ABPK3203 Psychology of Learning cAug14(rs)(M)

134 X TOPIC 9 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY AND LEARNING

(b) Selectivity of Learning Content
In our daily lives, we are often deluged by a wealth of information, ranging
from the visual form to print and electronic forms. In addition, we also
receive information through our other senses.
To elaborate, do the following exercise:
Answer the following questions.
(i) How many other things in your environment do you see besides the
words on this page?
(ii) What sounds do you hear at this moment?
(iii) Enumerate the objects that you are presently touching with your
fingers and toes.
Reflect on your answers to the above questions. You will agree that given
the limitless amount of stimuli that you are exposed to, you tend to select
and give your attention only to the ones that you think are important.
Similarly, in the classroom, our learners also choose from the enormous
amount of information that they receive. Therefore, as teachers, we should
ensure that our learners are equipped with the necessary knowledge and
skills to make good and wise instructional decisions.

(c) Construction of Meaning
Research findings show that we usually combine small bits of information
that we receive and make meaning out of them. As an illustration, look at
the two figures shown in Figure 9.2. What do you see?

Figure 9.2: What do you see?
Source: http://graphicdesign. Spokanefalls .edu/tutorials/process/

gestaltprinciples/gestaltprinc.htm

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In the image on the left, there are actually 15 figures but you will probably see it
as a unified whole, or a single entity. You will probably say it is the shape of a
tree. Similarly, you will also say that the second image on the right represents
either some kind of shade or the silhouette of a face. The reason for the
differences in the images is because we usually combine new information with
what we already know. This process, known as construction of meaning,
requires us to interpret what we see in our own ways.

Hence, it is important for us as teachers, to be aware that our learners do
not always acquire learning in the same way as information is presented to
them. It is normal for them to construct their own meaning out of the
information that they receive. For this reason, we should constantly check
the accuracy of their interpretations through questioning, listening to them,
and encouraging them to give feedback.

(d) Role of Prior Knowledge and Beliefs
We all come from different family backgrounds that provide us with
different kinds of knowledge, and beliefs to make meaning out of new
information that we obtain. The same is also true for our learners, too. Prior
knowledge and beliefs greatly influence how receptive we are to new
experiences.

Therefore, it is pertinent that we, as teachers, identify the prior knowledge
and beliefs of our learners. This will enable us to plan and conduct learning
activities that are relevant to their family and cultural backgrounds.

(e) Active Involvement in Learning
In our daily lives, we should not act like sponges that merely absorb
information given to us. Rather, we should actively determine what and
what not to know, and what to and what not to learn. In other words, we
should be active participants in the learning process.

Similarly, as teachers, we should motivate our learners to play an active
role in their learning. We can do this by planning instructional activities
that stimulate their thinking.

ACTIVITY 9.1

1. In your opinion, why is it important for teachers to know about
the assumptions of cognitive psychology?

2. What are the educational implications related to the above
assumptions?

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9.1.1 Sub-domains of Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive Psychology consists of the following sub-domains as shown in
Figure 9.3.

Figure 9.3: Sub-domains of cognitive psychology

However, some cognitive psychologists have even included social and cultural
factors, emotion, consciousness, animal cognition and evolutionary approaches
as part of cognitive psychology.

Table 9.1 contains a brief description of each of the sub-domains listed in Figure 9.3.

Sub-domain Table 9.1: Sub-domains of Cognitive Psychology
Perception
Description
Attention
Subjective interpretations that we make of environmental stimuli.
Current research: Focus on the interaction of separate
interpretations and integration into coherent precepts.

Selection of information for further processing and management of
several simultaneous information sources.
Current research: Influence of attention on performance,
mechanisms of attention, and networks for attention control.

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Learning Acquisition of new information in response to environmental
stimuli.
Memory Current research: Focus on implicit learning (influence of prior
experience on performance), explicit learning, and conceptual
Concept learning (nature of processing of incoming information).
Formation
How memories are acquired, stored, and retrieved; memory for
Judgement and facts, for procedures or skills, and working and short-term memory
Decision capacity.
Reasoning Current research: Focus on storage and retrieval processes.

Problem- Solving The ability to organise perception and classification of experiences
through the use of relevant categories.
Language Current research: Focus on cognitive neuroscience (identification of
Processing important brain structures for category formation).

Basic requirements (explicit and implicit) in voluntary behaviour.
Current research: Focus on dynamic system analyses of judgement
and choice.

The process by which logical arguments are evaluated or
constructed.
Current research: Focus on inference making and analogy, logical
reasoning, and Bayesian reasoning.

The study of how humans pursue goal directed behaviour.
Current research: Focus on complex pattern recognition, and
computer simulation of problem-solving.

Refers to language acquisition, language comprehension, language
production, and the psychology of reading.
Current research: Focus on lexical systems, semantic representation
systems, and cognitive imaging.

ACTIVITY 9.2

Based on what you have learned about the various sub-domains of
cognitive psychology, visit relevant websites that describe current
research in any particular sub-domain(s).

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9.2 BASIC CONCEPTS OF COGNITIVE
PSYCHOLOGY

In this section, you will learn four basic concepts related to cognitive psychology:
(a) Memory;
(b) Storage;
(c) Encoding; and
(d) Retrieval.

(a) Memory
Cognitivists define memory as the mental processes involved in the
acquisition and retaining of information for later retrieval. In other words,
memory study focuses on how memories are acquired, stored, and
retrieved.

There are four common approaches to the study of memory:
(i) The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model;
(ii) Levels of Processing Approach;
(iii) The TulvingÊs Model; and
(iv) Parallel Distributed Processing Approach.

These approaches will be discussed in later topics.

(b) Storage
Storage refers to putting away what has been learnt into our memory. It is
analogous to storing books into drawers and cupboards only to make
references of them when we need to look for certain information. In the
context of cognitive psychology, we usually put away the information we
receive into our long-term memory.

(c) Encoding
We do not usually store information exactly as we receive it; rather we
assign meanings and interpretations to them. In other words, we encode it.
For example, auditory stimuli are changed to the visual form when we
imagine the scenery of a place that is being described to us. In the same
way, visual stimuli can also be converted to the auditory form when we
read aloud an excerpt of a novel. To elaborate, read the following passage
one time only, and do the task which follows:

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Figure 9.4: Panda
Source: http://images.google.com.my/images=panda

A snow leopard roars in the high mountains of Asia. A black rhinoceros
gallops across the calf glide through the deep waters of the ocean. All of these
animals share the Earth with us. They fascinate us with their beauty, their
grace, and their speed. We love observing their behaviour, and learning more
about their habits. But just loving them is not enough. All of these animals are
endangered. Many of them have died, and without special care, they may
someday disappear from the Earth. The giant panda of Asia is a fascinating
and unique animal. Yet there are only about 1,000 still living in the wild. The
giant pandaÊs diet consists mainly of the bamboo plant, so when the bamboo
forests die, so does the panda. China is now making an effort to protect these
special creatures from becoming extinct. In South America, destruction of the
rain forest threatens many animals. Unusual mammals, such as the howler
monkey and the three-toed sloth, are endangered. They are losing their
homes in the rain forest, and thousands die when they are caught and
shipped off to be sold as exotic pets. Why is it important to care for animals
like these? One reason is to protect the balance of life on Earth. Another
reason is the beauty of the animals themselves. Each species of animal is
special. Once it is gone, it is gone forever.

