ABPK3203 Psychology of Learning cAug14(rs)(M)

34 X TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURAL PSYCHOLOGY AND LEARNING

It has been found that although systematic desensitisation has been rather
effective in the management of adult phobias, the same cannot be applied to the
treatment of childhood phobias. One of the reasons could be due to the fact that
relaxation training can be fairly demanding and tedious for children.

SELF-CHECK 2.2

1. In your opinion, would „Little Albert‰ have grown up scared of
white furry objects as a result of the experiment conducted by
Watson and Rayner? Explain your view.

2. Using one phobia as an example, describe how you would use
systematic desensitisation to treat the phobia.

2.5 ADDITIONAL CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
PHENOMENA

In this section you will learn about four additional classical conditioning
phenomena such as spontaneous recovery, stimulus generalisation, stimulus
discrimination, and higher-order conditioning. Table 2.3 gives a brief description
of how each of these four phenomena occurs.

Phenomenon Table 2.3: Classical Conditioning Phenomena
Spontaneous
recovery Occurrence

Stimulus When the CS is not presented after a rest period or a period of
generalisation lessened response, the CR apparently disappears. Nevertheless,
subsequent presentation of the CS will bring about the CR. The
CR is said to have spontaneously recovered from extinction.
However, a recovered CR will not sustain unless the CS is
presented again. Repeated pairings of the CS with the UCS will
then restore the CR to its full strength.

The tendency for the CR to respond to stimuli similar to the CS.
For example, if a dog has been conditioned to salivate in
response to a metronome ticking at 80 beats per minute, it will
also very likely salivate to a metronome ticking faster or slower.
The same response may also be evoked with other equipment
which produces a ticking sound such as ticking clocks or timers.
Generalisation, however, will not occur if the new stimulus is
different from the CS. For example, if a police siren is used.

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Stimulus The dog responds to only one particular CS, and not to other
discrimination similar stimuli. For example, the dog salivates only to the sound
of an ice-cream bell, but not to the sound of an alarm clock, a
Higher order buzzer or an electric bell. The dog is able to tell the difference
conditioning between all these different bell tones.

A CS functions as an UCS. For example, a dog has been
conditioned to salivate to a metronome ticking at 80 beats per
minute. A new neutral stimulus, such as a buzzer is first
sounded for a few seconds followed by the ticking metronome.
If, after a few attempts, the dog salivates to the sound of the
buzzer, the buzzer has become a second-order CS.

In order to help you understand better the concept of stimulus generalisation and
stimulus discrimination, let us consider a classroom situation.

May gets a harsh scolding from her father for her poor performance in a recent
Physics test. When she is preparing for her Chemistry test, she becomes very
tense and anxious as these two subjects are both Science subjects. In other words,
MayÊs anxiety generalises from taking a test in one subject to taking a test in
another. However, when May is preparing for her History test, she does not
become so anxious as History is a very different subject area. This means May is
able to discriminate between the Science and the Arts subjects.

SELF-CHECK 2.3

1. Identify factors that can affect the strength of a classically
conditioned response.

2. Give examples of spontaneous recovery, stimulus generalisation,
stimulus discrimination, and higher order conditioning in
classical conditioning.

2.6 EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

In everyday life, it is common to see examples of classical conditioning in
animals. For example, your cat may come running to you when she sees you
holding her food dish, or your dog may start wagging his tail when he sees you
approaching the kennel door. In humans, examples of classical conditioning is
also evident in child-rearing practices. Take the example of a parent who gives

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36 X TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURAL PSYCHOLOGY AND LEARNING

his child a cold, icy stare just to quieten his tantrum-throwing in public. Children
sometimes use classical conditioning on their parents. For example, when they
complain that they feel sick, they receive special attention.

What are some of the educational implications of classical conditioning in the
classroom?
(a) Learners must be given educational opportunities to practise and master a

task effectively before embarking on another one. In other words, a learner
needs to be able to respond to a particular stimulus (academic information)
before he can associate himself to new information. The traditional practise
of drill and mathematical concepts such as multiplication tables;
(b) Teachers should be aware of the importance of motivating their learners
to learn. They are encouraged to possess a repertoire of strategies and
techniques that can stimulate learnersÊ thinking as well as enhance active
participation in teaching and learning activities in the classroom; and
(c) Teachers should make an effort to pair stimulus in the classroom with
a positive response. For example, learners should be provided with the
necessary resources in the form of study materials to create good feelings
about learning. However, teachers sometimes use classical conditioning
unintentionally in the classroom. They often subject learners to negative
feedback and humiliation through constant correction of their mistakes,
such as in a reading class. This will most likely result in them losing their
self-confidence and subsequently withdrawing from participating in
classroom activities. Rather, learners should be given the opportunity to
involve themselves in academic tasks that create and encourage pleasant
emotions, such as enthusiasm, excitement and achievement.

SELF-CHECK 2.4

In your own words, explain a positive classroom application using
the principle of classical conditioning.

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• The behavioural approaches to learning, namely, classical conditioning and
operant conditioning focus on the importance of making connections or
associations between experiences and behaviour.

• Ivan Petrovich Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, was an eminent proponent of
classical conditioning.

• Classical conditioning explains how learning occurs through an organismÊs
ability to form associations and in the presence of reflexes.

• PavlovÊs classical conditioning model emphasises two types of stimuli and
two types of responses, namely, unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned
response, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response.

• An unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is a stimulus that, unconditionally, will
produce a predictable response.

• An unconditioned response (UCR) is a response that, unconditionally, is
produced by an unconditioned stimulus.

• A conditioned stimulus (CS) is a stimulus that will produce a predictable
response because of its previous pairing with a previously occurring reflex.

• A conditioned response (CR) is a predictable response to a stimulus that has
influence because of its previous pairing with a previously occurring reflex.

• Watson demonstrated the power of conditioning emotional responses as well
as stimulus generalisation in the famous „little Albert‰ experiment.

• Systematic desensitisation is a common technique used in the treatment of
phobia in adults.

• Extinction: a response gradually disappears when the stimulus is not
presented over a certain period of time.

• Spontaneous recovery: a response to a previous stimulus after a lapse of time.

• Stimulus generalisation: response evoked to stimuli that are similar or
related.

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38 X TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURAL PSYCHOLOGY AND LEARNING

• Stimulus discrimination: response elicited to only one particular stimulus and
not to other similar stimuli.

• Higher-order conditioning: A conditioned stimulus functions as an
unconditioned stimulus.

• Classical conditioning provides educational implications in the classroom.

Behaviourism Phobias
Classical conditioning Spontaneous recovery
Conditioned response Stimulus discrimination
Conditioned stimulus Stimulus generalisation
Excitation Systematic desensitisation
Extinction Unconditioned response
Higher-order conditioning Unconditioned stimulus

acunix.wheatonma.edu. (n.d.). Learning. Retrived from http://acunix.
wheatonma.edu/kmorgan/Animal_Behavior_Class/learning.html

Krause, K., Bochner, S., & Duchesne, S. (2007). Educational psychology
forlearning and teaching. (2nd ed). Victoria: Nelson Australia Pty Limited.

Mahto, R. A. (n.d.). Classical conditioning and operant conditioning: Potential
tools for classroom management. Retrieved from http://mrdwab.com/
works/2006-03-25-classical-conditioning.html

Nobelprize.org. (2014). Ivan Pavlov-Biographical. Retrieved from http://
nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1904/pavlov-bio.html

Schunk, D. H. (2004). Learning theories: An educational perspective (4th ed.).
New Jersey, NJ: Merrill.

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TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURAL PSYCHOLOGY AND LEARNING W 39
Shareeducation.com. (2004). Early behaviourism & classical conditioning.

Retrieved from http://www.shareeducation.com.ar/compendium/news6.
htm
University of Louisiana. (1998). The basic findings in classical conditioning.
Retrieved from http://www.ucs.louisiana.edu/~cgc2646/LRN/Chap2.html
Van Wagner, K. (nd). Ivan Pavlov biography (1849ă1936). Retrieved from:
http://psychology.about.com/od/profilesofmajorthinkers/p/pavlov.htm
Watson, J. B., & Rayner, R. (1920). Conditional Emotional Reactions (Electronic
Version). Journal of experimental psychology, 3(1), 1ă14.
www3.niu.edu. (n.d.). Ivan Pavlov. Retrieved from http://www3.niu.edu/acad/
psych/Millis/History/2003/con_Pavlov.htm

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Topic X Operant

3 Conditioning

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain operant conditioning;
2. Distinguish between classical conditioning and operant

conditioning;
3. Describe the conditions essential for operant conditioning to occur;
4. Explain different types of reinforcers;
5. Differentiate between reinforcement and punishment;
6. Explain different reinforcement schedules;
INTR7O. DUDCTisIcOuNss the nature and effect of punishment; and
8. Identify operant conditioning phenomena in teaching and learning.

