136 TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING 5.4.1 Educational Philosophy The initial task of curriculum planners is identifying an educational vision or philosophy that will form the basis of planning. The vision statement or philosophy provides guidelines for curriculum developers in organising and incorporating programmes and activities into the curriculum. It reflects the desires of the nation and the major theme paving the way for the future. The philosophical vision is usually derived through discussions with various people in the country and also from reading the literature. Then it is reformulated to achieve the vision. The educational philosophy of an educational system is a reflection of national policies. For example, use one language instruction to unite the different communities, provide free primary education to reduce drop-outs, and have a common national curriculum to reduce varying interpretations. The educational philosophy will also reflect national priorities such as the development aspects of the nation, sociocultural needs of the people and levels of achievement of the children at different cycles. Development needs have to be identified the priorities. For example, does the country want more graduates, or should the emphasis be on basic education? Concerning sociocultural needs, the culture of peace, conflict resolutions, etc., could emerge as important aspects that should be highlighted in the school curriculum. The needs of disabled people and adults who have lost learning opportunities must also be incorporated. Opportunities for vocational and career education have to be provided in the curriculum. Therefore, the vocational interests of students have to be assessed. Levels of achievements relate to childrenÊs understanding of concepts at different grades to enable them to complete the skills needed to move on to higher grades. These must be identified to bring quality to learning and avoid wastage in the learning programmes. In addition, curriculum planners should not only study the current best practices, customs, and beliefs about education in the local schools. They should still compare these to the educational research literature on best practices in teaching, learning, and curriculum design. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING 137 Read the case study and answer the following questions: The curriculum framework is a set of principles and guidelines which provides both a philosophical base and an organisational structure for curriculum development initiatives at all levels, be they nationally, provincially, community or school-based. The vision for South Africa encompasses a prosperous, truly united, democratic and internationally competitive country with literate, creative and critical citizens, leading productive, self-fulfilled lives in a country free of violence, discrimination and prejudice. The realisation of this vision requires appropriate, lifelong education, training and development to empower people to participate effectively in all the processes of a democratic society and to excel in fields like human and natural resource development, human and natural sciences, the arts and technology. The primary task of educational policy makers is the establishment of a just and equitable education and training system which is relevant, of high quality and is accessible to all learners, irrespective of race, colour, gender, age, religion, ability or language. A priority for both national and provincial education departments is, therefore, the creation of a transformative, democratic, open learning system, fostering in all its users, a strong commitment to lifelong learning and development. The curriculum framework serves as a strategic intervention designed to facilitate and guide the development of a transformed education and training system in a practicable and sustainable way. It takes as point of departure, that successful modern economies and societies require citizens with a strong foundation of general education, the desire and ability to continue to learn to adapt to, and develop new knowledge, skills and technologies, to move flexibly between occupations, to take responsibility for personal performance, to set and achieve high standards, and to work cooperatively. Source: CURRICULUM (2005). Lifelong learning for the 21st century: A userÊs guide. Available at http://www.polity.org.za/html/govdocs/misc/ curr2005.html?rebookmark=1#Principles ACTIVITY 5.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
138 TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING 5.4.2 Educational Goals Educational goals are outcomes to be achieved by students at the end of a particular period in school. While certain goals are universal and run throughout the period, some are specific to particular levels and times, meaning that a child will face different goals at different levels. The goals are the basic elements in curriculum planning and should be clear and well-articulated without ambiguities. All these relate to human behaviour. The country recovering from a civil warÊs key educational goals might be peace, developing self-confidence, cooperation, and responsible citizenship needed to overcome the existing conflicts. Many goals, such as developing creativity, mental health, coping with change, informed participation, basic skills and so forth, end on the vision and cultural needs of the society. Connecting development needs to education is an important strategy to achieve a greater impact of education on society. (a) Why do you think that in the vision of South Africa it is emphasised that the country should be free of violence, discrimination, and prejudice? (b) What are the goals of the curriculum framework of South Africa? (c) How are these educational goals similar or different from those of your country? Share your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING 139 Read the following text and answer the questions. In 1990, the President of the United States and state governors issued a list of six goals for the nation's schools which stated that by the year 2000: • All children in America will start school ready to learn. • The high school graduation rate will increase to at least 90%. • American students will leave grades 4, 8 and 12 having demonstrated competency in challenging subject matter (English language, mathematics, science, history and geography). • US students will be first in the world in science and mathematics achievement. • Every adult American will be literate and will possess the knowledge and skills necessary to compete in a global economy and exercise the rights and responsibilities of citizenship. • Every school in America will be free of drugs and violence and will offer a disciplined environment conducive to learning. Source: National Goals for Education (1990). Washington D.C (a) What seems to be the emphasis of these goals? What is lacking? (b) Compare these goals with the goals of your education system. Discuss these questions with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 5.4 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
140 TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING 5.4.3 Curriculum Goals Goals provide direction for the curriculum. A curriculum goal is a purpose or desired end stated in general terms. No period is specified when the goals must be reached. Neither is there any mention of the criteria for achievement or mastery. Curriculum planners expect students to accomplish it due to exposure to segments or all of the programme in a particular educational institution. For example: • „Students shall acquire knowledge and skills necessary for functioning as good citizens in their school and community.‰ • „Schools should seek to promote studentsÊ physical and emotional health.‰ 5.4.4 Curriculum Objectives A curriculum objective describes the endpoints or desired outcomes of the curriculum, a unit, a lesson plan, or a learning activity. Curriculum objectives are derived from the curriculum goal. They specify the performance standards for the students for whom the curriculum is designed. From the curriculum goal, „Students shall acquire knowledge and skills necessary to function daily, as good citizens in their school and community setting.‰ They specify and describe curriculum outcomes in more specific terms than goals or aims do. The following curriculum objectives can be derived: • Most students will obey the rules and regulations of the school. • More than 80% of students will participate in at least one voluntary activity. Note how the curriculum objective refines the curriculum goal. Many curriculum objectives can emanate from a single curriculum goal. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING 141 Read the following text and answer the questions. Malaysian Primary School Science Curriculum Curriculum Goal or Aim Primary Science education aims to develop knowledgeable, skilful, thinking, caring, dynamic and progressive individuals. They can contribute towards creating a society that practices science and technology culture, is responsible towards the environment, and appreciates nature and GodÊs creations. Sample Curriculum Objectives The Primary School Science Curriculum will enable students to: • Acquire an understanding of science concepts and principles in an integrated manner and be able to relate them with natural phenomena and everyday experiences. • Apply science knowledge and skills creatively and intelligently in problem-solving and decision-making. • Develop further the intrinsic values of science, such as curiosity, open-mindedness, intellectual honesty and perseverance. • Develop scientific and manipulative skills through the discovery-inquiry approach. • Develop skills in conducting scientific investigations and research. Sample Instructional Goals for Year 4 (A) Understand that breathing is a general characteristic of living things. (B) Know that light can be dispersed. ACTIVITY 5.5 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
