of things. „Things‰ may include programmes, procedures or objects. Generally, research and evaluation are different, even though similar data collection tools may be used. The three dimensions on which they may differ are: • First, evaluation need not have as its objective the generation of knowledge. Evaluation is applied, while research tends to be basic. • Second, evaluation, presumably, produces information that is used to make decisions or forms the basis of policy. Evaluation yields information that has immediate use, while research needs not. • Third, evaluation is a judgement of worth. The evaluation results in value judgements while research need not, and some would say it should not. 8.2 FORMATIVE AND SUMMATIVE EVALUATION As mentioned earlier, evaluation is the process of determining the significance or worth of programmes or procedures. Scriven (1967) differentiated evaluation as formative evaluation and summative evaluation. However, they have come to mean different things to different people. Still, in this topic, ScrivenÊs original definition will be used. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 CURRICULUM EVALUATION 217 8.2.1 Formative Evaluation The term formative indicates that data is gathered during the formation or development of the curriculum so that revisions to it can be made. In education, the aim of formative evaluation is usually to obtain information to improve a programme. Formative evaluation determines who needs the programme (e.g. secondary school students). It is also to determine how great the need is (e.g. students need to be taught ICT skills to keep pace with the expansion of technology). Further, it determines how to meet the need (e.g. introducing a subject on ICT is made compulsory for all secondary school students). In formative evaluation, experts would evaluate the match between the instructional strategies and materials used and the learning outcomes or what it aims to achieve. For example, the possibility that the learning outcomes and activities in a curriculum plan do not match. You want students to develop critical thinking skills. Still, no learning activities provide opportunities for students to practise critical thinking. Formative evaluation by experts is useful before the full-scale implementation of the programme. Review by experts on the curriculum plan may provide useful information for modifying or revising selected strategies. In formative evaluation, learners may be included to review the materials to determine if they can use the new materials. Problems may be discovered in the formative reviews, such as the curriculum document may contain spelling errors, confusing sequence of content, and inappropriate examples or illustrations. The feedback obtained could be used to revise and improve instruction or to decide whether or not to adopt the programme before full implementation. Robert Stakes “When the cook tastes the soup, that's formative; when the guests taste the soup, that's summative.” 8.2.2 Summative Evaluation The term summative indicates that data is collected at the end of the implementation of the curriculum programme. Summative evaluation can occur just after the completion of new course materials (i.e. evaluate the programmeÊs effectiveness). It can also be done several months to years after the materials have been fully implemented. It is important to specify what questions you want to be answered by the evaluation and what decisions will be made due to the evaluation. You may want to know if programme learning outcomes or the course learning outcomes have been achieved. For example, Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
218 TOPIC 8 CURRICULUM EVALUATION the use of specific simulation software in the teaching of geography enhanced the decision-making skills of learners. These outcomes can be determined through formal assessment tasks such as marks obtained in tests and examinations. Also of concern is whether the innovation was cost-effective. Was the innovation efficient in terms of time to completion? Were there any unexpected outcomes? Besides quantitative data to determine how well students met specified objectives, data could also include qualitative interviews, direct observations and document analyses. 8.3 CURRICULUM EVALUATION MODELS How should you go about evaluating the curriculum? Several experts have proposed different models describing how and what should be involved in evaluating a curriculum. Models are useful because they help you define the parameters of an evaluation, what concepts to study, and the procedures to extract important data. Numerous evaluation models have been proposed, but three models are discussed here. 1. Identify the keywords in the five definitions of curriculum evaluation. 2. Why do you need to evaluate the curriculum? 3. What is the difference between formative and summative evaluation? SELF-CHECK 8.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 CURRICULUM EVALUATION 219 8.3.1 Context, Input, Process and Product Model (CIPP Model) Stufflebeam (1971), who chaired the Phi Delta Kappa National Study Committee on Evaluation, introduced a widely cited evaluation model known as the CIPP (context, input, process and product) model. When applied to education, the approach aims to determine if a particular educational effort has resulted in a positive change in school, college, university or training organisation. A major aspect of StufflebeamÊs model is centred on decision-making or making up oneÊs mind about the programme introduced. For evaluations to be done correctly and aid in the decision-making process, curriculum evaluators have to: • Delineate what is to be evaluated and determine what information has to be collected (e.g. how effective has the new science programme been in enhancing the scientific thinking skills of children in the primary grades). • Obtain or collect the information using selected techniques and methods (e.g. interview teachers, collect test scores of students). • Provide or make available the information (in the forms of tables and graphs) to interested