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(b) Specific transfer refers to oneÊs ability to apply the knowledge and skills
learned in one context to a similar context. To illustrate, if you have learned
how to drive a car, it facilitates the process of learning how to drive a lorry
later on. In short, this means that there is an overlap between the original
task and the transfer task.
Interestingly, research findings reveal that learners engage in specific
transfer more frequently than general transfer (Gray & Orasanu in Eggen &
Kauchak, 2004).

12.2.2 Principles of Transfer

There seems to be a problem with the transfer of knowledge and skills from the
classroom to the outside world amongst our learners (Mayer & Wittrock, 1996).
There are seven factors that influence transfer, namely:
(a) The amount of instructional time;
(b) The extent to which meaningful learning takes place as compared to rote

learning;
(c) The extent to which learners learn principles and not just mere facts;
(d) The variety of examples given and the opportunities provided for practice;
(e) The degree of similarity between two situations;
(f) The length of time that occurs between two situations; and
(g) The extent to which information is regarded as context-free as compared to

context-bound.
These factors have become the framework underlying the basic principles of
transfer. Table 12.1 explains each of these principles and its implication in the
classroom context.

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Table 12.1: Basic Principles of Transfer

Principle(s) Educational Implication Classroom Example

The amount of Teachers should focus on When teaching about
instructional time is teaching a few topics in Malaysian culture, concentrate
directly proportionate depth instead of many on the similarities and
to the probability of topics superficially. differences of traditional
transfer. dances across the different
races rather than merely
The amount of transfer Engage learners to relate explaining the traditional dance
is greater for new learning material to of each race.
meaningful learning prior knowledge rather
compared to rote than memorising facts. In teaching about the concept of
learning. scaffolding, ask learners to
think about how workers use
Transfer of principles Teach the principles scaffolding-like structures to
occurs more readily as related to each topic. build highărise buildings.
compared to transfer of
facts. When teaching learners how to
execute a volleyball, tennis or
The amount and When teaching new cricket serve, emphasise hand-
variety of examples concepts and skills, eye coordination. Also explain
and learning provide as many varied why such focus is important.
opportunities is examples as well as
directly proportionate practice exercises in When teaching about complex
to the probability of different contexts. sentences, ask learners to
transfer. construct complex sentences in
narrative essays, class bulletin
activity reports, and school
magazine articles.

The degree of Give learning tasks that When teaching about time
similarity between two are similar to those in management skills, have
situations is directly real-life situations. learners prepare a daily
proportionate to the planner on their various
probability of transfer Ensure that the time lapse activities on schooldays.
from one situation to is short between teaching
another. a topic and applying it. After teaching the topic on
baton pass in a Physical
The shorter the time Education class, ask learners to
lapse between learning form groups of four and
a topic and applying it practise passing the baton for a
in a similar or different 100 m relay.
context, the greater the
probability of transfer.

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The probability of Relate topics in one area When teaching the topic on
transfer for context-free to topics in other areas classical conditioning, ask
rather than context- and to daily life learners to provide examples of
bound learning situations. application in the workplace,
material. and child-rearing practices.

Source: Adapted from Omrod, 2000

Based on the summary of the basic principles of transfer in Table 12.1, it is
evident that if teachers follow these principles closely, they will very likely
promote positive transfer in their learners.

ACTIVITY 12.1

1. Give examples of general and specific transfer.

2. How would you, as a teacher, enhance the transfer of learning
in your learners? Give your own examples.

12.3 PROBLEM-SOLVING

We encounter different kinds of problems in our daily lives. Problems can be
considered as situations which are goal-oriented but the individual does not
know how to reach these goals. As you may have experienced, some problems
are easy to solve as they are straightforward and only hav a single correct
solution. Others, however, may be more complex as they may have several ways
of addressing the issue. The problem-solving strategies that we employ differ
depending on the content and scope of the problem.

In the following section, we shall examine two types of problems, namely well-
defined problems and ill-defined problems. We shall also learn about two
categories of problem-solving strategies: algorithms and heuristics.

12.3.1 Well-defined and Ill-defined Problems

According to experts on problem-solving, problems can be differentiated
according to how clearly specified and structured they are. A well-defined
problem is defined as one which has clearly stated goals, contains all the
necessary information that is required to solve it, and has only one correct
answer. An example would be mathematical problems.