142 TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING Sample Instructional Objectives (A1) Explain how breathing takes place in humans. (A2) State the three methods of breathing in animals. (B1) State that sunlight consists of seven colours. (B2) Explain the formation of a rainbow. Sample Curriculum Objectives The Primary School Science Curriculum will enable students to: • Acquire an understanding of science concepts and principles in an integrated manner and able to relate them with natural phenomena and everyday experiences. • Apply science knowledge and skills creatively and intelligently in problem solving and decision making. • Develop further the intrinsic values of science such as inquisitiveness, open-mindedness, intellectual honesty and perseverance. • Develop scientific and manipulative skills through the discoveryinquiry approach. • Develop skills in conducting scientific investigations and research. Source: Curriculum Development Centre, Ministry of Education Malaysia (July, 1997). Curriculum specifications for smart schools. Kuala Lumpur: Author. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING 143 5.4.5 Instructional Goals At the instructional phase, curriculum objectives are translated initially into instructional goals. An instructional goal is a statement of performance expected of each student in a class stated in general terms. It is the general intention of a course of instruction without criteria of achievement. For example, „Students will show an understanding of the tropical rainforest‰. It indicates the performance expected, i.e. „understand‰, but the performance level or criteria is not stated. So, it is not easily measured. Instructional goals point the way to instructional objectives. 5.4.6 Instructional Objectives An instructional objective is a statement of performance to be demonstrated by each student in a class. It is stated in a form that is measurable and observable. Other names for instructional objectives are specific objectives, learning outcomes, behavioural objectives, performance objectives, and competencies. LetÊs examine in detail about instructional objectives. You must state clearly the instructional objectives you intend to achieve at the end of a period of instruction. An example of an instructional objective is: „At the end of the lesson, students should be able to describe five characteristics of the tropical rainforest.‰ (a) How is the goal of the Malaysian primary school curriculum different from the stated curriculum objectives? (b) Which curriculum objectives focus on the knowledge, skills and attitudes/values to be acquired by students? (c) How is „Instructional Goal A‰ implemented in the classroom? Share your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
144 TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING The instructional objectives help teachers with the following elements (refer to Figure 5.5): Figure 5.5: Elements in Instructional Objectives 5.5 INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES OR LEARNING OUTCOMES Instructional objectives are the learning outcomes desired and are of primary importance in developing a curriculum. Objectives point to the appropriate content to be selected, how teaching and learning are to be conducted and ways of assessing performance in the subject. In the past, the traditional description of a course referred to content; i.e. what the teacher would cover. There has, however, been a shift in thinking about teaching and learning with learning. The learner is now seen to be of primary importance. Teaching then becomes the means of facilitating learning in the learner. In the teacher-centred approach, teaching is generally seen to be about the transmission of knowledge. The focus is on what the teacher did and the goals of the subject area. It also focuses on the content the teacher would transmit. In the learner-centred approach, however, the focus is on what the learner does. The subject area is usually expressed in how the learner will change due to the learning content. The statements describing the change in student behaviour which should result from taking the course are known as „intended learning objectives‰ or „intended learning outcomes,‰ „objectives‰ or „outcomes‰ for short. Teaching becomes a series of strategies devised to help students achieve these objectives or outcomes. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING 145 In stating an instructional objective or learning outcome, active verbs indicate what students must do to demonstrate learning. It is not enough to say, „Yes, I understand that.‰ But how do I know that you understand unless you can demonstrate that you do? Here are some examples of learning outcomes: On completion of this 45 minutes lesson on tropical rainforest, you should be able to: • Define the terms: evergreen, humidity, buttress roots, and canopy. • Locate the distribution of the rainforest on a world map. • Explain why there is little undergrowth in a rainforest. Read the following content and answer the questions. Proponents of behavioural objectives argue that it: • forces the teachers to be precise about what is to be accomplished • enables the teacher to tell students what they must achieve • makes evaluation easier because it is measurable • makes it easier for the selection of instructional objectives • makes accountability easier Opponents of behavioural objectives argue that it: • restricts creativity • leads to trivial or unimportant competencies • dehumanising • downplays affective outcomes Source: Adapted from Oliva, P. (1982) ACTIVITY 5.6 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
146 TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING 5.6 CLASSIFYING INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES OR LEARNING OUTCOMES A taxonomy is a system for classifying something, such as learning objectives or learning outcomes. The classification of learning objectives or outcomes was developed by a team led by Benjamin Bloom in the 1950s. Three domains were addressed, and each taxonomy of abilities, emotions and skills was developed. Taxonomies of learning objectives or learning outcomes are used to categorise goals for student learning. Taxonomies are based on the assumption that different types of objectives are learned through different mental processes. The three learning domains are (refer to Figure 5.6): Figure 5.6: Learning Domains The three domains remain a useful conceptual tool for thinking about what a body of content requires students to do and how students should demonstrate their learning through their behaviour. It is valuable because it draws attention to the need to be clear about the complexity of intellectual tasks a subject might require. (a) How do behavioural objectives restrict creativity among students? (b) Do you agree with the opponents of behavioural objectives? Justify. (c) State one other reason each supporting the proponents and opponents of behavioural objectives. Discuss your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING 147 5.6.1 Cognitive Domain BloomÊs taxonomy cognitive domain is perhaps the best-known and most widely used. It was published in 1956. It lists a personÊs observable and unobservable intellectual abilities, such as comprehending information, organising ideas, and evaluating information and actions. It categorises the types of cognitive learning outcomes that are featured at all levels of the curriculum. Bloom and his associates classified cognitive learning into six categories: remember, understand, apply, analyse, evaluate and create (refer to Table 5.2). Table 5.2: Cognitive Domain Category Description Examples of Verbs for Stating Objectives or Outcomes Remember Retain, recall and recognise knowledge Arrange, define, identify, indicate, label, list, match, memorise, recall, recite. Understand Translate and interpret knowledge Compare, classify, describe, discuss, explain, give examples, interpret, paraphrase, predict, present, report, rewrite, summarise. Apply Apply knowledge to different situations Calculate, complete, demonstrate, execute, illustrate, implement, modify, organise, practise, prepare, solve, show, use, write. Analyse Break down information to look at relationships Categorise, contrast, compare, criticise, debate, differentiate, experiment, inspect, infer, investigate, organise, outline, question, separate, test. Evaluate Make judgments based on evidence found Attribute, argue, assess, check, compare, conclude, contrast, criticise, critique, defend, examine, justify, measure, recommend, support, reflect. Create Compile information to generate new solutions Arrange, calculate, compose, construct, design, develop, devise, formulate, generate, hypothesise, plan, prepare, produce, propose, revise, summarise, synthesise. Source: Anderson & Krathwohl (2001) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
