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विज्ञान तथा प्रविधि कक्षा ९

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Published by jhalari7.rp, 2022-05-21 03:58:39

विज्ञान तथा प्रविधि कक्षा ९

विज्ञान तथा प्रविधि कक्षा ९

lj1fg tyf kl| jlw

sIff (

k/LIf0fsf nflu

gk] fn ;/sf/
lzIff, lj1fg tyf kl| jlw dGqfno

kf7\oj|md ljsf; s]Gb|
;fgfl] 7dL, eStk/'

k|sfzs
g]kfn ;/sf/
lzIff, lj1fg tyf kl| jlw dGqfno

kf7o\ jm| d ljsf; s]Gb|

;fgfl] 7dL, eStk'/

© ;jf{lwsf/ kf7o\ j|md ljsf; s]Gb|

ISBN : 978-9937-601- -

o; kf7o\ k':ts;DaGwL ;Dk"0f{ clwsf/ kf7o\ j|md ljsf; s]Gb| ;fgfl] 7dL, eStk/' df lglxt
/xs] f] 5 . kf7o\ j|md ljsf; s]Gbs| f] lnlvt :jLs[ltlagf Jofkfl/s ko| f]hgsf nflu o;sf] k/' }
jf cf+lzs efu xa' x' k|sfzg ug,{ kl/jt{g u//] ks| fzg ug{, s'g} ljB'tLo ;fwg jf cGo
k|ljlwaf6 /]s8{ ug{ / kl| tlnlk lgsfNg kfOg] 5g} .

k/LIf0f ;:+ s/0f M lj=;+ @)&*

kf7o\ k:' ts;DaGwL kf7sx¿sf sg' } klg ks| f/sf ;´¬ fjx¿ ePdf kf7o\ jm| d ljsf;
sG] b|, ;dGjo tyf ks| fzg zfvfdf k7fOlbg'xg' cg/' fw] 5 . kf7sx¿af6 cfpg]
;´¬ fjx¿nfO{ sG] b| xflb{s :jfut ub5{ .

xfdf| ] egfO

kf7\ojm| d lzIf0f l;sfOsf] d"n cfwf/ xf] . kf7\ok:' ts ljBfyL{df ck]lIft bIftf ljsf; ug{] Ps dV' o
;fwg xf] . o; kIfnfO{ bl[ i6ut ub{} kf7o\ jm| d ljsf; sG] bn| ] ljBfno lzIffnfO{ Jofjxfl/s, ;do;fkI] f
/ u0' f:t/Lo agfpg] p2]Zon] kf7\oj|md tyf kf7o\ k':tssf] ljsf; tyf kl/dfh{g sfon{ fO{ lg/Gt/tf
lbFb} cfPsf] 5 . cfwf/e"t lzIffn] afnaflnsfdf cfwf/et" ;fIf/tf, ul0ftLo cjwf/0ff / l;k Pjd\
hLjgfk] of]uL l;ksf] ljsf;sf ;fy} JolStut :jf:Yo tyf ;/;kmfO;DaGwL afgLsf] ljsf; ug]{ cj;/
kb| fg ug{k' 5{ . cfwf/e"t lzIffsf dfWodaf6 afnaflnsfx¿n] k|fsl[ ts tyf ;fdflhs jftfj/0fkl| t
;rt] eO{ cg'zf;g, ;bfrf/ / :jfjnDag h:tf ;fdflhs Pjd\ rfl/lqs u0' fsf] ljsf; ugk'{ 5{ . o;n]
lj1fg, jftfj/0f / ;"rgf kl| jlw;DaGwL cfwf/et" 1fgsf] ljsf; u/fO{ snf tyf ;f}Gbok{ l| t cle?lr
hufpgk' 5{ . zf/Ll/s tGb?' :tL, :jf:Yos/ afgL Pjd\ l;hg{ fTdstfsf] ljsf; tyf hfthflt, wd,{ efiff,
;+:sl[ t, If]qkl| t ;Ddfg / ;defjsf] ljsf; klg cfwf/e"t lzIffsf ck]lIft kIf xg' \ . bz] k|]d, /fli6«o
Pstf, nf]stflGqs dN" odfGotf tyf ;+:sf/ l;sL Jofjxfl/s hLjgdf k|ofu] ug{', ;fdflhs u0' fsf]
ljsf; tyf gful/s stJ{ okl| t ;hutf ckgfpg' / b}lgs hLjgdf cfOkg{] Jofjxfl/s ;d:ofx¿sf]
klxrfg u/L ;dfwfgsf pkfosf] vf]hL ug{' klg cfwf/et" txsf] lzIffsf cfjZos kIf x'g\ . o; kIfnfO{
bl[ i6ut u/L ljBfno lzIffsf] /fli6o« kf7\ojm| d k|f¿k, @)&^ sf] ddc{ g¿' k bz] sf ljleGg ljBfnodf
k/LIf0f ug{] ko| fh] gsf nflu dfWolds lzIff -sIff (_ sf] lj1fg tyf k|ljlw ljifosf] kf7o\ j|mdcg'¿k
of] k:' ts ljsf; ul/Psf] xf] .