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In comparison (See Figure 12.5), an ill-defined problem does not have clear goals,
the information required to solve it is inadequate, and the problem contains more
than one possible solution. For example, social issues, economic issues and so on
can be solved from many different perspectives and there are no fixed solutions.

Figure 12.5: The comparison between a well-defined problem and an ill-defined problem
Research findings show that learners encounter problems finding solutions to ill-
defined problems. As teachers, one of our challenges in helping them in this area
is to teach them problem-solving strategies.

12.3.2 Algorithms and Heuristics

As mentioned earlier, there are two problem-solving strategies. Problems that are
solved following specific, step-by-step instructions are said to be using
algorithms. For example, you buy a DIY (Do-It-Yourself) cabinet unit from a
hypermarket. By following the „Directions for Assembly‰ that are enclosed in the
box, you successfully put it together. This shows that when we follow an
algorithm correctly, we are assured of the correct solution.
However, in life, not all problems come with directions for assembly. Social
problems such as drug-taking behaviour among youths do not have an algorithm
for solving them. Similarly there are no algorithms available to fight the current
high inflation problem. In place of algorithms, we can resort to a heuristic, which
is defined as a general problem-solving strategy that may or may not provide a
good solution. One heuristic for the drug-taking behaviour among youths is
providing youths with positive alternative activities during their free time.
Table 12.2 outlines some guidelines for teaching problem-solving strategies.
For the purpose of easy reference, these guidelines have been divided into
algorithms, heuristics, and algorithms and heuristics.

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Table 12.2: Guidelines for Teaching Problem-solving Strategies

Problem-solving Strategy Suggested Guidelines
For teaching algorithms
• Explain and demonstrate algorithms for application in
For teaching heuristics specific situations.

• Show examples of algorithm application.

• Guide learners in understanding why particular
algorithms are effective and relevant in specific
situations.

• Check learnersÊ incorrect application of a particular
algorithm by reviewing the steps taken.

• Provide exercises for learners to practise identifying
and defining ill-defined problems.

• Teach heuristic strategies, such as identifying sub-
goals, working backwards, and drawing analogies to
assist learners solve problems where there are no
specific algorithms.

For teaching both • Focus on the context of specific subject areas when
algorithms and heuristics teaching problem-solving strategies.

• Assist learners in solving difficult and complex
problems through scaffolding, e.g. providing hints
about possible solutions, breaking up the problem into
small, discrete units, and so on.

• Encourage learners to solve problems collaboratively
by forming small groups, and sharing ideas about
possible solutions.

Source: Adapted from Omrod, 2000

In conclusion, we can conclude that well-defined problems can be solved more
easily, compared to ill-defined problems. Besides, when algorithms can be used
to solve a particular problem, that problem is generally less complex than the one
that requires the use of heuristics.

12.3.3 A Problem-solving Model

Cognitive psychologists have proposed a general problem-solving model
consisting of five steps which are, identifying the problem, representing the
problem, selecting a strategy, implementing the strategy and evaluating the
results. See Figure 12.6.

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Figure 12.6: A Problem-solving Model
Let us now examine each of these five steps in greater detail.
(a) Identifying the Problem

This is the most difficult step in problem-solving as it involves patience and
avoids early commitment to a solution (Hayes, in Eggen & Kauchak, 2004).
Some of the factors influencing effective identification of the problem
include: inadequate background knowledge of problem-solving;
inexperience in problem definition; tendency to rush into a solution before
achieving clear problem identification; and convergent thinking.
(b) Representing the Problem
Representing the problem is important in order to avoid taxing the working
memory especially when the presenting problem is complex. Mayer (in
Eggen & Kauchak, 2004) recommends three strategies that include:
(i) Restating the problem differently so that it becomes more

comprehensible;
(ii) Relating the problem to a previous problem; and
(iii) Representing the problem visually.

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(c) Selecting a Strategy
The third step in the problem-solving model involves selecting a strategy.
For this purpose, one or both of the problem-solving strategies as discussed
before can be used. These include algorithms and heuristics.

(d) Implementing the Strategy
The next step involves implementing the selected strategy. Implementation
is considered a routine task. If, however, learners discover that they are
unable to implement the strategy, they have to review the problem and the
strategy selected.

(e) Evaluating the Result
This final step in the problem-solving model poses a challenge to learners,
especially in cases when the solution obtained does not seem sensible.
Mayer (in Eggen & Kauchak, 2004) suggests that teachers should emphasise
the thinking component of problem-solving rather than the answer.

