ABPK3203 Psychology of Learning cAug14(rs)(M)

Faculty of Applied Social Sciences

ABPK3203

Psychology of Learning

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

ABPK3203
PSYCHOLOGY OF
LEARNING

Dr Choong Lean Keow

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Project Directors: Prof Dato’ Dr Mansor Fadzil
Assoc Prof Dr Mohd Yusof Ahmad
Module Writer: Open University Malaysia
Moderator:
Developed by: Dr Choong Lean Keow
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

Dr Ke Guek Nee
Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman (UTAR)

Centre for Instructional Design and Technology
Open University Malaysia

First Edition, April 2010
Second Edition, August 2014 (rs)
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), August 2014, ABPK3203
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means
without the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Table of Contents

Course Guide ix–xiii

Topic 1 Introduction to Psychology of Learning 2
1.2 Types of Learning 4
1.3 Reflexes 9
1.4 Types of Reflexes 10
1.5 How Learning Differs from Reflexes 14
1.6 Historical Overview of Learning Theories 15
16
1.6.1 Behaviourism 17
1.6.2 Cognitivism 18
1.6.3 Constructivism 18
1.6.4 Social Cognitive Theory 19
Summary 20
Key Terms 20
References

Topic 2 Behavioural Psychology and Learning 21
2.1 Classical Conditioning: PavlovÊs Work 22
2.2 PavlovÊs Classic Experiment 23
2.3 The Basic Classical Conditioning Model 26
2.4 Classical Conditioning Of Emotional Responses 29
2.5 Additional Classical Conditioning Phenomena 34
2.6 Educational Implications Of Classical Conditioning 35
Summary 37
Key Terms 38
References 38

Topic 3 Operant Conditioning 40
3.1 ThorndikeÊs Experiments 41
3.2 SkinnerÊs Experiments 44
3.3 Outcomes of Operant Conditioning 46
3.4 Distinguishing Between Classical Conditioning and
47
Operant Conditioning 48
3.5 Conditions Essential for Operant Conditioning to Occur 49
3.6 Types of Reinforcers 51
51
3.6.1 The Premack Principle 52
3.6.2 Reinforcement and Punishment
3.7 Schedules of Reinforcement

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

iv TABLE OF CONTENTS

3.8 The Nature and Effect of Punishment 55
3.9 Additional Operant Conditioning Phenomena 57
Summary 59
Key Terms 61
References 61

Topic 4 Recent Research in Behaviourism 63
4.1 Applications of Behavioural Learning Principles 64
64
4.1.1 Behaviour Management 71
4.1.2 Teaching New Behaviours 73
4.1.3 Maintaining Behaviour
4.1.4 Contributions of Behavioural Learning Principles 73
77
to Instruction 79
4.2 Recent Theoretical Development of Behaviourism 80
Summary 80
Key Terms
References 82
83
Topic 5 Social Cognitive Theory and Learning 85
5.1 Assumptions of the Social Cognitive Theory 86
5.2 Learning by Observation 88
88
5.2.1 Bandura and Observational Learning 89
5.2.2 Principles of Observational Learning 91
5.2.3 How Observational Learning Impacts Learning 91
5.3 Learning as an Internal Process 92
5.4 Influence of Cognitive Processes 93
5.4.1 Memory 94
5.4.2 Mental Representations 96
5.4.3 Language 97
5.5 Goal-directed Behaviour 97
Summary
Key Terms 98
References 99
100
Topic 6 The Social Cognitive View of Reinforcement and Punishment 101
6.1 Expectations 102
103
6.1.1 Implications in the Classroom 104
6.2 Vicarious Experiences
6.3 Cognitive Processing
6.4 Choice of Behaviour
6.5 Non-occurrence of Expected Consequences

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TABLE OF CONTENTS  v

Summary 105
Key Terms 105
References 106

Topic 7 Modelling 107
7.1 The Theory of Observational Learning 108
7.2 How Modelling Affects Behaviour 109
7.3 Characteristics of Effective Models 113
7.4 Processes Involved in Learning from Models 115
Summary 118
Key Terms 119
References 119

Topic 8 Self-efficacy 120
8.1 Concept of Self-efficacy 121
122
8.1.1 Self-efficacy and Models 123
8.1.2 Self-efficacy and Instructional Efficacy 124
8.2 How Self-efficacy Affects Behaviour 125
8.2.1 Promoting Self-efficacy in the Classroom 126
8.2.2 Implications of Self-Efficacy in the Classroom 126
8.3 Factors in the Development of Self-efficacy 129
Summary 130
Key Terms 130
References
132
Topic 9 Cognitive Psychology and Learning 133
9.1 Assumptions of Cognitive Psychology 136
138
9.1.1 Sub-Domains of Cognitive Psychology 140
9.2 Basic Concepts of Cognitive Psychology 141
9.3 A Model of Human Memory 142
142
9.3.1 Sensory Memory 143
9.3.2 Short-term Memory 144
9.3.3 Long-term Memory 144
Summary
Key Terms 146
References 147
151
Topic 10 Memory 154
10.1 Short-term Memory (STM) 157
10.2 Storage of Information in Long-term Memory (LTM) 159
10.3 Retrieval of Information from Long-term Memory

10.3.1 Serial Position Test
10.4 Forgetting: The Loss of Memory

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

vi TABLE OF CONTENTS

Summary 163
Key Terms 165
References 166

Topic 11 Information-processing Theory 167
11.1 Levels of Processing 168
11.2 Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) 171
11.3 The Neuroscience Approach 173
Summary 174
Key Terms 176
References 176

Topic 12 Complex Cognitive Processes 178
12.1 Concept Learning 179
179
12.1.1 Theories of Concept Learning 181
12.1.2 Misconceptions About Concept Learning 181
12.1.3 Application of Concept Learning in the Classroom 183
12.2 Transfer 183
12.2.1 Types of Transfer 184
12.2.2 Principles of Transfer 186
12.3 Problem-solving 186
12.3.1 Well-defined and Ill-defined Problems 187
12.3.2 Algorithms and Heuristics 188
12.3.3 A Problem-solving Model
12.3.4 Expert-novice Differences in Problem-solving 190
191
Ability 191
12.4 Metacognition and Study Strategies 192
193
12.4.1 Metacognition 195
12.4.2 Effective Study Strategies 195
Summary
Key Terms
References

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

COURSE GUIDE

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly about the course and how you can work your way through the course
material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in order to
complete the course successfully. Please keep referring to the Course Guide as
you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify important study
components or points that you might miss or overlook.

INTRODUCTION

ABPK3203 Psychology of Learning is one of the courses offered by the Faculty of
Arts and Social Sciences at Open University Malaysia (OUM). This course is
worth three credit hours and should be covered over 8 to 15 weeks.

COURSE AUDIENCE

This course is offered to all students taking the Bachelor of Psychology with
Honours programme. This module aims to impart principles of learning drawn
from experimental and theoretical psychology. This module should be able to
form a strong foundation for subsequent psychology courses.

