86 TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 3.5.4 Humanism in the Classroom The following are some humanistic techniques in the classroom: • Establish a warm, democratic, positive, and non-threatening learning environment in which the learnerÊs self-concept and self-esteem are considered essential factors in learning. • When it seems appropriate, teachers work as a facilitator and share ideas with students. • When the teacher is comfortable, the teacher may occasionally show their „real person‰ by telling students how they feel. • Provide learning experiences that will lead to the development of habits and attitudes that teachers want to foster. • Teachers should be role models and set good examples. • Students and teachers plan together the experiences and activities of the curriculum. • Students are given choices (with limitations) and freedom (with responsibilities); the extent of choices and freedom is related to their maturity level and age. • Learning is based on life experiences, discovery, exploring, and experimenting. 1. What is the humanistic view of learning? 2. What does it mean by „teacher as facilitator‰? 3. What are the SIX characteristics of good teachers according to Arthur Combs? SELF-CHECK 3.4 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 87 1. Which humanistic principles listed in Subtopic 3.5.4 are widely practised in your school? Give specific examples. 2. Do you think schools give enough attention to the affective (emotions, feelings) aspects of learning? Justify. 3. According to the behaviourist perspective, instruction is essentially „teacher-centred‰ and learning tends to be passive. What is your opinion on this? 4. In your view as a teacher or instructor, to what extent does your institutionÊs curriculum consider learnersÊ needs and interests? Given the opportunity, what modifications would you recommend to curriculum planners to accommodate these learners? 5. To what extent can constructivist principles be applied in the classroom? 6. How would you incorporate humanistic principles into your teaching? Give specific examples. Discuss your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 3.5 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
88 TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM Curriculum for Western Australian Schools Principles Guiding Teaching and Learning The following are seven principles of teaching and learning that form the basis of the learning environment in Western Australian schools. These principles are based on contemporary research and knowledge about how learning can be supported. The focus is on providing a school and classroom environment that intellectually, socially and physically supports learning. • Opportunity to learn: Learning experiences should enable students to observe and practise the processes, products, skills and values expected of them. • Connection and challenge: Learning experiences should connect with studentÊs existing knowledge, skills and values while extending and challenging their current ways of thinking and acting. • Action and reflection: Learning experiences should be meaningful and encourage both action and reflection on the part of the learner. • Motivation and purpose: Learning experiences should be motivating and their purpose clear to the student. • Inclusivity and difference: Learning experiences should respect and accommodate differences between learners. • Independence and collaboration: Learning experiences should encourage students to learn independently and with others. • Supportive environment: The school and classroom should be safe and conducive to effective learning. Source: Government of Western Australia, Curriculum Council. Available at: http://www.curriculum.wa.edu.au/ pages/framework/framework03g.htm ACTIVITY 3.6 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 89 • Psychology deals with the study of learning, behaviour, attitudes, and abilities. • Behaviourism views human learning as the association between a stimulus and the accompanying response. • Operant conditioning argues that the connection between a stimulus and a response can be strengthened by reinforcement. • Social learning occurs when a person attends, retains, and reproduces the modelled behaviour and is motivated to do so because it is of value. • Cognitivism involves studying the mental activities or events that occur when a person learns, solves a problem or makes decisions. • Meaningful learning is making connections between prior learning and the new information learned. • Metacognition is the knowledge one has about oneÊs thinking. • Constructivism argues that learning is not passive but involves the construction of knowledge by the learner. Questions: (a) Based upon what has been discussed in this topic, can you identify which psychological perspectives are emphasised? Explain. (b) What is meant by the term learning experiences? (c) To what extent are these principles of learning emphasised in your school curriculum? Share your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
90 TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM • Constructivism suggests that learning is a social activity. • According to the humanist approach, learning should consider studentsÊ emotions and feelings. • Humanism argues that the role of the teacher is that of a facilitator. Behaviourism Classical conditioning Cognitive development Cognitivism Construction of knowledge Constructivism Hierarchy of needs Humanism Information processing approach Learning as a social activity Meaningful learning Operant conditioning Psychology Social learning Teacher as facilitator Abraham, M. (1954). Motivation and personality. Harper & Row, Publishers. Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes. In Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 2, (89–195). Academic Press. Ausubel, D. P. (1960). The use of advance organizers in the learning and retention of meaningful verbal material. Journal of Educational Psychology, 51(5), 267. Brooks, J. G., & Brooks, M. G. (1999). In search of understanding: The case for constructivist classrooms. ASCD. Brown, A. L. (1982). Learning how to learn from reading. In Langer, J. A., & Smithe-Burke, M.T. (Eds.). Reader meets author: Bridging the gap, 26–54. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 91 Combs, A. W. (1972). Some basic concepts for teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education, 23(3), 286–290. Craik, F. I., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11(6), 671–684. Craik, F. I. (2002). Levels of processing: Past, present... and future? Memory, 10(5–6), 305–318. Flavell, J. H. (1981). 11 Monitoring social cognitive enterprises: Something else that may develop in. Social Cognitive Development: Frontiers and Possible Futures, 1, 272. Huitt, W. (2003). The information processing approach to cognition. Educational Psychology Interactive, 3(2), 53. Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63(2), 81. Null, J. W. (2004, June). Is constructivism traditional? Historical and practical perspectives on a popular advocacy. In The educational forum, 68(2), 180–188. Taylor & Francis Group. Piaget, J. (1955). The construction of reality in the child. Routledge. Rogers, C. R. (1986). Carl Rogers on the development of the person-centered approach. Person-Centered Review, 1(3), 257–259. Teaching Resources Center, University of Berkeley. Theories of Learning. gsi.berkeley.edu/resources/learning/ Von Glasersfeld, E. (1990). Environment and communication. In Steffe L. P., & Wood, T. (Eds.), Transforming childrenÊs mathematics education: International perspectives (pp. 30–38). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Vygotsky, L. (1962). Thought and language. MIT Press. Vygotsky, L. (1978). Interaction between learning and development. Readings on the Development of Children, 23(3), 34–41. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
Topic 4Social and Historical Foundations of Curriculum By the end of this topic, you should be able to do the following: 1. Explain how the changing economy has influenced the curriculum. 2. Suggest how the curriculum has to cater for cultural diversity. 3. Discuss how the changing family institution influences curriculum. 4. Identify the demands of some special interest groups regarding curriculum. 5. List the criteria for knowledge that is most worthwhile. 6. Identify the underlying beliefs determining school curriculum in early America and Japan. 7. Give reasons for the changing curriculum emphasis in these two countries. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 93 In Topic 2, we discussed how educational philosophy influences curriculum. In Topic 3, we saw how psychological perspectives impact the curriculum. In this topic, we will examine two factors that influence a curriculum: society and history. Specifically, we will attempt to answer the following questions: What are some of the demands of society regarding curriculum? How have the needs of society been considered when developing a curriculum? What are some of these needs? What historical events have influenced the curriculum? Schools are part and parcel of society and exist for society. Society influences society through its curriculum. Schools, through their curriculum teaching, can shape and mould society, and society has an impact on the curriculum. There is rarely a curriculum that is developed without reflecting society. People today are vocal in expressing their views. They are eager to see their opinions influence what is going on in school. With advancements in information and communication technology, people are talking and sharing views across the globe. They see things happening in other school systems and would like to see some of these practices in their schools. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