Source: Gone Forever by Barbara Reeves
Available: http://www.pearsonlongman.com/ae/marketing/

sfesl/tests/grade7.html#reading2

After you have finished reading the passage, spend a few minutes to write down
as much of the passage as you can remember.

How much of the passage did you remember? You probably remembered that
the panda is considered as one of the endangered species. You may also have
recalled that pandas are found in Asia, and that China is doing her very best to
ensure that this special animal does not become extinct. But did you remember

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140  TOPIC 9 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY AND LEARNING

each and every detail about the other endangered animals? It is common for us to
remember the general meaning of what we read as opposed to the specific detail.

(d) Retrieval
This concept refers to the process of trying to remember information that
we have previously stored. In simple terms, it is analogous to looking for a
particular file that we have kept in the storeroom. Thus, if we do not
maintain systematic record-keeping, it will definitely take us a long time to
retrieve this file. As an illustration, do the following exercise to assess your
power of retrieval.

Time yourself and see how quickly it takes you to complete the following
questions:
(i) What is your home address?
(ii) In what year did Malaysia achieve her Independence?
(iii) What is the capital of Turkey?
(iv) What did you have for breakfast five years ago today?

How did you fare with the above questions? Most likely, it was very easy
for you to answer question one. It probably took you a little longer to
remember that Malaysia achieved her Independence in 1957 and that
Ankara is the capital of Turkey. Very likely also, that the memories of what
you had for breakfast five years ago today can never be retrieved though it
was stored at that time.

SELF-CHECK 9.1

1. Explain the four basic concepts of the information processing
theory.

2. Why is it important for teachers to be aware of these concepts?

9.3 A MODEL OF HUMAN MEMORY

In 1968, Atkinson and Shiffrin proposed a model of human memory which was
made up of two components, short-term memory and long-term memory. Later a
third component (actually the first in the sequence) was added, namely, sensory
memory. Figure 9.5 shows Atkinson and ShiffrinÊs model of human memory. In

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the following section, the characteristics of each of the three components will be
discussed.

Figure 9.5: A model of human memory
Source: http://www.cc.gatech.edu/classes/cs6751_97_winter/Topics/human-

cap/memory.html

9.3.1 Sensory Memory

As you know, we receive various types of information through different channels
via our senses. In addition, our perceptual systems also play a crucial role in
creating perceptions about the information that enters our processing system. As
mentioned earlier, our mental system only has a limited processing ability.
Therefore, most incoming information cannot be immediately dealt with. Instead,
we only attend to certain information. Any information not immediately
attended to is held briefly in a very temporary „buffer‰ memory, making it
possible to attend to some of it a bit later.

For example, you can still hear your classmate asking you a question even
though you were not really listening when he put forward that question. This
buffer memory is called the sensory memory or sensory register.

A sensory memory exists for each sensory channel:
(a) Iconic memory for visual stimuli;
(b) Echoic memory for aural stimuli; and
(c) Haptic memory for touch.
The sensory memory is said to retain an exact copy of what is seen (visual) or
heard (auditory). It is said to last for a few seconds. However, some theorists
argue that it only lasts 300 milliseconds. In addition, it has unlimited capacity
and is able to hold a great deal of information at any one time.

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Information is passed from the sensory memory into short-term memory by
attention. Thus, filtering of stimuli occurs for those that are of interest to the
individual at a given time.

9.3.2 Short-term Memory

The short-term memory (STM) is also known as the working memory. In contrast
to our sensory memory, it only has a limited capacity. For example, if several of
your classmates are talking simultaneously, you can usually attend to only one
conversation. This is known as the cocktail party phenomenon (Cherry, in
Omrod, 2008). Besides, information in our short-term memory stays for about 18
to 20 seconds. If we wish to hold information in STM, it is often encoded
verbally.

Short-term memory is said to act as a ``scratch-padÊÊ for temporary recall of the
information under process.

For example, in order to understand a sentence that you are reading, you need
to hold in your mind the beginning of the sentence as you read the rest. Try
chunking the sentence into seven plus or minus two words. You will find that
this can enhance your short-term memory capacity. It is for this reason that
your identity card number is hyphenated instead of a single long number.

Information that enters our STM soon fades away, or decays if it is no longer
attended to. Information that is being actively attended to is then sent to our
long-term memory to be stored.

Our STM sets severe limits on the amount of information that can be held in our
minds simultaneously, as well as the duration for which it lasts once attention is
withdrawn from it. For this reason, it is sometimes described as the ``bottleneckÊÊ
of the human information processing system.

9.3.3 Long-term Memory

Our long-term memory (LTM) is used for storage of information over a long
period. But just how long is our long-term memory? I am sure you agree that we
often forget things that we have learned after a day, a week, a month, or a year.
This is because the information that is kept in our LTM may slowly ``weakenÊÊ
and in some cases, become impossible to retrieve if not used for a long time. Thus
the exact duration of our LTM has never been determined and perhaps never can

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be (Eysenck & Keane, in Omrod, 2008). Table 9.2 shows the summary of the
characteristics of the three components of the human memory.

Table 9.2: Characteristics of Sensory Memory, Short-term Memory and Long-term Memory

Component of Sensory Memory Short-term Long-term Memory
Human Memory Memory
Large Unlimited
Capacity A few seconds Limited (Indefinitely) long
Unencoded Encoded
Duration 18 to 20 seconds

Processing Encoded

SELF-CHECK 9.2

1. Briefly describe the three components of the human memory that
is sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory.

2. What are the implications of these three components to the
teaching and learning process?

Ć The cognitive revolution that occurred between 1950 to 1970 generated
considerable research that proposed various information-processing models
of learning.

Ć The core focus of cognitive psychology, part of a broader field known as
cognitive science, is on how people acquire, process and store information.

Ć Cognitive psychology proposes five assumptions about how people learn:
(i) Influence of cognitive processes;
(ii) Selectivity of learning content;
(iii) Construction of meaning;
(iv) Role of prior knowledge and beliefs; and
(v) Active involvement in learning.

Ć Cognitive psychology consists of the following sub-domains: perception;
attention; learning; memory; concept formation; reasoning; judgement and
decision-making; problem-solving; and language processing.

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144 X TOPIC 9 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY AND LEARNING

Ć Four basic concepts related to cognitive psychology are memory, storage,
encoding and retrieval.

Ć The model of human memory is made up of three components, that is:
sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory.

Ć Each of these three components possesses certain characteristics.

Attention Perception
Cognitive psychology Problem-solving
Cognitive science Reasoning
Concept formation Retrieval
Encoding Sensory memory
Judgement and decision-making Sensory register
Language processing Short-term memory
Learning Storage
Long-term memory Working memory
Memory

Hall, R. H. Information-processing theory. Retrieved from
http://medialab.mst.edu/rhall/educational_psychology/2001/vl2a/info_
new. html

users.ipfw.edu. (n.d.). Human Memory: Atkinson-Shiffrin Model. Retrieved from
http://users.ipfw.edu/abbott/120/AtkinsonShifrin.html

Omrod, J. E. (2008). Educational psychology: Developing learners (6th ed.).
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, NJ: Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River.

Schunk, D. H. (2004). Learning theories: An educational perspective (4th ed.).
New Jersey, NJ: Merrill.