As an open and distance learner, you should be familiar with learning
independently and be able to optimise the learning modes and environment
available to you. Before you begin this course, please confirm you have the
course material, understand the course requirements and know how the course is
conducted.

STUDY SCHEDULE

It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend
120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours can be
accumulated.

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

x  COURSE GUIDE

Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours Study
Hours
Study Activities
3
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial
discussions 60
Study the module 10
Attend three to five tutorial sessions 12
Online Participation 15
Revision 20
Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s) 120
TOTAL STUDY HOURS

COURSE OUTCOMES

By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Explain the principles of learning drawn from experimental and theoretical

psychology;
2. Examine the historical overview of the theories of learning;
3. Compare and contrast the various theories of learning from the

behavioural, social cognitive and cognitive perspective;
4. Apply the principles of the theories of learning in the classroom; and
5. Discuss the implications of the theories of learning in the educational

context.

COURSE SYNOPSIS

This course is divided into 12 topics. The synopsis for each topic is listed as
follows:

Topic 1 begins with a discussion of the definition and types of learning in the
context of psychology. A historical overview of the theories of learning is also
presented.

Topic 2 introduces the behavioural perspective of learning. Ivan PavlovÊs
classical conditioning will be examined in detail. The educational implications of
classical conditioning is considered and discussed.

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

COURSE GUIDE  xi

Topic 3 examines the various aspects of operant conditioning. A comparison
is made between classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Operant
conditioning phenomena in teaching and learning is also discussed.

Topic 4 discusses the application of behavioural principles in the classroom. It
also focuses on recent research in behaviourism.

Topic 5 examines the social cognitive theory with emphasis on the contributions
of Bandura in the area of observational learning.

Topic 6 describes the social cognitive view of reinforcement and punishment. It
focuses on the influence of five cognitive features on behaviour.

Topic 7 examines the otheory of observational behaviour. The various aspects
related to modelling are discussed in detail.

Topic 8 describes the various aspects related to self-efficacy. The concept, effects
on behaviour and the factors involved in the development of self-efficacy are
examined.

Topic 9 presents the tenets of the cognitive perspective of learning. A model of
human memory is also considered and discussed.

Topic 10 deals with memory with emphasis on short-term and long-term
memory. The theory of forgetting is also discussed.

Topic 11 examines the information-processing theory. It focuses on the various
levels of information processing including the parallel distributed processing.
The neuroscience approach is also examined.

Topic 12 discusses several complex cognitive processes that include concept
learning, transfer of learning, problem-solving, metacognition and study
strategies.

TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise your
study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text
arrangement for each topic is as follows:

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

xii  COURSE GUIDE

Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your understanding of the topic.

Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations
throughout the module. It may be inserted after one sub-section or a few sub-
sections. It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this
component, try to reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting
to answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you have
understood the sub-section(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can
be found directly from the module itself.

Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various
locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you
to solve questions, explore short case studies, or conduct an observation or
research. It may even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come
across an Activity, you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the
module and apply it to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage
yourself in higher order thinking where you might be required to analyse,
synthesise and evaluate instead of only having to recall and define.

Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.

Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.

References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful
textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. The list
can appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at the References
section), at the end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are
encouraged to read or refer to the suggested sources to obtain the additional
information needed and to enhance your overall understanding of the course.

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

COURSE GUIDE  xiii

PRIOR KNOWLEDGE

There is no pre-requisite for this course.

ASSESSMENT METHOD

Please refer to myINSPIRE.

REFERENCES

acunix.wheatonma.edu. (n.d.). Learning. Retrieved from http://acunix.
wheatonma.edu/kmorgan/Animal_Behavior_Class/learning.html

allpsych.com. (n.d.). Learning theory and behavioural psychology. Retrieved
from http://allpsych.com/psychology101/reinforcement.html

Answers.com. (n.d.). Levels of processing effect. In wikipedia. Retrieved from
http://www.answers.com/topic/levels-of-processing-effect

Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. New York, NY: General Learning
Press

Bandura, A. (1989). Social cognitive theory. In annals of child development (Vol.
6, pp. 1–60). Greenwich, CT: Jai Press

BBC. (n.d.). Nervous system – Reflexes. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.
uk/science/humanbody/body/factfiles/reflexes/html„Psychology for the
Millions‰

Behaviour Change Theory and Models. Retrieved from
http://www.csupomona.edu/~jvgrizzell/best_practices/bctheory.html

Branaghan, R. J. (n.d.). WhatÊs so special about stories?, Arizona State University,
Retrieved from
http://www.cerici.org/documents/storytelling/Russell_Branaghan.ppt

Center for Positive Practices. (2005). Self-efficacy. Retrived from
http://www.positivepractices.com/Efficacy/SelfEfficacy.html#TheGeneral
Problem

Cherry, K. (n.d.). What is self-efficacy? Retrived from
http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/a/self_efficacy.htm

education.purduecal.edu. (n.d.). Negative side effects of punishment. Retrieved
from http://education.calumet.purdue.edu/Vockell/EdPsyBook/Edpsy11
/edpsy11sideeffects.htm

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

xiv  COURSE GUIDE

Free-ResearchPapers.com. (n.d.). Depth of processing model. Retrieved from
http://www.free-researchpapers.com/dbs/b6/pko92.shtml

Hall, R. H. Information-processing theory. Retrieved from
http://medialab.mst.edu/rhall/educational_psychology/2001/vl2a/info_
new. html

Purdue University Calumet. (n.d.). Long-term memory. Retrieved from
education.purduecal.edu/vockell/EdPsyBook/Edpsy6/edpsy6_long.htm

Prentice hall. (n.d.). Complex cognitive processes. Retrieved from
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_eggen_education_6/0,8057,885692-,00.html

Wilderdom.com. (2003). Social learning & social cognitive perspectives on
personality. Retrieved from http://wilderdom.com/personality/L9-3Social
LearningCognitive.html

Wolfgang, C. H. (2001). Solving discipline and classroom management problems:
Methods and models for todayÊs teachers. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Woolfolk, A. (2005). Educational psychology (9th ed.). Massachusetts, MA: Allyn
& Bacon.

wps.ablongman.com. (n.d.). Behavioural theories of learning. Retrieved from
http://wps.ablongman.com/ab_slavin_edpsych_7/3/867/221981.cw/inde
x.html

www3.niu.edu. (n.d.). Ivan Pavlov. Retrieved from http://www3.niu.edu/acad/
psych/Millis/History/2003/con_Pavlov.htm

www.edu. (n.d.). Conditioning and learning. Retrieved from http://www.uwm.
edu/~jcm/psy514/Chapter03a.Respondent-behaviour-basic/def.cc.txt

The Gestalt Principles. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://graphicdesign.spokanefalls.edu/tutorials/process/gestaltprinciples
/gestaltprinc.htm

The Cognitive System. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA:
Valdosta State Huitt, W. (2006). University. Retrived from
http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/cogsys/cogsys.html

users.ipfw.edu. (n.d.). Human Memory: Atkinson-Shiffrin Model. Retrieved from
http://users.ipfw.edu/abbott/120/AtkinsonShifrin.html

users.ipfw.edu. (n.d.). Human memory. Retrieved from
http://users.ipfw.edu/abbott/120/Ebbinghaus.html

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

COURSE GUIDE  xv

TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)
DIGITAL LIBRARY

The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for
the use of its learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible
through the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases
comprising e-journals, e-theses, e-books and more. Examples of databases
available are EBSCOhost, ProQuest, SpringerLink, Books247, InfoSci Books,
Emerald Management Plus and Ebrary Electronic Books. As an OUM learner,
you are encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this
library.