X INTRODUCTION

„The consequences of behaviour determine the probability that the
behaviour will occur again‰

ă B. F. Skinner

In this topic, we shall examine another form of learning proposed by
behaviourists, that is, operant conditioning. If you recall, classical conditioning
illustrates S-R (Stimulus-Response) learning. Operant conditioning, however, is
seen as R-S (Response-Stimulus) learning. This is because it is the consequence
that determines whether a particular response is likely or unlikely to occur again.
In other words, learning is the result of consequences where learners begin to
connect certain responses with certain stimuli. This connection causes the
probability of the response to change.

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Before we go any further with this topic, let us study the work and contributions
of two leading proponents of operant conditioning through their experiments; the
Thorndike Experiments and the Skinner Experiments. The two psychologists
responsible for these experiments are Edward L. Thorndike and B. F. Skinner.
From there we can get an idea of what operant conditioning is and how the
experiments contribute to operant conditioning. After that, we can compare it
with classical conditioning from the previous topic and attempt to analyse the
types of reinforcers and its phenomena.

3.1 THORNDIKE’S EXPERIMENTS

Who is Edward Lee Thorndike?

Figure 3.1: Edward Lee Thorndike
Source: http://digitalgallery.nypl.org
Thorndike was a psychologist (refer to Figure 3.1) who liked to do experiments
on animals for behavioural study. In this section, we will learn about one of his
experiments, which involved cats.
Thorndike conducted a series of experiments with cats using a modified form of
WatsonÊs puzzle box as illustrated in Figure 3.2.

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Figure 3.2: ThorndikeÊs puzzle box
Source: http://www.csus.edu

He substituted the latch with a foot pedal so that if the cat stepped on it, the door
of the cage opened. Thorndike was interested to find out how quickly it learned
to perform this response in order to get free. This type of learning is commonly
known as escape learning.
Initially, he observed that the cat made a number of ineffective responses, such as
clawing, biting at the bars and pushing its paw through the openings. After some
attempts, it accidentally stepped on the treadle, which immediately thrust open
the door bolt. When he put the cat into the box again, it repeated the same
random movements until it succeeded in stepping on the treadle. As the
experiment proceeded, Thorndike observed that the cat made fewer and fewer
random movements until it quickly clawed on the treadle upon being put into the
puzzle box.
From these experiments, Thorndike concluded that learning occurred through
trial and error. Although the cat initially made many wrong and ineffective
responses, it eventually learned to repeat those that produced desirable results.
Based on these conclusions, he proposed three theories of learning as outlined in
Table 3.1.

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Table 3.1: ThorndikeÊs Theories of Learning

Theory of Learning Elaboration Example
Law of Readiness
An organism will act A two-year-old child is not ready
when it is ready to do so. to attend pre-school. Forcing him
to do so will be stressful for both
him and his parents.

Law of Exercise The strength of a A learner who is weak in
Law of Effect connection between a Mathematics is likely to improve
stimulus and a response if he consistently does revision
depends on the questions.
frequency of the
connection. In other A learner is always in the habit of
words, the connection is handing in his assignments late.
strengthened through He completes his assignment on
use (or practice) and time, and the teacher praises him
weakened through in front of his peers. The teacherÊs
disuse. response has produced a
desirable effect. In future, this
Behaviours followed by learner will very likely meet the
positive outcomes are assignment deadline, perhaps he
strengthened, whereas might even beat his peers to it.
behaviours followed by
negative outcomes are
weakened.

Based on his observations, Thorndike produced a learning curve showing the
number of seconds the animal took to escape on each trial (refer to Figure 3.3). He
discovered that it was similar to the acquisition curve for classical conditioning
that you have studied in Topic 2. Generally, the curve was a gentle S shape that
explained that, at first, the cat performed poorly. Its performance them improved
remarkably and quickly, until it reached peak performance when it then tailed
off.

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44 X TOPIC 3 OPERANT CONDITIONING

Figure 3.3: ThorndikeÊs learning curve
Source: http://genetics.biozentrum.uni-wuerzburg.de

3.2 SKINNER’S EXPERIMENTS

Skinner (Figure 3.4) renamed ThorndikeÊs instrumental learning as operant
where the organism is „operating‰ on the environment thus causing it to be
influenced by it.

Figure 3.4: B. F. Skinner
Source: http://kentsimmons.uwinnipeg.ca
In his experiments, he used a box known as The Skinner Box (see Figure 3.5). This
is a special cage with a lever on one wall which, when pressed, releases a food
pellet into the cage. When Skinner placed a rat in the cage, it moved around
freely exploring its surroundings. At some point, it accidentally pressed the lever
and a food pellet dropped from the food dispenser into the cage. The hungry rat

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quickly ate the pellet and then continuously pressed the lever to obtain more food
pellets.

Figure 3.5: The SkinnerÊs Box
According to Skinner, the operant is the behaviour just prior to the reinforcer,
(food pellet). Thus, if a behaviour is followed by a reinforcing stimulus, it
increases the probability of that behaviour occurring in the future.
Next, Skinner turned off the food dispenser so that no more food pellets dropped
from it despite the ratÊs repeated pressings of the lever. He observed that after
several futile attempts, the rat stopped his lever-pressing behaviour. In other
words, extinction of the operant behaviour had occurred. Skinner concluded that
if a behaviour is no longer reinforced by a reinforcing stimulus, it decreases the
probability of that behaviour occurring in the future.
Then, Skinner turned on the food dispenser once again, so that pressing the lever
produced pellets for the rat. The ratÊs lever-pressing behaviour resumed. In fact,
Skinner noted that it took a shorter time to learn the behaviour the second time
compared with the first time. This meant that the rat had learned that if it pressed
the lever, it would be provided with food pellets.
Skinner also added variations to his experiments. He linked the release of food
pellets with light. When the rat pressed the lever with the light switch on, food
pellets dropped from the food dispenser. This did not happen when the light
switch was turned off. Skinner discovered that the rat exhibited the lever-
pressing behaviour in the presence of the light, but not otherwise. This
demonstrated that the rat was able to recognise the light as a discriminative

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stimulus. It was able to distinguish between pressing the lever with the light on
and off.

SELF-CHECK 3.1

Explain the contributions of Thorndike and Skinner to operant
conditioning.

3.3 OUTCOMES OF OPERANT CONDITIONING

The outcomes of operant conditioning depend on the following three factors:

(a) Its purpose, that is, to increase or decrease the probability that a specific
behaviour will occur in the future;

(b) The type of stimuli used, that is, positive/pleasant or negative/aversive;
and

(c) The type of action taken, that is, adding or removing the stimulus.

Table 3.2 shows the four outcomes of conditioning, namely (a) positive
reinforcement; (b) negative reinforcement; (c) response cost; and (d) punishment.

Table 3.2: Outcomes of Conditioning

Positive Stimulus Increase Behaviour Decrease Behaviour
Negative Stimulus
Positive Reinforcement Response Cost
(add stimulus) (remove stimulus)

Negative Reinforcement Punishment
(remove stimulus) (add stimulus)

From the table, you can conclude that when you want to increase the probability
of a certain behaviour occurring, you either add a positive stimulus (positive
reinforcement), or remove the negative stimulus (negative reinforcement).

Similarly, when you wish to decrease the probability of a certain behaviour
occurring, you can either remove the positive stimulus (response
cost/extinction), or add a negative stimulus (punishment). The three terms,
which are positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and punishment will
be dealt with in greater detail later in this topic.

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ACTIVITY 3.1

Based on what you have learnt about the different outcomes of operant
conditioning, give examples of positive reinforcement, negative
reinforcement, response cost and punishment in the classroom.