148 TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING 5.6.2 Affective Domain After the appearance of the cognitive domain, Krathwohl and Benjamin (1965) developed a taxonomy of objectives in the affective domain in 1964 (refer to Table 5.3). The affective domain relates to emotions, such as feelings, values, how we appreciate something, enthusiasm for something, what motivates us to do something, and attitudes towards something. Table 5.3: Affective Domain Category Description Examples of Verbs for Stating Objectives or Outcomes Receiving The studentÊs willingness to receive and attend to information/activity (e.g. textbook, classroom activity). Receiving involves the willingness to receive or accept and focus attention. Attend, be aware, listen, reply, show, alert, use, watch, select, tolerate, follow, ask. Responding It refers to active participation by the student. The student actively attends by responding in the class and is involved in the teaching-learning setting. They gain satisfaction from engaging in activities. Agree, answer, communicate, comply, consent, contribute, cooperate, help, inquire, obey, participate, question, request, report, respond, seek, volunteer. Valuing The student sees worth or value in what is being learned or the activity being done. The student does not merely obey or comply but does so because they are intrinsically motivated. Accept, adopt, approve, complete, commit, desire, display, exhibit, express, initiate, invite, prefer, share, study, work. Organisation The student brings together many different values and attempts to resolve the conflicts between the values. They see how new values are related to existing values and try to establish a balance. Through this process, they build a value system. Adapt, alter, arrange, classify, compare, defend, establish, generalise, integrate, modify, order, rank, synthesise. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING 149 Characterisation The student internalises the values. In other words, they adopt the values as their own. The values internalised determines the behaviour of the student. The behaviour is consistent and predictable. Act, behave, conform, devote, display, endure, exemplify, function, maintain, practise, perform, uphold, use, influence. Source: Krathwohl & Bloom (1964) 5.6.3 Psychomotor Domain The psychomotor domain is less known compared to the other two taxonomies. There are several interpretations of the domain, and one of them was developed by Dave in 1970 (refer to Table 5.4). The psychomotor domain involves physical movement, coordination and use of the motor-skill areas. Developments of these skills require practice and are measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures or techniques in execution. Table 5.4: Psychomotor Domain Category Description Examples of Verbs for Stating Objectives or Outcomes Imitation The student indicates a readiness to learn a certain complex skill. Imitation includes repeating an act that has been demonstrated or explained. It includes trial and error until an appropriate response is achieved. Assemble, carry out, copy, construct, repeat, duplicate, practise, reproduce, start, try, volunteer, sketch, follow. Manipulation The student continues to practise the skill until it becomes habitual and can be performed with some confidence. The response is more complex, but they are still not sure of themselves. All the verbs for imitation plus the following: acquire, conduct, do, execute, operate, perform, produce, progress, use, operate. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
150 TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING Precision The student attains the skill and proficiency indicated by a quick, smooth and accurate performance. The response is complex and performed without hesitation. All the verbs for imitation and manipulation plus the following: achieve, automatise, exceed, excel, master, reach, refine, surpass, accomplish. Articulation The skill is well developed. The student is involved at an even higher level of precision and can adapt the skill according to different requirements. Adapt, change, alter, reorganise, rearrange, revise. Naturalisation The skill is automatic, and the student can experiment and create new ways of using the skill. Arrange, compose, refine, create, design, originate, transcend. Source: Dave (1970) The three learning domains provide guidelines for developing instructional objectives and learning outcomes in a curriculum plan. The taxonomies guide teachers to move their learners from the lower outcomes to higher levels of learning in each domain. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING 151 1. Suppose you are heading a project on developing a curriculum for a particular course or subject. Which of these three models of curriculum development would you adopt to guide you? Why? 2. Have a look at any course or programme. (a) Is there a clear statement of curriculum and instructional objectives to be achieved? (b) Should a student be clear on the learning outcomes? Do the objectives delineate the course content? (c) Is there a direct relationship between the objectives and the teaching-learning methods employed in the subject? (d) Can the summative assessment be done by anything other than class tests and examinations? (e) Is there any mention of affective learning in the subject? (f) If not, what would be appropriate affective learning objectives for the subject? Discuss these questions with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 5.7 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
152 TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING • Curriculum development is the more comprehensive term, which includes the determination of aims and goals, design, implementation, and evaluation. • The Tyler model focuses on four aspects: – the purpose of education; – the educational experiences to be provided; – the organisation of educational experiences; and – evaluation to determine the attainment of goals. • The Taba model emphasises the need for teachers who teach the curriculum to participate in developing it. • The Saylor, Alexander, and Lewis model consist of four phases: − goals and domains; − curriculum design; − implementation; and − evaluation. • Levels of goals: − educational philosophy; − educational goals; − curriculum goals; − curriculum objectives; − instructional goals; and − instructional objectives. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING 153 • An instructional objective or learning outcome specify the behaviour desired, the conditions in which the behaviour is to be exhibited and the criteria for evaluating achievement. • The learning domains are the cognitive domain (intellectual abilities), the affective domain (emotions and feelings), and the psychomotor domain (skills). Affective domain Cognitive domain Curriculum development Curriculum goals Curriculum objectives Educational philosophy Instructional goals Instructional objectives Psychomotor domain Saylor, Alexander, and Lewis Taba model Tyler model Anderson, L., & Krathwohl, D. A. (2001). Taxonomy for learning, teaching and assessing: A revision of Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives. Longman. Dave, R. H. (1970). Psychomotor levels. Developing and Writing Educational Objectives, 33–34. Hunkins, F. P., & Ornstein, A. C. (2016). Curriculum: Foundations, principles, and issues. Pearson Education. Krathwohl, D. R., Bloom, B. S., & Masia, B. B. (1964). Taxanomy of educational objectives handbook II: Affective domain. David McKay Company. Krathwohl, D. R., Bloom, B. S., & Masia, B. B. (1969). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. Handbook. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
154 TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING Oliva, G. M. (1982). Toward continuity in music curricula. Music Educators Journal, 69(3), 46–47. Oliva, P. F. (1982). Developing the curriculum. Ally and Bacon. Saylor, J. G., Alexander, W. M., & Lewis, A. J. (1974). Curriculum planing for better teaching and learning (4th ed.). Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Sowell, E. (2000). Curriculum: An integrative introduction. Prentice-Hall. Chapter 4: Studies of subject matter. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
Curriculum Design Topic 6 In Topic 5, we discussed the initial step in the curriculum development process: curriculum planning, in which decisions are made about what we want students to do. The curriculum development process aims to produce a plan that stipulates the kinds of studentsÊ engagement in learning experiences. This process is derived from the educational philosophy and aims of education. It also includes the kinds the objectives that are to be achieved by teachers or instructors at the classroom level. Three well-known models were examined to guide the discussion of the By the end of this topic, you should be able to do the following: 1. Define curriculum design. 2. Recognise the criteria for the selection of content. 3. Explain the principles of a content organisation. 4. List the criteria for the selection of learning experiences. 5. Compare subject matter-centred, learner-centred, and problem-centred curriculum design models. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