o; kf7\ok':tssf] nv] g >L lvns'df/ kw| fg, >L lrGtfdl0f kGyL, >L hgs/fh kGt / >L lvn gf/fo0f
>]i7af6 ePsf] xf] . kf7\ok':tsnfO{ o; :j¿kdf Nofpg] sfo{df o; s]Gb|sf dxflgb]{zs >L
c0fk|;fb Gofk} fg,] kf| =8f /hgL /fhe08f/L, 8f= Clif ltjf/L, >L k|ldnf avtL, >L s;] / axfb/'
v'nfn, >L dfx] g kf8} n] / ldgf >i] 7sf] ofu] bfg /x]sf] 5 . o; kf7\ok':tssf] ljifoj:t' ;Dkfbg
>L oj' /fh clwsf/Laf6 ePsf] xf] . o;sf] efiff ;Dkfbg >L u0f]zk;| fb e66\ /fO{ / >L lrgfs'df/L
lg/fn} faf6 / snf ;Dkfbg >L >Lxl/ >]i7af6 ePsf] xf] . o; kf7\ok:' tssf] ljsf;df ;+nUg ;Dk0" f{kl| t
sG] b| xflb{s st[ 1tf ks| 6 ub5{ .

o; kf7\ok':tsn] ljBfyL{df lgwf{l/t ;Ifdtf ljsf;sf nflu ljBfyL{nfO{ ;xof]u ug{] 5 .

o;n] ljBfyL{sf] l;sfOdf ;xof]u k'¥ofpg] Pp6f dxŒjk"0f{ / cfwf/e"t ;fdu|Lsf ¿kdf sIff

lj|mofsnfkaf6 x'g] l;sfOnfO{ dhat' agfpg ;xof]u ug]{ 5 . of] lzIfssf] l;sfO lj|mofsnfksf]

ofh] gf geO{ ljBfyL{sf l;sfOnfO{ ;xofu] k'¥ofpg] ;fduL| xf] . kf7o\ k':tsnfO{ ljBfyLs{ f] l;sfOdf

;xofu] k¥' ofpg] Pp6f dxŒjk0" f{ cfwf/sf¿kdf afns]lGb|t, l;sfOs]lGb|t, cge' js]lGbt| , p2]Zod"ns,

ko| f]udv' L / lj|mofsnfkdf cfwfl/t agfpg] ko| f; ul/Psf] 5 . l;sfO / ljBfyL{sf] hLjGt cge' jlar

tfbfTDo sfod ub{} o;sf] ;xh k|ofu] ug{ lzIfsn] ;xhstf{, pTk|/] s, kj| ws{ / vfh] stfs{ f ¿kdf

e"ldsfsf] ckI] ff ul/Psf] 5 . o; k':tsnfO{ c´ kl/is[t kfgs{ f nflu lzIfs, ljBfyL,{ cleefjs,

al' 4hLjL Pjd\ ;Dk0" f{ kf7sx¿sf] ;d]t ljzi] f el" dsf /xg] xFb' f ;Da4 ;a}sf] /rgfTds ;´' fjsf nflu

kf7\oj|md ljsf; s]Gb| xflb{s cg'/fw] ub5{ .

g]kfn ;/sf/

lzIff, lj1fg tyf kl| jlw dGqfno

lj= ;+= @)&* kf7o\ j|md ljsf; s]Gb|

! lj1fg / j}1flgs cWoog

(Living Beings and Their Structure)

Ask Question

Do Background Think
Research Try Again

Construct Hypothesis

Test with an
Experiment

Hypothesis is True Hypothesis is False or
Partially True

Report Result

lrq 1.1 lrq 1.2 j}1flgs l;sfOsf r/0fx¿

lrq 1.1 df lbOPsf kmnkm" n tyf /f;folgs kbfyx{ ¿df x'g] cDnLo, Iff/Lo jf t6:y u0' fsf]

j1} flgs cWoogsf nflu k|Zg, cg'dfg, ko| f]ufTds sfo{ / tYofª\sx¿ ;ªs\ ng ljlw s] s]

x'g ;S5g\ <

dfly lrq 1.2 df j}1flgs l;sfOsf r/0fx¿ lbOPsf 5g\ . j}1flgs l;sfOcGtu{t tYofª\s

tyf kd| f0fx¿sf] ;ª\sngsf nflu ljleGg lsl;dsf ko| fu] fTds sfo{x¿ ul/G5g\ . lrq 1.1
df lbOPsf kmnk"mn tyf /f;folgs kbfy{x¿df xg' ] cDnLokgf, Iff/Lokgf jf t6:y u0' faf/]
j1} flgs cWoogsf nflu k|ofu] fTds sfoa{ f6 cfjZos tYofªs\ -pH dfg_ ;ª\sng ul/G5 .
j1} flgs cWoogdf k|ofu] fTds sfox{ ¿ k|of]uzfnfdf jf aflx/L jftfj/0fdf ul/G5g\ . j}1flgs
cWoogsf nflu tYofª\s ;ªs\ ng ubf{ tyf lj1fgsf ljleGg ljifo j:t'x¿sf] cWoog ubf{
;fgf tyf 7'nf kl/df0fx¿sf] gfk nV] g'kg{] x'G5 . To:tf gfkx¿nfO{ j}1flgs k4ltcg;' f/
n]lvG5 . gfkdf xg' ;Sg] ;Defljt q'l6 Gog' ug{ k6s k6ssf] dfkgaf6 cf;} t gfksf] dfg
lnOG5 .