94 TOPIC 4 SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM Read the newspaper report on A Big Fat World Problem and answer the following questions. A Big Fat World Problem DAVOS, Switzerland, Mon. – Concern over mounting levels of obesity has sparked a lively debate among food sector professionals and health experts about how to halt a trend that is medically and economically harmful. The World Health Organisation said more than one billion people worldwide are overweight, including 300 million regarded as obese, a medical condition inking excess fat to long-term health risks. The causes of growing obesity range from social, such as lack of exercise at school and home, peer pressure to eat the latest fads and centuries of habit, to corporations involved in price fixing and mislabelling of foods to suggest they contain less fat and sugar or more fibre than they do. Two big problems identified were mislabelling and advertising as companies sought the upper hand in a cut-throat sector. One of the biggest concerns raised at the debate was the lack of physical education at school and snack food in canteens and vending machines. They agreed that companies had to properly label their foods and social habits had to change. Parents were afraid to let their children play on the streets, while computers and television kept young people indoors. Countries should incorporate consumer and health education in the curriculum and promote the importance of physical education in schools. Students have to be taught good nutritional habits at an early age. Source: New Straits Times, February 1, 2005 ACTIVITY 4.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 95 4.1 SOCIETY AND CURRICULUM Education systems are closely tied to the institutional network of society. Thus, to understand how the content of schooling is shaped in any society, we must first understand the relationship between education and other societal institutions. In other words, we need to look at the social forces that shape the curriculum to understand what is taught, how it is taught and why it is taught. When designing a curriculum, the following questions must be addressed: • To what extent should curriculum consider the world outside of school? • How do changes in society affect curriculum? Knowing the curriculumÊs social foundations is crucial in deciding what should be included in the curriculum and, eventually, what happens in the classroom. Schools exist within the context of society and influence culture, shaping the curriculum. The story Curriculum of Forest School illustrates this point. A curriculum should be able to prepare students for the present and the future. In other words, a curriculum should address the wants and needs of learners by responding to social conditions locally, nationally and globally (McNeil, 2002). Students might ask, „Why do I need to study algebra? I do not intend to be a mathematician, computer scientist or engineer‰. The utility of certain subjects in a curriculum may not be obvious to learners. Still, teachers know that solving algebra problems involve thinking skills that may not seem immediately relevant. Still, it will serve students indirectly in many professions and jobs later in their lives. (a) Identify the concerns of society. (b) What has been suggested to address the problem? (c) Do you have other suggestions to alleviate the problem? Explain your answers to your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
96 TOPIC 4 SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM According to Burks (2013), content is useful: • If it relates to the general body of knowledge needed by average human beings for conducting daily life (e.g. reading, writing). • When it is related to the specific present or future situation of the student (e.g. to be a journalist, one needs good language skills). • If it develops thinking skills that probably increase the studentÊs success in other subject areas or general life decisions (e.g. geography develops spatial thinking, art develops design skills). • If it fulfils unavoidable requirements imposed by society as entry qualifications to certain vocational and professional programmes (e.g. mathematics as a requirement for technical jobs). The following article is an example that describes what does it mean by having useful curriculum. Curriculum of Forest School Once upon a time, the animals in the forest decided to start a school. They agreed that the curriculum should include the following subjects: swimming, hopping, climbing, running, flying, digging, and slithering. All animals were required to take all subjects. Everything went on well until the third day when the principal, Wise Old Owl noticed some disturbing trends. For example, the rabbits were excelling in hopping but performed poorly in flying tests. The cheetahs were scoring AÊs in running but were getting D's in digging. The ducks were getting straight AÊs in swimming but were failing in the slithering course. The snakes easily got AÊs in slithering but had difficulty flying. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 97 An emergency staff meeting was held among the teachers to find out whether is was due to poor teaching or was it a curriculum problem. It was agreed that the teachers were good and dedicated practising research-based instructional strategies. Professor Lion from Forest State University was called in as a consultant. He discovered that the problem was not due to poor teaching but rather the low level of curriculum utility. He pointed out that ducks really do not need to know how to slither and cheetahs should not be forced to learn digging skills. Neither should the snakes be asked to take flying classes. Prof. Lion concluded that animals were forced to learn skills that were not relevant to their situations. However, there are certain skills every animal needs to know such as finding food and water. He proposed that the curriculum be revised to include instruction in generic skills such as food-acquisition principles and social skills. But, animals were allowed to specialise in subjects most applicable to their species (e.g. swimming, running). The animals all rejoiced when the recommendations were implemented and shouted „Now this is a useful curriculum‰. Source: Adapted from, Harris (2018). Outdoor learning spaces: The case of forest school. Area, 50(2), 222–231 4.2 CHANGING ECONOMY AND CURRICULUM Few people would disagree that the main function of education is to produce people with appropriate skills and knowledge to participate in the nationÊs economy (refer to the „Curriculum of Forest School‰). The nature of schooling tends to reflect the nature of the society in which it is found (refer to Figure 4.1). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
98 TOPIC 4 SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM Figure 4.1: Changing Economy and Curriculum For example, in the latter part of the 19th century, life in the United States was farm-based, and schools mirrored that lifestyle. The one-room schoolhouse was sufficient to meet the needs of an agrarian society. School started late and ended early in the day to allow time for students to help their families with farm work. The school was dismissed during the summer so children could help their parents in the fields. Education was primarily didactic, and learning was less book-based than today. Controlled largely by the teacher, education focused predominantly on basic skills. Teachers taught reading, writing, and arithmetic to complement the skills students learn outside school. Since relatively few students progressed further than grade 6 or 7, the need for higher levels of education was minimal. By the beginning of the 20th century, the Industrial Revolution brought about drastic changes in the economy of many countries. More people moved to live in cities and work in factories. As a consequence, new skills were needed in an industrial society. Then, a great change took place in education – the model of schools as a factory emerged. Students were taught the facts and skills needed for industrial jobs, which they were likely to hold their entire lives. Large buildings eventually replaced one-room schools. Students were sorted by grades and sat in straight rows, with a teacher at the front of the classroom controlling learning. The curriculum was compartmentalised and taught in separate bits and pieces. It is similar to how work is completed on an assembly line. Schools became efficient social institutions to turn out identical products. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 99 The technological appearance in the early 70s of microprocessors and the explosive growth of networking in the 80s and 90s witnessed the knowledge growth economy. Multimedia innovations and the growth of the Internet have transformed our ability to access information. Despite all these changes, we are still educating students in factory-model schools. Many of the skills being taught currently are intended for jobs that either no longer exist or will be radically different by the time a student graduates. While being aware of the trend, educators are still unsure what the curriculum of the post-industrial style classroom should be. Without a doubt, a new curriculum will be needed in the post-industrial or information society. It is envisioned that in the new model, education will be more personalised. In other words, education will be more differentiated to meet each studentÊs learning requirements. Students will be challenged with higher learning expectations and encouraged to think critically and creatively as they solve problems. They will spend more time using information technology and learn independently. The knowledge gained, skills acquired, and attitudes nurtured will support them throughout life. State how the change from an agrarian economy to an industrial economy has influenced the curriculum. SELF-CHECK 4.1 List some of the features of a curriculum for an information society. Suggest other features. Share your answer with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 4.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