parties. This process decides whether to maintain, modify or eliminate the new curriculum or programme. Information is obtained by conducting the following four types of evaluation: context, input, process and product (refer to Table 8.2). Table 8.2: Types of Evaluation Type Description Context (What needs to be done and in what context)? This process is the most basic evaluation process to provide a rationale for the objectives. The evaluator defines the environment in which the curriculum is implemented: a classroom, school or training department. The evaluator determines needs that were not met and reasons why the needs are not being met. Also, the evaluators identify any shortcomings and problems in the organisation. For example, a sizable proportion of secondary school students cannot read at the desired level. Other examples include the ratio of students to computers and a sizable proportion of science teachers who are not proficient in teaching English. Goals and objectives are specified based on context evaluation. In other words, the evaluator determines the background in which the innovations are being implemented. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
220 TOPIC 8 CURRICULUM EVALUATION The data collection techniques would include observation of conditions in the school, background statistics of teachers and interviews with players involved in implementing the curriculum. Input (How should it be done?) This process provides information for determining how to utilise resources to achieve the objectives of the curriculum. The schoolÊs resources and various designs for carrying out the curriculum are considered. At this stage, the evaluator decides on the procedures to be used. Unfortunately, methods for input evaluation are lacking in education. The prevalent practices include committee deliberations, appeal to the professional literature, consultantsÊ employment and pilot experimental projects. Process (Is it being done?) This stage provides periodic feedback while the curriculum is being implemented. Product (Did it succeed?) Product evaluation involves measuring the achievement of objectives, interpreting the data and providing information that will enable them to decide whether to continue, terminate or modify the new curriculum. Data is collected to determine whether the curriculum accomplished what it set out to achieve (e.g. to what extent students have developed a more positive attitude towards science). For example, product evaluation might reveal that students have become more interested in science and are more positive after introducing the new science curriculum. Based on these findings, the decision may be made to implement the programme throughout the country. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 CURRICULUM EVALUATION 221 StufflebeamÊs evaluation model relies on both formative and summative evaluation to determine the overall effectiveness of a curriculum programme (refer to Figure 8.1). Evaluation is required at all levels of the programme implemented. Figure 8.1: StufflebeamÊs Evaluation Model 8.3.2 Case Study: Evaluation of a Programme on Technology Integration in Teaching and Learning in Secondary Schools The integration of information and communication technology (ICT) in teaching and learning is growing rapidly in many countries. The Internet and other computer software used in teaching science, mathematics and social sciences are more widespread today. To evaluate the effectiveness of such a programme using the CIPP model would involve examining the following (refer to Table 8.3): 1. What is the difference between context and input evaluation according to the CIPP model? Give specific examples. 2. What is the difference between process and product evaluation according to the CIPP model? Give specific examples. SELF-CHECK 8.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
222 TOPIC 8 CURRICULUM EVALUATION Table 8.3: Evaluation of the Effectiveness of a Programme Type Description Context Examine the environment in which technology is used in teaching and learning. • How did the real environment compare to the ideal? (E.g. The programme required five computers in each classroom, but there were only two computer labs of 40 units each for 1,000 students). • What problems are hampering the success of technology integration? (E.g. technology breakdowns, not all schools had internet access). • About 50% of teachers do not have basic computer skills. Input Examine what resources are put into technology integration (identify the educational strategies most likely to achieve the desired result). • Is the content selected for using technology right? • Have we used the right combination of media? (The Internet, video clips, etc.). Process Assess how well the implementation works (uncover implementation issues). • Did technology integration run smoothly? • Were there technology problems? • Were teachers able to integrate technology into their lessons as planned? • What are the areas of the curriculum in which most students experienced difficulty? Product This process addresses learning outcomes (gather information on the results of the educational intervention to interpret its worth and merit). • Did the learners learn using technology? How do you know? • Does technology integration enhance higher-order thinking? Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 CURRICULUM EVALUATION 223 8.3.3 Stake’s Countenance Model The model proposed by Robert Stake (1991) suggests three phases of curriculum evaluation: the antecedent phase, the transaction phase and the outcome phase (refer to Figure 8.2). The antecedent phase includes conditions before the instruction that may relate to outcomes. The transaction phase constitutes the instruction process, while the outcome phase relates to the programmeÊs effects. Stake emphasises two operations: descriptions and judgements. Descriptions are divided according to whether they refer to what was intended or what was observed. Judgements are separated according to whether they refer to standards used in arriving at the judgements or the actual ones. Figure 8.2: StakeÊs Countenance Model Regarding Case Study 8.3.2: (a) Suggest other questions you would ask regarding process evaluation (i.e. implementation issues). (b) What data collection techniques would you recommend for product evaluation to determine the teaching and learning outcomes of technology integration? Share your answers to your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 8.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