1.1 j1} flgs k|lj|mofut l;kx¿ (Science process skills)
j}1flgs l;kx¿n] j1} flgs l;sfOsf] cfwf/ tof/ kf5g{ \ . xfdLdf lj1fg;DaGwL 1fgsf

lj1fg tyf k|ljlw M sIff ( 1

cltl/St j}1flgs clejl[ Q -scientific attitude_ / lj1fg;Ddt sfo{x¿ ug]{ -process of doing
science_ l;ksf] ljsf; xg' 'k5{ . j}1flgs l;kx¿cGtu{t cjnf]sg ug]{ -observing_, k|Zg ;fW] g]
-questioning_, juLs{ /0f ug{] -classfying_, JofVof ug]{ (interpreting_, cg'dfg ug{] -predicting_,
;~rf/ ug]{ -communicating_ cflb h:tf l;k k5{g\ . j}1flgs l;kx¿sf] cEof;sf nflu
tnsf ljm| ofsnfk ug'{xf;] \ .

lj|mofsnfk 1.1

tnsf lrqx¿df bv] fOP h:t} sfuhsf] xjfOh{ xfhsf ljleGg gd'gf vfh] L u/L cWoog ug'x{ f;] \ .
tLdWo] sg' gdg' f 5fg]/ xjfO{hxfh agfpFbf pSt xjfO{hxfh nfdf] ;do xfjfdf /xg,] 6f9f;Dd
p8\g] aG5 xfn] f < cgd' fg ug{x' f;] \ . A4 ;fOhsf] sfuhsf kfgf lngx' f];\ / cfk"mnfO{ pko'St
nfus] f] gd'gf 5fGgx' f;] \ . tkfOn{“ ] 5fgs] f] gd'gfcg';f/sf] hxfh lgdf{0f ugx{' f];\ . tkfO{“n] agfPsf]
hxfhnfO{ p8fpgx' f;] \ / ;fyLx¿n] agfPsf] hxfh;u“ tn' gf ug{'xf];\ . tkfOn{“ ] 5fGg' ePsf] gd'gfdf
s'g} lsl;dsf] kl/dfh{g u/]/ s;/L klxn]sf] eGbf /fdf| ] gdg' fdf ¿kfGt/0f ug{ ;lsG5, ljrf/
ug'{xf];\ .

lrq 1.3 sfuhsf] xjfO{hxfh gdg' f s lrq 1.4 sfuhsf] xjfOhxfh gd'gf v

1.2 j1} flgs l;sfO (scientific learning)

lrq 1.5 jfikLs/0f / b|jLs/0fsf] cjnfs] g

lrq 1.6 k|fs[lts 36gf -hnrj|m_

2 lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff (

lsTnLdf lrof ksfpFb} ubf{ 66' Laf6 uPsf] afkm lr;f] kfgL ePsf] lunf;df kbf{ yfk] f ag/] tn
em5{ . pSt lr;f] kfgLsf] lunf;nfO{ x6fP/ tftf] kfgL ePsf] lunf; /fVbf yfk] f aGg] ljm| of
/fl] sG5 . kfgLsf] lunf;df w/] } lr;f] kfgL /fVbf afkmaf6 lgs} a9L yfk] fx¿ aG5g\ . afkmaf6
kfgLsf] yf]kf aGg] k|ljm| ofdf afkm 7Ss/ vfg] ;txsf] tfkj|mdsf] e"ldsf /x] eFm} cfsfzdf
afbn agL kfgL kg]{ lj|mofdf xfjfsf] tfkjm| dsf] ed" Lsf /xs] f] xG' 5 . kY[ jLsf] ;txaf6 prfO
a9\bf tfkj|md 36g\ ] jm| daf/] cfjZos tYofªs\ ;ªs\ ng ul/G5 . o;sf nflu df;} d kj" f{gd' fg
ljefusf] j]a;fO6 -www.mfd.gov.np_ af6 ljleGg :yfg tyf k[YjLsf] ;txaf6 prfOdf xg' ]
tfkjm| dsf] tYofªs\ ;ª\sng ug{ ;lsG5 . prfOcg;' f/ 36b\ f] tfkjm| d;DaGwL k|fKt tYofª\s
/ cWoogsfnlu ko| fu] ePsf] kfgLsf] tfkjm| dsf] ljZni] f0faf6 kfgL kg{] k|lj|mofdf ke| fj kfg{]
tŒjx¿dWo] xfjfsf] tfkj|md klg Ps /xs] f] lgisif{ lgsfNg ;lsG5 . of] lgisif{ kf| sl[ ts
36gfsf] j}1flgs cWoogaf6 k|fKt ePsf] xf] .

lj1fg 1fg kf| Kt ug{] kl| jm| of xf] . of] k|fs[lts ;;+ f/sf 36gfx¿nfO{ k|df0fsf cfwf/df JofVof

ug{ ko| f]u x'g] Ps ;ª\ul7t ljlw xf] . lj1fgdf cfjZos kd| f0fx¿ xfdf| ] OlG›o / pks/0fsf]

ko| f]un] h'6fpg ;lsG5 . o;cGtut{

l;sfOsf ljleGg r/0fx¿ ;dfj]z 5g\ . sg' }

36gf jf ;d:ofsf] cjnfs] g ug,{] To;af/]

nfus] f] :jefljs k|Zg ug,{] afl} 4s ¿kdf Ps

cg'dfg l;hg{ f ug]{, cfk\mgf] cgd' fgcg';f/

ko| fu] fTds sfo{ u/L tYofªs\ sf] ;ª\sng lrq 1.7 j1} flgs ljlwaf6 sf/] fg] f efO/; la?4sf]
vfk] ljsf;sf dxŒjk0" f{ r/0fx¿
ug],{ ;ª\slnt tYofªs\ sf] ljZni] f0faf6

glthf Pjd\ lgisif{ lgsfNg] / cGtdf

cfk\mgf] lgisif{ kl/sNkgf;Fu ldn] jf gldn]sf] ;d]6L Ps l/kf]6{ tof/ kfg{] ljm| ofx¿ j}1flgs

l;sfOsf r/0fx¿ x'g\ .