12.3.4 Expert-novice Differences in Problem-solving
Ability

Researchers have proposed four important differences in problem-solving
between experts and novices (Bruning, et al., in Eggen & Kauchak, 2004). These
differences are outlined in Table 12.3.

Table 12.3: Expert-novice Differences in Problem-solving Ability

Aspect Expert Novice

Problem • Looks for context and • Views problems as isolated
representation
relationships. and separate entities.
Problem-
solving • Able to solve problems quickly; • Solves problems slowly;
efficiency • Focuses on mechanics.
• Possesses wide general
Planning for knowledge.
problem-
solving • Does careful planning before • Does brief planning;
trying out solutions to new
Problem- problems. • Quickly adopts and tries out
solving solutions.
monitoring
• Possesses high metacognitive • Possesses a limited
ability; metacognitive ability;

• Does away with unproductive • Persists with unproductive
strategies. strategies.

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Based on the summary in Table 12.3, it can be seen that experts are better able to
solve problems as they are said to have both domain-specific and general
knowledge gained from their experiences. As a consequence, they can use the
different types of heuristic strategies such as identifying sub-goals, drawing
analogies, and so on.

ACTIVITY 12.2

1. Give one example of a well-defined problem and an ill-defined
one.

2. How would you apply the problem-solving model that you have
learned to manage a class of unmotivated learners?

12.4 METACOGNITION AND STUDY
STRATEGIES

In the earlier topic, we learned about concept learning and how to transfer
learning effectively. We also learned about types of problems and the strategies
on how to solve them. Are you now ready to learn about metacognition and
effective study strategies? Let us read further.

12.4.1 Metacognition

Before we go any further, what do you understand by the term „metacognition‰?
It refers to oneÊs awareness and control over oneÊs cognitive processes. In the
classroom context, high-achieving learners are more conscious of the way they
learn and study, and attempt to regulate their cognitive processes in an
endeavour to maximise their learning. In short, they are more metacognitive
about their learning, compared to low-achieving learners.

Metacognition is characterised by the following:
(a) Knowing the limits of oneÊs learning capabilities;
(b) Knowing the kind of learning tasks that can be realistically achieved within

a certain period of time;
(c) Knowing the types of effective and ineffective learning strategies;
(d) Planning a learning task approach that will yield success;

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(e) Using effective learning strategies for processing and learning new
material;

(f) Monitoring oneÊs knowledge and comprehension about successful learning; and

(g) Using effective strategies for retrieving information that has been
previously stored.
Source: Omrod, 2000

As you can see, learning strategies are related to metacognition. In fact, a
learnerÊs knowledge of effective learning strategies is directly proportional to his
metacognitive awareness. This in turn, has a direct effect on the learnerÊs
achievement (Perkins, in Omrod, 2000). In addition, Wittrock (in Omrod, 2000)
argues that the application of complex metacognitive strategies will result in
conceptual change when change is required.

12.4.2 Effective Study Strategies

In this section, we will examine some study strategies that have been proven
by research studies to be effective. These strategies include the following:
identification of important information, note-taking; retrieval of relevant prior
knowledge; organisation; elaboration; writing summaries; and monitoring
comprehension. Read about the outline of these strategies in Table 12.4.

Study Strategy Table 12.4: Effective Study Strategies
Identification of
important Description
information
Focuses on the following features of books and classroom lectures:
Note-taking • First sentence of a paragraph or lesson;
• Items in italics or boldface type;
Retrieval of • Items described verbally or written on the whiteboard; and
relevant prior • Interesting statements.
knowledge
Serves two important functions:
Organisation • Helps learners encode information into long-term memory; and
• Provides an additional means of storing information.

Provides the basis for meaningful learning:
• Relates new information to previous knowledge; and
• Asks specific questions for learners to retrieve prior

knowledge about a certain topic.

Produces effective learning through:
• Outlining learning material; and

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Making • Constructing a concept map.
elaborations
Enhances learnerÊs performance through the use of:
Writing summaries • Inferences made from the course material learned; and
• Elaborative interrogation where the learner develops and
Monitoring
comprehension answers his own elaborative questions.

A good summary encompasses three processes:
• Distinguishes important from unimportant information;
• Condenses details into more general ideas; snd
• Identifies how general ideas are related.