3.4 DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING AND OPERANT
CONDITIONING

In the previous section, you studied about operant conditioning. How does it
differ from classical conditioning? If you remember, classical conditioning was
developed in Russia, whereas operant conditioning had its beginnings in
America. Classical conditioning, also known as respondent conditioning, is
associated with PavlovÊs dog. In comparison, operant conditioning which is also
known as instrumental conditioning, is typically associated with SkinnerÊs Box.

Table 3.3 summarises the differences between classical conditioning and operant
conditioning based on the following aspects.

Table 3.3: Differences between Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning

Aspect Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning
Key Concept
• The organism learns an • The organism learns an
Biological Basis association between two association between the
stimuli ă the conditioned behaviour and its
Occurrence stimulus (CS) and the consequences.
unconditioned stimulus
(UCS) that occurs before the • Behaviour changes because of
behaviour. events that occur after it.

• Likely to involve the • Likely to involve the
autonomic nervous system peripheral nervous system
and smooth muscles. and skeletal muscles.

• Works with involuntary • Works with voluntary
behaviour. behaviour.

• Involves anticipatory • Involves an operant where a
biological responses behaviour is reinforced or
triggered by a signal. punished.

• The response is elicited or • The response is said to be
drawn out of the organism. emitted.

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Nature of • The response does not have • The response has a
Response a consequence. consequence where it
produces the reinforcer.
Role of Learner • The contingency is between
Incentive for the CS and the US. • The contingency is between
Learning the response and the
• The response need not be reinforcer.
made for the US to be
presented. • The response needs to be
made for the reinforcer to be
• Learner is passive. presented.

• No provision for incentives • Learner is active.

• Reinforcers act as incentives
for learning

In most instances, both classical conditioning and operant conditioning cannot
always be conceptually distinct as these two processes occur simultaneously
within the organism. To illustrate further, each successful reinforcement that
occurs in operant conditioning (for example, food pellet for the rat) also triggers a
reflex, such as salivation in the hungry cat when it sees the food.

SELF-CHECK 3.2

Explain how classical conditioning differs from operant conditioning.

3.5 CONDITIONS ESSENTIAL FOR OPERANT
CONDITIONING TO OCCUR

Having learnt about operant conditioning at the beginning of this topic, can you
explain under what conditions it will happen? Behaviourists propose the
following three conditions:

(a) The Organism has to Make a Response
In other words, the organism has to be actively involved in the process. In
the classroom context, this implies that the active learners are more likely
to learn better compared to the passive ones who make no attempt to
respond to the teacherÊs questions. Behaviourists argue that learnersÊ
accomplishments are also minimal when they just sit and listen passively to
the teacher.

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(b) A Reinforcer Must Follow the Response Immediately
In fact, the reinforcer should, preferably, be given immediately after the
response is exhibited. According to behaviourists, the closer the reinforcer
occurs to the response, the more effective it will be. In the context of the
classroom, a teacher should immediately give praise to learners who
demonstrate a desired behaviour, such as raising their hands to give a
correct answer.

(c) The Reinforcer Must be Appropriate with and Linked to the Response
Behaviourists also emphasise that the reinforcer should not be given when
the desired response is not emitted. In the classroom context, a teacher
allows learners who have completed their deskwork to go to the reading
corner. Those who have not done so, however, are not allowed access as
they are not deserving of that privilege.

SELF-CHECK 3.3

1. Explain the conditions essential for operant conditioning to occur.
2. For each of the above conditions, give one example in the

classroom context.

3.6 TYPES OF REINFORCERS

A reinforcer is any consequence that maintains a desired behaviour or increases
the rate and probability that a particular behaviour will occur in the future.
Generally, reinforcers that are usually used to reward a positive behaviour fall
into two categories: primary and secondary as shown in Figure 3.6.

Figure 3.6: Types of reinforcers

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(a) Primary Reinforcer
A primary reinforcer is a naturally occurring, unlearned, or unconditioned
stimulus that is innately rewarding for the organism. It also has some
biological importance, such as survival. Sometimes, it is known as an
unconditioned reinforcer as it is a stimulus that does not need pairing to
function. Examples of primary reinforcers are food, air, water, sleep, shelter,
warmth and sensory stimulation. Typically, primary reinforcers are used
with young children as they can be very effective in forming new
behaviours quickly.

(b) Secondary Reinforcer
In comparison, a secondary reinforcer is not naturally occurring as it is a
learned reward and does not have any biological importance. It is known as
a conditioned reinforcer as it is a previously neutral stimulus that has been
associated with another reinforcer. This association thus makes it
reinforcing to the organism.

Secondary reinforcers can be divided into four categories. They are:

(i) Concrete/Material
A tangible item is given for displaying a target behaviour. For
example, snacks, stickers, tokens, release from homework passes, ice-
cream coupons, gift vouchers, prizes, and so on.

(ii) Social
An intangible item is given for displaying a target behaviour. It is
usually in the form of a gesture that communicates positive regard
from peers and other significant adults. For example, attention, verbal
praises, compliments, approval, appreciation, a pleasing smile, and so
on that is given by peers and other significant adults.

(iii) Activity
An opportunity that is given to engage in a favourite activity. For
example, learners who have completed their deskwork are allowed to
watch an educational video, go to the reading corner, play
educational games on the computer, and so on.

(iv) Intrinsic
Good feelings are generated internally as a result of giving a certain
response. For example, a learner who has finally completed a difficult
assignment, finished a challenging project, and so on feels a sense of
satisfaction.

In conclusion, it is important to note that both primary and secondary reinforcers
are usually given together the first time a positive behaviour occurs. For example,

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a teacher praises a learner for showing an exemplary behaviour. She says, „Good
boy‰ (secondary reinforcer), and at the same time gives him a packet of M&Ms
Chocolate Beans (primary reinforcer). However, over time, the M&Ms can
gradually be phased out, and words of praise alone will then become an effective
reinforcer.

3.6.1 The Premack Principle

Many young children will probably be familiar with ÂGrandmaÊs ruleÊ, which
says: „First you have to eat up all your vegetables and then you can have your
ice-cream „(Krause, Bochner & Duchesne, 2007:138). What Grandma means is
that, „If you do what I want, then you can do what you want‰. Conceptually, it
means that things or activities that an individual likes and often does can be used
as positive reinforcers for the things or activities that do not occur frequently or
are less enjoyable. In simple terms, a high frequency activity can be used to
reinforce a low frequency behaviour.

In the classroom context, the teacher can determine the kind of high frequency
behaviour to use as a reinforcer using the guidelines below:
(a) Asking students what they prefer to do;
(b) Observing students during their free time; or
(c) Determine what might be expected behaviour for a specific age group.

3.6.2 Reinforcement and Punishment

The term „reinforcement‰ indicates a process that strengthens a positive
behaviour, whereas „punishment‰ is a process that aims to weaken a negative
behaviour.

There are two types of reinforcements, namely:
(a) Positive Reinforcement which involves two aspects: Firstly, a positive or

pleasant stimulus is used, and secondly, the reinforcer is added (i.e.,
„positive‰ as in + sign for addition). In other words, a positive reinforcer is
added after a response, thus increasing the frequency of the response.
(b) Negative Reinforcement which also involves two aspects: Firstly, a negative
or an aversive stimulus is used, and secondly, the reinforcer is subtracted
(i.e., „negative‰ as in a „ă„ sign for subtraction). In other words, after the
response, the negative reinforcer is removed thus increasing the frequency
of the response.

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Compared to reinforcement, a negative stimulus is added to punishment. This
means that after a response, a negative or aversive stimulus is added which is
aimed at weakening the frequency of the response.

There are two types of punishment, which are:

(a) Presentation punishment which involves adding an aversive or unpleasant
stimulus as a consequence of an undesired response. As a result, the
response is weakened. It is also known as positive punishment.

(b) Removal punishment which involves removing a pleasant stimulus as a
consequence of an undesired response. The result is that the response is
weakened. It is also known as negative punishment.

Table 3.4 outlines the differences between the different types of reinforcement
and punishment.