k|Zg

lrq 1.5 df pNn]v ePcg';f/ j}1flgs ljlwaf6 sf/] f]gf efO/; lj?4sf] vfk] ljsf;sf
dxŒjk"0f{ r/0fx¿cGtu{t s] s:tf lsl;dsf kZ| g, cgd' fg, k|ofu] fTds sfo{ / tYofªs\ x¿
;ªs\ ng ul/Psf xg' ;S5g\ <

lrq 1.5 df sf/] f]gf] efO/; lj?4sf] vf]k ljsf;sf nflu pSt efO/;sf] hgfj/ -d';f]_ df
kg]{ c;/sf] cjnf]sg ul/Psf] 5 . To;kl5 d';fdf k/s] f] c;/sf] cWoogsf nflu cfjZos
tYofªs\ x¿sf] ;ªs\ ng / ltgsf] ljZn]if0f ul/G5 . To;sf cfwf/df gd'gf EoflS;gsf] ljsf;
u/L vfh] stfx{ ¿n] cg'dfg u/]cg;' f/sf] glthf cfP gcfPsf] k/LIf0f ug{ klxn] 5gf6] ul/Psf
hgfj/df vfk] nufOG5 . To;sf] k0" f{ ;kmntfkZrft\ 5gf]6 ul/Psf dflg;df k/LIf0f ul/G5 .
;dud| f vf]ksf] ;kmntfkl5 dfq pSt vf]knfO{ cGo dflg;x¿df nufpgsf nflu cgd' lt
lbOG5 .

lj1fg tyf k|ljlw M sIff ( 3

j}1flgs l;sfOaf6 k|fKt lgisifs{ f cfwf/df lgod tyf l;4fGtx¿ kl| tkfbg ul/G5g\ .
j1} flgsx¿n] dfly pNnv] u/]sf j1} flgs l;sfOsf r/0fx¿ cjnDag u/L k|sl[ t;Fu ;DalGwt
an, pmhf{, kbfy{, hLjx¿sf] pTklQ, kY[ jLsf] agf6] nufot afx\o cGtl/If h:tf ljleGg If]qx¿
af/]df Jojl:yt cWoog u/]sf 5g\ . pgLx¿n] j1} flgs cWoogsf] lgisif{ af6 lgod tyf
l;4fGtx¿ kl| tkfbg u/]sf 5g\ . pbfx/0fsf ¿kdf ;/ cfOhs] Go'6g -Sir Issac Newton_ n]
s'g} b'Ocf]6f lk08x¿lar pTkGg x'g] u?' Tjfsif{0f an;DaGwL lgod lbPsf 5g\ .

lj1fgsf If]qx¿ (Fields of science)

lj1fgcGtut{ sf cWoogx¿nfO{ Ifq] ut ¿kdf lgDgfg;' f/ juLs{ /0f ug{ ;lsG5 . oxfF u/LPsf]
juLs{ /0fdf ;a} Ifq] g;d]l6P tfklg k|d'v ¿kn] lrlgPsf If]qx¿ pNn]v ul/Psf 5g\ .

lj1fgsf If]qx¿

hLjg lj1fg ef}lts zf:q /;fog zf:q cGt/ljifos Ifq] x¿

(Biology) (Physics) (Chemistry) (Interconnected fields)

jg:klt lj1fg hgfj/ lj1fg e" lj1fg cGtl/If lj1fg

(Botany) (Zoology) (Geology) (Space Science)

jftfj/0f lj1fg df;} d lj1fg

(Environment Science) Meteorology)

1.3 hLj lj1fg (Biology)

lrq 1.8 df bv] fOPsf dss} f la?jfx¿ -kf]l;nf] ds_} gk] fn sl[ if

cg';Gwfg s]Gb|sf Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC)

j}1flgsx¿n] ljsf; u/s] f] dss} f] k|hflt xf] . o:tf k|hfltsf] ljsf;sf

nflu hLjx¿ jz+ f0fx' ¿sf] cWoog ul/G5 . hLjx¿sf af/d] f Jojl:yt

cWoog ul/g] If]q hLj lj1fg xf] . hLj lj1fg cWoog ug{] j}1flgsx¿ lrq 1.8 gfså{ f/f ljsf;
ul/Psf] dss} f] k|hflt
hLj zf:qL -biologist_ xg' \ . hLj zf:qLx¿n] ;hLjx¿sf u'0fx¿,
kh| gg, lgisf;g , :jf;kZ| jf; / hLjgzn} L, zf/Ll/s ;/+ rgf, ltgsf]

cGo hLjx¿l;tsf] cGt/ljm| of tyf jftfj/0fl;tsf] cGt/lj|mofaf/] cWoog u5g{ \ . o;cGtut{

cfvF fn] b]Vg g;lsg] ;I" fd hLjf0f'b]lv axs' f]ifLo 7'nf :tgwf/Lsf af/d] f cWoog ul/G5 .

hLj lj1fgsf If]qdf gofF gofF cfljisf/x¿ eO/x]sf xG' 5g\ . lrq 1.9 ;Gbs' ?Ot
gk] fnsf cfvF f ;h{g -eye surgeon_ ;Gb's ?Otn] klg hLj
lj1fgsf If]qdf sfo{ ubf{ ub{} OG6f« ps'n/ n]G;sf] cflj:sf/ u/s] f
5g\ . o;n] ubf{ dfl] tlaGb' -eye cataract_ sf] lgs} ;:tf] / e/kbf{]
pkrf/df ;Dej ePsf] 5 .