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

xvi  COURSE GUIDE

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic X Introduction

1 to Psychology
of Learning

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Define what learning is;
2. Explain the different types of learning;
3. Describe what reflexes are;
4. Identify the different types of reflexes;
5. Distinguish between learning and reflexes; and
6. Provide a historical overview of various learning theories.

X INTRODUCTION

„I want to talk about learning... I am talking about the student who says,
„I am discovering, drawing in from the outside, and making that which is
drawn in a real part of me.‰ I am talking about any learning in which the
experience of the learner progresses along this line: „...Ah, here it is! Now
I'm grasping and comprehending what I need and what I want to know!‰

ă Carl Rogers 1983: 18ă19

Well, what do you think of Carl RogerÊs explanation of learning? Read the
excerpt above carefully and list down the key concepts associated with learning.
Yes, learning begins with our quest for knowledge. This quest involves making
discoveries and making meaning of what we obtain from our surroundings as
well as from within ourselves. A direct result of learning is a gain in our
experiences. Do you agree?

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

2 X TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

In this topic, you will learn about the definition and types of learning in the
context of psychology. This will be helpful to you when you try to differentiate
between learning and reflexes. In addition, you will also briefly read about four
prevalent learning theories ă behaviourism, social cognitive theory, cognitivism,
and constructivism.

1.1 DEFINITION OF LEARNING

Look up the dictionary to find the meaning of „learning‰. Then compare the
meaning given with that found in encyclopaedias and psychology textbooks. Are
they similar or different? To illustrate, the American Heritage Dictionary of the
English Language defines „learning‰ as „the act, process, or experience of gaining
knowledge or skill‰. In comparison, the Columbia Encyclopaedia explains that
„in psychology, (learning refers to) the process by which a relatively lasting
change in potential behaviour occurs as a result of practice or experience.‰ In
support of this definition, Hill (2002, cited in Woolfolk, 2005:190) elaborates that
„to qualify as learning, this change must be brought about by experience ă by the
interaction of a person with his environment.‰

Based on the dictionary definition, learning involves „a gain of knowledge or
skills.‰ However, if you think carefully, is this always the case? Not really.
Consider common maladaptive behaviours such as arrogance, procrastination,
and so on, and neurotic symptoms like anxiety reactions. They are learned, but
do we gain anything positive from them?

From the encyclopaedia and psychology textbook definitions given above, we
can draw two conclusions.

1 Learning is said to take place if learners have the ability and capability

of doing something that they were unable to before the learning
process. For example, you teach a six-year-old child how to ride a
bicycle. He learns how to sit and balance himself on the two-wheeler,
and then pedal away by steering the handle bars. After several
attempts, he is able to ride his bicycle for a reasonable distance without
falling off. This clearly shows that learning has taken place.

2 Secondly, learning must be produced by experience. Hence, you can

strike out changes that occur as a result of maturation, illness, drugs or
injury. Some examples include exhibiting fine motor skills such as
threading a needle or holding a pencil to draw; losing weight after a
bout of influenza, prolonged drug-taking or a bad accident.

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING W 3

In order to help you understand the concept of maturation and learning, read
CarmichaelÊs (1926) classic experiment on salamanders as follows.

Based on what you have read about CarmichaelÊs experiment on salamanders,
what can you conclude? Firstly, it is difficult to say that something is specifically
a product of learning or is purely genetic. Secondly, maturation can be seen as,

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

4 X TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

perhaps, helping to prepare an organism to learn a skill quickly. Take a simple
example of a two-year-old toddler who cannot open a cupboard door. However,
when he reaches the age of four, he is able to do so. This is because he has grown
physically taller to allow for this change of behaviour. Do you agree?

SELF-CHECK 1.1

1. In your own words, define „learning‰.
2. Is learning dependent on maturation? Give reasons to support

your answer.

1.2 TYPES OF LEARNING

Now that you have studied what learning is, how many types of learning can
you name? In the context of psychology, learning occurs as result of classical
conditioning and operant learning. Besides these, human beings also exhibit
other types of learning such as chaining, acquisition of skills, discrimination
learning, concept formation, principle learning, and problem-solving. These are
just some examples of an inexhaustible list of human and animal activities which
psychologists refer to as learning. Now, let us discuss some diversified forms of
learning.
(a) Classical Conditioning

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849ă1936) as shown in Figure 1.1 performed
numerous experiments using stimuli as signals to elicit a response which he
called classical conditioning. In one of his well-known experiments, he
presented a neutral stimulus, such as a bell, to a dog just before an effective
stimulus, for example, food. He discovered that this elicited a response in
the dog, such as salivation, that originally was evoked by the food. In this
case, the dog is said to have been conditioned (refer to Figure 1.2).

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING W 5

Figure 1.1: Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849ă1936)
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ivan_Pavlov_(Nobel).png

Figure 1.2: PavlovÊs theory of classical conditioning
Source: http://missbakersbiologyclasswikiwikispaces.com/
Trimester+1+Cumulative+Exam+Study+Guide File:pavlovdog.jpg

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

6 X TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

Now, can you tell how this type of learning is applicable in our daily lives?
Let us look at an example.

When the recess bell rings each day, it is typical for learners to run
happily to the canteen to buy food. If this bell is replaced by the ringing
of the fire bell during recess time, you may find them running to the
school canteen instead of assembling in the school field as part of an
exercise fire drill. These learners have been conditioned by the recess bell
so much so that when the fire bell rings, they exhibit the same response!

(b) Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning is also called instrumental learning where the
organism learns the relationship between its response and the consequence
of that behaviour. In other words, the organism is either rewarded or
punished if he shows an action that approaches a new desired behaviour.
This is best demonstrated by a classic experiment using the Skinner box
with a starving rat inside. When the rat succeeded in pressing the lever, it
was rewarded with a small pellet of food. In other experiments, rats or
pigeons also learned how to avoid or end aversive stimuli such as an
electric shock.

Again, how is operant conditioning applied in our daily lives? Read the
following example.

During a classroom activity, a learner raises his hand and gives the
correct answer to a question asked by the teacher. The teacher then
acknowledges his answer and praises him in front of his classmates. The
teacherÊs praise will most likely encourage him to participate actively in
class if he wants to earn more praises.