100 TOPIC 4 SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 4.3 THE CHANGING FAMILY INSTITUTION AND CURRICULUM In an agrarian or pre-industrial society, gender determines the role of individuals. Men worked at their various crafts or on the farm. When boys were old enough, they worked alongside their fathers. On the other hand, women maintained the house, caring for the children, and training the girls. They also processed food (such as milling cereal) and sew clothes. Families were large, and the extended family where parents lived with their adult children was common. Thus, men, women, and often children worked for the betterment of the whole family, and there was no individual breadwinner. The shift to the industrial economy brought about changes to the family institution. The extended family where parents lived with their adult children and their children rapidly declined, especially in urban areas. The family changed from an extended kinship family to a nuclear family, which consisted of parents and their children only. Men moved from working in farms and cottage industries to working in corporate offices or factories. Women also moved out of households to work in businesses, factories, and offices. Double-income families gradually became common in many of todayÊs societies. As parents worked away from home, children suffered. Conditions at work sometimes strain the relationship between father and mother, leading to stress in children, and affecting their performance in school. Further problems arose when divorce disrupted families, which saw an increase in single-parent families. Some adults remarried and formed new families from previous marriages, posing many challenges. As more and more families moved to live in urban areas, a different set of values were acquired. For example, in the early days, family, religion, and school complemented each other as social institutions. A shift in values has resulted in changes in the relationship between family, education, and religion. Social norms that guided the behaviour of earlier generations have relaxed. These social institutions (family, education, and religion) are increasingly losing their ability to guide the behaviours desired by todayÊs generation (Sowell, 2012). Children could now support their own families with their earnings and no longer needed their eldersÊ blessings. Since advancement on the job depending on the individualÊs ability and not kinship ties, obedience was no longer necessary (Roberts, 1990). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 101 Families have also been disrupted by stress, violence, crime, and living in poor neighbourhoods. These problems have led to the depletion of parentsÊ personal resourcesÊ leaving them with very little energy to handle their children appropriately. Parents are distancing themselves from schools and are passing on the task of educating their children to the school. Schools are finding it difficult to educate the next generation without parentsÊ active involvement in their childrenÊs education. 4.4 CULTURAL DIVERSITY AND CURRICULUM Society is increasingly becoming diverse, especially in urban areas. Societies are becoming more multicultural, multiethnic, and multi-religious, and it is important that the curriculum understands and reflect these changes. Ornstein and Hunkins (1998) state that the complexion of our students is changing from one colour to various shades of colour, which leads to cultural diversity continuing into the foreseeable future. As the world moves towards becoming a global village, society will become even more diverse, with people bringing in new values, new languages, and a new way of life. Addressing diversity in the curriculum will continue to be a challenge for educators. It is a task that will, at times, be politically sensitive. One concept that has interested educators is the assimilation or integration of diverse groups. In the 60s and 70s, the melting pot approach was adopted in some countries (most notable is the United States) to assimilate people of different cultural, ethnic, and religious backgrounds. It is a metaphor for how diverse societies develop. The ingredients in the pot (people of different cultures, languages, and religions) are combined to lose their distinct identities resulting in a final product. It is quite different from the original inputs. Usually, it involved the blending of minority groups with the majority. It was hoped that national identity would evolve from these varied attributes. However, in practice, the culture of the majority became dominant. This approach has proven to be less successful in assimilating people and has been replaced by the salad bowl approach. People of diverse backgrounds are all in „the same salad‰ but maintain their unique features. The cultural diversity of pluralism recognises that most societies are composed of many voices and ethnic groups. It is a framework in which groups show respect and tolerance of each other, coexist and interact without conflict. Power and decision-making are shared, leading to more widespread participation and a greater feeling of commitment from society members. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
102 TOPIC 4 SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM How should the curriculum address cultural diversity or pluralism? Educators must develop a curriculum responsive to studentsÊ diverse social and cultural values while simultaneously creating a national identity based on core values and practices. It may be necessary to have different programmes, different pedagogical approaches, flexible curriculum and even varied educational environments to address the needs of all students. No society can afford to socially or economically marginalise any student. The curriculum must nurture students to participate actively in a dynamic and emerging society (Schon, 1993). 4.5 SPECIAL INTEREST GROUPS AND CURRICULUM Curriculum decision-making is political. Various special interest groups continually propose what should be included in the school curriculum. The topics range from substance abuse to the rights and responsibilities of citizens. • Environmental groups insist that students should be taught about conservation, preservation, and the inculcation of values to love the environment. These groupsÊ concerns are caring for our rivers, industrial pollution, and saving the whales and leatherback turtles. • Substance abuse is another concern of society. Substance abuse includes taking drugs (such as heroin, marijuana, ecstasy pills, etc.), alcohol, cigarettes, glue sniffing, etc. Society has repeatedly emphasised the need for substance abuse prevention programmes to be included in the school curriculum. Groups involved in drug addiction prevention are keen to see that students are taught about drug addiction. They hope to be more aware of the problem and say „no‰ to the habit. • Consumer advocates that students are taught about their rights and responsibilities as consumers in the hope that they will be more prudent consumers as students and later as adults. • Health groups have also suggested that schools introduce programmes about HIV AIDS awareness, nutritional information, and other health-related issues. As society becomes more developed, the rise in obesity is of concern and the consequences on the health system, especially in worker productivity and increased expenditure on health care (refer Activity 4.1). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 103 • Sex education has been a topic that has been proposed at various points, especially when the media and government reports highlight statistics and instances of teen pregnancy and promiscuity. • Crime prevention can educate the community on crime prevention techniques. Also, to get the citizens involved in crime prevention activities such as neighbourhood watch to reduce the number of crimes and increase citizensÊ quality of life. • Governments are also determined to ensure that students are taught their rights and responsibilities as citizens. Citizenship education has been proposed to socialise students with democratic ideals, principles, and practices politically. Being prepared to participate in political institutions is essential, such as making informed decisions at the personal and societal levels. Similarly, to be educated to take an active part in the cultural life of society, such as holding on to religious and moral beliefs, the ability to use and interpret a wide range of media, socialisation of children and so forth. What is the difference between the melting pot and salad bowl approaches in assimilating people of diverse backgrounds? SELF-CHECK 4.2 1. What changes are happening to the family institution? List other changes not mentioned in the text. 2. Identify other special interest groups and interested parties who have voiced their opinions on what should be taught. Share your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 4.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