4 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (

efl} ts lj1fg (Physical Science)

kbfy{ / pmhf{;DaGwL Jojl:tt cWoog ul/g] If]q ef}lts lj1fg xf] . o;cGtu{t efl} ts zf:q
-Physics_ / /;fog zf:q -chemistry_ k5g{ \ .

-c_ ef}lts zf:q (Physics)

;/ cfOh]s Go6' gn] an / rfnsfaf/] cWoog u/s] f lrq 1.10 ;/ cfOhs] Go'6g
lyP . pgn] u?Tjfsif0{ f an;DaGwL lgod, tyf rfn;DaGwL
lgodx¿ k|ltkfbg u/]sf lyP . j:ts' f] an, zlSt cflbsf
af/d] f cWoog ug{] ljifonfO{ ef}lts zf:q elgG5 .
efl} ts zf:q;DaGwL cWoog ug]{ efl} ts zf:qL -physicist_
xg' \ . pbfx/0fsf ¿kdf o; Ifq] sf j}1flgsx¿n] aNadf
s'g kbfy{sf] k|ofu] n] pmhf{sf] sdeGbf sd vkt xG' 5 ,
sg' kbfy{af6 zlStzfnL ljBt' \r'Dassf] lgdf0{ f ug{ ;lsG5
h:tf ljifoj:t'af/] cWoog tyf vf]h ug{] u5{g\ .

Noble prize in physics of 2014 AD.

Isamu Akasaki, Hiroshi Amano and Shuji Nakamura “for the lrq 1.11
invention of efficient blue light-emitting diodes which has

enabled bright and energy-saving white light sources”.

-cf_ /;fog zf:q (Chemistry)

lbldqL dG] 8lnen] tŒjsf u'0fx¿sf] cWoog u/L ltgnfO{ kf/df0fljs ef/sf cfwf/df
juLs{ /0f u/s] f lyP . kbfys{ f u0' fx¿ / ltgsf u0' fx¿df s;/L kl/jt{g cfpF5 egL
Jojl:yt cWoog ul/g] If]q /;fog zf:q xf] . /;fog zf:q cWoog ug]{ j}1flgsx¿
/;fog zf:qL -chemist_ xg' \ . pbfx/0fsf ¿kdf /;fog zf:qLn] sg' kbfy{ / /;fogsf]
ko| f]un] Aof6«Ln] a9L dfqfdf ljB't\ rfh{ e08f/0f ug{ ;S5 egL vfh] sfo{ u5g{ \ .

-ª_ cGt/ljifos If]qx¿ (Interconnected fields)

lj1fgsf cGt/ljifos Ifq] cGtut{ e"lj1fg -earth science_, lrq 1.12 lbldqL d]G8lne
vufn] lj1fg -astronomy_, jftfj/0f lj1fg -environment
science_ cflb k5{g\ . kY[ jL s'g j:t'af6 ag]sf] 5 egL
o;sf af/d] f cWoog ug]{ ljifonfO{ e"lj1fg elgG5 . tf/f,
ux| h:tf cfsfzLo lk08x¿sf af/]df cWoog ug]{ ljifonfO{
vuf]n lj1fg elgG5 . cfsfzLo lk08x¿, tf/fk'~h,
tf/fd08nsf af/d] f klg o; Ifq] df cWoog ul/G5 .

lj1fg tyf k|ljlw M sIff ( 5

ljm| ofsnfk 1.2

tnsf] tflnsfdf lbOPsf lj1fgsf Ifq] , ltgsf zfvf, / k;] fut cj;/x¿ cWoog tyf
5nkmnaf6 ;DalGwt sfox{ ¿ n]Vg'xf;] \ .

Ifq] zfvf k];fut cj;/x¿ sfo{
hLj lj1fg
Zoology, Botany, Genetic, AffnL lj1, df6f] lj1,
ef}lts zf:q Agriculture, medical science, lrlsT;s, e]6]g/] L 8S6/,

/f;fog hg] l] 6s OlGhlgo/
zf:q
cGt/ljifos Neuclear Physics , Atomic l;len OlGhlgo/ d]sflgsn
Ifq] x¿
physics, Optics, Astro physics OlGhlgo/, On]lS6«sn

Modern physics OlGhlgol/ª,\ OlGhlgo/, /]l8ofn] f]lh:6,

/l] 8ofu] f| kmL, gfktfn} Gffktf}n lj1

Organic Chemistry, Sol] d:6, kmfdS{ nfl] h:6

Inorganic Chemistry,

Physical Chemistry, Bio-

Chemistry

e"lj1fg, vuf]n lj1fg, e"uel{ jb\ -geologist_,
jftfj/0f lj1fg vuf]nljb\ -astronomer_,
jftfj/0fljb\ -environmentlist_

kl/ofh] gf sfo{

tkfOs{“ f] 3/kl/jf/df, cfkmGtdf tyf j/k/ lj1fgsf ljleGg If]qx¿dWo] sg' } Ps Ifq] sf] cWoog
u/]sf JolStx¿sf] ljj/0f tn tflnsfdf lbOP h:t} u/L ;ª\sng ug'{xf];\ .