156 TOPIC 6 CURRICULUM DESIGN curriculum development process: the Tyler model, the Taba model, and the Saylor, Alexander, and Lewis model. In this topic, we will deal with the curriculum development processÊs next phase, curriculum design. Read the report Prevention is Better than Cure and answer the following questions. Prevention is Better than Cure As society becomes increasingly complex, the incidence of various at-risk behaviours among students has increased. These include substance abuse (tobacco and drugs), teen pregnancies, road safety, sexual promiscuity, violence, HIV infection, gangsterism, bullying and others. Parents and society have not adequately taught students to avoid such high-risk behaviours and have passed on the task to schools. As such we see „add-on‰ programmes which often are a series of brief, fragmented units on critical life issues, squeezed into the regular curriculum. Unfortunately there is never enough hours in a school day and they have to compete for valuable class time. So, instead of „doing more‰, curriculum planners have decided to introduce prevention programmes by using existing school subjects. Adopting the curriculum infusion approach, educators have designed lesson plans to include prevention issues in the regular curriculum. They have used real-life issues as the context for addressing the critical health and social issues while teaching academic subjects. In fact prevention strategies are ideally suited to infusion into academic subjects. Some educators are beginning to resent having to be the sole ÂcustodianÊ of society with parents and the community not doing enough to prevent such negative behaviours among students and youths. Through the years, more and more societal issues have been brought into the curriculum and schools are expected to teach them in an already crowded curriculum. Source: Adapted from Critical issues: Infusing prevention into the curriculum, NCREL. Available at http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/ envrnmnt/drugfree/sa300.htnm ACTIVITY 6.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 CURRICULUM DESIGN 157 6.1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM DESIGN? Curriculum design determines a curriculum planÊs „shape‰ or „configuration‰. It involves a selection of content in line with the goals and objectives of the curriculum. The selected content will have to be arranged in a form that will help the teacher choose and organise appropriate learning experiences for the classroom. Sometimes, curriculum design is also referred to as „curriculum organisation‰. In short, designing the curriculum involves organising or arranging the four components. These components are objectives, subject matter, teaching-learning experiences, and evaluation procedures organised into a cohesive and comprehensive plan that can be implemented with minimal difficulties. According to Festus and Kurumeh (2010), these four components are intertwined and interactive. Unfortunately, not all curriculum plans give equal emphasis to each component. There are cases of plans that emphasise the subject matter or the content. In contrast, others stress mainly the objectives and evaluation procedures. Still, others primarily emphasise learning experiences or activities (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998). In this topic, we will focus on two main aspects of curriculum design: • Selection and organisation of content (or subject matter) for learners • Selection and organisation of learning experiences (or activities) (a) To what extent is this happening in your school? (b) Give other examples of how schools deal with critical issues. (c) Do you agree that prevention issues should be included in the school curriculum? Justify. Share your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
158 TOPIC 6 CURRICULUM DESIGN Among the questions to be addressed are: What content or subject matter should be included? What learning activities should be planned for learners? What teaching-learning or instructional strategies should be used? What educational resources should be used in teaching-learning situations? The selection of content and learning experiences will be based on a sound theoretical framework. This selection involves oneÊs philosophical beliefs and conceptions of human learning. This topic will be discussed in Topics 2 and 3. Your philosophical stance and understanding of human learning will affect your interpretation and selection of objectives. Your stance will influence the selected content, how it will be organised, and how it will be taught or delivered. This influence is what Ralph Tyler meant by his curriculum development modelÊs philosophical and psychological screens (refer to Topic 5 on Curriculum Development Process). 6.2 CONTENT SELECTION In this subtopic, we will discuss the definition of content, how should students learn the content, and the criteria to guide the selection of content. 6.2.1 What is Content? All curriculum have content, and how individuals view content is affected by their view of knowledge and philosophical position. There are varying conceptions of content. Some curriculum designers conclude that content is another term for knowledge consisting of a collection of facts, concepts, generalisations, principles, and theories. However, a distinction has to be made between disciplines and content. For example, an important concept in geography would be spatial relationships, while in physics, it would be acceleration. The disciplines such as biology, chemistry, sociology, and psychology are concerned with advancing understanding and exploring the unknown. In contrast, content found in school subjects (or even undergraduate courses) does not provide students with opportunities for advancing understanding or creating new knowledge in the strictest sense. The content selected is aimed towards helping students understand the knowledge that may be new to them but is already known by scholars and practitioners in the field. From this body of knowledge or discipline, content is selected for educational purposes and organised according to the cognitive level of learners. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 CURRICULUM DESIGN 159 6.2.2 How Should Students Learn Content? Content is not just something told to students but rather something that students personally construct. Some people feel that content should be prescribed and transmitted to learners (behaviourism). In contrast, others feel learners should construct content (constructivism) based on their experiences. In the former setting, learners are passive recipients of a subjectÊs facts, concepts, and generalisations. In contrast, in the latter situation, learners seriously engage in constructing meaning. Similarly, some educators argue that learning the processes of content is more important than the products of the content itself. Such a view divides content into product and process when both should be emphasised equally. We have already discussed this matter in Topic 1. Cognitive psychologists refer to: • content as declarative knowledge or what students should know (the facts, concepts, and principles of a body of knowledge); and • a process as procedural knowledge or what should be able to do (the procedures, thinking skills, and methods of inquiry embedded in any body of knowledge). 6.2.3 How Should Content be Selected? There is so much pressure on selecting curriculum content from various stakeholders. The stakeholders include parents, academics, the government, the business community, religious institutions, non-governmental organisations and so forth regarding what content should be selected and taught in schools. In addition, there is great information, doubling at a very rapid rate. Schools do not have the luxury of time to include all the concerns of society in their curriculum. Choices have to be made on what to include in the curriculum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
160 TOPIC 6 CURRICULUM DESIGN Ornstein and Hunkins (1998) list the following five criteria to guide the selection of content (refer to Table 6.1): Table 6.1: Criteria of the Selection of Content Criteria Description Significance It is obvious that the content selected should be significant. However, the definition of significance varies with an individualÊs beliefs. For example, curriculum developers who favour subject matter designs think of significance in terms of the concepts and principles of each subject area. Those who favour learner-centred designs think of significance in terms of the needs and interests of the learner. In contrast, those who favour a problem-centred design would regard the problems and issues in society as significant. Taba (1962) further argues that we should not just select content based on the cognitive aspects of learners but also their affective dimensions. Utility Utility refers to the usefulness of content. This criterion, again, depends on your philosophical beliefs. If you subscribe to the subject-centred design, you believe the content learned from the various subject areas will be useful in the workplace. If you subscribe to the learner-centred design, you will consider the needs and interests of learners, enabling them to realise their potential to function effectively in the workplace. Alternatively, suppose you subscribe to the problem-centred design. In that case, you believe that learning about societal issues allows students to relate their learning to daily and working lives. Validity Validity refers to whether the information passed on to students is authentic and obtained from credible sources. This criterion is especially significant today with the deluge of information that is easily accessible, which may not necessarily be credible or reliable. How many of the billions of pages on the Internet are credible? Content needs to be checked to determine its accuracy and constantly updated. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 CURRICULUM DESIGN 161 Learnability It may seem strange that anyone would select the content that is not learnable. Unfortunately, it does happen. For example, the content selected for a particular age group might be too difficult. Teachers need more time, but insufficient time is allotted. Eventually, teachers will rush through the material, leaving some students behind, not understanding the content. Can you give examples of this happening? Feasibility Educators who select content must consider the constraints of time, staff expertise, funding and other educational resources that schools might face when implementing the curriculum. For example, the number of days allotted for teaching may be insufficient to cover all the content. Perhaps it is because schools have to allocate time for extra-curricular activities and other school events. Content selection has to be considered within the existing context or reality of economics and the role of the government. 1. What is the difference between content and discipline? 2. What is the difference between significance and utility in the selection of content? 3. What is the difference between validity and feasibility in the selection of content? SELF-CHECK 6.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