(c) Chaining
As the name suggests, the subject under study is required to make a
number of responses which follow a specific order known as chaining. In a
laboratory experiment, a rat is required to master a sequence of correct
turns in a maze to enable it to get out successfully at the other end. A
classroom example will be the case of students engaged in a mathematical
puzzle. They will have to provide a series of responses in a certain order to
arrive at the correct solution.

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING W 7

(d) Skills Acquisition
In laboratory experiments, rats, pigeons or cats are taught to control the
force that they exercise on a lever. This means that they have acquired a
particular skill that is required. The quantity of food, which is the reward, is
dependent upon the force executed. Let us look at an example.

Footballers playing in various positions learn how to control the football
they manoeuvre around the football field. The prize, in the form of a
trophy, is dependent upon the expertise of the team members in
exercising their respective skills.

(e) Discrimination Learning
Laboratory studies reward animals that are able to respond to particular
aspects of a given stimulus, such as sound, light, colour and so on. In other
words, they are able to distinguish between the different stimuli presented.
As an example:

Young children learn to discriminate between the sound of an ice-cream
bell and the sound of the police siren. The ice-cream bell makes them
very happy as they can buy ice cream which they love. However, this
same feeling may not arise with the sound of the police siren. In some
cases, it may even instil fear in them if they have been told by grown-
ups that the police will come and take them away to the police station.

(f) Concept Formation
After training, organisms are said to have learnt a concept when they are
able to respond accurately to different objects in a similar fashion. A typical
example is that of eight-year-olds who can give correct responses to
concepts such as „circular‰ and „triangular‰ after being taught these shapes
in the classroom.

(g) Principle Learning
In a Mathematics lesson, learners are exposed to different combination sets
of shapes. For example, the first set is composed of two rectangles and one
square; the second comprises two triangles and one hexagon. When a
learner is able to identify the „odd‰ shape from each set, he is rewarded.
This shows the ability of the learner to apply the principle of similarity and
oddity.

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

8 X TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

(h) Problem-solving
Definition of problem-solving is a process that involves discovering the
correct sequence of alternatives leading to a goal or an ideal solution.

This type of learning is common in solving mathematical or scientific
concepts such as a geometry problem, solving the rubik cube and so on.

(Source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/print?eu=114758)

Now, we have learnt the types of learning. Let us summarise the different kinds
of learning. Take a look at Table 1.1.

Table 1.1: Types of Learning

Types of Learning Description

Classical conditioning An automatic type of learning in which a stimulus
Operant conditioning acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was
originally evoked by another stimulus.

Learning the relationship between response and
consequence of a particular behaviour.

Chaining Making a number of responses which follow a
specific order.

Skills acquisition A type of learning that requires an individual to
perform a particular skill correctly.

Discrimination learning Responding to particular aspects of a given
Concept formation stimulus, such as sound, light, colour, etc.
Principle learning
Responding accurately to different objects by
applying a concept learned.

Applying a principle to solve a problem.

Problem-solving A type of learning that requires the selection and
combination of multiple principles in order to
solve a problem.

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING W 9

ACTIVITY 1.1

1. Describe ONE example for each of the following types of learning in
the classroom:
(a) Concept formation
(b) Principle learning
(c) Problem-solving

2. Visit this website: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YFd_uCI-
XOY &feature=related and discuss the video with your course
mates. Get your tutor to comment as well.

1.3 REFLEXES

After you have learnt about the concept of „learning‰, can you explain how it is
different from „reflexes‰? Before you attempt to do so, try to briefly describe
what a reflex is.

Perhaps you can consider this example. Upon contact with a hot kettle, you
immediately withdraw your hand. What is this response called? It is an
automatic or involuntary response that happens even before your brain sends the
message that tells you, „The kettle is hot! Take your hand away.‰ Withdrawing
your hand from the hot kettle is an innate reflex action. This action happens very
quickly and you have no control over it.

According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, a reflex is „an automatic and
often inborn response to a stimulus. This response involves a nerve impulse
passing inward from a receptor to a nerve centre and thence outward to an
effecter (such as a muscle or gland) without reaching the level of consciousness‰.
In physiology, a reflex is „a response to a perturbing stimulus that acts to return
the body to homeostasis‰. It is said that a reflex response may have one of the
three characteristics as shown in Table 1.2.

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

10 X TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

Table 1.2: Characteristics of Reflex Response

Characteristic Example
Subconscious
The regulation of blood sugar by insulin, a pancreatic
hormone

Fairly noticeable Perspiring in response to a rise in body temperature
Obvious
Turning your head away to avoid being hit by a flying
object that is coming towards you

Have you asked yourself what happens in a reflex action? What are the processes
which are likely to be involved? It is interesting to note that unlike other body
processes which involve the brain to receive and send messages, a reflex action
involves a reflex arc which is a very simple nervous pathway. First of all, the
receptors are stimulated. They then send signals along a sensory neuron to your
spinal cord. There the signals are transmitted to a motor neuron, thus stimulating
one of your muscles or glands.

1.4 TYPES OF REFLEXES

Are you aware that we possess different types of reflexes? Why are reflexes
important? Firstly, to protect us from things in our surroundings that may harm
us. A typical example is the eye blink reflex. Secondly, to help in the normal
functioning of our bodily processes to maintain homeostasis, for example, the
blood sugar level in our bodies. Do you know there are five types of reflexes that
normal human beings possess? Refer to Figure 1.3.

Figure 1.3: Types of reflexes

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING W 11

Let us discuss the reflexes in detail.
(a) Neonatal Reflexes

Neonatal reflexes or primitive reflexes are present at birth. These reflexes
are believed to be inborn. More accurately, they are described as
unconditioned reflexes which are not learned or developed through
experience. Some examples include the moro or startle reflex, walking or
stepping, tonic neck reflex and the palmar and plantar grasp. Figure 1.4
shows palmar grasp reflex, an example of neonatal reflexes.

Figure 1.4: An example of neonatal reflex ă palmar grasp refelx
Source: http://www.bookrags.com/research/neonatal-reflexes-geca/
To get more information about neonatal reflexes, please visit this website:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=11HDGu5ufVY&feature=related
(b) Infant Reflexes
Newborn human infants show various types of stretch reflexes that are
mainly used for controlling posture and head movements. Eventually, they
develop vestibular reflexes and sensory reflexes. This is then followed by
important reflexes for the control of locomotion. Gradually, as the infant
grows, these reflex movements are replaced by controlled voluntary
movements. Figure 1.5 shows examples of infant reflexes.

