84 X TOPIC 5 SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY AND LEARNING
from his experiments on adolescent aggression. He then suggested that „It is
largely through their actions that people produce the environmental conditions
that affect their behaviour in a reciprocal fashion‰ (1977). He named this
interactive, complementary system reciprocal determinism.
Later, Bandura introduced the concept of triadic reciprocality which explains
human functioning „in terms of a model where behaviour, cognitive and other
personal factors, and environmental events all operate as interacting
determinants of each other‰. This concept, which is shown in Figure 5.2 has now
become the conceptual model of the social cognitive theory.
Figure 5.2: Conceptual model of social cognitive theory
Source: Pajares (2002)
Based on the figure, reciprocal interactions are a combination of behaviour,
environmental variables and the person. Environmental variables encompass the
social and physical environments that can influence a personÊs behaviour. While
the social environment includes family members, friends, work colleagues,
community members, the media, and so on, the physical environment refers to
the size of a room, the facilities and amenities available, the ambience of the
room, and so on. In contrast, the person factor refers to a personÊs cognitive
abilities, physical characteristics, beliefs, attitudes, and so on.
The three factors ă behaviour, person and environment ă are constantly
influencing one another. Behaviour is not simply the result of the environment
and the person, nor is the environment simply the result of the person and
behaviour. In a classroom situation, learnersÊ behaviours and classroom
environments influence one another in several ways. Consider a typical teaching
and learning sequence where a teacher flashes information on a screen using the
LCD. Environmental influence on behaviour takes place when most of the
learners direct their attention at the screen without being told to do so
(environment + person (intrinsic motivation to learn) → behaviour). However,
when a small number of learners give the wrong answers to the teacherÊs
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questions, she has to re-teach particular concepts instead of completing the topic
(behaviour + person (cognitive ability) → environment).
In order to understand the social cognitive theory, let us now examine its five
basic assumptions:
(a) People Can Learn from Watching or Observing Others
Example: In the classroom, some of the learners who see their peers
throwing used pieces of paper onto the floor instead of into the bin perform
the same action.
(b) Learning is an Internal Process that May or May Not Change Behaviour
Example: We often see violent acts shown over the television and in the
movies. If we are not influenced by these acts, we will not behave or act
violently after the TV show or movie.
(c) Behaviour is Directed towards Particular Goals
Example: We often do something to accomplish a goal that we have set.
Ask yourself these questions: „Why did you sign up for this course?‰
„What goals do you hope to accomplish?
(d) Behaviour Eventually Becomes Self-Regulated
Example: Very often we initiate, monitor and evaluate our behaviours in
tandem with the goals that we have set. Hence, we can learn to control or
regulate our learning and behaviour.
(e) Reinforcement and Punishment Have Direct and Indirect Effects
Example: When we form expectations based on our prior experiences with
reinforcement, they may have a greater influence on our behaviour than the
current reinforcers we receive. This is because our beliefs will influence the
effects of reinforcers.
SELF-CHECK 5.1
What basic assumptions are central to the social cognitive
perspective of learning? Give further examples from the ones given
in the text.
5.2 LEARNING BY OBSERVATION
Although much of our learning occurs as a result of classical and operant
conditioning, a large portion of what we know is learned through observation
and imitation. Learning by observation does not require the presence of stimuli,
reinforcers or punishers. Rather, it involves two basic processes, which are:
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(a) Watching the behaviour of another person or model; and
(b) Imitating the modelÊs behaviour.
To illustrate this further, young children learn language, social skills, fears, habits
and other daily behaviours by observing their parents, siblings, and significant
others. This is evidenced in the common phrase, „Children see, Children do‰.
Similarly, older children and adults learn academic, musical, athletic, and other
skills by observing and imitating a teacher or more experienced other.
This phenomenon of learning by observation is not only confined to humans but
also applies to animals, too. Current research findings in the field reveal that
animals such as cats, dogs, and birds, for example can learn by observing what
other members of their species do. To illustrate, young lions learn survival skills
from their parents and other older lions. In the same way, adult lions enhance
their hunting skills and learn new behaviours by observing other lions.
5.2.1 Bandura and Observational Learning
Bandura is famous for his Bobo Doll studies in which he attempted to prove that
children learn by observing and imitating an adult role modelÊs behaviour. The
Bobo Doll (Figure 5.3) is an inflatable, egg-shape balloon toy about five feet tall
with a weight at the bottom.
Figure 5.3: Bobo doll
Source: http://www.wateversclever.com/
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This weight enables it to spring back to its upright position even when knocked
over. In one classic study, Bandura filmed one of his students, a young woman,
beating up a Bobo doll. As she punched it, kicked it, sat on it, hit it with a mallet,
and so on, she shouted several aggressive phrases.
He then showed this film to a group of pre-schoolers who enjoyed it immensely.
They were then asked to go to the playroom where there was a new Bobo doll
and a few small mallets. Bandura and his colleagues noted that many of these
pre-schoolers imitated what the young woman in the film did. As they punched
the Bobo doll, kicked it, sat on it, and hit it with the small mallets, they shouted
the same aggressive phrases.
In another version of this study, Bandura presented a film of the young woman
performing the same actions on a live clown as she did with the Bobo doll. He
then showed it to a group of children before asking them to go to another room
where there was a live clown and small mallets. These children proceeded to
shout aggressive phrases at the live clown, whilst punching it, kicking it, and
hitting it with small mallets.
The findings of these studies disproved the behavioural view that all learning is a
result of reinforcement or rewards. The children had changed their behaviour
even without first being given encouragement or reward to beat up the Bobo doll
or the live clown. They merely imitated the behaviour that they had observed
earlier. Bandura named this phenomenon observational learning.
In their later studies, Bandura and his team investigated the effect of observed
consequences on learning. They showed four-year-old children one of three films
of an adult acting aggressively towards a Bobo doll. In the first version, the adult
was praised for his aggressive behaviour and even rewarded with soda and
candies. In contrast, the adult in the second version of the film was scolded, and
warned not to exhibit the aggressive behaviour again. Meanwhile, the adult in
the third version was neither given any reward nor punishment.
After viewing the film, each child was left alone in a room together with a Bobo
doll and other toys. Bandura observed that most of the children imitated the
adultÊs aggressive behaviours. However, he noted that those who saw the
version of the film where the adult was punished, imitated the behaviours less
often compared with those who watched the other two films. Nevertheless, the
results changed drastically when the researchers promised the children a reward
if they would copy the adultÊs behaviour. Bandura discovered that all the three
groups of children showed large and equal amounts of aggressive behaviour
towards the Bobo doll.
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Based on the findings, Bandura concluded that even those children who did not
see the adult model receive a reward had also learned through observation.
However, they (especially those who saw the model being punished) would not
show what they had learned until they expected a reward for doing so. Bandura
termed it latent learning, in which an individual learns a new behaviour but does
not display it until there is the possibility of being given a reward.
5.2.2 Principles of Observational Learning
Observational learning operates on the following principles:
(a) The observer will imitate the modelÊs behaviour if he is attracted by the
modelÊs attributes such as good looks, popularity, intelligence, talents, and
so on;
(b) The observerÊs imitation of the modelsÊ behaviour will be in tandem with
the manner in which the model is treated. For example, if the model is
given a reward for his behaviour, then very likely the observer will mimic
the rewarded behaviour. On the other hand, if the model is punished for his
behaviour, then very likely the observer will not reproduce that same
behaviour; and
(c) There is a difference between an observer „acquiring‰ a behaviour and
„performing‰ a behaviour. Through observation, the observer can acquire
the behaviour but he may decide not to display it. Later when a situation
arises where he may be given an incentive for performing that behaviour,
he may then decide to exhibit it.
5.2.3 How Observational Learning Impacts Learning
The impact of observational learning on learning can be discussed from two
aspects, namely instruction and assessment.
In the classroom, teachers can use collaborative learning strategies where
learners are given the opportunity to learn from their peers in the social and
environmental contexts. In this respect, learners must be taught to be mindful of
the impact of their observation on their own behaviour.
In conducting assessment, teachers must take into consideration that learners
are unable to perform a learned behaviour unless they are provided with a
conducive environment to do so. Besides ensuring that the physical environment
in the classroom is appropriate for teaching and learning, the teacher can also use
incentives and rewards, where appropriate.
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ACTIVITY 5.1
1. Discuss some of the strengths and weaknesses of observational
learning.
2. Recall one classroom experience where some of the learners
imitated the aggressive actions of their peers. Which learners are
most likely to imitate such actions?
5.3 LEARNING AS AN INTERNAL PROCESS
Social cognitive psychologists postulate that learning and knowledge are two
different but complementary elements. They contend that learning is an internal
process whilst knowledge is an external entity. Learning occurs as a result of the
processing of input in order to accomplish an established goal. This processing of
input involves various cognitive processes such as memory, motivation,
thinking, and reflection. This clearly shows that learning is an internal process
where the amount of learning that takes place is dependent on the processing
capacity of the learner, the amount of effort that the learner puts into the learning
process, the depth of the processing, and the learnerÊs existing knowledge
structure (Craik & Lockhart, in Schunk, 2000).