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The Gestalt Principles. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://graphicdesign.spokanefalls.edu/tutorials/process/gestaltprinciples
/gestaltprinc.htm

Van Wagner, K. (nd). What is cognitive psychology. Retrieved from
http://psychology.about.com/od/cognitivepsychology/f/cogpsych.htm

Zhong-Lin Lu, & Dosher, B. A. (2007). Cognitive psychology. Retrieved from
http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Cognitive_psychology

The Cognitive System. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA:
Valdosta State Huitt, W. (2006). University. Retrived from
http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/cogsys/cogsys.html

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Topic X Memory

10

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Discuss the function of short-term memory;
2. Describe how information is stored in long-term memory;
3. Explain how information is retrieved from long-term memory; and
4. Discuss the concept of forgetting.

X INTRODUCTION

„Memory is a child walking along a seashore. You never can tell what
small pebble it will pick up and store away among its treasured things‰.

Pierce Harris, Atlanta Journal

For thousands of years, the study of human memory has been the subject of
interest of science and philosophy. It is also a major focus of cognitive
psychology. Memory and learning are very closely related and are
interdependent. You have already learned from the previous topic that memory
refers to the processes that are used to acquire, store, retain and later retrieve
information. Therefore, memory is an essential part of the learning process.
However, learning is also dependent on memory. The knowledge that you store
in your memory provides the framework for you to link new knowledge with
your existing knowledge. The more extensive your framework of existing
knowledge, the easier it is for you to link new knowledge.

As you learned in Topic 5, there are several models of memory but the most
commonly used is Atkinson and ShriffinÊs (1968) Stage Model of Memory. This
model explains the basic structure and function of memory and outlines three

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distinct stages of memory, namely: sensory memory, short-term (working)
memory, and long-term memory.
In this topic, you will learn the functions of short-term and long-term memory, as
well as discuss how forgetting occurs.

10.1 SHORT-TERM MEMORY (STM)

In the preceding topic, you learned that memory is stored in three memory
systems, which are: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term
memory. Sensory memory preserves incoming sensory information for only a
fraction of a second, generally not more than half a second for visual or iconic
information, and three or four seconds for auditory or echoic information. We
focus our attention to certain aspects of this sensory memory before allowing
some of this information to proceed to our short-term or working memory.
Recent findings in cognitive research place great emphasis on the role of our
short-term memory (STM). It is said that failures in STM will result in learning
disabilities. Why do you think this happens? The reason is that we do all our
active thinking and problem-solving in our STM.
Cognitive psychologists suggest that we need to do four things as shown in
Figure 10.1 if we want our STM to function effectively:

Figure 10.1: Effective ways for STM to function

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148 X TOPIC 10 MEMORY

In order to ensure that the correct information gets into STM, we need to focus
our attention on it. In the context of the classroom, we as teachers, can facilitate
this process by directing our learnersÊ attention to key words, highlighting
important facts, and so on.
It is important to remember that we need to handle information appropriately to
prevent it from fading from our STM. In doing so, we face two limitations, which
are limited capacity and limited duration. As we have learned, our STM can only
handle a small number of pieces of information at any one time. A psychologist,
George Miller (Figure 10.2) in his 1956 study proposed the magical seven plus or
minus two (7 μ 2) pieces of information. According to the study, the information
remains in STM for only a short period of time, approximately 15 to 30 seconds.

Figure 10.2: George Miller
Source: http://www.psychologicalscience.org
Hence, it is important for us as teachers to assist our learners to overcome these
limitations. Read and try to understand the six ways listed:
(a) Deliver only small amounts of new learning material at any one time. This
will enable learners to focus their attention effectively;
(b) Train them to stop focusing their attention on old information so that they
will have space in their short-term memory for new information;
(c) Teach learners to chunk several pieces of information. This involves
combining separate pieces of information into a single, complex piece of
information. For example, ask them to try and remember the following
series of 10 digits: 1-8-0-0-7-5-2-5-2-5. Then teach them to try chunking into
five chunks (one- or two- or three-digit numbers): 1-800-75-25-25;

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(d) Teach them how to efficiently and rapidly transfer information into and out
of their short-term memory. In other words, sharpen their retrieval skills;

(e) Encourage them to use devices such as note-taking, graphics and diagrams
instead of committing everything to memory; and

(f) Introduce them to the concept of maintenance rehearsal or rote recital of
stored information. When our learners mentally or verbally repeat or
review information, it will help keep it from fading while in the short-term
memory. Besides, it allows information to remain there longer than the
usual 20 30 seconds.

Transferring information correctly from our short-term to our long-term memory
involves a process known as encoding. Figure 10.3 summarises four types of encoding.

Figure 10.3: Four types of encoding

Each of them is explained in detail in Table 10.1.

Table 10.1: Types of Encoding

Type Elaboration Example
Shallow
Elaborate Repeating information to oneself. A mobile phone number.

Automatic Linking, associating or connecting Using visualisation or guided
incoming information with that imagery techniques (mnemonics).
already stored in your memory.

Transferring of information from Read the two sentences below:
STM into LTM without much or
any effort and awareness. (i) What did you have for breakfast
this morning?

(ii) How did you come to school
today?

Did you experience difficulty
answering the above questions? You
probably did not. You already
understand the meaning of the words
contained in them. You need not
actively try to process the definition
of the words.

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150 X TOPIC 10 MEMORY

Effortful Transferring of information from Memorising your notes for your
STM into LTM either by working upcoming monthly History test.
hard to repeat or rehearse the
information or by making Repeating a friendÊs new mobile
associations between new and old phone number in your head until you
information. can write it down.

From Table 10.1, you can conclude that shallow encoding is used when we need
to hold a small amount of linguistic information in our mind for several seconds.
In the example given, when you repeat a phone number to yourself, you are only
temporarily storing the information.

In comparison, if you use elaborative encoding, you are making the information
more meaningful as you link, associate or connect the incoming information with
the existing information in your memory. The use of mnemonics thus makes it
easier for you to retrieve the information as you have already established an
actual means to recall it.

Besides this, you can also infer that there are some types of information that
are automatically encoded without much effort and awareness, whilst other
information requires us to do effortful encoding through repetition, rehearsal or
making associations between new and old information.

In conclusion, it can be said that STM performs three functions, namely:

(a) Attending, which involves selectively attending to relevant information and
ignoring all other irrelevant information;

(b) Rehearsing, which enables you to hold information for a short period of
time until you decide what to do with it; and

(c) Storing, which helps you store or encode information into long-term
memory.

SELF-CHECK 10.1

1. Explain how you, as a teacher, can enhance the short-term memory
of your learners.

2. When is it appropriate for learners to use:
(a) Shallow encoding; and
(b) Elaborative encoding in the learning context?
Give suitable examples.

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10.2 STORAGE OF INFORMATION IN LONG-
TERM MEMORY (LTM)

In contrast to our STM, the long-term memory (LTM) has an unlimited storage
capacity and a very long duration of time for the purpose of retrieving, or
remembering such information in the future. For this purpose, two processes are
involved: encoding, which is the process of transferring information from short-
term to long-term memory by paying attention to it, repeating or rehearsing it, or
forming new associations; and retrieving, which refers to selecting information
from LTM and transferring it back into STM.
Cognitive psychologists propose two useful techniques for storing information in
LTM, which are repetition, and elaborative rehearsal, as you can see in Figure 10.4.