224 TOPIC 8 CURRICULUM EVALUATION 8.3.4 Eisner’s Connoisseurship Model Elliot Eisner (1976), a well-known art educator, argued that learning was too complex to be broken down into objectives and measured quantitatively. He argued that teaching small manageable pieces of information prohibits students from putting the pieces back together and applying them to new situations. As long as we evaluate students based on the small bits of information, we will only learn small bits. Eisner contends that evaluation has and will always drive the curriculum. Suppose we want students to be able to solve problems and think critically. We must evaluate problem solving and critical thinking, skills that rote practice alone cannot teach. So, to evaluate a programme, we must attempt to capture the richness and complexity of classroom events. He proposed the connoisseurship model, which claimed that a knowledgeable evaluator could determine whether a curriculum programme has been successful using a combination of skills and experience. The word „connoisseurship‰ comes from the Latin word cognoscere, meaning to know. For example, to be a connoisseur of food, paintings or films, you must have knowledge about and experience with different types of food, paintings or films before you can criticise. To be a food critic, you must be a connoisseur of different kinds of foods. To be a critic, you must be aware of and appreciate the subtle differences in the phenomenon you are examining. In other words, the curriculum evaluator must seek to be an educational critic. When employing the procedure of educational criticism, the following questions may be asked: • What has happened in the classrooms due to implementing the new curriculum? • What are some of the events that took place? (E.g. more students are participating in fieldwork, more students are asking questions in class, and even academically weak students are talking in group activities) • How did students and teachers organise themselves in these events? • What were the reactions of participants in these events? (E.g. students enjoyed working collaboratively on projects) • How can learnersÊ experiences be more effective as students, teachers and administrators suggested? (E.g. more resources are needed for fieldwork; more computers are needed to integrate the Internet into teaching and learning). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 CURRICULUM EVALUATION 225 You will notice that these questions emphasise the learning process and the quality of experiences by those involved in implementing the curriculum, namely, students, teachers and administrators. According to the connoisseurship model, evaluators provide a description and interpretation of the curriculum plan implemented: • Description The evaluator records the actions, the features of the environment and the experiences of students, teachers, and administrators. People who read the evaluation report can visualise what the place looks like and the processes taking place. The aim here is to help the reader „see‰ the school or classroom and get a feel of what the curriculum evaluator or critic is attempting to understand and help others understand. • Interpretation The evaluator explains the meaning of reported events by putting them in context. For example, why academically weak students were motivated to ask questions, why reading comprehension skills improved, why enthusiasm for doing science experiments increased and so forth. To be able to describe and interpret the implementation of a curriculum, the evaluator has to collect data, and the following are examples of activities an evaluator may engage in: • The evaluator observes what is going on in the classroom and records teachers and students in action using videotapes, audiotapes, and photographs. • The evaluator keeps notes of what is done, what is said and, more importantly, what is not said. The evaluator should strive to describe the tone of the curriculum in action (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998). • The evaluator interviews students, teachers, and administrators about the quality of the curriculum. • The evaluator would analyse the studentÊs work. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
226 TOPIC 8 CURRICULUM EVALUATION One of the great benefits of EisnerÊs (1976) activities has been how he has made a case for concern with connoisseurship and criticism, and mediated these concerns for educators and researchers. The importance of his advocacy of these ideas cannot be underestimated, especially when rather narrow concerns with instrumental outcomes and an orientation to the technical dominant. Together they offer educators a more practical and appropriate means to approach evaluation, for example: • Advocate moving beyond technocratic and behaviouristic modes of thinking and for having a concern for „expressive outcomes‰. • Call to attend to fundamentals. Eisner (1976) has consistently warned against educational fads and fashion. He has criticised dominant paradigms and invited educators and others to ask questions, such as „what is basic in education?‰ • Arguing that schools should help children create meaning from experience requires an education devoted to the senses, meaning-making and imagination. Eisner (1976) argues for a curriculum that fosters multiple „literacies‰ in students (especially by looking at non-verbal modes of learning and expression) and a deepening of the „artistry‰ of teachers. Over the time Eisner (1976) has been writing, there were significant shifts in the school context. However, globalisation has caused resistance to introducing school centralisation, the pedagogy process and instrumentalisation. According to Eisner, the implementation process was difficult due to the globalisation impact. Other voices have called for changes in the culture of schooling (notably by Howard Gardner in this arena). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 CURRICULUM EVALUATION 227 8.4 PHASES OF CURRICULUM EVALUATION Figure 8.3 shows the phases of curriculum evaluation. Figure 8.3: Phases of Curriculum Evaluation 8.5 INSTRUMENTATION FOR CURRICULUM EVALUATION No matter what evaluation model is used in evaluating a curriculum, the methods of data collection and the instruments used are more or less similar. The common instruments used in curriculum evaluation are interviews, observations, tests, surveys, content analysis, and portfolios (records of work or products). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