If learning is an internal process, then learners can determine the amount of
learning they want. In other words, they are responsible for their own learning.
However, not all of them are capable of self-regulation. Teachers sometimes just
give out a learning task and then expect all the learners to „go out and learn‰.
Social cognitivists contend that self-regulated learning is nurtured in a childÊs
early years at home where he is given simple tasks such as sorting out the clothes
of family members and putting them into the respective drawers. Then his self-
regulated learning is further developed as a schooling child when he is given
short learning tasks to complete on his own in the classroom and at home. As he
grows up and enters secondary school, he takes control of his learning by
managing his time between studies and performing other tasks which are
required of him.
Self-regulated behaviour follow a series of steps as summarised in Figure 5.4.
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Figure 5.4: The self-regulated behaviour process
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TOPIC 5 SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY AND LEARNING 91
In conclusion, it can be said that teachers should encourage their learners to learn
independently in school so that self-regulated learning will continue throughout
their lives. Self-regulated learning requires a combination of academic learning
skills, self-control and self-motivation. In other words, they have the skill and the
will to learn (McCombs & Marzano, in Woolfolk, 2005).
SELF-CHECK 5.2
What do you understand by learning as an internal process?
5.4 INFLUENCE OF COGNITIVE PROCESSES
As mentioned earlier, learning is influenced by various types of cognitive
processes such as memory, mental representations, and language. Cognitive
processes play a very important role in determining learning and behaviour as
they are concerned with knowledge and the way people use the knowledge they
have.
5.4.1 Memory
The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model (Figure 5.5) illustrates a three-stage information
processing approach. Our sensory organs such as eyes, ears, skin, taste buds, and
nose receive information from the environment. This information then passes
through three levels of memory. At each level, cognitive processes operate on the
information by giving it meaning, refreshing it and integrating it. In other words,
encoding takes place at the sensory memory stage before it goes to the learnerÊs
short-term memory. There it is again encoded before it goes into the long-term
memory.
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Figure 5.5: Atkinson-Schriffin model
Source: http://www.learningandteaching.info
It is important for you to know that only a limited amount of information can be
processed at any one time. This is because of the influence of attention. For
example, if you are distracted by the noise in the room where you are studying,
your attention becomes divided between your books and the noise. If you study
in a quiet room, then you will pay more attention to what you are studying. In
other words, cognitive processes determine what kinds of available information
will be stored or ignored.
5.4.2 Mental Representations
The human memory stores two kinds of mental representations of experiences,
namely mental imagery and symbolic representations. Mental representations
have some sensory qualities. For example, you can imagine the roads you will
take to reach home from school even without having to be physically present.
This means you are using mental imagery. If a stranger asks you for road
directions to a particular place, very likely you will be able to tell him the name
of the roads and perhaps famous landmarks he will have to pass through just by
using your mental imagery.
The second type of mental representations are symbolic representations. They are
also called concepts, which are meaningful categories of objects, or events that
are based on their specific characteristics or attributes. For example, when you
think of the group „cows‰, you will think that they each have a tail, eat grass and
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say „moo‰. Therefore, when you see an animal that posseses these three
characteristics, you will say it is a cow. However, if you see a horse with a tail
and eating grass, you will be able to differentiate it from a cow as you have
already developed the concept of a cow.
Children, however, only pick out one or two characteristics of a concept. For
example, the child had just learned that the colour of an apple is red, he will say
that strawberries, cherries, and plums are apples, because the colour belongs to
the concept of „apple‰. As they grow older and their cogitive processes develop,
their symbolic representations begin to improve.
5.4.3 Language
Another cognitive process that influences learning is language. In order to
understand the meaning of what is written, the reader must know two structural
components, namely syntax and semantics. Syntax combines symbols into a
comprehensible sequence. Whilst, semantics give meanings to the words in the
sentence, thus enabling you to understand the meaning of the sentence, or
sentences. For example, when you read the following sentence, „The trainee
teacher looked upset at the sight of the noisy class‰. The first thing you will do is
to try and understand every word in the sentence by referring to your „personal
dictionary‰. Then you have to distinguish the meaning of the word „trainee
teacher‰ from the individual words. The same goes for „noisy class‰. Finally, you
will try and understand the meaning of the whole sentence and all the other
sentences in the paragraph or text.
As children grow older, their mastery of syntax and semantics improves, thus
facilitating language acquisition. In this way, their learning will also improve
significantly.
ACTIVITY 5.2
What are some other cognitive processes besides memory, mental
representations and language that influence learning? Explain by
giving relevant examples.
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5.5 GOAL-DIRECTED BEHAVIOUR
Edward C. Tolman (Figure 5.6) believed that learning did not involve the
strengthening of connections between stimulus and response, or conditioned
learning. He then introduced a new kind of behaviourism known as purposive
behaviourism. Based on the findings of his studies using rats in mazes, he
proposed that learning did not involve the strengthening of connections between
stimulus and response, or conditioned learning. He argued that the rats in his
experiments learn the place where they have been rewarded rather than the
particular movements required to get there (a demonstration of place learning).
Figure 5.6: Edward C. Tolman
Source: http://faculty.frostburg.edu
Figure 5.7 shows the apparatus used in one of TolmanÊs experiments that
illustrates purposive behaviour in rats. The alphabet „A‰ was the starting box
while the alphabet „B‰ was the goal.
Figure 5.7: TolmanÊs experiments of purposive behaviour
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Tolman placed a hungry rat at „A‰. He observed that very quickly and unhesitatingly,
it learned to turn right to reach „B‰. He explained that this occurred because the rat
had developed a cognitive map of the maze and where the place of the reward was
located. To test this, Tolman placed the rat at „C‰. If learning is the result of stimulus-
response, then the rat would turn right and reach „D‰. If learning is the result of a
cogitive map, then the rat would reach its reward in „B‰. Tolman found that most of
the rats reached B, thereby leading to the conclusion that a cognitive map was most
likely developed by rats in maze running.
TolmanÊs purposive behaviourism is often considered the bridge between
behaviourism and cognitive theory. It operates on the following principles:
(a) Learning is always purposive and goal-directed;
(b) Learning often involves the use of environmental factors to achieve a goal
(e.g., means-ends-analysis);
(c) Organisms will select the shortest or easiest path to achieve a goal;
(d) An organism learns by pursuing signs to a goal. In other words, learning is
acquired through meaningful behaviour; and
(e) Learning is organised, where the stimuli are not connected by just simple
one-to-one switches to the outgoing responses. Instead, the incoming
impulses are usually worked over and elaborated into a tentative cognitive-
like map of the environment. It is this tentative map that indicates „routes
and paths and environmental relationships, which finally determines what
responses, if any, the animal will finally make‰ (Tolman, 1948:192).
To summarise, goal-directed behaviour is always getting-toward something or
getting-away from something. Thus, description of any behaviour should include
the following aspects:
(a) What the organism is doing;
(b) What it is trying to do; and
(c) Where it is going.
ACTIVITY 5.3
1. Based on your classroom experience, give some examples of
goal-directed behaviours that you have observed in your
learners.
2. What kinds of learners will usually exhibit goal-directed
behaviours.
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Ć The social cognitive theory was originally called observational learning, and then
renamed social learning theory. Presently, it is known as social cognitive theory.
Ć Neo-behaviourists introduced the S-O-R model which emphasises the
influences of the stimulus, response, and the internal processes of the
organism (O) on learning.
Ć Triadic reciprocality refers to the reciprocal interactions of behaviour, person
and the environment.
Ć The social cognitive theory operates on five assumptions.
Ć Observational learning involves two basic processes: watching the behaviour
of another person or model and imitating the modelÊs behaviour.
Ć Based on the Bobo Doll studies conducted by Bandura and his collegues, five
general principles of the social cognitive theory have been developed.
Ć Observational learning involves four elements: attention, retention,
production and motivation.
Ć Learning is an internal process where the amount of learning that takes place
is dependent on certain factors.
Ć Learners are encouraged to become self-regulated learners who can
determine the amount of learning they want.
Ć Learning is influenced by various types of cognitive processes such as
memory, mental representations, and language.
Ć Tolman proposed the concept of place learning which is also known as
purposive behaviourism.