Table 3.4: Reinforcement and Punishment

Positive Reinforcement Presentation Punishment

Adding a desired stimulus (+) Adding an aversive stimulus
Example: „Correct answer. Good, Mat.‰ Example: „Mat, stop talking!‰

Negative Reinforcement Removal Punishment

Withdrawing an aversive stimulus ( ă ) Withdrawing a desired stimulus

Example: „Mat, since you have been Example: „Mat, since you have not
standing in the corner quietly for the last completed your homework, you will stay
20 minutes, you may return to your seat back during the recess break today.‰
and follow the lesson.‰

SELF-CHECK 3.4

1. What is the difference between primary and secondary reinforcers?

2. Distinguish between the different types of reinforcements and
punishment. Give some examples of situations where they occur.

3.7 SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT

Generally, there are two basic categories of stimuli that are presented in the
environment according to a schedule, that is, (a) continuous, and (b) intermittent

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as shown in Figure 3.7. Continuous reinforcement means presenting the
consequence each and every time the target behaviour is exhibited. Whereas, in
intermittent schedules, the consequence is given either based on a time duration
(interval schedules) or the number of correct responses emitted (ratio schedules).
The consequence can be delivered based on the same amount of time lapse, or the
same number of correct responses (fixed). Alternatively, it can be given based on
a slightly different amount of time or number of correct responses that vary
around a particular number (variable). Figure 3.7 summarises the different
categories and sub-categories of reinforcement schedules.

Figure 3.7: Reinforcement schedules
Continuous reinforcement is found to be effective when teaching learners a new
behaviour. This is because they are able to establish an association between the
target behaviour and the reinforcement. However, it does not produce long-term
changes in behaviour. Once it is withdrawn, the desired behaviour will also stop
being exhibited. Therefore, in the classroom context, if teachers only depend on
continuous reinforcement, some learners may learn to manipulate the classroom
situation by exhibiting the target behaviour for the desired reinforcement.
For this reason, it is important that teachers use one of the four types of
intermittent schedules as shown in Table 3.5 once learners have successfully
established an association of the target behaviour with the consequence.

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54 X TOPIC 3 OPERANT CONDITIONING

Table 3.5: Four Types of Intermittent Schedules

Intermittent Schedules Description Example
Fixed ratio
A reinforcer is given after a Giving a nod of approval
Fixed interval specific number of correct for every third correct
Variable ratio responses of behaviours. This answer.
type of schedule is appropriate
Variable interval when students are learning a new
behaviour.

A reinforcer is given for the first Giving a nod of approval
correct answer after a set period for a correct answer given
of time has lapsed. In this case, after every ten minutes.
the time period is constant or
always the same.

At first, a reinforcer is given after Giving a nod of approval
a set number of correct responses. every second correct
After this, the number of correct answer, every fourth
responses necessary to obtain correct answer, and so
the reinforcement changes. This on.
schedule is suitable for
maintaining the target behaviour.

Initially, a reinforcer is given after Giving a nod of approval
a set period of time has lapsed. for a studentÊs correct
After that, a new time duration answer after five minutes,
(either shorter or longer) is set. after three minutes, after
10 minutes and so on.

Figure 3.8 shows a chart for the different response rate of each of the four
schedules of reinforcement discussed above. Take note that each hatch mark
denotes a reinforcer that is given for the occurrence of a target behaviour.

Figure 3.8: Graphical representation of the four schedules of reinforcement
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcement

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SELF-CHECK 3.5

What are the different types of reinforcement schedules? Give suitable
examples for each.

3.8 THE NATURE AND EFFECT OF
PUNISHMENT

If you recall, punishment is the presentation of an aversive stimulus contingent
upon a response, that reduces the rate of that response. Theoretically,
punishment should suppress undesirable behaviour totally, but in reality, this is
not the case (Driscoll, 2004:35). Mild forms of punishment, such as the use of
verbal reprimands, fines, or occasional removals from class are believed to
typically control student behaviour. However, punishment is said to have
negative side effects, which include the following:

(a) Punishment does not teach the correct behaviour. In fact, it merely
suppresses the incorrect or bad behaviour. For example, a learner who is
sent to detention class for not handing in homework may still repeat this
behaviour in the future;

(b) The punisher or person administering the punishment may become a
discriminative stimulus for punishment. For example, misbehaved learners
see the school discipline teacher as the only person, besides the principal,
who metes out punishment to learners who have committed a serious
offence in school;

(c) Punishment elicits a strong emotional response, such as anger, hatred
dissatisfaction, and vengeance against the punisher;

(d) Punishment can promote aggression, especially amongst learners who are
characteristically aggressive (Azrin, in Driscoll, 2004). These learners will
then engage in revengeful acts such as causing damage to the punisherÊs
property, becoming physical, hurling verbal abuses, and so on;

(e) Punishment may serve as a model for aggression. Those who observed
others being aggressive were found to be more aggressive themselves
(Steinmetz, in Driscoll, 2004). For example, parents who are abusive were
themselves abused as children;

(f) Punishment does not have a lasting effect. The negative behaviour may stop
immediately after the punishment is meted. However, this does not
necessarily mean that it has been forgotten. For example, a learner who

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56 X TOPIC 3 OPERANT CONDITIONING

talks incessantly in class may stop talking when reprimanded by the
teacher, only to do it again in the same class or in another class at another
time;

(g) Punishment that inflicts physical pain may result in undesirable emotional
responses being conditioned. For example, a child who is caned for poor
grades may resort to skipping class or running away from home to escape
future punishment;

(h) Prolonged punishment may result in physical or psychological harm. One
such phenomenon is learned helplessness, where the individual passively
accepts events which are beyond his control. Repeated failures in
examinations or constant undermining of oneÊs abilities can cause a student
to say, „I wonÊt be able to pass this monthly test again‰; and

(i) Punishment may sometimes lead to an increase in the punished behaviour.
This happens with students who feel ÂproudÊ with the attention they get
when being punished, and repeatedly engage in the undesired behaviour.

When not overused, however, punishment can have some positive side effects.
Firstly, it can sometimes lead to an increase in social behaviour, especially after
the administration of a negative punishment such as „time out‰. Secondly, it can
sometimes also lead to an unexpected improvement in behaviour. For instance,
students who come to their senses and repent of their misbehaviour after having
been punished for it.

As we can see from the benefits of punishment, the guidelines below should be
followed for effective use of punishment:

(a) Punish a behaviour, not a person. Punishment should never be
administered as a personal attack;

(b) Specify the behaviour that is being punished. Provide an explanation, but
not a sermon for the reasons why the wrongdoing deems a punishment;

(c) Administer punishment immediately after the misbehaviour. Delayed
punishment is not so effective, as the recipient might have forgotten the
undesired behaviour shown;

(d) The form of punishment must be consistently applied for the same
undesired consequence, irrespective of gender, academic ability, and so on;

(e) Whenever possible, negative punishment instead of positive punishment
should be administered;

(f) Match the severity of the punishment to the severity of the wrongdoing. If
the punishment is too severe, the recipient is likely to retaliate, engage in
avoidance or suppression behaviours, and so on; and

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(g) Punishment should be combined with positive reinforcement. This is to
emphasise and strengthen the corrected behaviour.

ACTIVITY 3.2

If punishment does not remove undesirable or negative behaviours,
what alternative measures can a teacher take in the classroom with
students who misbehave?

3.9 ADDITIONAL OPERANT CONDITIONING
PHENOMENA

In this section, we will examine several operant conditioning phenomena,
such as stimulus control, stimulus generalisation, discriminative stimulus, and
discrimination learning as shown in Figure 3.9.

Figure 3.9: Operant conditioning phenomena
Now, let us read further to get a better understanding of each one.
(a) Stimulus Control

Stimulus control occurs when an organism learns to give an appropriate
response after receiving a stimulus. In the classroom situation, learners
leave class and go to the canteen when the bell rings for break time at a
specified time. Otherwise, they stay in class and wait for the next subject
teacher. This indicates that they have learnt to show different desired
responses at different times.

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58 X TOPIC 3 OPERANT CONDITIONING

In order to improve stimulus control, teachers can use two strategies,
namely, cueing, and setting events.

(i) Cueing
Teachers provide non-verbal cues so that learners know the
appropriate response expected or required of them. For example,
learners know that when a teacher raises her hand, they are expected
to keep quiet.

(ii) Setting Events
The teacher exercises control over the environment in order to control
learner behaviour. For example, court games like volleyball,
basketball, and so on help to promote teamwork amongst team
members.

(b) Stimulus Generalisation
When an operant response that has been learnt in one particular
environment is also emitted in a similar environment, stimulus
generalisation has taken place. For example, learners who line up in a single
file to go the science laboratory also do the same when they go for school
assembly, or to the Music room and school field, and so on.