162 TOPIC 6 CURRICULUM DESIGN 6.3 PRINCIPLES OF CONTENT ORGANISATION After deciding on the content, the next step is to organise the content in a form that will facilitate learning. The following principles have been proposed when deciding on a content organisation (Sowell, 2000; Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998): 6.3.1 Scope Scope refers to the breadth and depth of content. It includes all topics, learning experiences, and organising threads in the curriculum plan. Scope refers to cognitive and affective learning, and some argue spiritual learning (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998). Sometimes the scope of a curriculum is narrow, consisting of just a simple listing of key topics and activities. When curriculum developers decide how much content should be included, they determine the curriculumÊs scope. When we talk of scope, we are concerned with questions such as: How much science should students in primary school know? and What is the level of mathematics required of students before they graduate from secondary school? When deciding about the scope of a curriculum, the following guidelines may be useful (refer to Figure 6.1): Figure 6.1: Guidelines in Deciding the Scope of a Curriculum Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 CURRICULUM DESIGN 163 6.3.2 Sequence Sequence refers to the organisation of content and the extent to which it fosters cumulative and continuous learning (the vertical relationship among curriculum sections). It is important that the sequencing of content lead to the cumulative development of intellectual and affective processes. Do students have the opportunity to make connections and enrich their understanding of content? The sequence of content and experiences should be based on the logic of the subject matter and how individuals learn. It should be based on psychological principles and understanding human development and learning (refer to Topic 3 on Psychological Foundations of Curriculum). According to Ornstein and Hunkins (1998), Taba (1962) and Bruner (2009), the following principles are guidelines for sequencing the curriculum (refer to Table 6.2). 1. Is the scope (breadth and depth) of the subject you teach (or are familiar with) appropriate? 2. Give examples of subjects in which you think the scope is inappropriate. Explain your answers to your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 6.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
164 TOPIC 6 CURRICULUM DESIGN Table 6.2: Guidelines for Sequencing the Curriculum Principle Description Simple to complex The content is organised, going from simple subordinate components to complex components depicting interrelationships among components. Optimal learning occurs when students are presented with easy, often concrete content and with more difficult and abstract content. Spiral In a „spiral curriculum,‰ concepts may be introduced on a superficial level in the early grades, then revisited with more and more complexity and application later on (Bruner, 2009). Prerequisites It assumes that bits of information or learning must be grasped before other bits of information can be understood. Whole-to-part The content is better understood if an overview (whole) is first presented to show the connections between the parts. Chronology It is a useful organiser for sequencing content, especially in subjects such as history, political science, and world events. Vertical organisation This means that content and skills are arranged to build on one another and align with the general sequence of cognitive development. They indicate what students have learned and what they will learn later. Horizontal organisation It involves how skills and content taught at one level or one time relate to another. For example, in a social science course, you might consider particular issues from a historical, sociological, political, and economic point of view. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 CURRICULUM DESIGN 165 6.3.3 Integration Integration is the bringing together concepts, skills, and values of different subject areas to reinforce each other. Bits of information from different subject areas are brought together. This way, it can present the learner with a unified knowledge picture. Some have argued that curriculum planners try to integrate information, and the learners integrate what they are learning in their minds. It is something that happens within the individual learner. The idea of integration was popularised in the 60s by Hilda Taba because of concern that the school curriculum was too disjointed, fragmented and detached. Lately, there has been a surge of interest in curriculum integration due to the rapid accumulation of information doubling in a shorter period. Increasingly, there is a realisation that knowledge has to be viewed much broader, particularly in dealing with ideas that cut across disciplines. When faced with real-world situations, seldom is one area of content sufficient to explain complex phenomena. The need to examine phenomena from various disciplines has intensified interest in the integrated curriculum. Examples of the integrated curriculum include sciencetechnology-society and reading across the curriculum. The science-technologysociety (STS) curriculum combines science with social sciences to solve practical, everyday problems. The integrated approach takes the student outside the laboratory and from the textbook into the local community. 6.3.4 Continuity Continuity ensures that ideas, themes and skills are repeated as the learner progresses through the grades. Why? This process is necessary because students may not grasp certain concepts and skills in one experience. They must be presented again before they become clear. For example, students in the primary grades are taught the principles of essay writing. The same principles are repeated in the succeeding years. Continuity ensures the reappearance of certain major ideas at different grade levels at increased depth and complexity over the length of the curriculum. For example, doing experiments is a learning experience repeated throughout science teaching at increasing levels of complexity and abstraction. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
166 TOPIC 6 CURRICULUM DESIGN 6.3.5 Case Study: The Integrated Curriculum The integrated curriculum is receiving much attention even though it is not necessarily a new way of looking at teaching and learning. The expanding body of knowledge concerns curriculum relevancy. The lack of connection among subjects and the need for future workers that can be drawn from many fields in solving problems have been cited as the cause for integrated curriculum. The integrated curriculum is organised so that it cuts across subject matter, bringing together various aspects of content to focus upon broad areas of study. It views teaching and learning holistically, reflecting the real world. Among the common areas of integration are: • Art, mathematics and reading; • Writing across the curriculum; • History, science and mathematics; • History and literature; • Integrated humanities; 1. Name the different ways of sequencing content. 2. Why is there a need to ensure continuity in content organisation for certain concepts and skills? SELF-CHECK 6.2 1. What do you understand by integration as one of the principles of content organisation? 2. Give examples of continuity other than those given in the text. Post your answers in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 6.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 CURRICULUM DESIGN 167 • Health and reading; • Social studies, health and the arts; • Physical education, the arts, health and literature; and • Science, social studies, health and the arts. For example, „water‰ as a theme can be studied from the following areas: science (composition of water), geography (distribution of water resources), literature (poems on water), language (vocabulary related to water), history (disputes related to water), economics (supply and demand of water) and so forth. Education journals and teachersÊ anecdotal records report many examples of educators linking subject areas to provide meaningful learning experiences. An integrated curriculum helps students to apply skills, leads to faster retrieval of information, encourages depth and breadth in learning, and promotes positive attitudes (improved team spirit and work habits). Successful implementation of an integrated curriculum requires a great deal of planning. It requires teachers to go out into the community to see what mathematics, science, social sciences, language arts, artistic and occupational skills are required in the contemporary workplace. Representatives from business, industry, government, and labour must provide suggestions for curriculum redesign. Source: Lake, K. Integrated curriculum. Available at https://educationnorthwest.org/sites/default/files/integratedcurriculum.pdf Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