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Cognitive processes Purposive behaviourism
Goal-directed behaviour Reciprocal determinism
Latent learning Self-regulated behaviour
Observational learning Triadic reciprocality
Athabasa University. (2004). Foundations of educational theory for online
learning. Retrieved from http://cde.athabascau.ca/online_book/ch1.html
Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. New York, NY: General Learning
Press.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive
theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Boeree, C. G. (2006). Albert Bandura. Retrieved from http://webspace.ship.edu/
cgboer/bandura.html
Inman, J. (n.d.). Social cognitive theory: A Synthesis. Retrieved from http://
www.wetherhaven.com/Documents/socialcognitivetheory.pdf
Parsons, R. D., Hinson, S. L., & Sarso-Brown, D. (2001). Educational psychology: A
practitioner-researcher model of teaching. Canada: Wadsworth Thomsom
Learning.
Pajares, F. (2002). Overview of social cognitive theory and of self-efficacy.
Retrieved from www.emory.edu/EDUCATION/mfp/eff.html
Schunk, D. H. (2000). Learning theories: An educational perspective (3rd ed.).
New Jersey, NJ: Merrill.
Tolman, E. C. (1948). Cognitive maps in rats and men. Psychological review, 55,
189ă208.
Woolfolk, A. (2005). Educational psychology (9th ed.). Massachusetts, MA: Allyn
& Bacon.
Wilderdom.com. (2003). Social learning & social cognitive perspectives on
personality. Retrieved from http://wilderdom.com/personality/L9-3Social
LearningCognitive.html
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Topic X The Social
6 Cognitive
View of
Reinforcement
and
Punishment
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain how expectations are formed;
2. Describe the influence of vicarious experiences on expectations;
3. Express how cognitive processing occurs;
4. Explain the influence of expectations on choice of behaviour; and
5. Discuss the effect of the non-occurrence of expected consequences.
X INTRODUCTION
„Every individual needs to grow ă but if the intent to grow is fuelled by
positive reinforcement, the growth process certainly becomes faster. On
the other hand, if shortcomings are highlighted (even for fuelling the
intent to grow/improve) ă the pace of improvement certainly slows
down‰.
ă Tanmay Vora, 2007
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AND PUNISHMENT
In the previous topic, you learnt that the social cognitive perspective evolved as a
consequence of different views of learning from the behavioural approach. This
perspective consists of two components: the social and the cognitive. The social
component emphasises that humans often learn from one another, whilst the
cognitive component emphasises the role played by thought processes in
determining behaviour.
This topic focuses on how reinforcement and punishment influence learning and
behaviour. These influences include five cognitive features, namely expectations,
vicarious experiences, cognitive processing, choice behaviour and non-
occurrence of expected consequences.
According to social cognitivists like Bandura, Rosenthal and Zimmerman, these
influences are said to be interdependent in nature. Generally, we form
expectations about the future consequences of certain behaviours or possible
consequences of responses based on how current experiences or situations are
reinforced or punished. These expectations affect the extent to which we
cognitively process new information. Besides this, we are also influenced by
observations of consequences that follow other peopleÊs behaviour. In other
words, the vicarious experiences of others, followed by the consequences, affect
to a certain extent how we choose to behave. Finally, the non-occurrence of
expected consequences has either reinforcing or punishing effects in and of itself
(Omrod, 2008).
6.1 EXPECTATIONS
As mentioned earlier, our learning is very much influenced by our expectations
about forthcoming events and their consequences. Specifically, these expectations
are also known as expectancies. In this section, the terms expectations and
expectancies will be used interchangeably.
By definition expectations are expected consequences of a particular
behaviour or action.
In other words, it refers to the subjective probability that a given behaviour will
lead to a particular outcome (reinforcer or punisher). Typically, it involves
questions such as „How likely is it that a particular behaviour will lead to a
particular outcome?‰ If, for example, a student constantly violates school
regulations (Behaviour X), how likely will he be sent to the discipline teacherÊs
office (Outcome Y)? Outcome expectations can also be specific of academic
performance. In another instance, If a student gets good grades, he will be able to
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AND PUNISHMENT
gain entrance to an institution of higher learning to pursue a field of study of his
choice.
Other questions include the following: „How „high‰ or „low‰ are the
expectancies?‰ „How confident is the individual that the behaviour will result in
the outcome?‰ Having high expectancies indicate his confidence of being
rewarded for his behaviour. Similarly, individuals who have low expectancies do
not believe that their behaviours will be reinforced. As a result, they put very
little effort into their behaviours, thus causing them to fail. When this happens, it
confirms their low expectancies. This process of decreasing expectancies is a
common occurrence of a vicious cycle. Thus teachers should try to enhance
learnersÊ confidence by encouraging them to cultivate high expectancies for
reinforcement.
SELF-CHECK 6.1
In your own words, define „expectations‰.
6.1.1 Implications in the Classroom
Our learners come into the classroom with certain expectations of the
reinforcement or punishment they will receive as a consequence of various
behaviours. To illustrate, consider this situation where learners find that a certain
subject teacher sets questions based on the textbook, whilst another sets
questions from workbooks and assigned readings from the Internet. Given this
scenario, learners will very likely form expectations as to what specific
behaviours (that is, reading their textbooks, doing revision questions from their
workbooks, surfing the Internet) are likely to be reinforced on forthcoming tests.
However, very often, the expectations that learners form about what behaviours
will be reinforced or punished are sometimes based on very little evidence. For
instance, a learner might believe that when she boasts about how rich her family
is, she will be the source of admiration of her classmates (a reinforcer).
Conversely, another learner might believe that her classmates will ostracise her
for being rich (a punisher), regardless of whether they would actually do so.
In the classroom, reinforcement increases the frequency of behaviour only when
learners know what behaviour is actually being reinforced (Bandura, in Omrod,
2008). Therefore, teachers should constantly give specific feedback regarding
which behaviours will be reinforced and which will be punished. For this reason,
if a learner scores a D in his coursework assignment, his teacher should call him
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AND PUNISHMENT
up and explain to him why he performed badly. This will help to deter him from
repeating the same mistakes again.
ACTIVITY 6.1
Describe a classroom experience when you decided not to take action
because of the consequences you thought it might bring you.
6.2 VICARIOUS EXPERIENCES
From the social cognitive perspective, we may experience reinforcement or
punishment by observing other people and feeling how they feel. This
phenomenon is called vicarious experience, or vicarious emotional arousal. The
feelings of empathy arising from observing the experiences of others creates an
opportunity for emotional conditioning. For example, if we watch someone
crying incessantly, we may tend to feel some degree of sadness too.
Typically, people who observe another personÊs particular behaviour being
reinforced, tend to exhibit that behaviour more frequently themselves ă a
phenomenon known as vicarious reinforcement (Omrod, 2008). This simply
means that by observing the consequences that their classmates experience,
learners realise for instance, that hard work produces good grades and that
regular training wins gold medals, etc.
On the other hand, when people see another person being punished for a
particular behaviour, they are less likely to display that behaviour more
frequently themselves ă a phenomenon known as vicarious punishment. For
example, when a teacher gives a time-out to a misbehaved learner, it is less likely
that his classmates will repeat that behaviour.
However, vicarious punishments may also curb positive behaviours. For
example, a teacher responds in a sarcastic tone to a learner for not being able to
answer a seemingly easy question. Indirectly, the teacherÊs behaviour will most
likely discourage the other learners in the classroom from asking relevant
questions. Thus, vicarious reinforcement and punishment can cause shifts in an
individualÊs action tendencies based on someone else's outcomes.
In conclusion, vicarious experiences are important as they enable us to form
patterns of behaviour quickly, resulting in less time wasted on trial-and-error
endeavours or making costly and sometimes, fatal mistakes. Furthermore, such
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AND PUNISHMENT
experiences will also allow us to explore new situations and activities in the
pursuit of new knowledge.
ACTIVITY 6.2
Based on what you have learnt about vicarious experiences, give
some examples of vicarious reinforcement and vicarious punishment
in the classroom.
6.3 COGNITIVE PROCESSING
The social cognitive perspective of learning places emphasis on our cognitive
ability to construct reality, selectively encode information, and display the
behaviour based on the values and expectations that we hold (Jones, 1989).
Our expectations of behavioural outcomes influence the extent to which we
prioritise the events in our lives. This means that we tend to pay more serious
attention to something that we expect will be reinforced. Therefore, if we do not
expect to be reinforced for learning something, then there is a tendency for us to
ignore it or leave it out of our mental process. To illustrate, if learners are told
that the forthcoming examination covers all the topics taught, they are more
likely to do a thorough revision if they want to get good grades (a reinforcer).
Conversely, if the teacher tells them that certain topics will not be evaluated, it is
very likely that they will leave out these topics in their revision.
Similarly, when a teacher teaches in a manner that learners find difficult to
understand, they will pay little or no attention to him. This is one reason why
weak learners who do not think they can learn what is being taught will tend to
get into mischief as they are bored and disinterested in the lesson.
In addition, if we are exposed to things that we are not expected to be
accountable or responsible for, then we will make very little effort to learn. Take
for instance, if all learners are told to attend leadership courses, it is very likely
that only those holding important positions in class, or co-curricular activities
will try their best to learn how to be a good leader; those who are not given
leadership positions will not really put in much effort.