Stimulus generalisation can result in two types of transfer, that is, positive
transfer and negative transfer.

(i) Positive Transfer
The skills demonstrated in a certain activity results in enhanced
performance in other activities. For example, a learner who is a good
football player will learn to play futsal in a shorter time compared to
one who has never played football before.

(ii) Negative Transfer
When generalised responses are inappropriate to a new learning
situation and put the learner at a disadvantage, negative transfer has
taken place. For example, a learner from a rich family who does not do
household chores at home refuses to do his share of duties in the
classroom.

(c) Discriminative Stimulus
When any situation or stimulus sets the opportunity for operant
responding, that is a discriminative stimulus. For example, learners stand
up and greet each subject teacher who enters and leaves the class.

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(d) Discrimination Learning
Discrimination learning takes place when organisms have learnt to
distinguish between various characteristics of their stimulus environment,
and to give the appropriate response required. For example, in some
classes, we see learners who yell out their answers to the teacherÊs
questioning because he tolerates this practice. They do not do this for the
other teachers who require them to raise their hands and wait for their
names to be called first. In other words, discrimination learning is the
opposite of stimulus generalisation.

SELF-CHECK 3.6

What are some operant conditioning phenomena? Give a classroom
example for each.

Ć Operant conditioning is seen as R-S learning where the consequence
determines whether a particular response will or will not likely occur in the
future.

Ć Two leading proponents of operant conditioning are Edward L. Thorndike
and B. F. Skinner.

Ć Thorndike proposed three theories of learning: Law of Readiness, Law of
Exercise, and Law of Effect.

Ć Skinner postulated that if a behaviour is followed by a reinforcing stimulus, it
increases the probability of that behaviour occurring in the future, and vice
versa.

Ć The four outcomes of conditioning are positive reinforcement, negative
reinforcement, response cost, and punishment.

Ć The outcomes of operant conditioning depend on its purpose, type of stimuli
used, and type of action taken.

Ć Operant conditioning can be distinguished from classical conditioning from
several aspects.

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60 X TOPIC 3 OPERANT CONDITIONING

Ć Behaviourists emphasise that three conditions must be present for operant
conditioning to occur.

Ć Reinforcers can be divided into primary reinforcers, and secondary
reinforcers.

Ć A primary reinforcer is a naturally occurring, unlearned, or unconditioned
stimulus, whereas a secondary reinforcer is not naturally occurring as it is a
reward given for learned behaviour.

Ć The Premack principle proposes that a high frequency activity can be used to
reinforce a low frequency behaviour.

Ć Reinforcement is a process that strengthens a positive behaviour.
Ć Reinforcements consist of positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement.
Ć Punishment is a process that aims to weaken a negative behaviour.
Ć Punishment can be divided into presentation punishment and removal

punishment.
Ć Stimuli are presented in the environment according to two schedules:

continuous, and intermittent.
Ć Continuous reinforcement means presenting the consequence every time the

target behaviour is exhibited. In intermittent schedules, the consequence is
given either based on a ratio or an interval schedule.
Ć Ratio and interval schedules can be delivered on a fixed or variable basis.
Ć The negative side-effects of punishment can be overcome if certain guidelines
are followed.
Ć Operant phenomena include stimulus control, stimulus generalisation,
discrimination stimulus and discrimination learning.

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TOPIC 3 OPERANT CONDITIONING W 61

Continuous reinforcement Operant conditioning
Discrimination learning Positive reinforcement
Discriminative stimulus Primary reinforcer
Extinction Punishment
Fixed interval Reinforcement schedules
Fixed ratio Response cost
Intermittent schedules Secondary reinforcer
Law of effect Stimulus control
Law of exercise Stimulus generalisation
Law of readiness Variable interval
Negative reinforcement Variable ratio

allpsych.com. (n.d.). Learning theory and behavioural psychology. Retrieved
from http://allpsych.com/psychology101/reinforcement.html

Boeree, C. G. (2006). Personality theories: B. F. Skinner. Retrieved from
http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/skinner.html

Chance, P. (1999). ThorndikeÊs puzzle boxes and the origins of the experimental
analysis of behaviour. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behaviour.
72, (3) 433ă440.

Clayton.edu.my. (n.d.). Reinforcement and punishment. Retrieved from http://a-
s.clayton.edu/mccarty/chapter%209%20-%20

Driscoll, M. P. (2004). Psychology of learning for instruction. Massachusetts, MA:
Allyn and Bacon.

education.purduecal.edu. (n.d.). Negative side effects of punishment. Retrieved
from http://education.calumet.purdue.edu/Vockell/EdPsyBook/Edpsy11
/edpsy11sideeffects.htm

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62 X TOPIC 3 OPERANT CONDITIONING

Huitt, W., & Hummel, J. (1997). An introduction to operant (instrumental)
conditioning. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta
State University.

Krause, K., Bochner, S., & Duchesne, S. (2007). Educational psychology for
learning and teaching (2nd ed.). Victoria: Nelson Australia Pty Limited.

Lynda, A. (2003). Behaviourism. Retrieved from http://teachnet.edb.utexas.edu/
~lynda_abbot/Behaviourism.html

Medcof, J., & Roth, J. (Eds.). (1979). Approaches to psychology. Canada: Methuen
Publications.

Radford.edu. (n.d.). Schedules of reinforcement. Retrieved from http://www.
radford.edu/~jmontuor/XPsyc%20333/333PPSchedules.ppt

Santrock, J. W. (2008). Educational psychology (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw
Hill.

Wolfgang, C. H. (2001). Solving discipline and classroom management problems:
Methods and models for todayÊs teachers. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

www.edu. (n.d.). Conditioning and learning. Retrieved from http://www.uwm.
edu/~jcm/psy514/Chapter03a.Respondent-behaviour-basic/def.cc.txt

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Topic X Recent

4 Research in
Behaviourism

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain how behavioural principles are applied in the classroom; and
2. Discuss recent research in behaviourism.

X INTRODUCTION

„Behaviourism is the art of pulling habits out of rats‰.
ă Anonymous

In the previous three topics, you have learnt how learning takes place from the
behavioural perspective. Early behaviourists like Ivan Pavlov postulated that
learning is a result of classical conditioning. This process involves an association
between a neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimuli that triggers a reflex.
Subsequently, Edward Thorndike studied the relationship between behaviour
and consequences which he called instrumental conditioning. B. F. Skinner who
developed on ThorndikeÊs works named it operant conditioning and emphasised
the role of reinforcers and punishers in managing behaviour.

Briefly, behaviourism operates on four learning principles:
(a) Focus on Explicit and Observable Behaviour

In the learning process, learners must be active respondents to learning. For
this purpose, they must be given the opportunity to show the target
behaviour. In order to ascertain this, an assessment based on the
observation of new behaviour must be carried out.

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64 X TOPIC 4 RECENT RESEARCH IN BEHAVIOURISM

(b) Blank-slate (Tabula Rasa) Nature of Organisms
This is in accordance with John LockeÊs idea that humans are born without
built-in mental content. Hence, their knowledge is acquired from
experiences in the environment and perception.

(c) Use of practice and drills to reinforce and improve the acquisition of new
skills.

(d) Breaking habits through new responses to the same stimuli.

Generally, behavioural learning theories serve as useful guidelines for teachers in
areas such as classroom management, student discipline, motivation, and
instructional models.

4.1 APPLICATIONS OF BEHAVIOURAL
LEARNING PRINCIPLES

In this section, you will read how the various behavioural learning principles are
applied to different aspects of behaviour. They are, behaviour management,
teaching new behaviours and maintaining behaviour.

4.1.1 Behaviour Management

One primary area of concern for teachers, especially new teachers, is effective
classroom management. Despite having undergone field experiences and
practical teaching during their teacher education courses, most of them still feel
inadequate managing the broad spectra of classroom situations and learner
behaviour that occur daily. Effective classroom management encompasses not
only sound pedagogical skills but, invariably, a knowledge and understanding of
the psychological needs and developmental levels of the learners in the
classrooms.

Before we go any further, let us look at Figure 4.1 which briefly shows behaviour
management and its aspects.