gfd cWoog u/]sf] lj1fgsf] If]q k;] fut gfd sfo{

gk] fnsf vfh] tyf cg;' Gwfg Ifq] df sfo{/t ;:+ yfx¿

lrq 1.13 gf:6sf] ejg lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff (

6

lj1fgsf ljleGg Ifq] x¿sf] cWoogaf6 kf| Kt sx] L dxŒjk0" f{ pknlAwx¿

If]q dxŒjk"0f{ pknlAwx¿
hLj lj1fg ck/;] g (Operation), Snfl] Gfª (Cloning), cªu\ kT| of/fk] g (Transplantation),
6:] 66o\ a' aa] L (Test Tube Baby) , l7dfx kh| flt ljsf;
ef}lts lj1fg =OlGhg (Engine), ;"Idbzs{ oGq (Microscope), PS; /] (X-Ray)

;~rf/ / kl| jlw
/;fog lj1fg cf}ifwL (Medicine), EoflS;g (Vaccine) , HIV AIDS pkrf/ ug{]

e" tyf vufn] cf}ifwL, COVID – 19 EoflS;g
lj1fg df;} d cgd' fg, lk08x¿sf] cWoog
Jftfj/0f lj1fg
aftfj/0f ;+/If0f

ljm| ofsnf0k 1.3

lj1fgsf ljleGg Ifq] x¿sf] cWoogaf6 kf| Kt dxŒjk"0f{ pknlAwx¿sf] cWoogkZrft tkfO{“nfO{
cWoogsf] rf;f] nfus] f] Ifq] s'g xf] < pSt Ifq] sf] cWoogkZrft\ tkfO{“sf] ;Defljt vfh] Lsf]
ljifo s] x'g] 5 < sIffdf Psn] csfs{ f] ?lrsf] Ifq] af/] ;'Gg'xf;] \ / To;af/] hfGg 5nkmndf efu
lngx' f];\ .

lj1fgsf k|of]ufTds sfo{ ubf{ ckgfpgk' g{] ;/' Iff pkfox¿
lj1fgsf] ko| f]ufTds sfo{ ubf{ ckgfpgk' g]{ ;'/Iff pkfox¿ ;DaGwdf tnsf k|Zgx¿df 5nkmn
ugx{' f];\ M
1. s8f cDnaf6 lkmSsf cDn s;/L agfOG5 <
2. cNsfx] nnfO{ las/df /fvL ttfpFbf s] x'G5 <

3. cNsf]xnnfO{ Water Bath df /fvL lsg ttfOG5 <

lrq 1.14

j1} flgs cWoogdf k|ofu] fTds sfox{ ¿ ul/G5g\ . Kfo| u] zfnfdf tyf aflx/L jftfj/0fdf ljleGg
ko| ]fufTds sfo{ ubf{ ;fjwfgL ckgfpgk' 5{ . ;fjwfgLlagf sfo{ ubf{ b3' {6gf xg' ;S5 .
cNsf]xnnfO{ las/df /fvL ttfpFbf aN5 / b3' 6g{ f xG' 5 . o;af6 aRg kfgLdf /fvL ttfpFbf
;/' lIft x'G5 .

lj1fg tyf kl| jlw M sIff ( 7

To:tu} /L s8f cDnnfO{ lkmSsf cDn agfpbF f kfgLdf lj:tf/} cDn /fVg'k5{ . o;/L s'g} klg
lsl;dsf] ko| f]u ubf{ xf]l;of/Lk"js{ sfd ug{k' 5{ . k|ofu] fTds sfo{ ubf{ ckgfpg'kg]{ ;'/Iff
pkfox¿ lgDgcg';f/ 5g\ .
1. lzIfssf] pkl:yltdf dfq ko| fu] ug{'k5{ .
2. s'g} b3' {6gf ePdf lzIfsnfO{ t?' Gt va/ ug{k' 5{ .
3. sg' } pks/0f rnfpge' Gbf klxn] o;sf] af/]df hfgsf/L x'g'k5{ .
4. ko| fu] ubf{ /;fog yf/] } lnO{ ko| fu] ug'{k5{ .
5. /;fogx¿ Kf|ofu] uge{' Gbf ;fjwfgL ckgfpg'k5{ .
6. k|of]u ubf{ e\mofn 9fs] f vn' f /fVgk' 5{ .
7. s8f cDnx¿ cfjZos k/d] f lzIfsnfO{ va/ ug'{k5{ .
7. /;fog ko| fu] ubf{ rfVg' xF'b}g .
9. k|of]u ul/;s]kl5 ko| f]u u/s] f] 7fFp ;kmf ug'{k5{ .
10. k|of]ukl5 ;fa'g kfgLn] xft w'g'k5{ .

Marie Curie died as a result of leukemia caused by the
action of radiation that she faced during her experiments
with radioactive elements.

lj1fg tyf kl| jlwsf pknlAw / rg' f}tLx¿ lrq 1.15

lj1fgsf] ljsf;;Fu} ljleGg sfox{ ¿ ;lhnf] u/L l56f] ug{sf nflu ljleGg pkfox¿sf] vfh] L
eof] . ljleGg dflg;x¿n] j}1flgs cWogaf6 k|fKt lgisif{af6 kl| jlw;Fu ;DalGwt pks/0fx¿sf]

cfljisf/x¿ u/] . hD] ;jf6 -James Watt_ n] af:k PGhg -steam engine_ sf] ljsf; u/s] f
lyP . o;sf] cljisf/af6 oftfoftsf] k|ljlwdf csNkgLo ¿kfGt/0f ePsf] lyof] . kfgLsf]
afkmaf6 lah'nL pTkfbg ug]{ csf{] dxŒjk"0f{ cflj:sf/ xf] . k|ljlw xf] . pbfx/0fsf nflu
kf/df0fljs e66\ L -nuclear power plant_ df hg]/]6/;Fu hf]l8Psf] 6jf{OgnfO{ kfgLsf] afkmn]
3d' fP/ lahn' L pTkfbg ul/G5 .