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AND PUNISHMENT
ACTIVITY 6.3
Describe how your learners attend to what you teach in the
classroom. Give examples to support your answer.
6.4 CHOICE OF BEHAVIOUR
Social cognitivists argue that people learn many things in their daily lives, but
they will most probably exhibit the ones they think will bring them
reinforcement. Conversely, they almost never demonstrate the things that they
think will not be reinforced. Such things then become forgotten over time. In the
context of school, learners learn many things related to academic knowledge,
psychomotor skills moral values and so on. Unfortunately, if teachers do not
reinforce the relevant knowledge and skills that are exhibited, there is a likely
possibility that learnersÊ progress and development will be greatly hindered.
In the classroom, it is common to find learners who work very hard for a
reinforcer. In other words, they are striving for an incentive. An incentive is
considered as something that we hope for or expect; it is not guaranteed because
we may or may not get it. For example, some learners study very hard because
they hope to be on the DeanÊs list. However, sometimes when there are too many
excellent achievers, then perhaps co-curriculum excellence may be used as a
criterion as well.
Generally, people work for incentives that they believe are attainable. As an
illustration, each year, high achievers vie for a limited number of scholarships
offered in foreign universities. Those with average and poor grades know they
do not stand a chance. Hence it is very likely that they will not bother to apply
for these scholarships.
Thus, it is important to remember that when providing incentives in the
classroom, teachers should bear in mind that at least some learners perceive them
as attainable. Otherwise, it is better not to do so as they serve no purpose at all.
ACTIVITY 6.4
1. Why is it important to provide incentives for learners in the
classroom?
2. List down some criteria for incentives for learnerÊs achievement.
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AND PUNISHMENT
6.5 NON-OCCURRENCE OF EXPECTED
CONSEQUENCES
Bandura (in Omrod, 2008) opines that non-occurrence of an expected
consequence can be considered either as a form of punishment, or a form of
reinforcement. When people expect to be reinforced for a certain response, but
they are not, they regard it as a form of punishment. This results in them less
likely to exhibit that behaviour again in the future. Take the case of a learner who
spends a lot of time doing his coursework assignment. Naturally, he expects to
score a good grade, but unfortunately, he only scored an average grade.
Subsequently, the next time he is given an assignment, he will not put in so much
of his time and effort.
Conversely, when people expecting to be punished for a certain negative
response, are able to get away with it, they feel that the behaviour has been
reinforced. Consequently, they are more likely to exhibit that forbidden
behaviour again. As an illustration, a learner goes around the class disturbing his
classmates who are busy doing their work. The teacher ignores his misbehaviour.
This learner will continue with this negative behaviour because he perceives that
it is all right and the teacher does not mind him behaving that way.
Social cognitivists argue that just as the non-occurrence of reinforcement
is a form of punishment, the non-occurrence of punishment is a form of
reinforcement. Therefore, teachers should always be on the look-out for desirable
behaviours exhibited by learners in the classroom and follow through with
positive reinforcement. Similarly, when teachers observe learners exhibiting
undesirable behaviours such as breaking a rule, they should also enforce
promised consequences that learners expect. Otherwise, it increases the chances
of that misbehaviour being displayed or that rule being broken again.
ACTIVITY 6.5
1. Describe an incident when you broke a school rule and expected
to be punished, but you were not? How did you feel? Discuss with
your course mates and tutor.
2. Relate another incident when you did a good deed and expected
to be rewarded, but you were not? What effect did this have on
you?
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AND PUNISHMENT
Ć Our learning is very much influenced by our expectations about forthcoming
events and their consequences.
Ć Expectations refer to the subjective probability that a given behaviour will
lead to a particular outcome (reinforcer or punishment).
Ć Vicarious reinforcement occurs when people are likely to repeat behaviour
that they see rewarded.
Ć Vicarious punishment occurs when people are unlikely to repeat behaviour
that is punished.
Ć We tend to pay more serious attention to something that we expect will be
reinforced, and attempt to mentally process it effectively, and vice versa.
Ć We learn many things in our daily lives, but will most probably exhibit the
ones we think will be reinforced; and almost never demonstrate those that we
think will not be reinforced.
Ć The non-occurrence of an expected consequence can be considered as a form
of punishment of or a form of reinforcement.
Choice of behaviour Non-occurrence of expected
Cognitive processing Vicarious experiences
Consequences Vicarious punishment
Expectation Vicarious reinforcement
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AND PUNISHMENT
Bandura, A. (1989). Social cognitive theory. In annals of child development (Vol.
6, pp. 1ă60). Greenwich, CT: Jai Press.
Boeree, C. G. (2006). Albert Bandura. Retrieved from http://webspace.ship.edu/
cgboer/bandura.html
Betz, N. E., & Voyten, K. K. (1997). Efficacy and outcome expectations influence
career exploration and decidedness. The career development quarterly, 46,
179ă189.
Jones, J. W. (1989). Personality and epistemology: Cognitive social learning
theory as a philosophy of science. Zygon, 24(1), 23ă38.
Mearns, J. (2014). The social learning theory of Julian B. Rotter. Retrieved from
http://psych.fullerton.edu/jmearns/rotter.htm
Omrod, J. E. (2008). Educational psychology: Developing learners. (6th ed.).
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, NY: Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River.
Schunk, D. H. (2000). Learning theories: An educational perspective (3rd ed.).
New Jersey, NJ: Merrill.
Wilderdom.com. (2003). Social learning & social cognitive perspectives on
personality. Retrieved from http://wilderdom.com/personality/L9-3Social
LearningCognitive.html
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Topic X Modelling
7
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain the theory of observational learning;
2. Describe how modelling affects behaviour;
3. Identify the characteristics of effective models; and
4. Explain the processes involved in learning from models.
X INTRODUCTION
„Even the self-assured will raise their perceived self-efficacy if models
teach them better ways of doing things.‰
ă Albert Bandura, Social Learning
Theory, 1977
Figure 7.1: Albert Bandura (1925)
Source: http://images.google.com.my/images?hl=en&source=hp&q=Albert+Bandura
In the preceding topic, we learnt about the social cognitive view of reinforcement and
punishment. This topic focuses on modelling. As the name suggests, modelling occurs
when an individual exhibits a particular behaviour, and other people look on and
learn from it. Modelling is one form of observational learning.
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This topic will discuss various aspects related to modelling. To begin with, we
will examine the theory of observational learning, and then learn how modelling
affects behaviour. Then we will read about the characteristics of effective
models, and the processes involved in learning from models.
7.1 THE THEORY OF OBSERVATIONAL
LEARNING
What is observational learning? Basically, it is a kind of learning that takes place
as a result of observing, retaining and repeating a new behaviour exhibited by
other organisms. It is also known as vicarious learning, social learning, or simply,
„monkey see, monkey doÊÊ (Figure 7.2).
Figure: 7.2: A lion cub observing adult lions hunting
Source: http://www.google.com.my/#hl=en&source=hp&q=photo+of+cub&met
In humans, we have specialised nerve cells called mirror neurons, which enable
actions that we observe in our external surroundings to be transmitted into our
nervous system. Observational learning is said to occur at any stage in our lives.
Nevertheless, theorists argue that it is more evident during our childhood years
when we model after people who are just a little older than us.
Research findings show that observational learning has a great influence on
childrenÊs aggressive and pro-social behaviour. Rushton (in Eysenck, 2004)
argued that children have a tendency to imitate a modelÊs behaviour even if that
behaviour was conflicting with their beliefs and values. However, if you recall, in
BanduraÊs (in Eysenck, 2004) Bobo doll study, children imitated behaviour that
was rewarded and avoided those that were not. Hence, replicating observed
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behaviour depends on various factors, such as the observerÊs own knowledge
and experiences (Gergely, in Eysenck, 2004).
Based on what you have learnt about observational learning, how then does it
differ from imitation? Contrary to imitation, observational learning does not
always result in the observer duplicating the behaviour exhibited by the model.
This happens when the observer learns that an undesirable behaviour leads to
unfavourable consequences, resulting in him learning to avoid displaying that
behaviour.
In summary, it can be concluded that, human learning does not only occur as a
result of conditioning but also from the observation of others' behaviour too. This
type of learning is considered to be more efficient than actually experiencing the
behaviour itself. Several studies have shown that observers will imitate a model's
behaviour when they observe the model being rewarded for that behaviour but
not when they observe them being punished. However, other studies have
shown that success or reward alone is not necessarily sufficient for an observer to
imitate a model's behaviour. Moreover, as observational learning has only a
limited scope, it does not, therefore, account for most language learning in
children.
To get more information, please visit:
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UHOAtGsc2wo &
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lCETgT_Xfzg&feature=related
ACTIVITY 7.1
1. In your opinion, is observational learning an effective form of
learning? Why? If no, please give your reasons.