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Figure 4.1: Behaviour management and its aspects
Now, let us explore each one in detail.
Behaviour management in the classroom can be discussed from two perspectives:
encouraging behaviours and coping with undesirable behaviours.
(a) Encouraging Behaviours

From the behavioural perspective, there are several methods which can be
used by teachers to encourage desired behaviours in their classrooms.
Among them are praise, the Premack principle, and positive practice.
(i) Praise

In a typical classroom, the teacherÊs primary task is to maintain a
positive climate that will enhance learning. One way he can do this is
through the use of reinforcement when he wants to increase the
frequency of a particular behaviour (refer to Figure 4.2).

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66 X TOPIC 4 RECENT RESEARCH IN BEHAVIOURISM

Figure 4.2: Praise creates a happy and conducive environment
As you have learnt, reinforcement can be primary or secondary,
positive or negative. Examples of intrinsic reinforcers are rewards
inherent in the behaviour itself, whilst extrinsic reinforcers include
praise or material rewards.
Praise is one type of positive reinforcement which can be used in
combination with ignoring misconduct and mistakes. This praise-and-
ignore approach can prove to be useful in managing classrooms,
although it is not an absolute solution for all problems that occur
daily.
Figure 4.3 outlines how you can use praise effectively in your
classroom in five simple steps.

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Figure 4.3: Five simple steps to use praise effectively in the classroom
(ii) The Premack Principle

If you remember, the Premack principle or GrandmaÊs rule states that
a way to increase less-enjoyed activities is to link them to more-
enjoyed activities. Some examples of more-enjoyed activities for some
learners in the classroom include talking, moving around the room,
sitting near a friend, being exempted from extra class, reading
magazines, and playing computer games.

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For the Premack principle to be effective, two criteria must be met:

Ć Identify effective reinforcers which consist of activities that
learners enjoy in their free time.

Ć Ensure that the less-enjoyed activity takes place first. An
application of this principle in the classroom setting is when the
teacher gives extra time for educational computer games (a
preferred activity) to learners who have cleaned up a messy
workstation (a less-preferred activity).

(iii) Positive Practice
This strategy requires learners who have made academic errors to
correct them as soon as possible and then practice the correct
response. An alternative solution to punishing learners who break
classroom rules is to make them practice the correct alternative action.

(b) Coping with Undesirable Behaviour
Although teachers are encouraged to promote positive behaviours in the
classroom, they also have to cope with undesirable behaviours that occur.
Thus they need to be aware of several useful strategies such as negative
reinforcement, satiation, reprimands, punishment, response cost and social
isolation.

(i) Negative Reinforcement
While teachers generally use positive reinforcement, in some
situations the frequency of a target behaviour can be increased by the
removal or withdrawal of an aversive consequence. For example, „If
you complete all your deskwork by the end of this class, you need not
stay back for extra class.‰ Here, the individual is rewarded for
desirable behaviour by being allowed to „escape‰ from an unwanted
situation. This illustrates the use of negative reinforcement in the
classroom.

Another example is when the teacher says, „Those of you who have
finished your artwork on time need not clean up the mess you have
created‰.

(ii) Satiation
One way of eliminating unwanted behaviour in the classroom is to
demand that learners continue with that behaviour until they get tired
of doing it. This strategy, satiation or negative practice is aimed at
decreasing the probability that an undesirable behaviour will be
displayed. It works on the principle of overload of that initial
behaviour which at the onset, seemed to be so enjoyable.

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Krumboltz and Krumboltz (in Woolfolk, 2005) described a classroom
example of a teacher who insisted that the whole class bounce an
imaginary ball after a group of four learners were caught doing this
mischievous act in the middle of a lesson. It was only after five
minutes and several exhausted sighs that the teacher finally allowed
the class to stop the ball-bouncing activity.

(iii) Reprimands
In order to decrease the frequency of negative behaviours, reprimands
can be a useful strategy to use in the classroom. In fact, soft, private
reprimands have been found to be more effective than loud, public
reprimands. Teachers who make loud reprimands find that the
frequency and intensity of the misbehaviour increases. The reason for
this may be that some disruptive learners seem to enjoy the attention
of their peers as a result of their being reprimanded by the teacher.

(iv) Punishment
Using punishment decreases the likelihood of a behaviour being
repeated. However, caution needs to be exercised to ensure that the
form of punishment should not be reinforcing in some way; for
example, giving a „glamorous‰ label (such as Ming the Rebel) to that
particular learner who is always uncooperative during lessons or
group activities.

In the classroom, positive consequences such as intrinsic learner
satisfaction resulting from success, accomplishment, good grades,
social approval and recognition, promote positive behaviour, besides
enhancing behaviour management. In fact, frequent use of
punishment indicates poor class management and should generally be
avoided.

Figure 4.4: The punishment must be equal to the misbehaviour

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However, if a teacher decides to use punishment, he must be aware of the
following:

Ć Learners need to be informed about the connection between behaviour
and consequences;

Ć Any negative consequence or punishment should be related to the
misbehaviour;

Ć Milder punishments are preferred over more intense forms. The reason
is because they do not give rise to negative reactions in the offender,
and can be just as effective; and

Ć Recurrence of misbehaviour is less likely if learners make a
commitment to engage in more desirable alternative behaviours.

As with reinforcement, punishment can take the form of giving something
unpleasant such as a reprimand, for any misconduct, like not handing in
homework. Alternatively, it can also involve taking away something
pleasant such as withdrawing the privilege of playing computer games
when there is free time in class.

(v) Response Cost
This is a form of mild punishment that involves the removal of a
pre-established reinforcement every time an unacceptable behaviour
is exhibited. An application of this strategy in the classroom setting is
when the teacher withdraws the opportunity to receive a token at the
end of the lesson as a result of the learner not adhering to a contract
made. For example, Heng does not get back to his seat within six
seconds after the teacher has requested him three times to do so. In
other words, response cost is related to a token economy (a reward
earned for good behaviour) and a contingency contract (learners sign
a written contract stipulating that they understand and agree with a
particular intervention).

De Martini, Bray and Kehle (in Krause, Bochner & Duchesne,
2007:139) cite an example of how an intervention using the above
three elements was successful in reducing the disruptive behaviour of
two 8-year-old girls in a normal classroom. The procedure involved
the signing of a contingency contract by the class. This contract
specified that conformity to new rules would be rewarded with a
token whilst non-compliance within five seconds to a repeated
request by the teacher would result in losing the opportunity to win a
token.

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(vi) Social Isolation
This strategy is also commonly known as „time out from
reinforcement‰. It involves asking the misbehaved learner to leave the
classroom and go to an assigned place (for example, an empty room)
for a specified time of five to 10 minutes. This brief isolation from
other people is said to be effective in decreasing the occurrence or
frequency of the disruptive behaviour.

Time out is especially effective in classrooms where the disruptive
behaviour of some learners, such as laughter, jokes, comments, or
abusive language can reinforce undesirable behaviour in other
learners.

ACTIVITY 4.1

Give two other classroom examples for each of the behaviour
management principles discussed.

4.1.2 Teaching New Behaviours

When teaching new behaviours that require new and unfamiliar actions from
learners, teachers can make use of several techniques such as shaping, fading,
cueing, prompting, modelling and task analysis. See Figure 4.5 for an overall
view of this subtopic.

Figure 4.5: Teaching new hehaviour techniques

Now, let us look at how these techniques work for teaching new behaviours.

(a) Shaping and Fading
The process of reinforcing gradual successive approximations to the desired
behaviour is called shaping. Typically, learners need time to acquire these
desired behaviours that involve complex skills. For example, a teacher
wishes to make an active learner remain seated at his desk. First of all, he
will have to tell this learner that if he is able to sit at his place for three
minutes, he will be rewarded with a sticker. As his ability to do so improve,

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the teacher will then lengthen the time to 10 minutes and gradually to the
entire 30-minute lesson. In this way, the teacher is said to be shaping the
„sitting-at-the-desk‰ behaviour by moving successively from three minutes
to the full 30-minute period using reinforcement for each successive
approximation, culminating to the final target behaviour.

Once the desired behaviour has been accomplished, the teacher can move
from reinforcing every positive response with reinforcing every third
positive response, for example. This process of successive approximations
is called fading. In fact, once the active learner has managed to sit quietly at
his desk, the teacher can opt to reinforce the seat behaviour on an
intermittent rather than a continuous schedule. Additionally, stickers can
also be replaced by other secondary reinforcers, such as a smile or a nod of
approval.