104 TOPIC 4 SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 4.6 KNOWLEDGE THAT IS MOST WORTH As society changes, so do knowledge. Knowledge is growing rapidly, and educators find it challenging to find what to include in the curriculum. Increased knowledge, especially in science and technology, results from increasing subdivisions and specialisations within the fields. The proliferation of several new fields of study or branches has contributed to an exponential increase in the quantity of knowledge. For example, information is expanding daily in information technology alone. Just look at the number of new words and terminologies coined in computer science, telecommunication, and genetic engineering. The continuing debate on what knowledge should be included in the primary, secondary and even tertiary education curriculum. Some segments of society argue that students should be given a general education which will equip them with generic skills to function effectively in society. Others argue that students should be given the knowledge and skills of specific disciplines to prepare them for specific careers. Futurists such as Naisbitt (1982) and Toffler (1972) assert that knowledge should prepare students for the future. Nothing should be included in the required curriculum unless it can be strongly justified in terms of the future with a formal curriculum (Toffler, 1972). Ornstein and Hunkins (1998, p. 153) provide the following guiding principles in selecting knowledge for a society that is changing rapidly: • Knowledge should comprise basic tools (include reading, writing, arithmetic, oral communication, and computer literacy). • Knowledge should facilitate learning how to learn (provide learners with skills and tools to be efficient and effective independent learners). • Knowledge should apply to the real world (provide learners with ability to solve real-world problems). • Knowledge should improve learnersÊ self-esteem and personal integrity (learners feel good about themselves and be able to get along with others). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 105 • Knowledge should consist of many forms and methods because there are different ways of learning. Also, various options and alternatives should be provided for acquiring knowledge. • Knowledge should prepare the individual for the world of technology that can keep abreast and function in an accelerating world of science and technology. • Knowledge should prepare individuals for the world of bureaucracy that can deal with various types of bureaucratic organisations in government, business, industry, and services. • Knowledge should permit the individual to retrieve old information to modify and transform old knowledge to produce new knowledge. • Knowledge acquisition should be a lifelong process. Schools should provide the basics; beyond those, individuals learn from other sources such as books, newspapers, television, the Internet, etc. • Knowledge should be taught in context with values (teaching has to incorporate values because the interpretation of knowledge reflects the value structure of the individual). 1. To what extent do you agree with the guidelines proposed by Ornstein and Hunkins (1998) on the knowledge that is most worthwhile for schools? 2. Examine the suggestions about your primary and secondary school curriculum. Share your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 4.4 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
106 TOPIC 4 SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 4.7 EVOLUTION OF CURRICULUM Have you ever wondered what school was like in 1930? What subjects were taught to the primary school pupils during that time? What textbooks were used? In Malaysia, during the 1950s, the textbooks used in primary school were biased towards life in England. For example, pupils learned about the English farmer and his daily activities. Suppose you trace the history of any education system. In that case, you will be able to identify many events which have influenced the curriculum. A curriculum is created by people based on the circumstances and beliefs during that period. The curriculum reflects political ideologies, economic systems, religious convictions, and conceptions of knowledge at a particular point in time. We will understand how these beliefs and practices have influenced curriculum throughout history. The following subtopics will examine the United States of America and JapanÊs educational systems from the 17th century to the early 20th century. 4.7.1 Case Study 1: History of the American School Curriculum Europeans came to America and established the first colony in Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607. Many of the people who settled in America came to escape religious persecution. The Pilgrims, founders of Plymouth, Massachusetts, arrived in 1620. Later they settled in the other New England region in the states of Maine, Vermont, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and New Hampshire. In the south, other than Virginia, they settled in North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Maryland. Enslaved people were brought in to work in the tobacco and cotton plantations; by 1770, more than 2 million people were living in the colonies under British rule. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 107 (a) School Curriculum in Colonial America (Before 1776) At the primary level, the main purpose of schooling was to teach children to read, write and spell to read the Bible, government notices and common law. The first primary school was built in Massachusetts. There were two main types of school, the town school and private school. The town school was a locally controlled primary school. Often it was a crude, one-room structure attended by both boys and girls of the community (refer to Figure 4.2). Figure 4.2: Town School Source: https://bit.ly/3KiQdmy Students sat on benches and studied their assignments until called on by the teacher to recite. In that one room were children from ages 6 to 14 years. Attendance was not always regular, depending on weather conditions and the farming cycle. At which time of the farming cycle do you think attendance would be low? Religious groups and specific ethnic groups established private schools to educate their children. These primary schools also focused on reading, writing, and religious education and were attended by upper-class children. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
108 TOPIC 4 SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM At the secondary level, there were two types of school: Latin grammar school and the academy. The sons of the upper class attended Latin grammar schools to prepare for university. The curriculum consisted of studying Latin, Greek, arithmetic, classical literature, ancient history, and religious education. These schools followed the model of European schools closely, and their role was to support that eraÊs religious and social institutions (Morrison, 2003). The academy was established to offer a practical curriculum for those not attending university. Its curriculum includes English, classics, composition, rhetoric, and public speaking. Latin was not a crucial subject, and students could choose a foreign language for vocational needs. For example, those who wanted to go into business could learn German, French or Spanish. Mathematics and history were important together with teaching specific skills such as carpentry, engraving, printing, farming, bookkeeping, etc. Regarding university education, most students from Latin grammar schools went to Harvard or Yale. The curriculum consisted of (refer to Figure 4.3): Figure 4.3: Curriculum at Harvard or Yale University Before 1776 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 109 The education system described above was, to a large extent, confined to the New England States. What was happening to the rest of the United States? Education was left to the family or home education in the Southern colonies (such as South Carolina, North Carolina, Maryland, and Georgia). Wealthy landowners employed private tutors to educate their children; some sent their children to England to finish their education. Formal education was non-existent for most poor whites who worked on their farms. Unable to read and read and write, many grew up to be subsistence farmers like their parents before them. Black slaves children in the plantations were forbidden to learn to read and write. They were cast aside as the underclass of society. Children were taught early on that humankind was divided naturally by race. Each race had certain physical and mental characteristics that had remained unchanged throughout history. Southerners justified slavery because blacks were incapable of improvement, denying them access to formal education. (b) School Curriculum After Independence (1776–1900) The American Revolution of 1776 ended British rule in the colonies. The new government set a new mission for education. Emphasis was on life, liberty, and equality as enshrined in the Declaration of Independence and the Bill of Rights, which formed the constitution of the United States of America. Emphasis on democracy, the development of a strong federal government, the idea of religious freedom and the discoveries in natural science saw the decline of religious influence over primary and secondary schools (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998). For example, Benjamin Rush and Thomas Jefferson asserted that American schools should be reformed to focus on science, reading, writing, geography and higher mathematics. Education should be accessible to the wider population and not confined to the upper class and the privileged few. Mass education is essential if citizens are to participate in the democratic process actively. Lancaster (1987) introduced the monitorial system from Europe in American schools (1778–1838), in which the teachers taught academically superior students or monitors, and they, in turn, taught their classmates. The system enabled a small number of adult masters to educate many students at low costs in basic and often advanced skills. Instruction was highly structured and based on rote learning and drilling of reading, writing, and arithmetic. The system was practised both in primary and secondary schools. Later this system gave way to graded schools, and students of the same age groups were grouped. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