Figure 10.4: Storing information in LTM
From Figure 10.4, we can see that repetition of information serves two major
purposes;
(a) To correct inaccuracies; and
(b) To create overlearning, thus, reinforcing connections.
In elaborative rehearsal, on the other hand, you actively review and relate the
information that is already stored in your LTM. This process involves the
following steps as outlined in Figure 10.5.

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152 X TOPIC 10 MEMORY

Figure 10.5: How elaborative rehearsal works
How can you distinguish between maintenance rehearsal and elaborative
rehearsal? Maintenance rehearsal refers to simply repeating or rehearsing the
information rather than forming any new associations. Elaborative rehearsal
involves using effort to actively make meaningful associations between new
information that you wish to remember to old or familiar information that is
already stored in LTM.
As teachers, our goal is to assist our learners to store information in LTM and to
use that information in the future to solve problems effectively. LTM consists of
two main categories; declarative and non-declarative, as shown in Figure 10.6.

Figure 10.6: Memory systems in long-term memory

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Now, let us study a little bit more about the different types of memory systems in
our LTM.

(a) Declarative Memory
Declarative memory is explicit in nature. It is divided into semantic
memory and episodic memory.

(i) Semantic memory refers to the remembrance of facts and generalised
information such as verbal information, concepts, rules, principles,
and problem-solving skills. Such information that is meaningful to
you is usually stored in networks or schemata.

(ii) Episodic memory refers to your memory of personal experiences from
your past. It can also include elements such as the time and place
where the event occurred. For example: your 10th birthday party, a
movie you saw two weeks ago, and so on. In other words, it organises
information around episodes in our lives.

What are the characteristics of semantic and episodic memory? Cognitive
psychologists propose the following three characteristics:

(i) Episodic memories are easier to forget than semantic memories.

(ii) Episodic memories comprise subjective experiences, compared to
semantic memories which are objective in nature.

(iii) Episodic memories often include an affective (emotional) component,
in contrast with semantic memories that rarely do.

(b) Non-declarative Memory
Non-declarative memory is implicit in nature. It is divided into procedural
memory, priming and conditioning.

(i) Procedural memory refers to your ability to remember how to
perform a task or to employ a strategy. For example, learning a motor
skill such as riding a bicycle, acquiring writing skills, and so on. The
procedures are apparently stored in a series of steps. Thus, when you
retrieve information from procedural memory, you retrieve the first
step, which triggers the second, and then the third, and so on.

(ii) Priming refers to your increased ability to identify or detect a stimulus
that has been recently presented. It is measured as the improvement
in performance for previously presented or repeated stimuli as
compared to stimuli presented for the first time.

For example, you have recorded in your memory the name „Tunku
Abdul Rahman‰ with records for „Bapa Malaysia‰, „First Malaysian
Prime Minister‰, and „Independence‰. Next, when you are asked to

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154 X TOPIC 10 MEMORY

name the first Malaysian Prime Minister, you are more likely to give
the correct answer as compared to some of your friends who have not
been primed to the name. You will learn more about priming in the
next section.
(iii) Conditioning refers to your ability to make associations between two
stimuli, or between behaviour and its consequences. If you recall, the
concept of conditioning has been discussed in Topics 2 and 3.

Contemporary researchers have also discovered another type of LTM that they
name as metamemory. This refers to the knowledge of how memory systems
work and how to use such systems in retrieving stored information.

According to cognitive psychologists, one important phenomenon that supports
the permanence of our LTM is flashbulb memory. This refers to our consistent
and detailed recollection of a significant event that has occurred in our lives. For
example, many people can still recall how they sat in front of their television sets
on the day Neil Armstrong became the first man to step on the moon.

SELF-CHECK 10.2

1. How is information stored in our LTM? Give suitable examples
for each of the memory systems.

2. How would you, as a teacher, enhance your learnersÊ ability to
store information into their LTM?

10.3 RETRIEVAL OF INFORMATION FROM
LONG-TERM MEMORY

In order for information that has been encoded and stored in oneÊs memory to be
used, we need to be able to retrieve it. We are constantly retrieving information
in our daily activities, from remembering what you studied last night for the
Science test today to executing a new volleyball service your coach taught you
last month.

Retrieving is the process of accessing stored memories. In short, it requires you to
accurately select the learned information from LTM and transfer it back into
STM. Cognitive psychologists have listed out four ways to help you pull out
information from LTM as outlined in Figure 10.7.

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Figure 10.7: Types of memory retrieval

Now, let us look at Table 10.2 for further details about each type of memory
retrieval, their retrieval cues and an example to illustrate them. The type of
retrieval cue or prompt impacts how learned information is retrieved.

Table 10.2: Types of Memory Retrieval and the Elaboration

Type of Elaboration Type of Retrieval Cue
Memory
Retrieval Able to access information not in In the form of a question
Recall conscious awareness.
• Free recall recall the items in the Use of logical structures,
Recollection partial memories, narratives
Recognition list; order or sequence is or clues
Relearning unimportant. Identification of a
• Serial recall recall the items in the previously experienced
list in the correct order. stimulus
Example: names, fill-in-the-blanks Identification with a
items previously learned stimulus

Involves reconstructing memory.
Example: essay questions

Able to identify information after
experiencing it for a second time
Example: multiple choice quiz

Relearning previously learned
information
Example: preparing for an exam

In relation to the concept of recall, Herman Ebbinghaus (Figure 10.8) was the one
who introduced the serial position curve.

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Figure 10.8: Herman Ebbinghaus
Source: www.york.ac.uk

The serial position curve is as shown in Figure 10.9. It is roughly U-shaped.

Figure 10.9: The serial position curve
Source: http://articles.directorym.com/Memory_Storage-a1053613.html
This curve shows the relationship between the position of an item in the list
(serial position) and the ability to recall it. Based on the curve, there are two
effects:
(a) Primacy effect, where items at or near the beginning of a list are easier to
recall than those in the middle; and
(b) Recency effect, where items near the end of the list are also easier to recall
than those in the middle.

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10.3.1 Serial Position Test

Spend three minutes to read the list of 20 verbs or action words in Table 10.3.
Then say aloud the words that you can recall from the list.

Table 10.3: 20 Action Words

accomplished strengthened performed questioned
targeted persuaded halved boosted
balanced changed understood tutored
presided guided achieved dedicated
championed worked cultivated resourceful

Which of the words in the list can you recall, the words in the first and last
columns or the ones in the second and third columns? According to Hedwig von
Restorff, who was a perceptual psychologist, the items in the middle of a list are
most difficult to commit to memory, hence making it more difficult to recall. She
suggested that to overcome this problem, you can make these items distinctive,
for example, by writing them in red to contrast them with the black. The
contrasting colour makes us focus our attention on these items, thus enhancing
their processing. The improved memory for distinctive items in the middle of a
list is known as the Von Restorff effect, after its discoverer.

Additionally, in order for us to retrieve information quickly and effectively, the
information that is stored in LTM must be organised and filed according to its
pattern or meaning. The effectiveness of retrieval cues is dependent on the
organisation of the stored information.

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Figure 10.10 shows the three different ways information is organised in LTM.