168 TOPIC 6 CURRICULUM DESIGN 6.4 SELECTION OF LEARNING EXPERIENCES In this subtopic, we will learn what it mean by learning experiences and the criteria for selection of learning experiences. 6.4.1 What are Learning Experiences? While content is the „meat‰ of the curriculum plan, we can consider learning experiences planned for the students as the „heart‰ of the plan (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998). The learning experiences are the means towards achieving the goals and objectives of the curriculum. Tyler (1960) used the term learning experiences in his curriculum development model (discussed earlier in Topic 5). Learning experiences is the instructional component of the curriculum providing for the interaction between teacher, student, and the content. Learning experiences designed to achieve the goals and objectives of the curriculum plan can be divided into: • teaching methods adopted; and • learning activities. Refer to the Case Study: The Integrated Curriculum and answer the following questions: (a) Why is there a revival of interest in the integrated curriculum? (b) What are some positive effects of curriculum integration? (c) Suggest ways in which the subjects or courses in your institution may be integrated. Share your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 6.4 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 CURRICULUM DESIGN 169 There are many teaching methods, such as inquiry, discovery, lecture, small group discussion, role-playing, fieldwork, etc. Taba (1962) used the term „learning activities‰ in her curriculum development model (discussed in Topic 5). Learning activities are opportunities for students to question, clarify, create, and apply knowledge. Examples of learning activities are answering questions, solving problems, journal writing, viewing videos, doing experiments, playing games and so forth. Both teaching methods and learning activities are equally important parts of the learning experience and should be carefully planned. In many instances, there is an overlap between teaching methods and learning activities, and some people may find the distinction problematic. Read the following text and answer the questions. Malaysian Primary 6 Science Topic: Conservation Learning objectives: • List waste materials that can be reused and recycled. • Explain the paper recycling paper. • Carry out recycling projects. Content: • Concept of recycling and reusing. • Components of the paper recycling process. ACTIVITY 6.5 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
170 TOPIC 6 CURRICULUM DESIGN 6.4.2 Criteria for Selection of Learning Experiences Learning experiences (teaching methods and learning activities) are selected to translate the goals and objectives of the curriculum plan. It includes all teachersÊ actions necessary to influence student behaviour and learning. The particular actions of the teacher may vary according to the teaching method adopted and the learning activities used. Still, they all are aimed towards bringing about learning. Will the learning experiences selected achieve the objectives of the curriculum? The most important criterion for the selection of learning experiences is to ensure that there is alignment between objectives, content, and learning experiences. This criterion is termed validity. Learning experiences should also be selected in Read the following text and answer the questions. Learning Experiences: • View photos and videoclips on recycling of waste materials. • Class project on collecting newspapers for recycling. • Visit a paper recycling plant. Source: Curriculum Development Centre, Ministry of Education Malaysia (July, 1997). Curriculum specifications for SMART SCHOOLS. Kuala Lumpur: Author. (a) How are learning objectives, the content selected and learning experiences related? (b) Suggest other learning experiences for the same content. (c) Does the subject or course you teach distinguish between content and learning experiences? Explain your answers to your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 CURRICULUM DESIGN 171 terms of feasibility. In other words, whether the experiences suggested can be carried out given the time, available facilities, and expertise of teachers. It would be futile to propose learning experiences which may be good on paper. However, it is difficult to implement in the classroom because teachers are not trained and facilities are inadequate. For example, learning experiences require internet use when the school lacks an internet connection. Learning experiences should also be selected based on whether they will enhance studentsÊ learning of the content and motivate them to continue learning. Learning experiences should foster the learnerÊs cognitive, affective, psychomotor, and spiritual development. The learning experiences should also attempt to develop studentsÊ thinking skills and stimulate a greater understanding of their existence as individuals and as members of groups. In other words, the selected learning experiences should encourage group interaction and collaborative learning, skills required in the world of work. In the selection of learning experiences, educators should not separate content and experiences. In reality, both content and learning experiences do not exist in isolation. For example, students cannot just learn or study without experiencing some activity and content. Likewise, teachers cannot deal with content without being engaged in some experience or activity. You will notice that each topic in this course has many learning activities such as „self-test‰ and „activity‰ to encourage you to „play‰ with the content. 6.5 CURRICULUM DESIGNS Most curriculum designs can be grouped into three basic designs: subject-centred, learner-centred and problem-centred (refer to Table 6.3). Subject-centred designs include five types of designs: academic subject designs, discipline designs, broad field designs, correlation designs and process designs. Learner-centred designs include child-centred, romantic or radical, and humanistic. Problem-centred designs include three types of design: life-situations design, core design and social problems design (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
172 TOPIC 6 CURRICULUM DESIGN Table 6.3: Summary of Major Curriculum Designs Basic Design Type Detail Subject-centred designs Academic subjects design • Separate subjects or courses Discipline-based design • Use the structure of the discipline • Approach physics as a physicist • Use inquiry methods of the discipline Broad fields design • Interdisciplinary or cross-disciplinary • E.g. integrated science, whole language Correlation design • Relate one subject to another, with each keeping its identity • Thematic approach or team teaching Process design • Teaching thinking processes such as critical and creative thinking and problem-solving • Metacognitive training Learner-centre designs Child-centred design • The childÊs interest, need, and experiences are emphasised • E.g. project method Radical design • Learning is reflective and not externally imposed • Society is flawed, and the curriculum should emancipate the learner Humanistic design • Stress development of the self-concept of students • The uniqueness of individuals and the importance of self-actualisation Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 CURRICULUM DESIGN 173 Problem-centred designs Life situations design • Life situations design • The subject matter focuses on pressing social issues and solutions Core design • Social functions core • Students work on problems crucial in todayÊs society Social problems design • Social problems and reconstructionist designs • Analyse severe problems confronting humankind Source: Adapted from Ornstein & Hunkins (1998) 6.5.1 Subject-centred Designs Subject-centred designs are by far the most popular and widely used curriculum design. It is the most popular because knowledge and content are well-accepted as integral parts of the curriculum. Since acquiring a body of content is integral in any school system, much thought has focused on presenting the knowledge, skills, and values of subjects to learners. The five proposed approaches are as follows: (a) Academic Subject Design The academic subject design is the oldest and best-known design to most people because it was how many of them were educated. This design believes that humans are unique because of their intellect and the quest for knowledge acquisition to feed this intellect. Is this true of you? In the 1930s, Robert Hutchins (n.d) indicated that the American schoolsÊ academic subject design model should have language and its uses (reading, writing, grammar, literature). Others include mathematics, science, history, and foreign languages. Has it changed today? Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