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

12 X TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

Figure 1.5: Example of infant reflexes
Source: http://www.bookrags.com/tandf/infant-reflexes-tf/
(c) Autonomic Reflexes
Autonomic reflexes are reflexes that do not involve a visible and sudden
movement.
Some examples include:
(i) Vomiting, which is the result of a reflex arc involving receptors in the
region of the pharynx.
(ii) Swallowing, which is triggered by tactile stimulation of the mucosa of
the palate, pharynx and epiglottis.
(iii) Temperature regulation, which involves hypothalamic activation.
(d) Flexion or Withdrawal Reflexes
These reflexes occur when you touch a hot object or step on a sharp object.
Instantly, you withdraw your hand or foot. These reflexes help to protect us
from physical injury by quickly removing the part of the body from being
near the harmful object.
(e) Somatosomatic or Stretch Reflexes
These reflexes protect the muscle from increasing in length thus tearing or
damaging muscle fibres. A typical example of such a reflex is the patellar
reflex or the knee-jerk reflex. This involves a sudden kicking movement of

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING W 13

your lower leg after someone taps the tendon just below your kneecap.
Figure 1.6 shows an example of stretch reflexes.

Figure 1.6: Example of stretch reflexes
Source: http://ifcsun1.ifisiol.unam.mx/Brain/reflex.htm

ACTIVITY 1.2

1. Visit this website:
http://www.answers.com/topic/reflex-instinctive-reflex-innate-
reflex-inborn-reflex-unconditioned-reflex-physiological-reaction

2. Categorise the reflexes listed on this website into the following
categories:
(a) Neonatal reflexes;
(b) Autonomic reflexes;
(c) Somatosomatic reflexes; and
(d) Flexion reflexes.

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

14 X TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

1.5 HOW LEARNING DIFFERS FROM REFLEXES

Now that you have understood the meaning of learning and reflexes, how would
you differentiate these two terms?

Firstly, learning is the acquisition of knowledge and skills whereas reflexes are
physiological responses that are inborn. This means that when we learn, we
increase our knowledge and skills. In the case of reflexes, we are born with them
to protect us from harm as well as help us function in a normal and healthy
manner.

Secondly, learning is generally a voluntary process compared to reflexes which
are mostly involuntary in nature. This means that we are often in control of what
and how we learn, whereas we almost do not have any control over our reflexes.

Thirdly, learning can be enhanced through time and effort. This may not be the
case when we refer to reflexes. This means quantitative changes can take place in
our learning, but we cannot increase the number of reflexes that we have.
Nevertheless, the quality of our learning and reflexes may deteriorate with time.
As we grow older, we may not be able to remember the things we have learnt,
our reflexes too may not be as sharp as they were when we were younger. Do
you agree?

Table 1.3 summarises the differences between learning and reflexes.

Table 1.3: Summary of Differences between Learning and Reflexes

Aspect Learning Reflexes
Concept Physiological inborn responses
Acquisition of knowledge and
Nature skills Involuntary
Types of change Qualitative ă may deteriorate
Voluntary with time

Quantitative ă can be
enhanced through time and
effort

SELF-CHECK 1.2

What is the fundamental difference between learning and reflexes?
Provide one example for your answer.

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING W 15

1.6 HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF LEARNING
THEORIES

What are some of the learning theories that you have read? What do you
understand by the term learning theory? According to Driscoll (2004), „a learning
theory comprises a set of constructs linking observed changes in performance
which is thought to bring about those changes‰. To understand what this
statement means, let us take a simple construct like motivation. Individuals who
are intrinsically motivated are observed to exhibit the same performance
consistently. They show excellent performance because they are self-motivated;
not because they have received any reward from other people. Based on this
finding, psychologists have invented the concept of motivation to explain one of
the reasons for excellent performance.

In order to build a learning theory, Driscoll (2004:9) identified three components
as the basic requirements. You can see that in Figure 1.7.

Figure 1.7: Three components of learning theory

The first psychological laboratory was set up in Leipzeig, Germany in 1879 by
Wilhelm Wundt. Since its establishment, researchers have been carrying out
extensive research in an endeavour to seek answers to the above three questions.
We can consider the evolution of learning theories as a progression from broad-
based theories explaining how learning takes place to more specific theories
explaining the learning process from a particular perspective.

Generally, learning theories can be classified into three main categories, that are
Behaviourism, Cognitivism and Constructivism. Additionally, the Social
Cognitive Theory focuses on the social aspects of learning. What are the basic
tenets of each of these perspectives? From the behavioural perspective, learning
occurs through stimulus-response associations. On the other hand, the cognitive
perspective proposes the role of active mental activity for understanding the
learning process. The constructive perspective emphasises the active role of the

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

16 X TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

learner to construct his own understanding and knowledge. The social cognitive
learning perspective, on the other hand, views learning from the social context.

1.6.1 Behaviourism

Behaviourism evolved from the work of behaviourists who emphasised the role
of experience in determining human activity. This school of thought moved away
from early thinking which stressed the importance of instinct in human
behaviour. Figure 1.8 briefly summarises the origins of behaviourism.

Figure 1.8: Origins of behaviourism
One of the earliest influences to the behaviouristic view of learning was
AristotleÊs concept of the association of ideas between two similar or opposite
events. This approach to learning was further developed by Edward Thorndike
who proposed his idea of connectionism. Following numerous studies using his
puzzle boxes, Thorndike proposed that changes in animal behaviour was a result
of an association between a sensation and an impulse. He argued that learning
occurred as a consequence of rewards given. This then led to Ivan PavlovÊs
extensive investigation of the conditioning process which he called classical
conditioning. Later, the contribution of B. F. SkinnerÊs operant or instrumental
conditioning marked yet another milestone for behaviourism. Skinner proposed
that behaviours are learnt as a consequence of a schedule of reinforcement or
punishment.

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING W 17

However, it was J. B. Watson also known as the „Father of Behaviourism‰ who
showed us the importance of the learning process to human behaviour (Klein,
2002:11). WatsonÊs famous experiment with Little Albert demonstrated some of
the most important principles of behaviourism, such as stimulus generalisation
and discrimination, extinction and counter-conditioning. Notably, counter
conditioning or systematic desensitisation, which was further developed by
Wolpe, is now very useful in the treatment of phobias.

Generally, we can see that the ideas and works of Pavlov, Thorndike, Skinner
and Watson influenced the theoretical perspectives of educational psychology
from the 1920s to the 1960s. These behaviourists believed that learning occurred
when there was a change in behaviour; internal mental states were not important
factors in the study of learning. In the following topics, the behavioural learning
theory will be discussed in greater detail.

1.6.2 Cognitivism

In the 1960s, a group of psychologists became concerned about the influence of
internal mental processes such as thinking and remembering on behaviour.
These cognitivists, as they were called, argued that learning can take place
without the presence of overt behaviour. They believed that the human mind is
an active processor of information that can undertake the task of modifying new
experiences, relating them to past experiences and organising the information
obtained for storage and retrieval.

Edward Tolman was a cognitivist psychologist who investigated the role of
cognitive elements in rats, which had to run through a maze as their learning
task. Other eminent cognitivists who contributed to human cognition included
Bartlett (1932), Atkinson and Shriffin (1968), and Gestalt theorists such as Max
Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler, and Kurt Koffka. We will discuss these in Topic 9:
Cognitive Psychology and Learning, Topic 10: Memory, and Topic 11: The
Information-Processing Theory.