Figure 10.10: Organisation of information in long-term memory
Now, let us look at each of it in detail.
(a) Associations

Associations made at the time of encoding the information include the
following:
(i) Concepts and categories using a multi classification system to group

items based on their common properties;
(ii) Clusters organise similar or related items in groups;
(iii) Contexts match retrieval cues to encoded information; and
(iv) Schemas organise a cluster of knowledge about a particular event or

object by retrieving from relevant experiences in the past
(b) Priming

Priming refers to memory retrieval using cues that stimulate a memory of
the connection between the cue and the retrieved memory. There are two
types of priming, which are:

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(i) Conceptual Priming involves activation of concepts stored in
semantic memory; and

(ii) Perceptual Priming identifying a stimulus based on its physical
features.

(c) Encoding Specificity Principle
This principle is defined as the tendency to recall experiences that are
consistent with:
(i) External, environmental factors;
(ii) OneÊs internal physiological ``stateÊÊ; and
(iii) OneÊs current mood.

In conclusion, LTM performs three functions: storage, deletion and retrieval.
Information from STM is stored in LTM through rehearsal. Deletion of
information occurs as a result of decay and interference. Information is retrieved
using recall and recognition. In comparison, recognition is less complex as the
information is provided as a cue. Provision of retrieval cues enhances recall as
information can be accessed more quickly.

SELF-CHECK 10.3

1. How is information retrieved from LTM?

2. How would you, as a teacher, enhance retrieval cues in your
learners?

10.4 FORGETTING: THE LOSS OF MEMORY

Have you ever experienced forgetting where you left your house keys? Or forgot
to switch on the porch light at night? Forgetting is such a common daily
occurrence that, often, we resort to various methods to help us remember
important dates and events. We write „Things To Do‰ on Post-It notes and paste
them on our refrigerator door, jot down on our daily planner, post reminders on
our mobile phones, and so on.

What actually happens when you are searching for your missing house keys? For
a while, it seems that the information about the place where you put the keys is
completely erased from your memory. However, this does not explain the
concept of forgetting correctly. Forgetting does not just mean losing or erasing

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information from your long-term memory; it is actually a problem of availability
(information was not properly encoded or stored, thus making it unavailable) or
accessibility (information was encoded but could not be accessed or retrieved at
the material time).

Herman Ebbinghaus was one of the first psychologists to investigate the
properties of human memory, specifically, forgetting. He constructed and
systematically memorised a list of 20 three-letter nonsense syllables. These items
consist of a consonant, vowel, and consonant (CVC) that do not spell anything in
English. An example is „caj‰ One complete run through the list constituted a
single repetition.

After a number of repetitions, Ebbinghaus tried to recall the items on the list. He
discovered that his ability to recall the items was proportionate to the number of
repetitions made; very quickly at the initial stages, and then more slowly. Finally,
he achieved mastery. This marked the first learning curve as seen in Figure 10.11.

Figure 10.11: The forgetting curve
Source: http://academic.udayton.edu

Ebbinghaus then proceeded to test his retention. He took a new list and practised
until he was able to repeat the items correctly twice in a row. He waited for
varying periods of time before putting himself to the test. He found that
forgetting happened most rapidly immediately after the practice sessions.
However, the rate slowed down as time went on when fewer items could be
recalled. This curve represented the first forgetting curve.

Based on these experiments, Ebbinghaus proposed an important memory
phenomenon known as the overlearning effect. For example, you might need just
10 repeated memorisations to produce two perfect recalls. If you continued for
another eight times, this means 80% overlearning.

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What is the effect of „overlearning‰? It is to make the information more resistant
to disruption or loss. Ebbinghaus discovered that the forgetting curve for
overlearned material is shallower, where the duration of time was longer to
forget a given amount of the material.
There are four major reasons why we forget information as shown in
Figure 10.12.

Figure 10.12: Reasons for forgetting
Now, let us study in detail the reasons forgetting occurs.
(a) Retrieval Failure

Retrieval failure refers to an inability to retrieve information from memory
(Figure 10.13). One possible explanation for retrieval failure is known as
decay theory. As you know, each time we receive new information, a
memory trace is said to form. Over time, these memory traces soon fade
and start to disappear. Thus, if a particular piece of information is not
retrieved and rehearsed, it will eventually be lost. For example, you will
probably be unable to recall the registration plate number of your familyÊs
first car that your father bought when you were two years old.

Figure 10.13: Retrieval failure

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(b) Interference
Interference means some memories seem to compete and interfere with
other memories, either by overwriting or pushing out existing memories. In
other words, they are „memories interfering with memories‰. There are two
types of interference, which are proactive interference and retroactive
interference, as outlined in Table 10.4.

Table 10.4: Types of Interference

Type Elaboration Example
Proactive
Previously learned information You intend to visit a friend who
Retroactive makes it more difficult to remember has just shifted to a new house.
new information. You find yourself driving to her
old house instead.

Learning new information makes it Your neighbour has just given
harder to remember previously you his new mobile phone
learned information. number. When asked what his
old mobile number is, you
cannot remember.

(c) Encoding Failure
Encoding failure means that a particular piece of information that is often
seen was never actually stored into LTM (Figure 10.14). This is one of the
reasons of forgetting. You might like to try this activity. Draw both sides of
a 50 sen coin from memory. Then compare your drawing to an actual 50 sen
coin. How did you perform? Most probably you remembered the shape,
size, the number „50‰ and the words „Bank Negara Malaysia‰. You
probably forgot the emblem on the flip side of the coin. Why is this so? It is
because only information necessary for distinguishing the 50 sen coin from
other coins was encoded into your memory.

Figure 10.14: Encoding failure

(d) Motivated Forgetting
Typically, we purposely forget sad and traumatic events and experiences.
This is known as motivated forgetting. Basically, there are two forms of
motivated forgetting, namely, suppression and repression. Suppression is a
conscious form of forgetting. An example of suppression is when a teenager

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who has been continuously beaten as a child for misbehaviour may now be
unable to recall specific acts of misbehaviour. The reason for this is because
he has chosen to suppress these traumatic memories. In comparison,
repression is the process by which the mind pushes a memory of some
threatening or traumatic event deep into the unconscious mind.

SELF-CHECK 10.4

1. Discuss theories of forgetting.

2. As a teacher, how can you help your learners to overcome the
problem of forgetting?

In order for STM to function effectively, we need to
− ensure that the correct information gets into this area;
− handle this information in a suitable manner while it is there;
− use some of the information in this area to produce some kind of output;

and
− transfer information correctly to LTM.

Chunking involves combining separate pieces of information into a single,
complex piece of information.

Maintenance rehearsal or rote recital requires the mental or verbal repetition
or review of information to help keep it from fading while in the STM.

Encoding refers to the process of transferring information correctly from our
STM to our LTM.

There are four types of encoding, which are: shallow encoding, elaborative
encoding, automatic encoding and effortful encoding.

STM performs three functions, namely attending, rehearsing and storing.
Retrieving is the process of accessing stored memories.

The types of retrieval cue or prompt used to trigger the retrieval of LTM
impacts how learned information is retrieved.

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The four ways for memory retrieval are recall, recollection, recognition and
relearning.

The effectiveness of retrieval cues is dependent on the organisation of the
stored information.

Three different ways of organisation in LTM are association, priming, and the
encoding specificity principle.

Ebbinghaus proposed an important memory phenomenon known as the
overlearning effect.

There are three types of retention tests, namely, recall, recollection and
saving.

The serial position curve shows the relationship between the position of an
item in the list (serial position) and the ability to recall it.

The primacy effect refers to our ability to recall items at or near the beginning
of a list easier than those in the middle.