174 TOPIC 6 CURRICULUM DESIGN Why is this curriculum model design widely adopted? One reason is that it is much more easily interpreted in textbooks and commercially available support materials. Teaching is essentially a verbal activity (lecture, recitation, or group discussion). Teachers find it easier to communicate ideas and subject knowledge in verbal form from textbooks. Also, people are familiar with this format, having gone through it themselves in school. Stress on subject matter fails to foster social, psychological and physical development and, to some extent, fosters an elite ruling class based on knowledge (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998). However, critics argue that this design deemphasises the learner by taking away their rights to choose the content that is most meaningful to them. Do you agree? (b) Discipline Design A discipline is a specific body of knowledge with its methods of inquiry, specialised words and terminology, tradition, and collection of literature and people involved in the field as theoreticians and practitioners. Proponents of the discipline design model emphasise teaching the disciplines in their pure form. In other words, a biology student would approach the subject as a biologist. At the same time, those who study history will study it as historians. What is the rationale for teaching the disciplines? According to its proponents, the school is a mini version of a world of intellect, and the disciplines reflect that world. (c) Broad Fields Design The overall field design is also known as the interdisciplinary design. The main reason for this design arose from the concern that the subjects taught were too compartmentalised and fragmented – for example, geography, geometry, literature, algebra, etc. The suggestion was to combine content from different subjects to form one logical subject. For example, economics, sociology, political science, geography, and history were combined to form social studies. Another example is language arts (composed of literature, grammar, linguistics, and spelling) and general science (composed of biology, chemistry, and physics). At one time, a subject called „man and the environment‰ (alam dan manusia) was implemented in Malaysian primary schools. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 CURRICULUM DESIGN 175 What do you see as some problems with this model? One is the issue of breadth versus depth. For example, in studying social studies over one year, students are exposed to a variety of social science concepts compared to only studying economics concepts for one year. Certainly, treatment of the various social science concepts will be superficial. A year of economics will surely expose students to more economics concepts and principles than a year of social studies. However, some may argue whether students need an in-depth knowledge of a particular subject. Suppose the educational philosophy is to give students an overview of the social sciences. In that case, social studies might be a logical choice. (d) Correlation Design The correlation design model lies in between the academic design model and the broad fields design. Suppose you do not want your curriculum to consist of five separate subjects. Nor do you want the five different subject areas to be fused into one subject. Hence, the correlation design model might be an option. You may want to fuse or correlate secondary school history with literature. For example, in a history lesson, the class learns about the Japanese occupation of Malaysia. During the literature class, students read novels about life during that time. However, each subject retains its own distinct identity. (e) Process Design In the discipline-based design discussed earlier, students learn the methods of inquiry used by experts in the respective discipline. For example, in studying anthropology, students will learn the various ethnographic procedures used in the field. The process design model stresses learning general procedures and processes that are not applicable to any discipline. The most popular example of the process design model is the teaching of thinking skills. Various educators have suggested that students should be taught to think. The curriculum has focused on teaching decision-making, problem-solving, and creative thinking. Ennis (1963) identified a list of critical thinking skills that should be taught, such as identifying fallacies, checking the credibility of sources, etc. In the process of design and curriculum, students are also taught to be aware of their thinking and to take necessary action. A good thinker can monitor their thinking and take steps to remedy faulty thinking. The general assumption is that general thinking skills, and processes are common regardless of the subject area. The curriculum aims to enhance these process skills applicable to all disciplines. Critical thinking is not unique to geography or physics. Neither is thinking the sole domain of art or literature creatively. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
176 TOPIC 6 CURRICULUM DESIGN 6.5.2 Learner-centred Designs While subject-centred designs are popular, there is also an emphasis on learner-centred designs. The early supporters of the child-centred curriculum were largely the progressives. We have covered this in Topic 2. Emphasis was on the development of the whole child, which was most evident in primary schools. (a) Child-centred Design Proponents of the child-centred design believe that learners should actively participate in the teaching-learning process. Learning should be related closely to studentsÊ daily lives, unlike the subject-centred design, which tends to separate content from the daily lives of a learner. In the child-centred design, the focus is on the needs and interests of learners. An early advocate of the child-centred curriculum was French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778), who made the child the focus of the educational process in his book Emile. He said that „Living is the business that I wish to teach him. When he leaves my care he, I grant, be neither magistrate, nor soldier, nor priest: he will be, primarily, a man‰ (Rousseau 1712–1778 cited in Jergus, 2018). This did not mean, however, that children were allowed to run free. Children need to be guided by the teacher according to their level of development. 1. Why is a curriculum based on the academic subject design model popular even today? 2. What is the main difference between the academic subject design model and the discipline-based design model? Give examples. 3. What is the main difference between the broad field and correlation design models? Give examples. 4. How is the teaching of thinking skills in the discipline-based and process design models different? SELF-CHECK 6.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 CURRICULUM DESIGN 177 Perhaps, the most well-known advocate of child-centred design is John Dewey. We have discussed some of his ideas in Topic 2 on progressivism. He argued that children are not blank slates; they bring four basic impulses – the impulse to communicate, compare and contrast, inquire, and express themselves through language. In the child-centred design, teaching and learning draw on the experiences of learners and the vast amount of information they bring to the classroom. Teachers and students negotiate what interests learners and what content should be included in the curriculum. Teachers and students participate in planning lesson units, their purposes, the focus of the content, and the learning activities to be introduced in the teaching-learning situations. Hence, the child-centred curriculum will constantly be changing to meet the studentÊs needs. In the child-centred model, the learnerÊs interests and experiences become the curriculumÊs subject matter. Children are free to discover first-hand by doing things for themselves rather than being told how to do something. The „project method‰ became a popular pedagogical strategy in child-centred design. Children solved problematic situations calling on their knowledge and skills of science, history, art and so forth. In other words, the traditional subjects are not rejected but rather used to solve problems that interest learners. (b) Radical Design This design focuses on the learner, similar to the child-centred design. The difference is that greater emphasis is placed on the need for the curriculum to reform society. We have discussed reform society in Topic 2 on Reconstructionism. Proponents of the radical design operate on the assumption that society is corrupt and repressive. Children should be educated towards the goal of social reform. A well-known proponent of the radical design was Paulo Freire, who opposed treating students as empty vessels to be filled with knowledge by the teacher. He objected to the teacher-student dichotomy and proposed the relationship between teacher and student be reciprocal: the teacher who learns and the learner who teaches. According to proponents of radical design, learning is reflective and not externally imposed by those in power. The curriculum should be so designed to free the learner from indoctrination. Knowledge is not the finished product to be acquired by learners because this is indoctrination. Learning is something that results from the interaction between and among people. Learners should challenge content and be allowed to give their opinions Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
178 TOPIC 6 CURRICULUM DESIGN about the information given to them. Learners will value what they learn if they can construct their knowledge. When learners create meaning, they have ownership over what they have learned, resulting in genuine thought. These ideas have been discussed in Topic 3 on Constructivism. (c) Humanistic Design Humanistic design became popular in the 60s and 70s. It was introduced in the United States in response to an extreme overemphasis on disciplines during this time. Greater emphasis was placed on the affective domain to permit students to feel and value. The humanistic design is based on humanistic psychology principles. We have discussed this in Topic 3 on Humanistic Psychology. A basic question is whether the curriculum has truly allowed a person to achieve their full potential. The curriculum should be designed to empower learners to be involved in the process of realising their potential. One of the humanistic curriculum design proponents was Carl Rogers (1902–1987), who argued that education aims to facilitate learning. To facilitate learning, the teacher accepts learners as people, placing importance on their feelings, their opinions and caring for them. In other words, the teacher can view the world through the studentÊs eyes. With such a curriculum, learners will be able to become fully functional people, capable of intelligent choice, critical learners and able to approach problems and situations with flexibility and work cooperatively with others (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998). The cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains are interconnected in this curriculum design. It stresses studentsÊ development of positive self-concept and interpersonal skills. The humanistic curriculum requires teachers with great skills and competence in dealing with individuals. These skills may not be easy to obtain for all teachers. There is also a tendency to overemphasise the individual and ignore the needs of society. 