SELF-CHECK 1.3

How do behaviourists and cognitivists view the learning process?
Discuss.

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

18 X TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

1.6.3 Constructivism

Constructivism is the 20th century approach to learning which evolved as a
reaction to behaviourism. As we have learnt, behaviourists regard the learner as
passive and merely acquiring knowledge in the learning process. In contrast,
constructivists view the learner as actively constructing knowledge based on
personal experiences and interaction with the environment. Constructivism is
said to have been initially influenced by RousseauÊs ideas that the underlying
basis for constructing understanding was the learnerÊs interaction with the
environment. His emphasis on experiential learning or learning by doing, was
later developed by John Dewey and Jerome Bruner. Other proponents of the
constructivist approach to learning include Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky.

1.6.4 Social Cognitive Theory

As the name suggests, the social cognitive theory describes learning in the social
context. Social cognitive theorists proposed that both humans and animals learn
through imitation, modelling and observation. The works of Dollard and Miller
formed the basis of further research conducted by Albert Bandura in the 1970s.
BanduraÊs famous experiment using the bobo doll demonstrated the acquisition
of aggressive behaviour through modelling. Social cognitive theorists maintained
the behaviourist principles of reinforcement and response contingencies.
However, they also included important elements of cognitive processes such as
attention, retention and reproduction. The social learning theory will be dealt
with in greater detail in Topic 7: Modelling and Topic 8: Self-efficacy.

In conclusion, it can be said that although the above perspectives differ in their
view of how learning can be studied, the proponents of these schools of thought
agree on the following major assumptions of learning theories, which are:
(a) Experience largely influences behaviour;
(b) Learning is adaptive both for the individual, whether human or animal and

the species; and
(c) Learning is a process that can be tested and studied.

ACTIVITY 1.3

1. How is the behaviourist approach to learning different from the
constructivist approach?

2. According to the social cognitive theory, how do humans learn?

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING W 19

• Learning is a relatively lasting change in behaviour that occurs as a result of
practice or experience; not as a result of maturation, illness, drugs or injury.

• In the context of psychology, there are various types of learning such as
classical conditioning, operant learning, chaining, acquisition of skills,
discrimination learning, concept formation, principle learning and problem-
solving.

• A reflex is a response to a perturbing stimulus that acts to return the body to
homeostasis.

• A reflex response may be subconscious, fairly noticeable, or obvious.

• A reflex action involves a reflex arc.

• Reflexes protect us from things in our surroundings that may harm us, and
also to help in the normal functioning of our bodily processes to maintain
homeostasis.

• Reflexes can be classified as neonatal reflexes, infant reflexes, autonomic
reflexes, flexion or withdrawal reflexes, and somatosomatic or stretch
reflexes.

• Learning differs from reflexes in three ways which are concept, nature and
type of change.

• A learning theory comprises of a set of constructs linking observed changes
in performance which is thought to bring about those changes.

• Learning theories can be classified into three main categories: behaviourism,
cognitivism and constructivism. A fourth perspective to learning is the social
cognitive theory.

• The behavioural view of learning operates on the premise that all behaviour
is caused by external stimuli.

• Early influences of behavioural learning include associationism,
connectionism, classical conditioning, and operant conditioning.

• Social cognitive theorists propose that both humans and animals learn
through imitation, modelling and observation.

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

20 X TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

Learning Maturation
Reflexes Reflex arc
Learning theories Behaviourism
Cognitivism Constructivism
Social cognitive theory

acunix.wheatonma.edu. (n.d.). Learning. Retrieved from http://acunix.
wheatonma.edu/kmorgan/Animal_Behavior_Class/learning.html

BBC. (n.d.). Nervous system ă Reflexes. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.
uk/science/humanbody/body/factfiles/reflexes/html„Psychology for the
Millions‰.

Brewer, W. F. (n.d.). Learning theory: Historical overview. Retrieved from
http://www.answers. com/topic/learning-theory-historical-overview

csmbio.csm.jmu.edu. (n.d.). Reflexes. Retrieved from http://csm.jmu.edu/
biology/danie2jc/reflex.htm

Driscoll, M. P. (2004). Psychology of learning for instruction. Massachusetts, MA:
Allyn and Bacon.

Klein, S. B. (2002). Learning: Principles and applications (4th ed.). Boston, MA:
McGraw Hill.

Learning-Theories.com. (n.d.). Summaries of learning theories and models.
Retrieved from http://www.learning-theories.com/

Mann, M. D. (2011). Reflexes. Retrieved from http://www.unmc.edu/
physiology/Mann/mann15.html

Merriam-Webster On-line Dictionary. (n.d.). Learning. Retrieved from http://
www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/learning

Smith, M. K. (2003). ÂLearning theoryÊ the encyclopaedia of informal education.
Retrieved from http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-learn.htm

Woolfolk, A. (2005). Educational psychology (9th ed.). Massachusetts, MA: Allyn
and Bacon.

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic X Behavioural

2 Psychology
and Learning

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain PavlovÊs contribution to psychology;
2. Describe PavlovÊs classic laboratory experiment;
3. Discuss the classical conditioning model;
4. Explain the conditioning of emotional responses;
5. Identify four classical conditioning phenomena; and
INTRO6.DUCETxaIOmNine the educational implications of classical conditioning in

the classroom.

X INTRODUCTION

„Science demands from a man all his life. If you had two lives that
would not be enough for you. Be passionate in your work and in your
searching.‰

ă Ivan Pavlov

The behavioural approaches of learning focus on the importance of making
connections or associations between experiences and behaviour. Two such
approaches are:
(a) Classical Conditioning; and
(b) Operant Conditioning.

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

22 X TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURAL PSYCHOLOGY AND LEARNING

In this topic, we will examine the first behavioural approach, that is, classical
conditioning.

The following sections in this topic will examine in greater detail PavlovÊs work
on classical conditioning. We are going to learn about:
(a) Ivan PavlovÊs life and his classic experiment in the laboratory with his dogs;
(b) The basic classical conditioning model and the three steps involved in the

classical conditioning process;
(c) The conditioning of emotional responses such as phobias focussing

on systematic desensitisation or counter conditioning, and aversive
conditioning; and
(d) Four phenomena associated with classical conditioning, such as
spontaneous recovery, generalisation, discrimination, and higher-order
conditioning.

The educational implications of classical conditioning in the classroom.

2.1 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: PAVLOV’S
WORK

Is the name Ivan Pavlov familiar? Most of us would have heard about this
Russian physiologist who trained his dogs to respond by salivating to the sound
of bells that signalled the delivery of food. This concept later became known as
classical conditioning.

Before you examine PavlovÊs work on classical conditioning, it is important for
you to read some background information about his life.