The recency effect refers to our ability to recall items near the end of the list
easier than those in the middle.

There are four major reasons why we forget information which are: retrieval
failure, interference, encoding failure and motivated forgetting.

Retrieval failure refers to an inability to retrieve information from memory.

One possible explanation for retrieval failure is known as decay theory.

Interference means some memories seem to compete and interfere with other
memories.

There are two types of interference, namely, proactive interference and
retroactive interference.

Encoding failure means that a particular piece of information was never
actually stored into our long-term memory.

Motivated forgetting means we purposely forget sad and traumatic events
and experiences.

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Associations Priming
Attending Proactive interference
Automatic encoding Procedural memory
Chunking Recall
Clusters Recency effect
Concepts and categories Recognition
Declarative memory Recollection
Effortful encoding Rehearsing
Elaborative encoding Relearning
Encoding Repression
Encoding failure Retrieval
Encoding specificity principle Retrieval cue
Episodic memory Retrieval failure
Flashbulb memory Retroactive interference
Forgetting curve Savings
Interference Schema
Learning curve Semantic memory
Maintenance rehearsal Serial position curve
Metamemory Shallow encoding
Motivated forgetting Storing
Non-declarative memory Suppression
Overlearning effect Von Restorff effect
Primacy effect

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Byrnes, J. P. (2008). Cognitive development and learning in instructional contexts
(3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.

Cherry, K. (n.d.). Explanations for forgetting. About.com. Retrieved from
http://psychology.about.com/od/cognitivepsychology/tp/explanations-
for-forgetting.htm

Cherry, K. (n.d.). Forgetting. About.com. Retrieved from
http://psychology.about.com/od/cognitivepsychology/p/forgetting.htm

users.ipfw.edu. (n.d.). Human memory. Retrieved from
http://users.ipfw.edu/abbott/120/Ebbinghaus.html

Klein, S. B. (2002). Learning: Principles and applications (4th ed.). Boston, MA:
McGraw Hill.

Purdue University Calumet. (n.d.). Long-term memory. Retrieved from
education.purduecal.edu/vockell/EdPsyBook/Edpsy6/edpsy6_long.htm

Dubuc, B. (2002). Memory and learning. Mcgill. Retrieved from
thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/d/d_07/d_07_p/d_07_p_tra/d_07_p_tra.
html

Schunk, D. H. (2004). Learning theories: An educational perspective (4th. ed.).
New Jersey, NY: Merrill.

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Topic X Information-

11 processing
Theory

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Discuss the various levels of processing information;
2. Explain the concept of parallel distributed processing; and
3. Describe the neuroscience approach.

X INTRODUCTION

„There is nothing either good or bad but thinking makes it so‰.
ă William Shakespeare

As we have learned earlier, the primary focus of the information approach is on
the structure and function of mental processing within specific contexts and
situations. If you recall, there are basically four major theories or models that
postulate how we process information. In the earlier two topics, you have
learned about the Atkinson and ShiffrinÊs stage theory model that describes how
information is processed in a serial, discontinuous manner from one stage to
another before being stored in memory.

In addition to this stage theory model, there are also two others; the levels of
processing theory and the parallel-distributed processing model. There is also a
fourth, the connectionistic model, which is an extension of the parallel-
distributed processing model.

This topic will discuss both the models mentioned as well as the neuroscience
approach to human memory.

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11.1 LEVELS OF PROCESSING

Levels of processing conceptualises memory according to the type rather than the
location of the processing when information is received (Craik, 1979, in Schunk,
2004). The Levels of Processing Theory (LPT) hypothesises that stimulus
information is processed along a continuum at multiple levels simultaneously
depending upon its characteristics. Such mental processing ranges from the deep
and meaningful, to the shallow and surface-level.
(a) Deep processing occurs when information is analysed in terms of its

importance and meaning; and
(b) Shallow processing refers to information that is processed in terms of its

surface structure (letters, sounds, etc.).
Based on the explanation, it seems that when information undergoes deep levels
of processing, it leads to more lasting memories thus resulting in them being
more easily retrieved. Conversely, shallow levels of processing lead to less long-
lasting memories resulting in them being less easily retrieved.
The varying levels of processing can be divided into different categories as
shown in Figure 11.1.

Figure 11.1: Categories of levels of processing
As a further explanation, consider the orienting tasks that engage us in different
levels of processing when we are given the word, „TRY‰ (see Table 11.1).

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Table 11.1: Levels of Processing Theory

Level of Type of Task Questions Used to Elicit
Processing Encoding Appropriate Encoding
Shallow Process the word by „Is the word written in
processing Structural visually scanning it to capital letters?‰
judge it structurally.
Intermediate • Physical „Does the word rhyme
processing structure of Either: with ÂcryÊ?‰
the word (a) Listen to;
Deep What does this word
processing Phonemic/ Or/and: mean if it is put into this
Auditory (b) Mentally sound sentence:
„It is useless to
• What the the word. over spilt milk‰.
word
sounds like Think about the
meaning and then
Semantic relate it to the rest of
the sentence, or put it
• Meaning of in a meaningful
the word category.

Based on the table, it can be seen that the three levels of processing require
different types of tasks. In shallow processing, we engage in structural encoding
where we consider the physical characteristics of the given word. Whereas, in
intermediate processing, we encode the given word phonemically by either
listening to someone verbalising it or we mentally sound it ourselves. On the
other hand, in deep processing, we do semantic encoding where we analyse the
meaning of the word in order to relate it to the rest of the sentence.

In addition, Craik and Lockhart (1972) argued that the ability to recall and retain
information varies according to the three levels of processing as shown in
Figure 11.2.

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Figure 11.2: Ability of recall at three levels of processing
Source: www.abac.edu/elee/PSYC1101/

From Figure 11.2, it can be concluded that the percentage of words recognised
(recall) will be better for words that are processed more deeply (semantic) as
compared to those processed for sound (acoustic words), often categorised as
intermediate processing. Also, words processed for superficial characteristics like
size, colour or shape (shallow processing) will produce the lowest probability of
recall.
If we were to relate this to the stage theory of memory, it can be said that short-
term memory tends to use an acoustic code whilst long-term memory veers
towards the use of a semantic code. For this reason, acoustic information is
quickly forgotten as it seems to be in the short-term memory and is shallowly
processed. On the other hand, semantic information takes a longer time to be
forgotten as it seems to be in the long-term memory and is thus deeply
processed.
In 1975, Craik and Tulving conducted an experiment to investigate the effects of
different types of processing on word recall. 60 participants were selected for this
experiment. First of all, they were shown 60 words, one at a time. For each word,
they were required to answer one of the three questions as shown in Table 11.1.
After that, they were shown a list containing 180 words. Their task was to pick
out the original 60 words.

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The following results were obtained:
(a) 17% of words in the structural/visual question form were correctly

recognised;
(b) 37% in the phonemic/auditory form; and
(c) 65% in the semantic form.

From this experiment, it can thus be concluded that the type of processing
significantly has a large effect on memorability as it affects later recall. This
further confirms Craik and LockhartÊs theory about depth of processing where
deeper levels of analysis yield more elaborate, longer lasting, and stronger
memory traces than do shallow levels of processing.

Besides this, elaboration is said to be an important factor in learning and
memory. Elaborative rehearsal is preferred over maintenance rehearsal as the
former involves deeper or more semantic analysis. Consequently, elaborative
rehearsal improves LTM and reduces forgetting.