2. List down some factors which influence observational learning in
the classroom.
7.2 HOW MODELLING AFFECTS BEHAVIOUR
In the previous section, we read that observational learning occurs when an
observerÊs behaviour changes to imitate that of models. Do you realise that we
learn many different kinds of skills through modelling? Some examples include
motor skills, reading and writing skills as well as interpersonal skills.
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Social cognitivists such as Bandura postulate that we learn from two kinds of
models as shown in Figure 7.3.
Figure 7.3: Two types of models
If you recall, Topic 5 discussed BanduraÊs study about learning by observation on
nursery-school children which was carried out in the 1960Ês. After watching an
adult behaving aggressively towards a plastic punching-bag clown, commonly
known as the Bobo doll, these children displayed the same degree of aggression
towards the Bobo doll, imitating the behaviour of the adult (live) model of
aggression.
However, we are also influenced by the fictional characters that we read about in
novels or see on television and in films. These characters are generally known as
symbolic or media models. Children, in particular, tend to imitate behaviours
that seem to have no adverse consequences. For instance, children are great fans
of „Ultraman‰, „Superman‰ and other cartoon characters that they watch on the
television or video. In most cases, they are most apt to imitate the actions and
behaviours of these characters.
Similarly, children also learn aggression by watching violent acts and behaviours
in the family, or in the media. Violence depicted in video games seem to be the
norm and is also given reinforcement in the form of rewards. Consequently,
children tend to believe that aggression is a socially accepted way to manage
interpersonal conflict.
In modern society, the television has become an important source of
entertainment for children, providing ample opportunities for observational
learning. In the United States, research has shown that by early adolescence, the
average American child has already watched thousands of murder dramas as
well as other violent acts on television. Such portrayals of violence, abusive and
vulgar language are certainly inappropriate for children to imitate.
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The damaging effects of watching violence on television has been the subject of
research over many years. The findings of studies conducted inside and outside
the laboratory, reveal that viewing television violence is related to increased
aggression in children. Therefore, it is important that parents supervise and
monitor the programmes that their children watch on television and other media.
Television programmes however, do not only result in negative behaviours in
children. We also need to look at the positive aspects of television programmes.
Educational programmes like „Sesame Street‰ enable children to learn the letters
of the alphabet, words, numbers, and social skills quickly and easily. In addition,
they develop problem-solving skills and the ability to resolve conflicts using
cooperation and discussion.
Studies also show that children model same-sex parents/characters more than
different sex parents/characters. Besides this, they are also given social
reinforcement when they exhibit gender-specific behaviours. For instance, girls
who help their mothers with household chores are often praised for doing so.
Similarly, when boys help their fathers mow the lawn or wash the car, they are
also rewarded.
Generally, there are three types of modelling as shown in Figure 7.4.
Figure 7.4: Types of modelling
It is said that when children observe unselfish actions and behaviour, they tend
to imitate the same unselfishness. Likewise, those who observe selfishness are
also more likely to imitate the selfish behaviour.
According to social cognitivists such as Bandura, Rosenthal, and Zimmerman,
modelling has four effects on human behaviour. Let us look at Figure 7.5.
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Figure 7.5: Modelling effects on human behaviour
The observational learning effect is said to have taken place when an observer
displays new behaviour patterns that have a zero probability of occurrence prior
to exposure of the observed behaviour, even when motivation was high
(Bandura, 1986). For instance, learners learn how to conduct a science
experiment, execute a service in tennis, and greet someone in French correctly
after seeing and hearing models perform such actions. Besides this, they may also
acquire and display values, beliefs and attitudes held by significant others.
In some cases, an observer demonstrates an observed behaviour after seeing a
model being reinforced for that behaviour, or after having received vicarious
reinforcement. This is known as the response facilitation effect. For example,
learners tend to study hard in order to obtain good grades when they see their
classmates being rewarded for doing so.
In contrast, an observer may sometimes exhibit a previously learned behaviour
less frequently after seeing a model being punished for the behaviour. This is
referred to as the response inhibition effect. Take the case of learners who are
punished for behaving rudely towards their teacher. The other learners in the
class are less likely to behave in such a manner. Similarly, they are also less likely
to copy during examinations when they see their peers being punished for doing
so. Likewise, they tend to be passive in class when the teacher makes a joke out
of their classmatesÊ responses.
On the other hand, an observer may also show a previously forbidden or
punished behaviour more frequently upon observing a model display that
behaviour without adverse consequences. In this case, the response disinhibition
effect has occurred. For instance, when learners observe their classmates getting
away with undesirable behaviours, they are more likely to engage in such
behaviours which previously were inhibited. Can you remember the concept of
non-occurrence of expected punishment which you have learnt in the previous
topic? For this reason, prohibited behaviour that does not receive any negative
repercussions becomes enticing.
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Table 7.1 explains briefly on the effects of modelling.
Modelling Effect Table 7.1: Effects of Modelling
Observational learning
Underlying Process
Response facilitation
Observers display new behaviour patterns that initially
Response inhibition have a zero probability of occurrence, prior to exposure of
Response disinhibition the modelled behaviour.
Observers demonstrate an observed behaviour as a
consequence of direct or vicarious reinforcement of the
modelled behaviour.
Observers exhibit an observed behaviour less frequently
after seeing the modelled behaviour being punished.
Observers exhibit an observed behaviour more frequently
upon observing the modelled behaviour not receiving
adverse consequences.
ACTIVITY 7.2
1. Based on what you have learnt about the four effects of modelling,
give one example for each of these effects in your classroom.
2. What did you learn from each of these situations?
7.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE MODELS
Generally, we are motivated to behave in a certain manner as a result of
observing the behaviour of models that seem appealing to us. According to social
cognitivists, effective models possess one or more of the following four
characteristics, which are:
(a) Competence;
(b) Prestige and power;
(c) ``Gender appropriateÊÊ behaviour; and
(d) Behaviour relevant to the learnerÊs own situation.
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Let us look at the characteristics of effective models:
(a) Competence
Comparatively speaking, learners imitate the behaviours of those who are
competent rather than those who are incompetent in whatever they do
inside or outside the classroom. This is the reason why they will strive hard
to emulate the skills of professional footballers or a certain national squash
player compared to those who play in the local school field or community
sports club. Similarly, they will also imitate the lifestyle of a classmate they
admire rather than one who is socially maladjusted. In addition, they will
also act and conduct themselves in the manner of their favourite teacher
who is skilled in teaching compared to a new and inexperienced teacher
who is not as yet confident in his teaching.
(b) Prestige and Power
Typically, young children and teenagers admire famous historical heroes,
pop stars, famous world leaders, popular names in sports and athletics, and
so on. In the local context, they tend to imitate the behaviours of the school
head prefect, the school sports captain, a notorious gang leader and others.
In simple terms, it means that we often seek to emulate people with
prestige and power. For this reason, it is important for teachers to expose
their learners to people who are role-models, through reading about
famous personalities in books and electronic media. Such personalities may
include those local and abroad. Alternatively, professionals can be invited
to the school to talk about and share their life experiences.
(c) ``Gender appropriateÊÊ Behaviour
Learners normally model actions and behaviours that they believe are
suitable to their gender. Thus it is usual for them to limit their academic,
and subsequently, career choices to feminine and masculine professions.
For example:
Girls used to shy away from jobs that required them to work with
machines or outdoors with exposure to the sun and rain. Similarly, boys
also used to avoid professions that required them to take down notes
either mechanically or electronically. However, in recent times, it is quite
common to see female engineers and male secretaries.
Perhaps this is due to learnersÊ exposure to non-conventional professions
which have helped them change their perceptions as to what is termed as
``gender appropriateÊÊ behaviour. In this way, gender issues will not
become obstacles that stand in the way of a profession of their preference.
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(d) Behaviour Relevant to the LearnerÊs Own Situation
Under normal circumstances, learners tend to model behaviours to suit
their social situations. Therefore, if a learner thinks he will be socially
accepted when he keeps a hairstyle like that of his classmates, he will
certainly do so. Similarly, some girls are tempted to smoke cigarettes or
take drugs if they think their friends will accept them in their social
activities.
Based on what has been discussed about the characteristics of effective models, it
is evident that learners model their teachersÊ actions and behaviours. Thus it is
crucial that we, as teachers, model appropriate and desirable behaviours. We
should be mindful not to be biased in our opinions, or show prejudice against the
academically weak learners. Neither should we favour the high achievers who
may form only a small minority in the class. The manner in which we conduct
ourselves and the enthusiasm we show in our subject delivery do convey a
message to our learners. It is important to remember that our actions speak
louder than words.
ACTIVITY 7.3
1. Based on your own experiences, what are some characteristics
of effective models?
2. Explain how you would model these characteristics in your
classroom.