Ivan Pavlov (1849ă1936)
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov as shown in Figure 2.1 was born on 14 September 1849 in
Ryazan, Russia. He first furthered his studies in religion but later abandoned it
for the natural sciences in 1870. Later, his interest turned to physiology where he
spent much of his time doing extensive research. Amongst some of his noted
contributions include the physiology of the pancreatic nerves, and the trophic
function of the nervous system. He is especially remembered for his work on the
physiology of digestion for which he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1904.
During the course of his work to determine the laws governing digestion, he
``accidentallyÊÊ discovered the science of conditioned reflexes. This accidental but
important discovery proved to be a milestone for behaviourism.

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURAL PSYCHOLOGY AND LEARNING W 23

Figure 2.1: Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849ă1936)
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ivan_Pavlov
Today, much of PavlovÊs work is cited in the writings of behaviourists and used
by researchers in the study of conditioning as a form of learning. Throughout his
professional life, he devoted his time to producing world class physiological
institutions and distinguished physiologists to carry on his work in this field.
Pavlov helped found the Department of Physiology at the Institute of
Experimental Medicine where he worked for 45 years. Pavlov died in Leningrad
on 27 February 1936.

2.2 PAVLOV’S CLASSIC EXPERIMENT

In his classic experiment of the conditioning process, Pavlov first implanted a
tube, known as a fistula, into a dogÊs salivary glands. This tube enabled him to
collect saliva secreted by the dog. The dog, which had been deprived of food,
was kept in the apparatus shown in Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2: PavlovÊs salivary-conditioning apparatus
Source: (Klein, 2002)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

24 X TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURAL PSYCHOLOGY AND LEARNING

It was harnessed to prevent it from moving around. When Pavlov presented the
dog with meat powder, it immediately salivated. As you know, this is a dogÊs
inborn response to food; it does not need to learn to salivate at the sight of food.
Next, he made a sound using a metronome and then placed some meat powder
into the hungry dogÊs mouth. Likewise, the dog salivated. He repeated the
pairings of the metronome sound with the meat powder a number of times. Each
time the dog salivated. Later, he discovered that the metronome sound alone was
able to elicit salivation in the dog. From these observation findings, Pavlov began
to ask himself this question: Why was a reflexive response such as salivation to
food being exhibited to the ticking of a metronome, that by itself would not
normally produce that response? He concluded that salivation to this stimulus
had been a learned response or a conditioned reflex and not just a reflexive
response. The dog had learned to associate the metronome sound with the food
that had initially triggered the response.
Diagrammatically, an unconditioned reflex and a conditioned reflex is
represented in Figure 2.3:

Figure 2.3: Diagrammatic representation of unconditioned reflex
and conditioned reflex

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURAL PSYCHOLOGY AND LEARNING W 25

In his other experiments, Pavlov paired various neutral stimuli with the
placement of food in the dogÊs mouth. These stimuli included the ringing of a
bell, the food dish, the individual who brought food into the room and the sound
of the door closing when the food arrived. After several repeated pairings, these
sounds and sights alone caused salivation in the dog. This process of classical
conditioning is typically known as excitation. It explains how learning occurs
through an organismÊs ability to form associations and in the presence of reflexes.
Interestingly, when Pavlov stopped the pairing of the sounds or sights with the
food, he discovered that the salivation response eventually stopped. He called
this extinction.
Figure 2.4 shows the amount of saliva produced in response to the conditioned
stimulus (CS) for the two different phases, which are:
(a) Acquisition [Figure 2.4 (a)]
(b) Extinction [Figure 2.4 (b)]

Figure 2.4: Comparison of the production of salivation during acquisition
and extinction trials

Source: http://wps.prenhall.com/ca_ph_wade_psychology_2/46/11888/3043572.cw/
content/index.html

From the graphs presented in Figure 2.4, you can see that with repeated pairings
of the CS with unconditioned stimulus (US) during acquisition trials, salivation
increased from 10 to 14 drops, with slight fluctuations. In comparison, when the
CS is presented alone during extinction trials, there was a marked decrease in
salivation from 11 drops to almost no production at all.

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

26 X TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURAL PSYCHOLOGY AND LEARNING

ACTIVITY 2.1

1. Visit this website: http://nobelprize.org/educational_games/
medicine/pavlov/about.html

2. Follow the instructions on how to play this educational game
about Pavlovian conditioning.
(a) Were you successful at training PavlovÊs dog to respond to
a signal that was associated with it being fed? Why? Why
not?
(b) What have you learnt about a conditioned reflex?

2.3 THE BASIC CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
MODEL

The classical conditioning model is derived from the findings of PavlovÊs
experiments. In the previous section, you have learnt that classical conditioning
is a type of learning in which an organism learns to connect, or associate stimuli.
Figure 2.5 will help you understand PavlovÊs classical conditioning model.
Briefly, you must be able to distinguish between two types of stimuli and two
types of responses: namely, unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response,
conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response.

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURAL PSYCHOLOGY AND LEARNING W 27

Figure 2.5: Types of stimuli and responses
Based on Figure 2.5, you can infer that both the unconditioned stimulus and the
unconditioned response are two components of an unlearned, inborn reflex: the
trigger, and its result. The conditioned stimulus, on the other hand, is a stimulus
that is neutral with respect to the unconditioned response. In other words, on its
own, it does not trigger that particular response. However, at the same time, a
conditioned stimulus is not really a neutral stimulus. Rather, it is a novel
stimulus as it often causes an orienting response on the animalÊs part. This is
because organisms tend to pay attention to new things.
Basically, the classical conditioning model explains the process in three steps as
shown in Figure 2.6.

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

28 X TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURAL PSYCHOLOGY AND LEARNING

Figure 2.6: Three steps in classical conditioning model

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURAL PSYCHOLOGY AND LEARNING W 29

SELF-CHECK 2.1

Define and give examples of each of the following:
(a) Unconditioned stimulus (UCS);
(b) Unconditioned response (UCR);
(c) Conditioned stimulus (CS); and
(d) Conditioned response (CR).

2.4 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING OF
EMOTIONAL RESPONSES

Figure 2.7: John B. Watson
Source: usu.edu/psycho101/lec...tory.htm
In 1920, John B. Watson (Refer to Figure 2.7) took PavlovÊs work on classical
conditioning one step further. He wanted to show that emotional responses
could be conditioned, or learned. Together with his assistant, Rosalie Rayner,
they carried out the „Little Albert‰ experiment that became a landmark study for
psychology. At that time, psychologists were still not used to the idea that
emotional responses could be conditioned. The findings of this study paved the
way for further research by other psychologists interested in this field.
In their experimental study, Watson and Rayner endeavoured to find answers to
three questions. Let us see what the questions are.
(a) Can an infant be conditioned to fear an animal that appeared at the same
time as a loud, fear-provoking sound?
(b) Can such a fear be transferred to other animals or inanimate objects?
(c) How long would such fears sustain?