Furthermore, these two researchers also proposed that if information is attended
to as it is being encoded; it also increases the probability of it receiving more
depth processing. The reason is we tend to remember meaningful events/things
because of the processing involved compared to meaningless events/things.

In conclusion, it can be said that LPT serves as a realistic and credible alternative
to the stage theory model. The primary application of the levels of processing
theory is effective to verbal learning, or the memorisation of word lists. However,
in recent years, it is being applied to reading and language learning, too.

SELF-CHECK 11.1

1. Distinguish between the Stage Theory Model and the Levels of
Processing Theory.

2. What are the characteristics of the Levels of Processing Theory?

11.2 PARALLEL DISTRIBUTED PROCESSING
(PDP)

As mentioned earlier, the Atkinson and Shiffrin Stage Theory Model
hypothesised that information is processed serially in a linear manner. A newer

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approach is that of parallel processing where information is said to be processed
more or less simultaneously. One such model in this category is the Parallel
Distributed Processing (PDP) model of memory.

As stated earlier, an extension of the PDP model is the Connectionistic Theory
(CT) developed by psychologists David E. Rumelhart (Figure 11.3) and James
McClelland (Figure 11.4) in 1986.

Figure 11.3: David E. Rumelhart Figure 11.4: James McClelland
Source: http://rumelhartprize.org Source: http://rumelhartprize.org

Currently, this is one of the dominant forms of current research in cognitive
psychology. In fact, it is consistent with the most recent brain research.

The primary proposition of the CT model is that information is stored in different
locations throughout the brain in the form of networks of connections. To
elaborate further, the building blocks of memory are units and connections,
rather than concept modes or propositions. Thus these blocks are simple
processing devices and not meaningful bits of information. They consist of
interacting units which are connected, forming an immense network across
which processing is widely distributed.

What happens when learning takes place? It is said that the stimuli or input from
the environment in the form of concepts and principles activate the connections
among the units. It is this activation that enables the input or knowledge to be
stored there.

The CT model is also consistent with the levels of processing model in that the
more connections to a single concept the more likely it is to be remembered. This
is because the elaboration used is more extensive.

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ACTIVITY 11.1

1. Compare and contrast between the Levels of Processing
Theory and the Parallel Distributed Processing Model.

2. How would you apply the Parallel Distributed Processing
Model in the classroom?

11.3 THE NEUROSCIENCE APPROACH

In the past decade, the neuroscience approach, particularly cognitive
neuroscience, has emerged as a prevalent approach towards understanding
human cognition ă how the brain supports thought, perception, affection, social
processes, and so on, as illustrated in Figure 11.5.

Figure 11.5: How the brain supports human cognition
Source: http://www.nature.com

It lies at the interface between traditional cognitive psychology and the brain
sciences such as neurology, neuroimaging and so on. It endeavours to generate
cognitive theories based on various types of information. Amongst these include

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patterns of behavioural damage resulting from brain injury, and measurements
of brain activity when cognitive tasks are executed.

Neuroscientists are increasingly using models of functional brain architecture to
locate accurate brain structures relevant to specific cognitive functions.
Knowledge of the exact brain areas related to specific cognitive processes will
most likely result in a clearer view of the brainÊs regions, and ultimately a better
understanding of human cognition processes. To illustrate, as we gain insights
into the roles of respective neurotransmitters, we are able to build computer
simulations to help us understand and predict the various complex mechanisms
involved.

Commonly used techniques like magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and X-ray
computed tomography (CT) scans have produced invaluable results when used
on patients to find out the location and extent of their brain damage.

ACTIVITY 11.2

1. Explain the benefits of the neuroscience approach to memory.

2. What are some limitations of the neuroscience approach?

Ć Levels of processing conceptualises memory according to the type rather than
the location of processing when information is received.

Ć The Levels of Processing Theory (LPT) hypothesises that stimulus
information is processed along a continuum, ranging from the deep and
meaningful, to the shallow and surface-level.

Ć Deep processing occurs when the information is analysed in terms of its
importance and meaning.

Ć Shallow processing refers to information that is processed in terms of its
surface structure (letters, sounds, etc.).

Ć When information undergoes deep levels of processing, it leads to more
lasting memories thus resulting in them being more easily retrieved.

Ć Shallow levels of processing lead to less long-lasting memories resulting in
them being less easily retrieved.

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Ć The categories of Levels of Processing are:
− Graphemic (letters that make up the word);
− Orthographic (shape of the written word);
− Phonemic (sound of the spoken word); and
− Semantic (meaning of the word).

Ć Experiments have been carried out to identify various orienting tasks that are
required for different levels of processing,

Ć Ability of recall and retention vary according to the three levels of processing,
that is deep, intermediate, and shallow.

Ć Craik and LockhartÊs theory about depth of processing states that deeper
levels of analysis yield more elaborate, longer lasting, and stronger memory
traces than do shallow levels of processing.

Ć If information is attended to as it is being encoded, it also increases the
probability of it receiving more depth processing.

Ć The primary application of the levels of processing theory is effective to
verbal learning, but is now being applied to reading and language learning.

Ć The Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) model of memory hypothesises
that information is processed more or less simultaneously.

Ć The Connectionist Theory (CT) proposes that information is stored in
different locations throughout the brain in the form of networks of
connections.

Ć The CT model is also consistent with the LPT model in that the more
connections to a single concept, the more likely it is to be remembered.

Ć In the past decade, the neuroscience approach, particularly cognitive
neuroscience has emerged as the prevalent approach towards understanding
human cognition.

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176 X TOPIC 11 INFORMATION-PROCESSING THEORY

Cognitive neuroscience Orthographic
Connectionist theory Parallel distributed processing
Deep processing Phonemic
Graphemic Semantic
Intermediate processing Shallow processing
Levels of processing

Craik, F., & Lockhart, R. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory
research. Journal of verbal thinking and verbal behaviour,11, 671ă684.

Driscoll, M. P. (2004). Psychology of learning for instruction. Massachusetts, MA:
Allyn & Bacon.

Free-ResearchPapers.com. (n.d.). Depth of processing model. Retrieved from
http://www.free-researchpapers.com/dbs/b6/pko92.shtml

Answers.com. (n.d.). Levels of processing effect. In wikipedia. Retrieved from
http://www.answers.com/topic/levels-of-processing-effect

Rumelhart, D., & McClelland, J. (Eds.). (1986). Parallel distributed processing:
Explorations in the microstructure of cognition. Cambridge, MA:MIT Press.

Schunk, D. H. (2004). Learning theories: An educational perspective (4th ed.).
New Jersey, NJ: Merrill.

Huitt, W. (n.d.). The Cognitive System. Educational psychology interactive.
Valdosta, GA: Waldosta State university. Retrieved from
http://www.teach.valdosta.edu/whuitt/edpsyppt/Theory/infoproc.ppt

Huitt, W. (2003). The Information Processing Approach to Cognition. Education
psychology interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved from
http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/cognition/infoproc.html

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Branaghan, R. J. (n.d.). WhatÊs so special about stories?, Arizona State University,

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http://www.cerici.org/documents/storytelling/Russell_Branaghan.ppt
Everding, G. (2006). Working memory: Key to breakthroughs in cognitive
neuroscience. Washington University in St Louis. Retrieved from
http://news-info.wustl.edu/tips/page/normal/6884.html

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Topic X Complex

12 Cognitive
Processes

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain how concept learning can be applied in the classroom;
2. Describe strategies for encouraging transfer of learning;
3. Explain the steps involved in problem-solving; and
4. Discuss how meta-cognition and study strategies can improve

learning.