228 TOPIC 8 CURRICULUM EVALUATION 8.5.1 Questionnaires and Checklists When you need to quickly or easily get lots of information from people in a non-threatening way, questionnaires and checklists are useful data collection techniques. Questionnaires and checklists can complete anonymously and are relatively inexpensive to administer. Since the data collected is quantitative, it is easy to compare and analyse and can be administered to many people. A massive amount of data can be obtained. It is also easy to design as there are many sample questionnaires already in existence. However, the information obtained may not be accurate as it relies on how truthfully subjects respond to the questions. There is also the fear that wording can bias client responses. Questionnaires are impersonal, and since only a sample of subjects is given the instrument, we do not get the full story. 8.5.2 Interviews Interviews are usually one-on-one in which an individual asks questions to which a second individual (a teacher, principal, student, or parent) responds. The person asking the questions is called the interviewer, while the person giving answers to the questions is called the interviewee. Interviews are used when you want to fully understand someoneÊs impressions or experiences or learn more about their answers to questionnaires. There are two general types of interviews depending on the extent to which the responses required are unstructured or structured. In an unstructured interview, the interviewer does not follow a rigid script, and the responses have great flexibility. For example, „Why do you think the recommended textbook for the course is difficult for low-ability learners? The teacher responding to such a question will give a variety of reasons. Some reasons may be general, while others may be specific to certain textbook sections. This process makes the task of keeping track of responses more difficult. The open-ended questions will require the interviewer to record all responses and make sense of it later. The advantage of the unstructured interview is that it allows the evaluator to gather various information, especially about the intervieweeÊs knowledge, beliefs or feelings towards a particular situation. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 CURRICULUM EVALUATION 229 While in a structured interview, the questions asked usually require very specific responses. For example, „Is the recommended textbook difficult for low-ability learners because: (a) there is too much content? (b) the language used is beyond the comprehension of low-ability learners? or (c) there are too few examples and illustrations?‰ Regardless of the interview type, evaluators should ensure that each question is relevant for its intended purpose. Ultimately, the data must be translated into a form that can be analysed. This process has to be done carefully to preserve the accuracy and maintain the dataÊs sense. The advantage of interviews is that they can get a full range and depth of information, develop a relationship with teachers and students, and be more flexible. However, an interview can take much time, can be hard to analyse and compare, can be costly, and the interviewer can be bias against the clientÊs responses. 8.5.3 Observations Observations are about gathering accurate information about how a programme operates, in particular about the processes. These processes include viewing the operations of a programme as they are occurring that can be adapted to events as they occur. It can be not easy to interpret seen behaviours, complex to categorise observations, influence programme participantsÊ behaviours and expensive. 8.5.4 Documentation Reviews Get comprehensive and historical information when you want an impression of how the programme operates without interrupting the programme, from a review of applications, finances, memos, minutes, etc. The following are some brief descriptions of this instrument: • It does not interrupt the programme or clientÊs routine in a programme; • The information already exists; • It has few biases in the information; Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
230 TOPIC 8 CURRICULUM EVALUATION • It often takes time; • The information may be incomplete; • It would be best if you were quite clear about what you are looking for; and • It is not flexible, e.g. means to get data and data is restricted to what already exists. Table 8.4 explains the summary of instrumentation that have been used in curriculum evaluation. Table 8.4: Instrumentation in Curriculum Evaluation Method Overall Purpose Advantages Challenges Questionnaires, checklists When need to quickly or easily get lots of information from people in a non-threatening way • Can complete anonymously • Inexpensive to administer • Easy to compare and analyse • Administer to many people • Can get lots of data • Many sample questionnaires already exist • Might not get careful feedback • Wording can bias clientÊs responses • Impersonal • In surveys, may need sampling expert • Does not get the full story Interviews When you want to fully understand someoneÊs impressions or experiences or learn more about their answers to questionnaires • Get a full range and depth of