7.4 PROCESSES INVOLVED IN LEARNING
FROM MODELS
As mentioned earlier, observational learning operates on three principles.
(a) Firstly, it occurs when we organise and then rehearse the modelled
behaviour symbolically before displaying it explicitly. This process is
further enhanced if modelled behaviour is first coded into the written form
and then translated graphically for better retention and retrieval, compared
to merely observing it.
(b) Secondly, we tend to imitate a modelled behaviour if we value the
consequences that follow.
(c) Thirdly, we are also more likely to exhibit the modelled behaviour if we
identify similarities between ourselves and the model, or we admire the
model and the modelled behaviour has some functional value to us.
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Social cognitivists have outlined four processes that are necessary for learners to
model an observed behaviour effectively, namely attention, retention, motor
reproduction and motivation as summarised in Table 7.2.
(a) Attention
Several factors influence our attention to models, such as model and
observer characteristics, task features, and characteristics of modelled
activities. In order for learners (observers) to learn from a teacher (model),
the teacher must get their attention. In the classroom situation, this can be
achieved through the use of clear presentations using appropriate resources
and materials with bright colours and oversized features. Besides good
teaching skills and good mannerisms, proximity to the teacher is also
another element. This explains why those learners who are sitting in the
front rows usually pay more attention to the teacher when compared to
those in the back rows.
Besides this, attention can be influenced by observer characteristics that
include their sensory capacities, arousal level, and perceptual set and past
reinforcement. In addition, the characteristics of the modelled events such
as complexity, functional value and distinctiveness are also critical factors
that determine the extent to which observers pay attention to the model.
Modelled activities that observers believe are important and lead to
rewarding consequences command greater attention.
(b) Retention
This involves cognitively organising, rehearsing, coding and transforming
modelled information for storage into memory. Modelled behaviour can be
stored either as an image, or in verbal form, or both. In the classroom, the
teacher (model) can use various techniques which include verbal sequences,
or visual images, or both. What is important is to ensure that the observer
(learner) has coded or structured the information in a form that he can
remember easily.
Research findings indicate that both coding and rehearsal enhanced
retention of modelled events. Thus observers who coded and rehearsed
exhibited best recall. Rehearsal without coding and coding without
rehearsal were found to be less effective.
(c) Motor Reproduction or Rehearsal
This process involves translating visual and symbolic images of modelled
behaviour into overt behaviour. In some cases, observers have already
fulfilled the first two elements of attention and retention. However, they
may still be unable to perform the act. In the classroom context, this
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shortcoming can be overcome by the teacher by giving learners more
practice, feedback and coaching.
(d) Motivation
Generally, observers will display the observed behaviour if they have some
reason or motivation to do so. The use of direct or external reinforcement
and vicarious reinforcement can be an incentive. In some cases, the threat of
punishment, either to the model or directly to the observer, may be a
``motivatingÊÊ factor to display the observed behaviour. For some observers,
they are motivated to model the observed behaviour as a result of
self-reinforcement. Hence, in the classroom situation, teachers motivate
learners to display modelled behaviour by ensuring lessons are interesting,
relating teaching and learning materials to student interests, emphasising
student goal-setting, monitoring goal progress, and so on.
Table 7.2: Modelling Processes
Modelling Process Explanation
Attention ObserversÊ attention is influenced by model and observer
characteristics, task features, and characteristics of modelled
activities.
Retention or Cognitive organisation, rehearsal, coding and transformation of
Rehearsal modelled information for storage into memory, either as an
image, or in verbal form, or both.
Motor Practice, feedback and coaching enhance reproduction of
Reproduction observed behaviours.
Motivation Display of observed behaviour is influenced by positive
outcomes and incentives.
SELF-CHECK 7.1
1. Describe the four processes involved in learning from models.
2. How can teachers promote these processes in the classroom?
In conclusion, it can be said that attention and retention are important factors for
the acquisition of a modelÊs behaviour. Production and motivation, however,
control the performance of the behaviour.
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• Observational learning takes place as a result of observing, retaining and
repeating a new behaviour.
• Observational learning has a great influence on childrenÊs aggressive and
pro-social behaviours.
• There are two kinds of models, namely live and symbolic or media models.
Television programmes do not only result in negative behaviours in children,
but can also enable children to learn language, and enhance their
problem-solving skills.
• There are three types of modelling, which are academic modelling, cognitive
modelling and morality modelling.
• Modelling has four effects on human behaviour, which are observational
learning effect, response facilitation effect, response inhibition effect, and
response disinhibition effect.
• Effective models possess one or more of four characteristics: competence,
prestige and power, ``gender appropriateÊÊ behaviour, and behaviour
relevant to the learnerÊs own situation.
• Four processes that are necessary for learners to model an observed
behaviour effectively are attention, retention, motor reproduction and
motivation.
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Academic modelling Observational learning
Attention Observational learning effect
Cognitive modelling Rehearsal
Live model Response disinhibition effect
Media model Response facilitation effect
Morality modelling Response inhibition effect
Motivation Retention
Motor reproduction Symbolic model
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive
theory. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Eysenck, M. W. (2004). Psychology: An international perspective. Sussex:
Psychology Press Ltd.
Omrod, J. E. (2008). Educational psychology: Developing learners (6th ed.).
New Jersey, NJ: Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River.
Schunk, D. H. (2000). Learning theories: An educational perspective (3rd ed.).
New Jersey, NJ: Merrill.
Dewey, R. (2007). Observational Learning. Retrieved from
http://www.psywww.com/intropsych/ch05_conditioning/observational_
learning.html
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Topic X Self-efficacy
8
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain the concept of self-efficacy;
2. Discuss the influence of models on self-efficacy;
3. Distinguish between self-efficacy and instructional efficacy;
4. Describe how self-efficacy affects behaviour; and
5. Identify some factors in the development of self-efficacy.
X INTRODUCTION
„People who regard themselves as highly efficacious act, think, and feel
differently from those who perceive themselves as inefficacious. They
produce their own future, rather than simply foretell it.‰
From Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive
Theory, 1986.
The previous topic presented a major tenet of the social cognitive theory, which
is, observational learning, and the various aspects related to modelling and
effective models. Yet another tenet of the social cognitive theory that is equally
important for learning is self-efficacy. What do you know about self-efficacy?
Generally, it is a learnerÊs belief about himself in relation to the difficulty and the
outcome of the task given.
The purpose of this topic is to present various aspects related to self-efficacy, that
include its concept, its effects on behaviour and the factors involved in its
development.
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8.1 CONCEPT OF SELF-EFFICACY
Bandura postulated that self-efficacy involves a belief that one can produce a certain
behaviour, independent of whether one can actually do it or not (Bandura, in Driscoll,
2004). In other words, it is a belief about one's capabilities but not about knowing what
to do. When determining our self-efficacy, first of all, we assess our skills in relation to
the given task, then we evaluate „our capabilities to translate those skills into action‰
(Schunk, 2000).
In a typical classroom situation, learners usually do some kind of self-assessment
regarding a particular subject that is being taught by the teacher. These self-
assessments are called efficacy expectations. As shown in Figure 8.1, a learner
who believes he is not good in Mathematics will put in little or no effort in
completing the classroom exercises or homework given by the teacher.
Figure 8.1: BanduraÊs theory of self-efficacy as a mediator of performance and
achievement
Source: Driscoll, (2004)
In other words, the amount of effort he puts in is proportionate to the level of his
efficacy expectations. However, if he is convinced that practise will enhance his
performance in Mathematics (outcome expectations), then he will make sure he
does constant practise. Thus, both positive outcomes and efficacy expectations
are crucial elements in determining if an individual will or will not exhibit
certain behaviours.
How does self-efficacy differ from outcome expectations? Based on what you
have learnt, self-efficacy is our self-constructed judgement regarding our ability
to exhibit certain behaviours or to attain certain goals. This is in contrast with
outcome expectations which are concerned with our beliefs with respect to the
anticipated outcomes of our actions. For instance, a learner believes that if he
helps a classmate who is weak in Science, he will be thanked by this classmate
(positive outcome expectation). However, if he doubts his capability of helping
this classmate (low self-efficacy) he will refrain from doing so. Again, this
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relationship may not hold. In the example, the learner may believe he is capable
of helping his classmate (high self-efficacy) but refrains from doing so if he thinks
his offer of help will be rejected by this classmate (negative outcome expectation).
Additionally, self-efficacy should be distinguished from self-concept. As
mentioned earlier, self-efficacy refers to oneÊs perceptions of specific capabilities,
whereas, self-concept is oneÊs general self-perception (Schunk, 2000). In other
words, self-efficacy involves judgement as compared to self-concept which
involves how we generally feel about ourselves. Our self-concept is formed
through our experiences with and interpretations of our environment, as well as
reinforcements and evaluations by significant others.