X INTRODUCTION

„The significant problems we face cannot be solved at the same level of
thinking we were at when we created them.‰

ă Albert Einstein

The study of learning encompasses not only the different theories of learning
discussed so far, such as behaviourism, social cognitivism, cognitivism and the
information-processing theory; it also covers other important cognitive processes
related to learning.

This topic will explain all the processes that learners go through in
understanding concepts and transferring knowledge to their daily lives. The
processes are also present in problem-solving and further learning.

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12.1 CONCEPT LEARNING

First of all, what do you understand by the term „concepts‰? Briefly, concepts are
mental structures that categorise sets of objects, events, or ideas (Klausmeier, in
Eggen & Kauchak, 2004). When we categorise our experiences, it helps us to
better understand the world we live in.
To illustrate, look at Figure 12.1. What do you see?

Figure 12.1: Hexagons
The correct answer is five hexagons. But some of you may argue that the five
polygons in Figure 12.1 vary in their orientation and size. However, you must
remember that „hexagon‰ is a mental structure that you have formed in your
mind to represent all types of six-sided, two-dimensional closed plane figures
regardless of their size and orientation.
Based on the explanation, it is clear that we have grouped the five figures into a
concept that we call „hexagon‰. We do not try to remember each one of them as
separate entities. Can you imagine how complicated and complex learning will
be then?

12.1.1 Theories of Concept Learning

Generally, theorists have proposed three theories to explain how we form
concepts as listed in Figure 12.2.

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180 X TOPIC 12 COMPLEX COGNITIVE PROCESSES

Figure 12.2: Concept learning theories

These are the explanations for each of the theories.

(a) Rule-driven Theory
According to this theory, learners form concepts based on well-defined
characteristics or features. Medin, Profitt and Schwartz (in Eggen &
Kauchak, 2004) name this as the conceptÊs defining elements. For example,
the concept „hexagon‰ has the following characteristics: six sides, three
parallel lines, all sides having equal angles of 120 degrees. Hence, if learners
can identify these characteristics in given figures, they have already
understood the concept of „hexagon‰. Other characteristics such as
orientation and size are not important or necessary for making accurate
categorisations.

(b) Prototype Theory
The second theory of concept learning is known as prototype. This means
that learners construct concepts based on the best representative of its
concept, category or class (Medin et al., in Eggen & Kauchak, 2004). For
example, the prototype for „sports shoes‰ includes „Reebok‰, „Nike‰,
„Adidas‰ and so on.

(c) Exemplar Theory
The exemplar theory proposes that learners store the most highly typical
examples of a concept (Medin et al., in Eggen & Kauchak, 2004). For
example, learners who have kept different breeds of cats may not construct
a prototype for cat but instead may store images of a Siamese cat, a Persian
cat, Bengal cat, Burmese cat, and so on.

Based on the discussion, it can be seen that the three theories of concept learning
are used for different aspects. For example, you usually encode Mathematical
concepts such as shapes and numbers in terms of their characteristics. On the
other hand, you categorise different brands of watches, handbags, and makes of
motor vehicles as prototypes. Lastly, concepts such as fish or dog are encoded as
exemplars.

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12.1.2 Misconceptions about Concept Learning

Since concepts are constructed by the individual, misconceptions can occur as a
result of influencing factors such as the learnersÊ background knowledge, beliefs,
emotions, and expectations (Dole & Sintra, in Eggen & Kauchak, 2004). Consider
the following examples of misconceptions: in geography, learners often have
difficulty distinguishing between a stalactite and a stalacmite while in
psychology, learners use the terms self-esteem and self-concept interchangeably,
although they are distinctly different. Similarly, in a pedagogy class, learners
have problems explaining the terms instructional strategies and techniques.

In order to overcome the occurrence of misconceptions, teachers should teach for
conceptual change (Dole & Sintra; Posner et al., in Eggen & Kauchak, 2004). In
order to change learnersÊ thinking, the following conditions are necessary:
(a) The existing condition must become dissatisfying;
(b) An alternative conception must be understandable; and
(c) The new conception must be useful or relevant in the real world.

(Eggen & Kauchack, 2004)

Let us consider the following illustration. Leela is a student teacher currently
doing her teaching practice. In her original conception about positive
reinforcement, Leela thought that she could use token economies for learners
who gave correct answers; or it would encourage active participation amongst
the learners. The token economies, however, did not bring about the desired
conceptual change as learners in Year 6 are not really interested in accumulating
„Stars‰. Since the existing condition proved to be dissatisfying, Leela had to find
another alternative strategy in the form of educational computer games. Since
12-year-olds enjoy learning from the computer, this new conception turned out to
be successful. It was also relevant in the real-world as it enhanced the reflexes of
the learners.

12.1.3 Application of Concept Learning in the
Classroom

As teachers, how can we apply what we have learned about concept learning in
the classroom? Eggen and Kauchack (2004) suggest two ways as outlined in
Figure 12.3.

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182 X TOPIC 12 COMPLEX COGNITIVE PROCESSES

Figure 12.3: Concept learning
Firstly, teachers should think of and use examples and non-examples to enable
learners to understand a particular concept. For example, in teaching the concept
of Malaysian fruit, teachers can bring examples of real local fruit such as a
banana, papaya, star fruit, guava, or mango while also including the Montel
variety of banana, Indian mango, cherries, grapes and strawberries as non-
examples.
Secondly, teachers are required to link new concepts to related concepts. For
example, an English teacher wants his learners to differentiate between narrative
writing and academic writing. He has to provide samples of both types of
writing and then have the learners explain the similarities and differences
between the of writings.

SELF-CHECK 12.1

1. Compare and contrast the three theories of concept learning.
2. Discuss how you, as a teacher, will apply concept learning in

your classroom. Give suitable examples.

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12.2 TRANSFER

Transfer is defined as oneÊs ability to use previously learned information in a
context or situation. As teachers, we hope that our learners can transfer the
knowledge and skills acquired from one course or subject to another, and also
from the classroom to the world outside. Similarly, we also hope that they can
transfer their home experiences to the classroom.

Mayer and Wittrock (1996) proposed that transfer can be either positive or
negative. As the name suggests, positive transfer takes place when learning in
one context enhances learning in another. On the other hand, when learning in
one context hampers learning in another, it is called negative transfer. Take the
simple example of a learner who learns that all birds have wings, besides laying
and incubating their eggs. If he sees a hen and concludes that it is a bird, positive
transfer has taken place. However, if he sees a pigeon pecking at some grains
thrown on the ground and concludes that it is a hen, this is called negative
transfer.

12.2.1 Types of Transfer

Generally, there are two types of transfer as seen in Figure 12.4.

Figure 12.4: Types of transfer

Now let us read the explanations for better understanding of this.
(a) General transfer refers to oneÊs ability to apply the knowledge and skills

learned in one context to other different contexts. To illustrate, a learner in a
Biology class uses a concept map to facilitate remembering the different
parts of the human brain and their functions. She uses this same learning
strategy in her History class for the topic on the Malaysian education
system from pre- to post-Independence. It is evident that there is no overlap
in content between Biology and History.

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