k|ljlwsf] ljsf;;uF } To;sf] plrt Joj:yfkg klg cfjZos x'G5 . dfly pNnv] ul/Psf] af:k
OlGhg -steam engine_ df kfgL ttfpg ko| f]u x'g] sfO] nfn] cTolws dfqfdf jfo' kb| 'if0f u¥of] .
To:t} cf0fljs e6\6Lx¿af6 pTkGg xg' ] jfO k|f8] S6sf] Joj:yfkg tyf o;sf] ;'/Iff lgs}
r'gf}tLk0" f{ 5 . pbfx/0fsf nflu hfkfgsf] km's;Ldfdf ;g\ -2011_ df uPsf] es" Dkn] k/df0fljs
e6\6L eTsg uO{ ljgzsf/L ljls/0fx¿ jftfj/0fdf 5l/Psf lyP . t;y{ lj1fg tyf k|ljlwsf
pknlAw;uF } rg' ft} Lx¿ klg hf]l8Psf 5g\ .

8 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (

lj|mofsnfk 1.4

lj1fg tyf k|ljlwsf] ljsf;n] pknlAw / o;n] NofPsf] r'gf}tLx¿ tnsf] tflnsfdf lbPsf] 5 .
cWoog tyf 5nkmn u/L yk pknlAw / rg' f}tLx¿ vfh] L ugx{' f];\ .

lrq 1.16 jf:k OlGhg lrq 1.17 /l;ofdf cjl:yt kf/df0fljs e6\6L

j|m=; If]qx¿ pknlAw rg' f}tLx¿
1. :jf:Yo
/fu] lgwfg ug{ ;lhnf] ePsf] ljls/0f dfqf a9L xbF' f
2. oftfoft k|efjsf/L pkrf/ k4ltsf] ljsf; sf]ifx¿ gi6 x'g], cab{' /f]u
3. sl[ if ePsf] -cancer_ xg' ] ;Defjgf xg' ]
sltko /fu] x¿ pGd"ng -cfn} f] /f]u_
4. lzIff dfgj z/L/sf cªu\ k|Tof/fk] 0f, o;af6 lg:ss] f] wj' faf6 jfo'
rs] hfrF k|ljlw -Ps;/], l;6L:Sofg, k|bi" f0f x'g]
cN6f« ;fpG8_ nufot ljsf; ePsf]

hn, :yn, xjfO{ oftfoftdf kxrF'

ls6gfzs cfi} fwL DDT, BHC, /}yfg] k|ljlw / lapx¿ nf]k

dn, j1} flgs sl[ if k|0ffnL, pGgt xbF' } uPsf]

laplahg, pTkfbgdf j[l4, efs] d/L k/lge{/tf a9b\ } uPsf]

sdL df6f]sf] IfoLs/0f xFb' } uPsf]

dfgj:j:Yodf c;/

ICT, b/' lzIff, cg;' Gwfg, ;"rgfsf] a9L k|of]uaf6 o;n] Nofpg]

kxrF' df jl[ 4 k|bi' f0fsf] Joj:yfkgdf dl' :sn,

;fdflhsLs/0f vnn x'g]

lj1fg tyf kl| jlw M sIff ( 9

5. snsf/vfgf pkef]udf kxrF' , cTow'lgs /f;foflgs k|bi' f0f
pks/0fx¿sf] k|ofu] ug{] Joj:yfkg, jftfj/0f
x|f;, ljZjtfkLs/0f

6. P cfO{ :jrflnt kl| jlwsf] ljsf; ePsf]

(artificial dfgj hLjgofkgdf ;xh ePsf]

inteligence)

7. jftfj/0f ;r]tgf, ;+/If0fsf k|of;x¿ ePsf]

1.4 j1} flgs gfk (Scientific Measurement)

lj1fgdf gfksf] 7'nf] dxŒj /xs] f] x'G5 . sg' } ef}lts kl/df0fsf] dfkgnfO{ j1} flgs ;ª\s]tdf
JoSt ug{] ul/G5 .

1.4.1 j}1flgs ;ªs\ t] g

lj1fgsf ljleGg ko| fu] fTds sfox{ ¿ ubf{ j:Tf'sf] dfkg ul/G5 . To;af6 ;ªs\ ng ul/Psf]
tYofª\sx¿sf] ljZn]if0f u/L lgisif{ lgsflnG5 . j}1flgs cWoog ljlwdf cWoogsf] Ifq] cg';f/
clt g} ;"Id AofS6l] /of, efO/;b]lv 7'nf 7n' f lk08x¿ h:t}M kY[ jLsf] lk08, ;"o{sf] lk08, cflb
;Fu ;DalGwt gfksf tYofª\s ;ªs\ ng ugk'{ g]{ x'g;S5 . o; j|mdsf ;fgf tyf 7'nf ;ªV\ ofsf]
ko| fu] ug{k' 5{ .

pbfx/0fsf nflu Pp6f efO/;sf] ;fOh 0.00000000001 ld= / k[YjL / ;"o{larsf] b'/L 15 s/f]8
lsnfl] d6/nfO{ ;ª\Vofdf JoSt ug{ ufx|f] xG' 5 . oL ;ªV\ ofnfO{ h:tfsf] To:t} nV] g sl7gfO xG' 5 .
o; lsl;dsf] ;fgf] tyf 7n' f] ;ª\VofnfO{ 10 sf] 3ftfªs\ df nl] vG5, o;nfO{ j1} flgs ;ª\st] g
(Scientific Notation) elgG5 .