110 TOPIC 4 SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM The common school, todayÊs public school, evolved due to the belief that a well-educated citizenry was essential to the survival of a new-found democracy. Through a joint programme of civic education, it set out to teach on American identity and loyalty. Its major purpose was to integrate children of various social, economic, and ethnic backgrounds into the broad American community – the common school aimed to develop basic literacy skills in students. The skills could be used in everyday life and the student learn skills and attitudes that made one a competent shopkeeper, merchant, artisan, and worker. The education provided facilitates upward mobility and occupational choice (Levine & Ornstein, 1993). Schools were financed by the state and the local community that governed them. The coming of the common school laid the foundation of the American public school system. By 1900, most children aged 6 to 13 were enrolled in primary schools. Table 4.1 traces the curriculum of the American primary school from 1800 until 1900. Table 4.1: The American Primary School Curriculum 1800–1900 1800 1825 1850 1875 1900 Reading Reading Declamation Declamation Literature Literature Spelling Spelling Spelling Spelling Spelling Writing Writing Writing Penmanship Writing Religion Good behaviour Conduct Conduct Conduct Arithmetic Arithmetic Mental arithmetic Arithmetic Primary/Advance Arithmetic – Manners and morals Manners – – – Bookkeeping Bookkeeping – – – Grammar Grammar Grammar Grammar – Geography Geography Home geography Text geography Geography Text geography Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 111 – – US history US History History studies – – Object lessons Object lessons Nature study – – – Science Science – – – Drawing Drawing – – – Physical exercises Physical training – – – – Music Play Sewing Cooking Source: From Cubberley, E. P. (1920). The history of education. Houghton Mifflin, p. 756, cited in Ornstein, A., & Hunkins, F. (1998). Curriculum: Foundations, principles and issues. Allyn & Bacon, p. 74 Later in the 19th century, the public high school was fashioned to complete the educational ladder that led to the state college and university. The provision of public secondary schools became an obligation of the states rather than a volunteer matter for parents and the local district to decide. As the common school movement expanded, the idea was to provide as much education as possible for all children and youth. The slogan was „more education for more people,‰ and high schools were established, and it gradually replaced the academy. By 1890 there were 2,526 high schools in the United States with more than 200,000 students enrolled. In 1900 about 10% of the youth aged 14 to 17 were in school, which rose to 50% in 1930. Between 1800 and 1825, the curriculum of American secondary schools consisted of Latin, Greek, classical literature, writing, arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry, bookkeeping, grammar, rhetoric, surveying, astronomy, geography, philosophy, and foreign languages (Spanish, German, and French). Between 1875 and 1900, the curriculum included all subjects listed earlier plus the following subjects: meteorology, chemistry, physiology, health education, botany, zoology, biology, physics, world history, and ancient history. The curriculum was expanded to allow students to explore their interests and capabilities. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
112 TOPIC 4 SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 1. What was taught in primary schools in the New England States during the colonial period? 2. How were children in the Southern colonies of the United States educated? SELF-CHECK 4.3 List of Punishments in a North Carolina School, 1848 Rules of School Lashes (Strokes) Boys and girls playing together 4 Fighting 5 Playing cards in school 4 Telling lies 7 Nicknaming each other 4 For misbehaving to girls 10 For having long finger nails 2 Wrestling in school 4 Unable to recall a word from memory without excuse 1 Source: Lefrancois, G. R. (1994) (a) Comment on the punishment for breaking schools rules in early American schools. (b) Compare the punishment for breaking school rules above with your school system. Share your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 4.5 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 113 4.7.2 Case Study 2: History of Japan’s School Curriculum In this subtopic, we will discuss two periods of JapanÊs school curriculum; Tokugawa era (1603–1867) and Meiji era (1867–1900). (a) School Curriculum: Tokugawa Era (1603–1867) A significant date in Japanese history is the ending of wars between different warlords in 1603 and the founding of the Tokugawa regime by Tokugawa Ieyasu. The Tokugawa family took over control of the country and ruled as Shogun or „generalissimo‰ in the name of the Emperor. The ShogunÊs government, called the Bakufu (or „tent government‰), was JapanÊs national government, which had jurisdiction over areas controlled by the Tokugawa family and many feudal lords. The Tokugawa shoguns established a highly bureaucratic government, giving great control over Japanese society from its education system to its business practices and religious institutions. Japanese society was stratified as follows: • daimyo (lords); • samurai (warriors); and • farmers, artisans, merchants and others (actors and outcasts). During the Tokugawa period, there were five types of schools (refer to Figure 4.4): Figure 4.4: Types of School Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
114 TOPIC 4 SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM The Shogunal schools were for children aged 8 to 15 from the samurai or warrior class. Emphasis was on the teaching of Confucianism (it was forbidden to teach other doctrines), gunnery, technology, and cartography. Confucian classics were memorised, and reading and reciting them were common study methods. With this form of education, the role of the samurai gradually changed from warrior to administrator. By the end of the Tokugawa era, there were 27 shogunal schools. The Daimyo or domain schools were set up in all the feudal domains of Japan to provide education for the samurai but later extended to commoners. The curriculum was based on Confucian ideas. The subjects taught were the history of Japan and China, calligraphy, composition, and etiquette. Some domain schools also taught Chinese and Western medicine, Dutch studies, military science, geography, and astronomy. There were nearly 300 domain schools, and about half opened their doors to commoners. Many schools emphasised different curriculum for the different ranks of the samurai. Education was most important for the higher-ranked samurai children, focusing on proper manners, proper language to superiors and inferiors, frugality, toughness, and moderation in food and drink. The aim was to prepare them to take over the governing class and to be future leaders. „Practical‰ subjects such as arithmetic and Western-production technicians were introduced to the lower samurai class and commoners but not the higher samurai class. The Shijuku (private academies) were private schools which provided education for the samurai class from primary until higher education. Like the domain schools, many opened their doors to commoners. There were about 1,100 Shijuku schools by the end of the Tokugawa era. These schools offered a curriculum consisting of medicine, Dutch studies, Western subjects, military subjects, and navigation. Since they were private schools, they were freer than other schools to teach forbidden doctrines and subjects (Moore, 1982). These schools became the centres which held strong views against the Tokugawa shogunate. They produced leaders who helped spread Western ideas and knowledge. The idea of merit was practised in these schools instead of the class where the students originated. For example, an individualÊs performance and examination grades were emphasised rather than his social class. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 115 Temple schools educated children of common people. Students were taught to read, write, and use the abacus. In the capital city of Edo, the literacy rate was 86% for boys and 30% for girls. In the outlying areas, the literacy rate for boys was 56%, and for girls, it was 15%. The Terakoya (children of the temple) were commonersÊ most important and widespread school. These schools were originally run by Buddhist temples but later became secular for the common people (refer to Figure 4.5). Figure 4.5: Terakoya Schools during the Tokugawa Period Source: https://bit.ly/41obWQa Though most Terakoya schools were concentrated in towns and cities, some were established in rural areas to improve the literacy levels of farmers and artisans. The majority of Terakoya schools focused on reading, writing, and arithmetic. Some schools also taught vocational subjects, etiquette, morals, and accounting. Students were not divided into grades. In contrast, others taught geography, history, science, military arts, and English. Although education was the norm, there were far fewer girls than boys, and the two groups were rigidly separated in seating arrangements. Attendance requirements were casual and easily adjusted to shop or farm work routines. During the busy agricultural season village, Terakoya schools were closed, and students were given time to keep up with household chores. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