1. What is the main focus of the curriculum based on learner-centred designs? 2. What is the main difference between the child-centred and radical design models? 3. What is the main feature of the humanistic design model? SELF-CHECK 6.4 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 CURRICULUM DESIGN 179 6.5.3 Problem-centred Designs Besides the subject-centred and learner-centred curriculum design models, a third design, the problem-centred design, is proposed. The focus of this model is the problems faced by society. It aims to prepare students with relevant knowledge and skills to fit into society when they leave school. Problem-centred designs are pre-determined before the arrival of students. In other words, genuine life problems are selected, and teaching-learning activities are organised around these issues. The learner is placed in the social setting to address the problem. Unlike learner-centred designs, the problems or issues discussed originate from issues of concern to society. (a) Life-centred Situations In any society, persistent life situations are crucial to a societyÊs successful functioning. Examples of such life situations are healthy living, use of leisure time, ethical character, racial tolerance, citizenship skills and so forth. Its advocates argued that organising a curriculum around such life situations makes educational sense. Students will see direct relevance in studying social issues related to their world. Also, having students study social or life situations will encourage them to see ways to improve society. The life situations that need to be emphasised in schools will depend on what students need before entering the world of work and assuming adult responsibilities. However, family, religious institutions, and other community organisations have already met some needs and interests. So, the school should address those needs not met through these institutions. This life-centred situations curriculum has been criticised because students do not learn much subject matter. However, proponents of the model state that this is not true because the design draws heavily from traditional subject areas. The content is organised in a manner that allows students to see problems faced by society. In addressing societyÊs pressing problems, content is drawn from different subject areas to explain and find solutions to current issues. (b) Core-design A variation of the design of the life-centred situation is the core-design model. The focus is still on the pressing problems of society. The difference is that certain problems are selected to form the core. It is carefully planned before students enter school and adjusted when necessary. The core problems are taught to all students in a block-time format whereby two or more periods of class time are used. A problem-solving approach is adopted in analysing social problems. Students select a problem through consensus Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
180 TOPIC 6 CURRICULUM DESIGN and work either individually or in groups. Data is collected, analysed, interpreted, and presented in class. Findings are then evaluated and discussed. 1. What is the main focus of the curriculum based on the problem-centred designs? 2. What is the main difference between the life-centred and core-design models? SELF-CHECK 6.5 1. Choose a course or subject you teach or have taken. Explain how the content in the course is organised. 2. „The content selected and organised in a particular curriculum is closely related to the textbook‰. How does this affect the scope of the curriculum? Its sequence? Its continuity? Its integration? Justify. 3. Would a learner-based design be easier or more difficult to implement than a subject-based design for your subject or course? 4. Which curriculum design model is more prevalent in your institution? Explain. 5. What is your preferred curriculum design? Why? 6. How much freedom are you given to change the curriculum design for the course or subject you teach? ACTIVITY 6.6 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 CURRICULUM DESIGN 181 • Curriculum design involves making decisions about the selection and organisation of content and learning experiences in line with the goals and objectives of the curriculum. • Content is usually selected from a body of knowledge or discipline for educational purposes and organised to meet the cognitive level of learners. • Content is selected based on significance, validity, feasibility, learnability, and utility. • The principles guiding content organisation are scope, sequence, integration and continuity. 7. The following are some problems with the problem-centred designs: • The difficulty in determining the scope and sequence of social problems faced by society. • Textbooks and other teaching materials do not support the problem-centred design. • Teachers are uncomfortable with the design because it departs too much from their training. • The design requires an exceptional teacher versed in the subject matter, problem-solving skills and general knowledge. You are leading a team in designing a curriculum for the primary school using a problem-centred design. Suggest how you would overcome the problems listed above. Share your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
182 TOPIC 6 CURRICULUM DESIGN • Content may be sequenced horizontally, vertically, chronologically, simple to complex, spirally, and whole-to-part. • Most curriculum design models may be classified as either subject-centred models, learner-centred models or problem-centred models. Content organisation Content selection Continuity Curriculum design Feasibility Integration Learnability Learner-centred designs Learning experiences Problem-centred designs Scope Selection of learning experiences Sequence Significance Subject-centred designs Utility Validity Bruner, J. S. (2009). The process of education. Harvard University Press. Ennis, R. H. (1963). Needed: Research in critical thinking. Educational Leadership, 21(1), 17–20. Festus, A. B., & Kurumeh, M. S. (2015). Curriculum planning and development in Mathematics from the formative stages. Journal of Education and Practice, 6(2), 62–66. Hutchins, R. M. An introduction to curriculum integration and inquiry learning. Western Washington University. Pamela Morehouse is a retired Washington state elementary school teacher. She is an active trainer of teachers, recently returning from Pakistan where she volunteered to train teachers and administrators for The Citizens Foundation, a non-profit NGO. The text, 1. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 CURRICULUM DESIGN 183 Jergus, K. (2018). Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778). In International handbook of philosophy of education, 395–406. Ornstein, A. C., & Hunkins, F. P. (1998). Curriculum: Foundations. Principles, and Issues, (3rd), 237–240. Sowell, E. J., & Stollenwerk, D. A. (2000). Curriculum: An integrative introduction. Prentice Hall. Taba, H. (1962). Curriculum development: Theory and practice (No. 37.013 TAB). Tyler, F. T. (1960). Teachers personalities and teaching competencies. The School Review, 68(4), 429–449. Wragg, T. (1997). Cubic curriculum. Routledge. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
Topic 7 Curriculum Implementation By the end of this topic, you should be able to do the following: 1. Explain what curriculum implementation is. 2. Describe Lewin's change model. 3. Differentiate between the types of curriculum change. 4. Explain why people resist change. 5. Suggest ways of overcoming resistance to change. 6. List the roles and responsibilities of individuals involved in implementing curriculum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION 185 In Topic 5, we discussed what was involved in curriculum planning. In Topic 6, we looked at different curriculum design techniques, focusing on some curriculum design models. According to Tyler, Taba, and Saylor, Alexander, and Lewis, the next stage in the curriculum development process is implementing the curriculum plan. Implementing the curriculum is the most crucial but sometimes the most difficult phase of the curriculum development process. The final destination of any curriculum (whether a school, college, university or training organisation) is the classroom involving students, teachers, administrators and the community. Those responsible for implementing a curriculum often hear comments and concerns such as: • Teachers are already overloaded with work – how will they implement new ideas? • Parents and education officers are only interested in a high pass rate in examinations – how are schools to incorporate these suggested changes? These concerns are made worse when people implementing the curriculum are unclear about what is expected of them. How often have people heard the saying, „the plan was good, but the implementation was poor?‰ On the other hand, if a curriculum plan is not implemented and remains on the shelf, all planning efforts will be a waste. A curriculum must be delivered, which means it must be implemented in the classroom to impact student learning. Good plans for reaching the classroom are not properly implemented because of a lack of planning and preparation. In some curriculum development projects, implementation has not been given due consideration, not realising that innovations need careful planning and monitoring. We hear of teachers not being properly trained but were required to implement classroom changes quickly. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)