8.1.1 Self-efficacy and Models
In the previous topic, we learnt about models and modelling. Do you realise that
the models in our environment have an important influence on our self-efficacy?
Generally, models fall into two categories:
(a) Adult Models; and
(b) Peer Models.
Numerous studies have been done to demonstrate the effect of adult models on
the self-efficacy of children. In one such study by Zimmerman and RingleÊs (in
Schunk, 2000), children observed an adult model fail in solving a puzzle despite
repeated attempts. These children were then asked to solve the puzzle
themselves. It was noted that by observing a confident but non-persistent model,
the childrenÊs self-efficacy increased. However, observing a pessimistic but
persistent model lowered their self-efficacy.
In another study, children who observed an adult model solve a mathematical
division were given similar exercises to do (Relich, Debus & Walker, in Schunk,
2000). Those who were given positive feedback for their ability and effort showed
an increase in their self-efficacy.
Based on the findings of these two studies, it can be said that exposing children
to adult models can affect their self-efficacy for learning and performance. A
similar effect was also found when learners observed same ability peer models
perform a task.
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Brown and Inouye (in Schunk, 2000) conducted a study on perceived similarity
in competence to models. College students observed and then judged the self-
efficacy of a peer model who had failed in solving anagrams (a game which
object is to form words from a group of randomly chosen letters). These students
were then asked to solve the anagrams themselves. When they were told that
they were more competent than the peer model, their self-efficacy and
persistence increased as compared to telling them they were equal in
competence.
8.1.2 Self-efficacy and Instructional Efficacy
How can we distinguish between self-efficacy and instructional efficacy? In the
context of the classroom, self-efficacy refers to the teacherÊs personal efficacy to
perform particular behaviours that will result in given outcomes. In comparison,
instructional efficacy refers to a teacherÊs personal beliefs about his capabilities to
help learners learn.
Instructional efficacy is said to influence a teacherÊs instructional activities, as
well as his effort and persistence in the teaching and learning process. Teachers
with low instructional efficacy tend to avoid planning activities that are beyond
their capabilities, put in little effort to source for materials, have little or no
patience with slow learners, and do not conduct remedial activities for learners
with learning disabilities. On the other hand, teachers with higher self-efficacy
tend to foster a conducive classroom environment, expend great effort to
promote learning, and persist with weak learners.
In summary, instructional efficacy is a crucial factor in determining learnersÊ
academic performance and achievement. Thus, it is recommended that pre-
service and in-service teacher education programmes develop strategies for
instructional efficacy. Having efficacious teacher models who can demonstrate
how to assist weak learners as well as disinterested and unmotivated learners, is
one useful strategy for raising teachersÊ self-efficacy and instructional efficacy.
SELF-CHECK 8.1
1. To what extent are efficacy expectations related to outcome
expectations? Give suitable examples.
2. How do models in the environment influence learnersÊ
self-efficacy?
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8.2 HOW SELF-EFFICACY AFFECTS BEHAVIOUR
Basically, our beliefs about our capabilities to attain a certain performance level will
determine how we think, feel and behave. In other words, our self-efficacy affects our
choice of activities, the effort we put in and our persistence, and ultimately our
learning and achievement. We shall now examine each of these effects.
We tend to choose activities and tasks that we believe will bring us success over
those that will result in failures. In other words, learners with low efficacy for
learning may avoid doing certain tasks; those who feel they are efficacious will
participate more actively. Thus, it is natural for learners who are good in Science
to volunteer to represent the school in an Inter-school Science quiz; those who are
weak in this subject may not even be interested to make an attempt. Similarly,
learners who are good in football will go for selection to be in the school football
team over those who have good oratory skills.
In the classroom, learners who possess a high self-efficacy tend to put in more
effort to complete a given task. When faced with difficulties, they try ways and
means to overcome them; in fact they sometimes see them as challenges. In
contrast, those with low self-efficacy tend to give up more easily. We often hear
them complain, „I canÊt seem to get it. I donÊt understand. I give up.‰ This second
category of learners is not persistent in their efforts to solve problems which
come their way.
Research findings show that given the same ability levels, learners with high self-
efficacy acquire better learning and have better achievement as compared to
those with low self-efficacy. When learners believe that they can achieve success
in the task given to them, they are more likely to utilise their cognitive processes,
such as paying attention in class, encoding information received, storing
information for easy retrieval and so on. On the other hand, those with low self-
efficacy are less likely to engage themselves in such activities. Table 8.1 outlines
the influence of learnersÊ self-efficacy on behaviour.
Table 8.1: Influence of LearnersÊ Self-efficacy on Behaviour
Aspect High Self-efficacy Learners Low Self-efficacy Learners
Task orientation
Effort Open to challenging tasks. Shun challenging tasks.
Persistence Put in increased effort when Put in little or no effort when
faced with challenging tasks. faced with challenging tasks.
Persistence when goals are Give up when goals are initially
initially not met. not met.
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TOPIC 8 SELF-EFFICACY W 125
Beliefs Believe they will succeed. Focus on feelings of inadequacy
Able to manage anxiety and and incompetence.
Use of Strategy stress when goals are not
Performance realised. Unable to manage anxiety and
stress when goals are not
Concentrate on strategies that realised.
work.
Persist with strategies that do
Show better and higher not work.
performance than low self-
efficacy learners of the same Show lower performance than
ability. high self-efficacy learners of the
same ability.
Source: Adapted from Eggen and Kauchak (2004)
Furthermore, there are developmental differences in self-efficacy. Generally,
young children have high self-efficacy and always believe that they are capable
of performing and accomplishing all the tasks given to them. Sometimes, such
beliefs can be over-estimated and unrealistic. As they progress to higher
schooling levels, their self-efficacy becomes more realistic and their level of over-
confidence drops. They also tend to compare their achievements with those of
their classmates.
8.2.1 Promoting Self-efficacy in the Classroom
Given the importance of self-efficacy in learning, how can teachers promote
learnersÊ self-efficacy? The following strategies may provide useful guidelines:
(a) Providing clear instructions for a given task. In this way, learners are clear
about what the task demands of them, for example, are they required
to do fieldwork or source materials from the internet? Hand in a
hard-bound copy or soft copy or both? Assignment format? and so on;
(b) Providing skill development or training, if necessary. Learners become
more confident when they are better equipped to complete the task;
(c) Modelling the desired behaviour. Teachers are role models for their
learners. To be effective models, teachers must evoke trust, admiration, and
respect from their learners; they must exhibit a level of behaviour that the
learners can visualise attaining;
(d) Providing competence-promoting feedback. Feedback of this kind will
encourage learners to put in greater effort in the given task in order to
achieve success;
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(e) Promoting mastery of challenging tasks. When learners go beyond merely
completing to mastering difficult and challenging tasks, they are more
receptive to take on such tasks in the future; and
(f) Defining success in terms of improvement or task accomplishment.
Learners become more encouraged to take on learning tasks when they
realise that success of a task can be achieved through incremental
improvement.
8.2.2 Implications of Self-efficacy in the Classroom
What are some implications of an efficacious classroom? When learners have a
strong sense of efficacy, it fosters their personal well-being. They perceive
difficult learning tasks as challenges to be mastered rather than as threats to be
avoided. This perception stems from an intrinsic interest in the given task
resulting in them being fully absorbed in the task at hand.
In order to succeed in a given task, efficacious learners set themselves
challenging yet attainable goals and become fully committed to them. They
prepare themselves mentally to face obstacles by increasing their efforts. They
associate failure to insufficient knowledge and skills, which then motivates them
further to acquire them.
In comparison, learners who have low efficacy often shun difficult tasks which
they view as personal threats. Besides, they also have low aspirations and a weak
commitment to the goals they have set. In the face of adversity, they give in to
their personal deficiencies, and consequently give up as they lose faith in
themselves.
ACTIVITY 8.1
1. How would you differentiate between high efficacious and low
efficacious learners in your classroom?
2. Suggest ways to enhance the self-efficacy of the learners in
your classroom.
8.3 FACTORS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF
SELF-EFFICACY
Generally, it is said that we are fairly accurate in assessing the level of our self-
efficacy. However, sometimes misjudgement occurs as a result of factors which
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TOPIC 8 SELF-EFFICACY W 127
are beyond our control. Take the case of a learner who repeatedly obtains a low
score in her essay despite increasingly putting in a lot of effort. The reason for
this is that the English teacher is very strict with her marking. Continuous failure
will result in this learner developing a mistaken belief that she is poor in essay
writing. Another example is the rich boy who is ostracised by his classmates who
are envious of him. Consequently, he will develop the mistaken belief that a
wealthy family background creates enemies.
Social cognitivists suggest that four factors influence the development of self-
efficacy, namely:
(a) Performance accomplishments;
(b) Vicarious experience;
(c) Verbal persuasion; and
(d) Physiological indexes.
Now, let us examine each other in greater detail.