116 TOPIC 4 SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM By the end of the Tokugawa era, there were 14,000 Terakoya schools and over 17,000 teachers. Teachers were not trained or licensed. Most were volunteers consisting of retired officials, public-spirited samurai and educated commoners. Students did not pay fees, and teachers were not paid; schools were maintained from donations. Teachers were highly respected and had great authority. According to a well-known textbook, „the pupil should be careful not to step on the teacherÊs shadow or to come within seven paces of him‰ (Roden, 2022). Teaching methods were not standardised, and the basic subjects were taught using simple primers (elementary textbooks). Lessons were prepared by teachers who were closely linked to studentsÊ daily life and occupational expectations. The following are some examples of these primers (refer to Figure 4.6): Figure 4.6: Examples of Primer The educational achievements and the high respect for learning of Tokugawa Japan played a large role in JapanÊs smooth transition to the modern age in the Meiji period. Apart from formal schooling, a highly developed apprenticeship system provided direct vocational training. The system was carried out mainly in the family, though some involved apprenticeship in commercial houses. Besides learning a trade, the training also included discipline and proper behaviour. There was a high literacy rate among samurai and commoner school children who showed great interest in learning even from foreign countries. They supported the translation and study of Western works on science, geography, medicine, military science, and other subjects. These studies allowed the Japanese to be exposed to Western technology and ideas, which facilitated the transition of Japan to a modern country in the Meiji era. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 117 (b) School Curriculum: Meiji Era (1867–1900) When the Tokugawa period began, few common people in Japan could read or write. By the periodÊs end, learning had become widespread. Tokugawa education left a valuable legacy: an increasingly literate populace, an ideology based on meritocracy (even though it practised feudalism), and an emphasis on discipline and competent performance. Under subsequent Meiji leadership, this foundation would facilitate JapanÊs transition from a feudal to a modern nation. Internally Japan was faced with a new form of government; having been ruled under a feudal system since 1600, the Japanese were not individually prepared to become a modern nation. However, under the Meiji rule, they prepared themselves for modernisation. A national education system was introduced to help Japan catch up with the West. The education system would not only raise the level of common education. Still, it would also work towards, instilling a sense of national pride. The education system was used to establish a strong sense of Japanese patriotism. The education system was developed to prepare the youth for more technical positions while creating a strong sense of nationalism and love for the Emperor. Initially, the Japanese hurriedly translated western textbooks and used them in their classrooms. However, they soon learned that schooling could boost national pride by replacing American or European stories of triumph with those of Japanese war heroes. Also, the new education system was geared towards creating a distinctly Japanese culture; no longer would the Japanese use traditional Chinese symbols in formal writing. Instead, they developed a system of casual writing that would be understood broadly. Even with the progress in education, more had to be done to remove the feudal traditions of the past. The traditional feudal districts were gradually consolidated into larger blocks to prepare the population for a centrally administered government. The larger districts allowed for a more efficient administration system and gave the government more power to control the people. In educating their society, the Japanese sent thousands of students abroad to study at foreign universities and hand-selected individuals who would visit other countries and study specific niches of culture, industry, or military. From their experiences, the Japanese then consciously decided which methods to adopt. They looked to the United States for educational reforms. Elementary school enrolments climbed from 40 or 50% school-aged population in the 1870s to more than 90% by 1900. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
118 TOPIC 4 SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM By the 1890s, after intensive preoccupation with Western ideas, a conservative and traditional orientation evolved; the education system became more reflective of Japanese values. When visiting a local school, the Emperor found out that some Japanese students speaking in English could not translate back into Japanese the English they spoke. In 1879, he issued the Great Principles of Education. He argued that the decline of Japanese culture was due to Western education. Confucian precepts were stressed, especially concerning the hierarchical nature of human relations, service to the new state, the pursuit of learning and morality. In the early twentieth century, education at the primary level was egalitarian and virtually universal. Still, at higher levels, it was highly selective and elitist. College education was largely limited to a few national universities. Three of the imperial universities admitted women, and there were some womenÊs colleges, some quite prestigious. In spite of this, women had relatively few opportunities to enter higher education. 1. What were the main differences between the curriculum of the Shogunal, domain, and Shijuku schools during the Tokugawa era? 2. What are the main features of the curriculum of the Terakoya schools? Why was such a curriculum preferred? SELF-CHECK 4.4 1. How has the school curriculum in your country responded to different societal demands? 2. When you were in school, were the concerns of society regarding the curriculum similar or different from the concerns today? 3. Interview individuals who were in primary or secondary school during the 1960s. What was schooling like during that period? Has it changed or, in many respects still the same today? Explain your answers to your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 4.6 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 119 Education and Social Mobility In modern society, occupational stratification is relatively open. People can achieve different levels of socioeconomic statuses. They can be socially mobile, up or down the stratification system. However, this is not always with some systems of stratification: For example: In slave societies, such as the American South in the 18th century, the enslaved person was legally owned by their master. Their position is fixed. In caste societies, such as India, position in the stratification system is fixed at birth, and strictly no social mobility is allowed. However, this is gradually breaking down today. Similarly, in feudal societies, such as in Europe and Japan in the 15th and 16th centuries, social positions are fixed and clearly defined (such as lords, vassals, and fiefs). People could not move up the social ranks. (a) How has education enabled social mobility? Give specific examples. (b) Why was some population deprived of education or given a different form of education in society? (c) Is social stratification still prevalent in society? Give specific examples. Share your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 4.7 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
120 TOPIC 4 SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM • A curriculum is a reflection of societal values and beliefs. • The changing economy determines the characteristics of the curriculum. • The curriculum will have to address changes in the family institution. • The curriculum has to consider the ethnic and cultural diversity of the population. • Special interest groups play an important role in influencing curriculum. • It is challenging for curriculum developers to decide on the knowledge most worth it. • The curriculum is closely related to a nationÊs ideological beliefs at a particular time. Changing family institution Common school Cultural diversity Daimyo schools Economy and curriculum Factory model Information society Latin grammar school Melting pot approach Pressure groups Public schools Salad bowl approach Shogunal schools Social mobility Terakoya schools The academy Town schools Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 121 Burke, B. M. (2013). Experiential professional development: A model for meaningful and long-lasting change in classrooms. Journal of Experiential Education, 36(3), 247–263. Cubberley, E. P. (1920). The history of education: Educational practice and progress considered as a phase of the development and spread of western civilisation. Houghton Mifflin Company. Harris, F. (2018). Outdoor learning spaces: The case of forest school. Area, 50(2), 222–231. Lancaster, J. (1807). Improvements in education, as it respects the industrious classes of the community: Containing among other important particulars, an account of the institution for the education of one thousand poor children, Borough Road, Southwark; and of the new system of education on which it is conducted. From the 3d London ed., with additions. New York: Printed and sold by Collins and Perkins. Lefrancois, G. R. (1994). Psychology for teaching: A bear always, usually, sometimes, rarely, never, always faces the front will not commit himself just now faces the future. Wadsworth. Levine, D. U., & Ornstein, A. C. (1993). School effectiveness and national reform. Journal of Teacher Education, 44(5), 335–345. McNeil, L. (2002). Contradictions of school reform: Educational costs of standardised testing. Routledge. Moore, C. A. (1982). The Japanese mind: Essentials of Japanese philosophy and culture (Vol. 3). University of Hawaii Press. Morrison, K. (2003). Complexity theory and curriculum reforms in Hong Kong. Pedagogy, Culture and Society, 11(2), 279–302. Naisbitt, J. (1982). Megatrends. New York, 17, 1982. Ornstein, A. C., & Hunkins, F. P. (1998). Curriculum: Foundations, principles, and issues (3rd ed.). Allyn & Bacon. 237–240. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