(b) Cueing, Prompting and Modelling
Cueing, prompting and modelling are several types of stimuli that increase
the probability of a desired response taking place. When a specific stimulus
is used as a „cue‰ to elicit the desired response, it is called cueing. For
example, when facing a class of noisy and restless learners, many teachers
will use a signal like raising a hand to get their attention. The hand-raise
serves as a cue to inform learners of an imminent activity (a reinforcement).

If, in the above example, the teacher had added a verbal reminder („What am I
waiting for?‰) with the non-verbal cue, he is said to have used a prompt. Thus,
prompting means providing a hint which serves as an additional stimulus to
ensure that the learner reacts appropriately to the cue.

Modelling refers to the type of prompting that involves demonstrating to
the learner the desired response for him to follow. Some examples include
showing and touching relevant pictures, models, manipulations and so on.

As the learning process progresses and the learner is capable of eliciting the
required response, the teacher gradually and slowly discontinues the use of
cues, prompts and modelling.

(c) Task Analysis
This process involves breaking a complex behaviour down into a sequence
of more manageable steps. For example, addition of two-digit numbers
involves a series of steps:

(i) Learning about one-digit, then, two-digit numbers.

(ii) Learning the addition of one-digit numbers.

(ii) Learning the addition of one-digit and two-digit numbers.

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Task analysis is useful for identifying the extent to which learners have acquired
and mastered a new learning task. For example, early diagnosis of difficulties
experienced by slow learners through task analysis provides useful feedback for
teachers to break up new learning skills into a set of more manageable steps to
tailor to these learnersÊ needs.

4.1.3 Maintaining Behaviour

Behavioural maintenance is ensuring that newly acquired skills are continued
even when the instruction process has been terminated. It takes place when
behaviours are reinforced on a partial schedule of reinforcement. Failure to
reinforce desired behaviours ultimately leads to extinction. However, partial
reinforcement of undesirable behaviour is counterproductive because it will
result in maintenance. Hence, teachers must be cautious that they do not
unwittingly reinforce unacceptable behaviours through inconsistencies in their
classroom management.

(a) Schedules of Reinforcement
In order to increase the probability, frequency, or persistence of desired
behaviour, teachers should make use of schedules of reinforcement as
discussed in Topic 3. If you recall, these schedules may be based on ratios
or intervals and may be fixed or variable. In the initial stages of learning,
desired behaviours are reinforced on a continuous schedule of
reinforcement. Later, in order to maintain learned behaviours, it is more
effective to give reinforcement a partial schedule. One good example in the
classroom is giving a pop quiz (variable interval schedule) rather than a
scheduled quiz (fixed interval schedule) as this maintains learner
preparation better.

Another way to ensure that the skills learned are not forgotten through
disuse, behaviourists have also recommended that teachers include
intermittent ``maintenance checksÊÊ in their classrooms.

4.1.4 Contributions of Behavioural Learning Principles
to Instruction

The behavioural perspective of learning has made invaluable contributions to
instruction. In fact, the following three educational innovations can be attributed
either directly or indirectly to operant conditioning principles:

(a) Instructional objectives;

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(b) Programmed instruction (and its offshoot, computer-assisted instruction);
and

(c) Applied behaviour analysis.

(a) Instructional Objectives
When preparing their lessons, teachers have to specify the instructional
objectives that they want their learners to achieve at the end of each lesson.
These objectives, better known as behavioural objectives are made up of
three components, namely:
(i) An observable and measurable outcome;
(ii) Description of conditions under which the behaviour should be
displayed; and
(iii) Criteria for evaluating the acceptable performance of the behaviour.

For example: At the end of the lesson, learners can give correct answers to
90% of the mathematical problems based on the addition of mixed
fractions.

As you can see, these objectives work on the premise of operant conditioning,
which states that the desired behaviour should be specified in precise, concise
and observable terms before the conditioning process begins.

(b) Programmed Instruction (and Computer-assisted Instruction)
Programmed instruction is a technique for instruction that originally
involved a „teaching machine‰. Recently, it has become known as
computer-programmed instruction or computer-assisted instruction. It uses
„frames,‰ or discrete segments containing a small piece of information and
a question about it. After the learner has responded to a question shown on
one frame, he turns to the next frame to get the answer and the next small
piece of information, and so on.

Programmed instruction and computer-assisted instruction are based on
several concepts and principles of operant conditioning, namely:
(i) Terminal Behaviour

This is specified clearly in the instructional goals and objectives at the
beginning of the learning unit;
(ii) Active Responding
The learner is required to give a response to a question posted in each
frame;

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TOPIC 4 RECENT RESEARCH IN BEHAVIOURISM W 75

(iii) Shaping
The information at the start of an instruction unit is based on the prior
knowledge of the learner. New information is broken into small,
discrete units. The instruction progresses through a gradual
presentation of increasingly more difficult levels culminating in the
shaping of the terminal behaviour; and

(iv) Immediate Reinforcement
For each correct response given, the learner is immediately rewarded
with a positive response which serves as reinforcement to proceed
with the learning process.

(c) Applied Behaviour Analysis
The use of behavioural principles to modify behaviour in classrooms is
known as applied behaviour analysis. The main emphasis is on behaviour
that is observable and measurable in areas such as academic, social, motor,
and so on. The goal therefore is to change behaviour to that which is
socially acceptable.

Applied behaviour analysis has been found to be effective in learners with
behavioural problems, intellectual disability, and developmental disability
(Kerr, Mulhern, & McDowell in Krause, Bochner & Duchesne, 2007). On a
smaller scale, it has also helped learners with writing and/or reading
difficulties.

If you are interested to use applied behavioural analysis in the classroom, it
is important that you follow the six steps as shown in Figure 4.6. From the
figure, you can see that the implementation of a teaching programme based
on applied behavioural analysis demands a lot of time and effort from both
the teacher and the concerned learner. It involves instruction on a one-to-
one basis with continual monitoring of progress. Besides, existing resource
materials may need to be modified, or new ones prepared to accommodate
the specific needs of the learner at every point of the instructional sequence.

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76 X TOPIC 4 RECENT RESEARCH IN BEHAVIOURISM

Figure 4.6: Applied behaviour analysis process
Source: Adapted from Krause, K., Bochner, S., & Duchesne, S., 2007:145
Applied behavioural analysis forms the basis of several teaching programmes
which include mastery learning, and direct instruction.
(a) Mastery Learning
This instructional approach requires a learner to acquire the necessary
knowledge and skills at one predetermined level in an instructional
sequence before he is allowed to progress to the learning task. Given
enough time and proper instruction, it is assumed that most learners can
master any instructional objective (Bloom, in Woolfolk, 2005). The term
„mastery‰ means obtaining a score of 80% to 90% on a test or other forms of
assessment.
Mastery learning consists of the following five components:
(i) Small, discrete units. Each unit contains a small amount of

information;
(ii) Logical sequence. The sub-units in one instructional unit are

sequenced in order of difficulty, that is, from simple to complex;
(iii) Mastery of content upon the completion of each unit. Learners are

given feedback and reinforcement that they have mastered the content
by taking and passing an assessment test;
(iv) Concrete, observable criteria for mastery of each unit. Concrete terms
are used to state each mastery level (for example: Answering 90% of
questions correctly); and

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TOPIC 4 RECENT RESEARCH IN BEHAVIOURISM W 77

(v) Corrective action. For slow learners who may need extra assistance or
more practice, remedial activities, which serve as additional support,
are also available. When these learners are ready, they take another
form of the test based on the unit.

(b) Direct Instruction
This teaching method emphasises explicit teaching and testing of essential
skills to determine mastery in a particular subject area. Hence, instructional
objectives are clearly listed out and properly sequenced. The teacher plays
an active role in the teaching and learning process, assuming full control of
the lesson.

SELF-CHECK 4.1

Briefly describe the contributions of behavioural learning principles to
instruction, giving suitable examples.

4.2 RECENT THEORETICAL DEVELOPMENT OF
BEHAVIOURISM

Since the late 1960s, there has been a shift from the behavioural perspective of
learning towards the cognitive. Nevertheless, the behaviouristsÊ ideas have not
lost their importance as several trends have emerged. As opposed to examining
global theories of learning, there is now a trend towards specific aspects of the
learning process, such as the nature of the conditioned response, or the
conditions for determining a reinforcing event.