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

30 X TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURAL PSYCHOLOGY AND LEARNING

The subject under study was a healthy nine-month-old infant named Albert B.
who underwent a number of tests to prove that he was not fearful of a number of
live animals, such as a rat, a rabbit, a dog, and a monkey, as well as various
inanimate objects, that included cotton, human masks, and a burning newspaper.
However, Watson and Rayner observed that Albert showed some signs of fear
whenever a long steel bar was unexpectedly struck with a claw hammer just
behind his back as shown in Figure 2.8.

Figure 2.8: AlbertÊs Reaction
Source: pbs-kkbi.blogspot.com
Two months later, they started to condition Little Albert to fear a white rat.
Under RaynerÊs supervision, little Albert played with the rat. In the meantime,
Watson stood behind him with his hammer and steel bar. Every time Little
Albert reached for the rat, Watson smacked the bar with the hammer. After seven
pairings of the rat and noise in two sessions held one week apart, Albert started
crying and reacted with avoidance even when the rat was presented without the
loud noise as shown in Figure 2.9.

Figure 2.9: Albert and the rat
Source: flavinscorner.com

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURAL PSYCHOLOGY AND LEARNING W 31

Table 2.1 outlines the process before and after conditioning based on the
principles of the classical conditioning model.

Table 2.1: Before and After Conditioning

Conditioning phase Process
Before conditioning
• The white rat is a neutral stimulus (NS);
After conditioning • The loud noise is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS); and
• AlbertÊs fear is the unconditioned response (UCR).

• The white rat becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS); and
• AlbertÊs fear becomes a conditioned reflex (CR).

Figure 2.10: Albert and Santa Claus mask
Source: waronyou.com

Next, Watson attempted to test if Albert showed generalisation of his fear
response. Five days later, the following live animals and other inanimate objects
were laid in front of him: the rat, a set of familiar wooden blocks, a rabbit, a
short—haired dog, a sealskin coat, a package of white cotton, the heads of Watson
and two assistants (inverted so that Albert could touch their hair), and a bearded
Santa Claus mask. It was observed that Albert seemed to show a strong fear
response to the rat, the rabbit, the dog, and the sealskin coat; a „negative‰
response to the mask and WatsonÊs hair; and a mild response to the cotton. In
addition, Albert also played freely with the wooden blocks and the hair of
WatsonÊs assistants.

In order to discover the sustainability of conditioned emotional responses over
time, Watson and Rayner conducted a final series of tests on Albert after 31 days
of neither conditioning nor extinction trials. They observed that Albert showed
fear when touching the Santa Claus mask, the sealskin coat, the rat, the rabbit,
and the dog. At the same time, however, he initiated contact with the coat and
the rabbit. Soon after, AlbertÊs mother removed him from the hospital where the
experiment had been conducted.

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

32 X TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURAL PSYCHOLOGY AND LEARNING

[Please visit this website to watch a video clip about „little Albert‰]
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iYElUVByBGc

Based on the „little Albert‰ experiment, we can conclude that:

(a) Human beings can learn to fear seemingly unimportant stimuli when these
stimuli are associated with unpleasant experiences.

In other words, classical conditioning can cause us to develop phobias that
are irrational or excessive fears of specific objects or situations. In addition,
classical conditioning can also explain many emotional responses ă such as
anxiety, grief, sadness, anger, and happiness ă that humans have to
associate specific stimuli to. For example:

(i) A five-year-old child who has experienced excitement sitting on a
roller coaster may even feel excited just by looking at a picture of a
roller coaster in a tourist magazine.

(ii) A daughter who is married and living overseas feels pangs of
homesickness when she reads an email from her mother; in fact, the
mere sight of her motherÊs name which appears in the Inbox may
already have elicited such feelings.

(b) Besides the treatment of phobias, classical conditioning procedures are also
used to treat unwanted behaviours, such as alcoholism and drug
addictions. As an example:

(i) In a treatment for alcoholism, patients were first given an alcoholic
beverage to drink. They were then given a drug to take that produces
nausea. After repeated pairings of alcohol and the drug, they felt
nauseated even at the sight or smell of the alcohol and made a
decision to stop drinking it altogether.

Nevertheless, the effectiveness of the aversive conditioning technique,
as it is called, varies depending on the individualÊs needs and his
decision to stop the problem behaviour.

Another notable study using the principles of classical conditioning to treat
phobias was conducted by Jones (in Krause, Bochner & Duchesne, 2007). He
attempted to eliminate fear of white rabbits in a young boy, called Peter. In this
study, Peter was first of all asked to sit on a high chair and served his favourite
food. As he was eating, a white rabbit was brought in a small cage as near to him
as was possible, without distracting him. This process was repeated with the
white rabbit (CS) always presented at the same time that Peter was eating his
favourite food (US) until PeterÊs fear response (CR) decreased.

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURAL PSYCHOLOGY AND LEARNING W 33

Wolpe (in Schunk, 2000) used systematic desensitisation to treat individuals
especially adults with debilitating fears or phobias. This technique consists of
three phases as summarised in Table 2.2.

Table 2.2: Phases of Systematic Desensitisation

Phase Example

Phase 1: The Test-anxiety:
therapist and client
prepare an anxiety Low-anxiety situations ă hearing a test announcement in class,
hierarchy of collecting study materials such as reference books, notes, and
situations from so on.
least to most
anxiety-provoking Moderate anxiety situations ă studying and doing revision the
for the client night before, walking to the examination hall on the day of the
examination.
Phase 2: The client
is taught to relax High-anxiety situations ă reading the test questions in the
using imagery and examination hall and mind going blank for a short while.
cues
Imagery ă The client is asked to imagine pleasant scenes such
Phase 3: The client as walking through a field of beautiful flowers, reading a book
working on the by the beach, fishing by the countryside, and so on.
task
Cues ă The client learns to use cues to initiate relaxation, for
example by saying „relax‰, „donÊt panic‰, „just take a deep
breath‰, and so on.

In a relaxed state, the client is asked to imagine the least
anxious scene in the hierarchy. After several repetitions, the
client moves on to the next scene. The process is repeated until
the client can imagine the most anxiety-provoking scene
without feeling anxious. If anxiety is reported for a particular
scene, then the client reverses back down the hierarchy to a
scene that makes him feel calm and comfortable.

Generally, the individual is trained to produce antagonistic responses to the
anxiety-provoking situations, typically known as progressive relaxation. Next he
is required to imagine these situations while feeling relaxed. In some cases, real-
life exposures are presented for optimal desensitisation.

Applying the principles of Pavlovian conditioning, desensitisation involves
counter-conditioning. The relaxing scenes (UCS) that the individual imagines
produce relaxation (UCR). Anxiety-producing cues (CS) are then paired with the
relaxing scenes. However, relaxation and anxiety are two antagonistic feelings.
Therefore, it is important that a weak anxiety cue is first paired with relaxation,
slowly progressing up the hierarchy of anxiety-provoking situations until all
these situations eventually elicit relaxation (CR).

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)