information • Develops a relationship with the client • Can be flexible with client • Can take time • Can be hard to analyse and compare • Can be costly • An interviewer can bias the clientÊs responses Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 CURRICULUM EVALUATION 231 Observation To gather accurate information about how a programme operates, particularly about processes • View operations of a programme as they are occurring • Can adapt to events as they occur • Can be difficult to interpret seen behaviours • Can be complex to categorise observations • Can influence the behaviours of programme participants • Can be expensive Documentation review When you want an impression of how the programme operates without interrupting it, it is from a review of applications, finances, memos, minutes, etc. • Get comprehensive and historical information • Does not interrupt the programme or the clientÊs routine in the programme • Information already exists • Few biases about information • Often takes time • Information may be incomplete • Need to be quite clear about what you are looking for • Not a flexible means to get data; data restricted to what already exists Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
232 TOPIC 8 CURRICULUM EVALUATION Focus groups Explore a topic in depth through group discussion, e.g. about reactions to an experience or suggestion, common understanding complaints, etc.; useful in evaluation and marketing • Quickly and reliably get common impressions • Can be an efficient way to get much range and depth of information in a short time • Can convey key information about programmes • Can be hard to analyse responses • Need a good facilitator for safety and closure • Difficult to schedule 6 to 8 people together Case studies To fully understand or depict clientÊs experiences in a programme and conduct comprehensive examination through crosscomparison of cases • Fully depicts the clientÊs experience in programme input, process and resultspowerful means to portray the programme to outsiders • Usually quite timeconsuming to collect, organise and describe • Represents a depth of information rather than a breadth 8.6 CASE STUDY: EVALUATION OF A MATHEMATICS CURRICULUM IN SOUTH AFRICA In this subtopic, we will discuss a case study regarding to the evaluation of a mathematics curriculum in South Africa. (a) Background The Education Initiative of the Open Society Foundation for South Africa in 1996 commissioned the Mathematics Learning and Teaching Initiative (MALATI). This initiative is to develop, pilot and disseminate alternative approaches and tools for teaching and learning mathematics. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 CURRICULUM EVALUATION 233 (b) Method Based on project workersÊ observation and written field notes made during the implementation of the MALATI curriculum, the following findings by Brodie & Pournara (2006) were obtained: (c) Findings • Many teachers had not yet received the most basic communications issued to schools regarding the Curriculum 2005. • Teachers had difficulty interpreting certain aspects of the official curriculum document. Lack of clarity led to confusion. • The curriculum document had content errors. • TeachersÊ content knowledge was inadequate to handle some of the curriculumÊs topics, such as statistics. • Learners did not have the prior experience assumed in the curriculum; e.g. in Grade 9, probability teaching assumes that the learner had done some statistics in the earlier grades. • Teachers continue to teach the topics they are used to and are reluctant to use the MALATI materials. • The curriculum suggested that group work be used in teaching probability and data handling. Learners were not accustomed to group discussion and listening to one another. • Teaching the topic took longer as teachers struggled to deal with learnersÊ everyday experiences in the teaching of probability. (d) Recommendations • Teachers need workshops on selected aspects of the content. • Selected parts of the curriculum documents need to be rewritten to reduce confusion. • To convince teachers not to treat the teaching of probability and statistics as „new content‰ but teach it for its mathematical value. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
234 TOPIC 8 CURRICULUM EVALUATION • Evaluation is collecting data on a programme to determine its value or worth to decide whether to adopt, reject or revise it. • The aim of formative evaluation is usually to obtain information to improve a programme. • There are four types of evaluation: – Context – Input – Process – Product 1. What are some of the problems identified with implementing the MALATI programme? 2. Based on the findings, list the recommendations made. SELF-CHECK 8.3 1. Identify some problems in implementating the Primary School Integrated Curriculum (KSSR) and the Secondary School Integrated Curriculum (KSSM). 2. Describe how the teaching of science and mathematics in English was implemented in your school. 3. „New curriculum often fail to become established in schools because the importance and complexity of the implementation phase are not understood.‰ Do you agree with this statement? Justify. Share your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 8.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 CURRICULUM EVALUATION 235 • The model proposed by Robert Stake (1991) suggests three phases of curriculum evaluation: – The antecedent phase – The transaction phase – The outcome phase • Eisner proposed the connoisseurship model, which claimed that a knowledgeable evaluator could determine whether a curriculum programme has been successful using a combination of skills and experience. • The common instruments used in curriculum evaluation are interviews, observations, tests, surveys, content analysis and portfolios (records of work or products). CIPP model Curriculum evaluation Documentation review EisnerÊs connoisseurship model Evaluation Formative evaluation Interviews Observations Questionnaires Summative evaluation StakeÊs countenance model Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)