In order to know what they know or do not know, learners:
• Re-read a sub-topic;
• Raise questions in class; and
• Engage in self-questioning.

Based on the discussion, we can conclude that some of the study strategies, such
as note-taking and outlining learning material constitute internal processes that
we can observe. In contrast, retrieval of relevant prior knowledge and monitoring
comprehension are not so easily observable. However, it is these second set of
strategies that affect learning (Kardash & Amlund, in Omrod, 2000).

SELF-CHECK 12.1

1. Based on what you have learned about the different study
strategies, explain which strategy or strategies you use
frequently? Give reasons for your answer.

2. What educational benefits do your learners gain from the study
strategies?

Ć Concepts are mental structures that categorise sets of objects, events, or ideas
to help us better understand the world we live in.

Ć The three theories of concept learning are rule-driven theory; prototype
theory, and exemplar theory.

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Ć The rule-driven theory states that learners form concepts based on well-
defined characteristics or features.

Ć The prototype theory proposes that learners construct concepts based on the
best representative of its concept, category or class.

Ć The exemplar theory expounds that learners store the most highly typical
examples of a concept.

Ć In order to overcome the occurrence of misconceptions, teachers should teach
for conceptual change.

Ć Application of concept learning in the classroom require that teachers think
of and use examples and non-examples to enable learners to understand a
particular concept, and link new concepts to related concepts.

Ć Transfer is defined as oneÊs ability to use previously learned information in
one context or situation.

Ć Transfer can be either positive or negative. Positive transfer takes place when
learning in one context enhances learning in another. Negative transfer takes
place when learning in one context hampers learning in another.

Ć General transfer refers to oneÊs ability to apply the knowledge and skills
learned in one context to other different contexts. Specific transfer refers to
oneÊs ability to apply the knowledge and skills learned in one context to a
similar context.

Ć The problem with transfer of knowledge and skills from the classroom to the
outside world is due to several influencing factors that have been translated
into general principles underlying transfer.

Ć There are two types of problems, namely well-defined problems and ill-
defined problems.

Ć A well-defined problem has clearly stated goals, contains all the necessary
information that is required to solve it, and has only one correct answer.

Ć An ill-defined problem does not have clear goals, the information required to
solve it is inadequate, and the problem contains more than one possible
solution.

Ć The two categories of problem-solving strategies are algorithms and
heuristics.

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Ć Problems that are solved following specific, step-by-step instructions are said
to be using algorithms. A heuristic is a general problem-solving strategy that
may or may not produce a workable solution.

Ć A general problem-solving model consists of five steps: identifying the
problem, representing the problem, selecting a strategy, implementing the
strategy and evaluating the results.

Ć Problem-solving between experts and novices differs in four aspects, problem
representation, problem-solving efficiency, planning for problem-solving and
problem-solving monitoring.

Ć Metacognition refers to oneÊs awareness and control over oneÊs cognitive
processes.

Ć Effective study strategies include the following: identification of important
information, note-taking; retrieval of relevant prior knowledge; organisation;
elaboration; writing summaries; and monitoring comprehension.

Algorithms Negative transfer
Concept Positive transfer
Concept learning Prototype theory
Exemplar theory Rule-driven theory
General transfer Specific transfer
Heuristics Study strategies
Metacognition

Prentice hall. (n.d.). Complex cognitive processes. Retrieved from
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_eggen_education_6/0,8057,885692-,00.html

Eggen, P., & Kauchak, D. (2004). Educational psychology: Windows on
classrooms. (6th ed.). New Jersey, NJ: Upper Saddle River.

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196 X TOPIC 12 COMPLEX COGNITIVE PROCESSES

Mayer, R., & Wittrock, M. (1996). Problem-solving transfer. In D. Berliner &
R. Calfee (Eds.). Handbook of educational psychology, 47ă62. New York,
NY: Macmillan.

Newman, V. (1995). Problem-solving for results. Great Britain: Gower Publishing
Ltd.

Omrod, J. E. (2000). Educational psychology: Developing learners. (3rd ed.).
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, NJ: Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River.

Novak, J. D., & Canas, A. J. (2008). The Theory Underlying Concept Maps and
How to Construct Them. Technical report IHMC map tools. Florida
Institute for Human and Machine Cognition. Retrieved from
http://cmap.ihmc.us/Publications/ResearchPapers/TheoryCmaps/
TheoryUnderlyingConceptMaps.htm



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