122 TOPIC 4 SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM Roberts, N. A. (1990). Families on the Move: The Powledge Family of Meriwether County, Georgia, 1820–1900. [MasterÊs thesis, Oregon State University]. ScholarsArchive@OSU. https://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/concern/graduate_thesis_or_dissertations /gb19fb19j Roden, D. T. (2022). Schooldays in imperial Japan: A study in the culture of a student elite. University of California Press. Schon, D. A. (1983). The reflective practitioner. How professionals think in action. Routledge. Sowell, T. (2012). Intellectuals and society. Hachette UK. Toffler, A. (1972). English education and future shock. English Education, 3(3), 145–150. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
Curriculum Planning Topic 5 By the end of this topic, you should be able to do the following: 1. Describe Tyler's model of curriculum development. 2. Explain the features of Taba's curriculum development model. 3. Describe Saylor, Alexander, and Lewis model. 4. Compare Tyler, Taba, and Saylor, Alexander, and Lewis models. 5. Differentiate between the levels of educational goals. 6. Compare the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains. 7. Formulate objectives using the different taxonomies. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
124 TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING Topics 2, 3 and 4 discussed how philosophy, psychology, society, and historical events influence the curriculum. In Topics 5, 6, 7 and 8, we will examine the different phases of the curriculum development process. The first phase is curriculum planning, followed by curriculum design, implementation, and evaluation. In this topic, we examine the curriculum development process by referring to three well-known models: the Tyler model, the Taba model, and the Saylor, Alexander, and Lewis model. In the second part of the topic, we will focus on the first phase of the process, namely, curriculum planning which involves establishing the goals and objectives of a curriculum based on the agreed educational philosophy. (a) What message is this diagram trying to convey? (b) How far are these characteristics part of your education system? Share your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 5.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING 125 5.1 THE CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS The curriculum is the foundation of the teaching-learning process, whether a school, college, university or training organisation. The curriculum is based on the textbooks, how teachers are trained, instructional development plans, student evaluation, preparation guides for students and teachers, and setting standards. Thus, without a curriculum, no educational institution can function efficiently. Given the curriculumÊs importance, several questions were raised on how it is developed, organised, guiding principles and assessed. A curriculum is a plan for ordering and directing studentsÊ teaching-learning experiences in an educational institution. Curriculum development is known as providing a plan and keeping it running smoothly. Curriculum development is the more comprehensive term, which includes planning (determination of aims and goals), design, implementation, and evaluation. Since curriculum development implies change and betterment, curriculum improvement is often used synonymously with curriculum development. In some cases, improvement is viewed as the result of development (Oliva, 1982). Curriculum development is a process that continuously strives to find newer, better, and more efficient means to educate the next generation. 5.2 MODELS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT What is a model? A model consists of interacting parts that serve as a guide or procedure for action. Some models are simple, while others are very complex. In many instances, models are more similar than different and are often refinements or revisions of earlier models. There are many models of curriculum development. However, in this topic, we will discuss three well-known models: Tyler, Taba, and Saylor, Alexander, and Lewis models. Each of these models is named after its originator. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
126 TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING 5.2.1 The Tyler Model One of the best-known curriculum models is the Tyler model. The model was introduced in 1949 by Ralph Tyler in his classic book Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction, in which he asked the following four questions: • What educational purposes should the school seek to attain? • What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes? • How can these educational experiences be effectively organised? • How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained? In essence, TylerÊs questions represent the four-step sequence of: • Identifying the purposes or objectives; • Selecting the means for the attainment or achievement of these objectives, i.e. what educational or teaching-learning experiences have to be provided for students; • Organising these educational or teaching-learning experiences; and • Evaluating the outcomes or what students have attained or achieved. The „purposes‰ above refers to „objectives.‰ When developing curriculum objectives, the data can be gathered from three sources: the subject area (e.g. science, mathematics, geography, history), the learners (e.g. economically disadvantaged, gifted, varying academic abilities) and society (e.g. ethics, patriotism, national unity, environmental awareness, employment, market needs). Figure 5.1 presents TylerÊs curriculum development model. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING 127 Figure 5.1: TylerÊs Curriculum Development Model Source: Adapted from Hunskin and Ornestin (2016) After identifying the objectives which refer to the desired learning outcomes, the curriculum developer has to pass them through two screens: the philosophy screen and the psychology screen. The results in specific instructional objectives stated are observable and measurable outcomes. The next step is the selection of educational experiences which enable the attainment of the stipulated objectives. The learning experiences will have to be selected based on what is known about human learning and development. The learning experiences must consider the previous experiences learners bring to a situation. Next, Tyler talked about the organisation and sequencing of these learning experiences. He emphasised that the experiences should be properly organised to enhance learning. He suggested that ideas, concepts, values, and skills be used as organising elements woven into the curriculum. These elements would serve as the organisers link content within a particular subject (e.g. history, economics, science) and also determine the method of instruction or delivery of content. We will discuss curriculum design in more detail in Topic 6. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
128 TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING Finally, Tyler proposed that evaluation should be an important part of curriculum development. Educators needed to know whether the selected learning experiences produced the intended results. For example, if the objective is to develop critical thinking among students, did the learning experiences selected achieve this objective? Through evaluation, it will be possible to determine whether the curriculum was effective or ineffective. We will discuss curriculum evaluation in more detail in Topic 8. There is no denying that TylerÊs thinking has greatly influenced the field of curriculum, especially curriculum development. Despite much criticism of the model as being too linear, that is, cause and effect, there is no denying that his thinking continues to be popular (Hunkins & Ornstein, 2016). The four questions he raised had and still have great appeal because they are reasonable and workable. 1. What is the role of objectives in TylerÊs model? 2. Why do objectives have to be screened by philosophy and psychology? 3. Give three specific examples of „learning experiences‰ according to the Tyler model. 4. What are elements? Give specific examples. 5. What is the purpose of evaluation? SELF-CHECK 5.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING 129 5.2.2 The Taba Model Hilda Taba proposed another approach to curriculum development in her book Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice, published in 1962. She argued that there was a definite order in creating a curriculum. She believed that teachers, who teach the curriculum, should participate in developing it, which led to the model being called the grass-roots model. She noted seven major steps to her grass-roots model in which teachers would have major input (refer to Figure 5.2). Figure 5.2: TabaÊs Curriculum Development Model Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