(a) Performance Accomplishments
Performance accomplishments refer to the influence of our past successes
or failures with a task. Obviously, previous successes will enhance our
self-efficacy in completing a task given to us in comparison to previous
failures. Take the example of a learner who repeatedly gets a low grade
for his assignments. Surprisingly, he manages a high grade for one
assignment which was completed after discussing it with some of his
classmates. This success will motivate him to have group discussions in
the future before embarking on his assignments. Hence, it is important
that teachers expose learners to various kinds of learning supports so that
they have a wide range of choices to help them perform instructional tasks
assigned to them.
When learners accomplish repeated success in their tasks, their self-
efficacy is automatically enhanced. Subsequently, if they then experience
an occasional failure, they are still able to accept it. Most likely, this failure
will increase their determination to succeed in the future. When this
happens, they are said to have developed resilient self-efficacy.
On a similar note, continued failures will result in low ability levels to
succeed in the future. This is typically the case of weak learners who have
very low self-efficacy. Low self-efficacy causes failures and thus these
learners are caught in this vicious cycle.
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(b) Vicarious Experience
If you recall, this term which has been discussed in Topic 6 refers to our
observations of the successes or failures of a modelled behaviour. To
illustrate, a learner feels that he is not competent enough to enter a
declamation contest. He sits in during one such contest and then changes
his self-expectations when he discovers that the prize winners were not so
remarkable after all. Observing his peers resulted in him gaining greater
self-efficacy. Thus he is more likely to participate in future declamation
contests.
Therefore, as teachers, it is imperative that we boost our learnerÊs self-
efficacy by drawing their attention to the achievements of other learners
with the same ability level. This will indirectly give them the confidence
to try for themselves.
(c) Verbal Persuasion
Verbal persuasion refers to the persuasion of significant others regarding
our capability to succeed at a particular task. It is also known as messages
from significant others.
For instance, in a physical education class, there are some learners who
are afraid to execute a high jump. The physical education teacher can
boost these learnersÊ confidence by saying, „You can do it. Just give it a
try‰. When a significant other offers words of persuasion, it is likely to
hike up that particular individualÊs self-efficacy. However, if, in the above
example, the individual fails to cross over the high jump bar despite
several attempts, the teacherÊs effort is in vain.
Verbal persuasions can also be in the form of constructive comments
which convey the message, „IÊm confident that you have the ability to
perform better than this. These are some of my suggestions.‰ If learners
take this cue, follow the suggestions given, and attain success, we as
teachers have already enhanced their self-efficacy. Nevertheless, in our
attempts to help our students with learning disabilities, we may have
gone to the point of spoon-feeding them. When this happens, we are
conveying the implied message that we do not believe they are going to
make it on their own.
(d) Physiological Indexes
Physiological indexes are the fourth influencing factor in the development
of self-efficacy. These indexes include the levels of fatigue, hunger and
emotional well-being of the individual. Fatigue or hunger are said to
reduce self-efficacy although they are often unrelated to the given task.
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Emotional well-being refers to the level of fear or anxiety that can also
affect oneÊs self-efficacy as it can put thoughts of failure into oneÊs
working memory.
Another example that is considered a physiological index is oneÊs „gut
feelings‰ about probable success or failure at a task. Though difficult to put
into words, somehow, we seem to know whether we will succeed or fail at
a given task. Have you heard some of your learners say, „I canÊt describe it,
but itÊs no use even trying? I know IÊll never make it.‰ When learners are
adamant about such low self-efficacy beliefs, as in the above example of
some who are terrified of the high jump pole, they will not even make any
effort to try. In this case, the physical education teacher is faced with the
hard task of helping them overcome their fears and feelings of anxiety
through various strategies. One such strategy is probably systematic
desensitisation through the use of successive approximations.
Table 8.2 shows the factors influencing self-efficacy.
Table 8.2: Influencing Factors on Self-efficacy
Factors Elaboration
Performance accomplishments
Vicarious experience Influence of past successes or failures with a task
Verbal persuasion Influence of a modelÊs successes or failures with a
task
Physiological indexes
Influence of other peopleÊs persuasion/opinion
about oneÊs capability at a task
Influence of fatigue, hunger, fear, anxiety or „gut
feeling‰ on success or failure at a task
Ć Self-efficacy is a belief that one can produce a certain behaviour, independent
of oneÊs capability.
Ć Positive outcomes and efficacy expectations are crucial determinants of
observed behaviour.
Ć Self-efficacy differs from outcome expectations and self-concept.
Ć Adult models and peer models influence a learnerÊs self-efficacy.
Ć Self-efficacy differs from instructional efficacy.
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130 X TOPIC 8 SELF-EFFICACY
Ć Instructional efficacy influences a teacherÊs instructional activities, as well as
his effort and persistence in the teaching and learning process.
Ć Self-efficacy affects an individualÊs choice of activities, effort and persistence,
and learning and achievement.
Ć Efficacious learners tend to put in more effort to complete a given task
compared to inefficacious learners.
Ć High efficacy learners acquire better learning and have better achievement
when compared to those with low self-efficacy.
Ć Four influencing factors on the development of self-efficacy are performance
accomplishments, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological
indexes.
Adult models Performance accomplishments
Efficacy expectations Physiological indexes
Instructional efficacy Resilient self-efficacy
Outcome expectations Verbal persuasion
Peer models Vicarious experiences
Bandura, A. (1994). Self-efficacy. In V. S. Ramachandran (Ed.), Encyclopaedia
of human behaviour (Vol. 4, pp. 71ă81). New York, NY: Academic Press.
(Reprinted in H. Friedman [Ed.]., Encyclopaedia of mental health. San
Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1998). Retrieved from:
http://www.des.emory. edu/mfp/BanEncy.html.
Bandura, A. (1982). Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency. American
Psychologist, 37, 122ă147.
Driscoll, M. P. (2004). Psychology of learning for instruction. Massachusetts, MA:
Allyn & Bacon.
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TOPIC 8 SELF-EFFICACY W 131
Eggen, P., & Kauchak, D. (2004). Educational psychology: Windows on
Classrooms (6th ed.). New Jersey, NJ: Upper Saddle River.
Krause, K., Bochner, S., & Duchesne, S. (2007). Educational psychology for
learning and teaching (2nd ed.). Victoria: Nelson Australia Pty Limited.
Schunk, D. H. (2000). Learning theories: An educational perspective (3rd ed.).
New Jersey, NJ: Merrill.
Behaviour Change Theory and Models. Retrieved from
http://www.csupomona.edu/~jvgrizzell/best_practices/bctheory.html
Center for Positive Practices. (2005). Self-efficacy. Retrived from
http://www.positivepractices.com/Efficacy/SelfEfficacy.html#TheGeneral
Problem
Cherry, K. (n.d.). What is self-efficacy? Retrived from
http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/a/self_efficacy.htm
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Topic X Cognitive
9 Psychology
and Learning
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Discuss the assumptions of cognitive psychology;
2. Explain some basic concepts of cognitive psychology; and
3. Describe a model of human memory.
X INTRODUCTION
„Learning without thought is labour lost; thought without learning is
perilous‰.
ă Confucius
The field of psychology was largely influenced by behaviourism until the 1950s.
Then, between 1950 to 1970, focus began to shift towards topics such as attention,
memory, and problem-solving. This period, often known as the cognitive
revolution, generated considerable research that proposed various information
processing models of learning.
Cognitive psychology is part of a broader field known as cognitive science. The
core focus of cognitive psychology is on how people acquire, process and store
information. The findings of cognitive research propose ways to improve
memory, how to increase accurate decision-making, and how to design
appropriate educational curricula to increase learning.
This topic will discuss the assumptions and basic concepts of cognitive
psychology as well as present a model of human memory.
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TOPIC 9 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY AND LEARNING W 133
9.1 ASSUMPTIONS OF COGNITIVE
PSYCHOLOGY
Cognitive psychology proposes five assumptions about how people learn (refer
to Figure 9.1). These assumptions are concerned with the following aspects:
(a) Influence of cognitive processes;
(b) Selectivity of learning content;
(c) Construction of meaning;
(d) Role of prior knowledge and beliefs; and
(e) Active involvement in learning.
Figure 9.1: Assumptions of the information-processing theory
Source: Adapted from Omrod, 2008
(a) Influence of Cognitive Processes
Cognitive psychologists view learning as an internal mental phenomenon
and not as external behavioural changes. Thus, the cognitive processes that
involve thinking and interpreting will impact our learning. To illustrate,
when you teach Year One students the fives multiplication table, your
learners will first have to relate the concept of 5 × 2 = 10 to 5 + 5 = 10. Then
they have to understand and relate that 5 × 6 = 30 to counting 5 six times.
For this reason, it is therefore crucial for us, as teachers, to provide learning
activities that not only determine what our learners learn but how
effectively they learn it.
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