According to Mowrer and Klein (in Klein, 2002), three reasons attributed to the
current trend on specific learning principles are:
(a) Global learning theories concentrate mainly on instrumental conditioning

as Pavlovian conditioning is regarded as a simple, reflective type of
learning that occurs in only a few situations. Besides, most responses are
rarely classically conditioned. In reality, however, Pavlovian conditioning
does impact human behaviour;
(b) Traditional research findings support that some general laws of learning
are applicable to all species. However, current research shows that
biological factors determine whether learning takes place as well as the rate
of learning; and

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78 X TOPIC 4 RECENT RESEARCH IN BEHAVIOURISM

(c) Contemporary research recognises the cognitive views of learning when
previously these have deliberately been avoided. In fact, recent findings
show the contributions of associative and cognitive processes in Pavlovian
conditioning. Because of this, it is difficult to develop a single global
learning theory.

Early research on classical conditioning by Pavlov investigated the principles
governing the acquisition and extinction of a conditioned response. Studies
conducted during the last 30 years are concerned with the nature of the
conditioned response: Is the conditioned response just the unconditioned
response elicited by the conditioned stimulus? Is the conditioned response
significantly different from the unconditioned response?

Findings by Holland and Rescorla (in Klein, 2002:264) show that food satiation to
food-deprived rats reduces the value of food, thereby reducing the ability of the
unconditioned stimulus to elicit the unconditioned response. In turn, this
reduced value of the unconditioned stimulus causes the conditioned stimulus to
elicit a weaker conditioned response.

If you remember, Skinner emphasised the role of reinforcers in ensuring the
frequency of a target behaviour. However, he was not interested in the selection
of reinforcers. In contrast, later researchers have begun to investigate the kinds of
conditions that are necessary for a reinforcer to function effectively.

In recent studies conducted by Konarski, Johnson, Cronwell and Whitman (in
Klein, 2002), findings showed that the use of activities as reinforcers to produce
desired modes of behaviour was found to be effective in enhancing the academic
performance of educable mentally retarded learners. In one such study, these
researchers identified various kinds of academic behaviours that included
reading, colouring, cursive writing and arithmetic. They found that the learners
displayed an increase in each of these behaviours if higher-frequency activities
were contingent upon the occurrence of the target behaviour. For example, the
reading ability of these learners increased if they had to learn to read in order to
be given time for colouring activities.

Based on the discussion of the application of various behavioural principles in
learning and instruction, critics of behavioural methods caution teachers on the
use of reinforcement. In their opinion, reinforcement can cause a decline in
learning interest due to an over-emphasis on rewards. Hence it is important that
teachers know how to use behavioural learning principles in the best interest of
their learners in the classroom.

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TOPIC 4 RECENT RESEARCH IN BEHAVIOURISM W 79

SELF-CHECK 4.2

Explain current trends in behaviourism which have resulted in the
development of ideas related to classical conditioning and operant
conditioning.

Ć Behavioural learning principles are applied to different aspects of behaviour.
They are: behaviour management, teaching new behaviours and maintaining
behaviour.

Ć Behaviour management in the classroom involves encouraging behaviours
and coping with undesirable behaviours.

Ć Several methods which are used to encourage positive behaviours in the
classroom are praise, the Premack principle, and positive practice.

Ć Some useful strategies used for coping with undesirable behaviours in the
classroom include negative reinforcement, satiation, reprimands,
punishment, response cost and social isolation.

Ć Teachers make use of shaping, cueing, prompting, modelling and task
analysis for teaching new behaviours.

Ć Schedules of reinforcement are used to maintain behaviour in the classroom.
Ć Behavioural learning principles have contributed to instruction, namely for

writing instructional objectives, programmed-instruction (and computer-
assisted instruction) and applied behaviour analysis.
Ć Teaching programs based on applied behaviour analysis include mastery
learning and direct instruction.
Ć Recent research in behaviourism has resulted in the development of
behavioural learning principles that were expounded by early proponents in
the field.

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80 X TOPIC 4 RECENT RESEARCH IN BEHAVIOURISM

Applied behaviour analysis Programmed instruction
Computer-assisted instruction Prompting
Cueing Punishment
Fading Reprimands
Instructional objectives Response cost
Mastery learning Satiation
Modelling Shaping
Negative reinforcement Social isolation
Positive practice Task analysis
Praise The Premack Principle

Driscoll, M. P. (2004). Psychology of learning for instruction. Massachusetts, MA:
Allyn & Bacon.

Kizlik, R. (2009). Classroom management, management of student conduct,
effective praise guidelines, and a few things to know about ESOL thrown in
for good measure. Retrieved from http://www.adprima.com/managing.
htm

Klein, S. B. (2002). Learning: Principles and applications (4th ed.). Boston, MA:
McGraw Hill.

Krause, K., Bochner, S., & Duchesne, S. (2007). Educational psychology for
learning and teaching (2nd ed.). Victoria: Nelson Australia Pty Limited.

Lynda, A. (2003). Behaviourism. Retrieved from http://teachnet.edb.utexas.edu/
~lynda_abbott/Behaviorism.html

Lynda, A. (2003). Operant conditioning in education. Retrieved from http://
teachnet.edb.utexas.edu/~lynda_abbott/Opinnov.html

Sanders, A. (n.d.). How to use positive reinforcement in the classroom. Retrieved
from http://www.ehow.com/how_4556420_use-positive-reinforcement-
classroom.html

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TOPIC 4 RECENT RESEARCH IN BEHAVIOURISM W 81
Slavin, R. E. (2000). Educational psychology theory and practice. Massachusetts,

MA: Allyn & Bacon. Retrieved from http://www.abacon.com/slavin/
notes5.html
Woolfolk, A. (2005). Educational psychology (9th ed.). Massachusetts, MA: Allyn
& Bacon.
wps.ablongman.com. (n.d.). Behavioural theories of learning. Retrieved from
http://wps.ablongman.com/ab_slavin_edpsych_7/3/867/221981.cw/inde
x.html

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Topic X Social

5 Cognitive
Theory and
Learning

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Discuss several assumptions of the social cognitive theory;
2. Explain learning by observation;
3. Explain learning as an internal process;
4. Identify some influences of the cognitive processes; and
5. Define the concept of goal-directed behaviour.

X INTRODUCTION

„Live your life each day as you would climb a mountain. An occasional
glance toward the summit keeps the goal in mind⁄ Climb slowly,
steadily, enjoying each passing moment; and the view from the summit
will serve as a fitting climax for the journey‰.

ă Harold V. Melchert

In the preceding topics, we have learnt that the behavioural perspective
dominated the psychology of learning for the first half of the 20th century.
However, in the early 1960s, a group known as the neo-behaviourists challenged
the traditional behavioural views of learning. They argued that learning goes
beyond the stimulus-response (S-R) and response-stimulus (R-S) patterns. They
introduced the S-O-R model which emphasises not only the influences of the
stimulus and the response but also the internal processes of the organism (O).

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TOPIC 5 SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY AND LEARNING W 83

These internal processes include personal experiences and cognitive information
processes as well as the social environment of the organism. The neo-
behaviourists affirm that by observing the actions and consequences of others
around us, we can acquire new knowledge, skills, attitudes, beliefs, values and
so on.
In this topic, we shall discuss various aspects of the social cognitive perspective
with particular focus on the works of Bandura and his colleagues in the area of
observational learning.

5.1 ASSUMPTIONS OF THE SOCIAL COGNITIVE
THEORY

The social cognitive theory was originally called observational learning theory
based on the work of Bandura (Figure 5.1) and Walters in the early 1960s. It was
later renamed social learning theory. There were two reasons for this. First, it was
relevant to learning social behaviours, and secondly, observations were usually
made of other people. Later, the social learning theory was changed to social
cognitive theory in which the interpretation of learning was based on cognitive
processes.

Figure 5.1: Albert Bandura
Source: http://news.stanford.edu
As we have learnt in the preceding topics, behaviourism focuses on variables that
are observable, and measurable. This school of thought avoids whatever is
subjective, and internal that involves our mental or cognitive processes. Bandura,
however, found this concept too simplistic to explain the findings he obtained

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