130 TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING She believed that the Tyler model was more of an administrative model. The Tyler model involved too much top-down decision-making. Administrators in the Central Office or the Ministry of Education made the greater portion of curriculum decisions. Taba felt that the users of the programme should design a curriculum. Teachers should begin the process by creating specific teaching-learning units for their students. She advocated that teachers take an inductive approach to curriculum development. This approach means starting with the specifics and building toward a general design. This approach was the opposite of the more traditional deductive approach, which starts from the general design and then works towards the specifics. Taba proposed seven major steps to her grass-roots model in which teachers would have major input throughout the curriculum development process (refer to Table 5.1): Table 5.1: Curriculum Development Process Step Description Diagnosis of need The teacher, the curriculum designer, starts the process by identifying the needs of students for whom the curriculum is planned. For example, the majority of students are unable to think critically. Formulation of objectives After the teacher has identified needs that require attention, they specify objectives to be accomplished. Selection of content The objectives selected or created suggest the subject matter or content of the curriculum. Not only should objectives and content match, but the validity and significance of the content chosen also needs to be determined, i.e. the relevancy and significance of the content. The organisation of content A teacher cannot just select content but must organise it in some sequence, considering the maturity of learners, their academic achievement, and their interests. We will discuss curriculum design in more detail in Topic 6. Selection of learning experiences Content must be presented to students, and students must be engaged with the content. At this point, the teacher selects instructional methods involving the students with the content. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING 131 The organisation of learning activities Just as content must be sequenced and organised, so must the learning activities. Often, the sequence of the learning activities is determined by the content. But the teacher needs to remember the students they will be teaching. Evaluation and means of evaluation The curriculum planner must determine just what objectives have been accomplished. Evaluation procedures need to be designed to evaluate learning outcomes. We will discuss curriculum evaluation in more detail in Topic 8. TabaÊs model has many merits. However, some argue that teacher involvement throughout the process assumes that they have the expertise. Perhaps more importantly, the time to engage in such an extensive and intensive curricular activity. Teachers involved in the early stages of curriculum development may not be an advantage. It does not necessarily guarantee an effective curriculum since it is a highly specialised process. However, it cannot be denied that curriculum development requires the involvement of many parties at various stages of the process. It involves individuals from the Central Office or the Ministry of Education, district education officers, principals, teachers, community leaders, subject matter experts, academics and even students. Usually, curriculum developers at the Central Office are tasked with directing those actions that bring together various participants in curriculum development. Teachers may only be involved in implementing the curriculum. At the same time, the Ministry of Education, academics, content specialists, and employers determine the main part of the curriculum. Explain why TabaÊs model is called the grass-roots model. SELF-CHECK 5.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
132 TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING 5.2.3 The Saylor, Alexander, and Lewis Model Saylor, Alexander, and Lewis (1981) viewed curriculum development as consisting of four steps (refer to Figure 5.3). Figure 5.3: Saylor, Alexander, and Lewis Curriculum Development Model According to them, a curriculum is „a plan for providing sets of learning opportunities to achieve broad educational goals and related specific objectives for an identifiable population served by a single school centre‰ (p. 24). 1. Do you think teachers should be the main decision-makers in developing a curriculum? Why? 2. To what extent are teachers involved in developing curriculum in your country? Discuss your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 5.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING 133 • Goals, Objectives, and Domains The model indicates that curriculum planners begin by specifying the major educational goals and specific objectives they wish to accomplish. Each major goal represents a curriculum domain, and they advocate four major goals or domains: personal development, human relations, continued learning skills and specialisation. The goals, objectives, and domains are selected after carefully considering several external variables such as findings from educational research, accreditation standards, views of community groups and others. • Curriculum Designing Start designing the curriculum after deciding the goals, objectives, established domains, and learning activities according to studentsÊ needs. These are some of the questions that need to be answered at this stage of the development process. We will discuss curriculum design in more detail in Topic 6. • Curriculum Implementation The implementation stage involves several processes: selecting instructional objectives, teaching methods and strategies, and alignment of learning outcomes. Topic 7 will discuss this stage further. • Evaluation Finally, the curriculum planner and teachers engage in evaluation. Ensure that the instructional goals and objectives are evaluated using various techniques. This stage will be further discussed in Topic 8. The three models reveal similarities and differences. All models outline a sequence of steps to be taken in curriculum development. Interestingly, the Taba model emphasises the role of teachers in curriculum development. In contrast, the Tyler model focuses on the two screensÊ objectives that have to pass through. However, remember that models often are incomplete; they do not and cannot show every detail and aspect of the complicated curriculum process. To depict every aspect of curriculum development would require an exceedingly complex and intricate model. In looking at the three models, we cannot say that any model is superior to another. Some curriculum planners have followed the Tyler model with considerable success. But this does not mean that the Tyler model represents the ultimate in models for curriculum development or that all educators are satisfied with it. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
134 TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING 5.3 GOALS OF EDUCATION The cartoon at the beginning of this topic shows the kinds of decisions that curriculum workers have to make in some education system somewhere in the world. Some decisions are relatively simple, such as adding a course, deleting a course, or making minor changes to content. Other decisions are sweeping and far-reaching such as changing the levels of schooling from 6-3-2-2 (six years of primary or elementary school, three years of lower secondary, two years of upper secondary and two years of pre-university or matriculation) to 6-4-2 (six years of primary or elementary school, four years of secondary and two years of pre-university or enrollment). How does one decide? All three models of curriculum development emphasised the need from the onset to plan statements of the purpose of the education system. What do you want students to be able to do after completing primary schools or secondary schools? In Topic 2, we discussed the views of various Western and Eastern philosophers on what they thought the school should be and aim to achieve. In Topic 3, we discussed various psychological explanations of human learning, which provide guidelines for what students can achieve and how they should be taught. In Topic 4, we examined what society demands of its education system, providing insight into what schools should aspire. Based on these sources, the curriculum planner will have to decide on an education philosophy from which the goals of education may be derived. 1. What is meant by „domains‰ in the Saylor, Alexander, and Lewis model? 2. What must teachers do to implement a curriculum? 3. What is the role of evaluation in the Saylor, Alexander, and Lewis model? SELF-CHECK 5.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING 135 5.4 LEVELS OF GOALS Instructional goals can be written at several levels involving many curriculum workers: teachers, subject specialists, academics, principals, teacher trainers, administrators, and others who may be engaged in curriculum efforts on several levels simultaneously (refer to Figure 5.4). The model flows from a broad and wide educational philosophy to the more specific instructional objectives implemented at the classroom level. Figure 5.4: Curriculum Planning Levels Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)