j}1flgs ;ªs\ t] gsf] k|ofun] w/] } ;fgf] ;ªV\ of jf 7n' f] ;ª\VofnfO{ ;lhn};Fu JoSt ug{ ;lsG5 .
j}1flgs cWoogdf cfsfzLo lk08x¿ ljrsf] b'/Lsf] dfkgsf ;fy} cfvfn] b]Vg g;lsg] clt
;"Id j:ts' f] -k/df0fs' f] ;fOh_ ;fOhnfO{ ;lhn;} Fu j1} flgs ;ªs\ t] gfdf JoSt ug{ ;lhnf]
x'G5, h:t} M

101 = 10 10-1 = 0.1

102 = 100 10-2 = 0.01

103 = 1000 10-3 = 0.001

106 = 10000 10-6 = 0.000001

109 = 10000 10-9 = 0.000000001

10 lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff (

j1} flgs ;ª\st] df JoSt ug]{ tl/sf

pbfx/0fsf ¿kdf kj" { klZrd /fhdfu{sf] nDafO Ö 1028 km = 1028×1000 m=1028000 m

5 . o;nfO{ a1} flgs ;ª\s]tdf n]Vbf cGtdf /x]sf] bzdnjsf] :yfgnfO{ 6 :yfg afofF ;f/L
b;sf] 3ftfª\sdf ^ n] u'0fg ul/G5 .

k"j{ klZrd /fhdfu{sf] nDafO = 1.028×106 m 3ftfªs\
cfwf/

u0' ffªs\ dlG6;f (mantissa)

;ªV\ of -gfk_ ¿kfGt/0fsf] r/0f j}1flgs ;ª\s]t

83,000 MW = bzdnjsf] :yfgnfO{ bz :yfg afoflF t/ 8.3×1010 W

83000000000 W ;fg'k{ g]{

kY[ jL / ;"ol{ arsf] b'/L ===================== ===============1.5×108 km

= 150000000 km

cldafsf] ;fOh Ö bzdnjsf] :yfgnfO{ ;ft :yfg bfoflF t/ Ö 4×10-7 m

0.00000004 m ;fg'{ kg{]

================== ================ ===================

j1} flgs ;ªs\ ]tgsf lgodx¿
1. cfwf/ hlxn] klg 10 xG' 5 .

2. Exponent lh/f] OlG6h/ xFb' }g (+/-) xG' 5 .

3. Coefficient sf] Absolute dfg 10 eGbf sd jf 1 eGbf a9L jf a/fa/ xG' 5 .
4. Coefficient sf] lrx\g + jf - x'G5 .
5. Mantissa n] afFsL dxŒjk0" f{ Digits lnG5 . -bzdnjeGbf kl5sf cªs\ x¿nfO{ Mantissa
elgG5 ._ ;fwf/0ftof j1} flgs ;ªs\ t] gnfO{ lgDgfg';f/ nl] vG5 M
a × 10b : 1 ≤ a ≤ 10
6. olb lbOPsf] ;ªV\ of 10 sf] u0' f (Multiples of 10) 5 eg] bzdnj laGb' afoftF km{ ;5{ /
b;sf] 3ftfª\s 3gfTds xG' 5 .
pbfx/0fM 600000 = 6×105 (j1} flgs ;ªs\ ]tg)

lj1fg tyf kl| jlw M sIff ( 11

7. olb lbOPsf] ;ª\Vof 1 eGbf sd ePdf bzdnj laGb' bfofFtkm{ hfG5 / Power 10 sf] dfg
C0ffTds xG' 5 .

pbfx/0f M 0.00006

= 6×10-5 xG' 5 .

d]l6«s pk;u{ -Metric prefix_

k|Zg M tkfO{Fn] gfksf PsfOx¿ ¿kfGt/0f ubf{ sg' cªs\ n] u'0fg ug]{ jf efu ug]{ egL s;/L

7Dofpgx' G' 5 < To convert to a smaller unit, move

kilo - Hecto - decimal point to the right or multiply
x 1000 x 100
Deca - Meter - Centi - Mili -
To convert to a larger x 10 1/100 1/1000
Gram
Litre Deci -
1/10

unit, move

decimal point to the left or devide

PsfOnfO{ j|mdzM10 n] u'0fg ubf{ dl] 6s« gfk 7'nf] PsfOdf JoSt x'g] / 10 n] efu ubf{
dl] 6s« gfk ;fgf] PsfOdf JoSt ePsf] bv] fOPsf] 5, pbfx/0fsf nflu
h:tM} Ps lsnfu] |fd (1 Kilogram) = 1000 g x'G5 .
h'g 10 sf] u'0ffªs\ xG' 5
i.e. 1 kg =10 × 10 × 10 = 103g
To:t} u/L 1 ldlnu|fd cyft{ 1/(10×10×10)=10(-3) mg
k|ZgM 1 dfOsf| ]u|fd nfO{ 10 sf] u0' ffª\ssf ¿kdf s;/L JoSt ug{ ;lsG5 xfn] f <
;fgf tyf 7n' f gfksf PsfO;u“ hfl] 8g] pk;u{x¿sf s]xL pbfx/0fx¿ M

;I" d gfk k|of]u x'g] pk;us{ f] 7n' f] gfk ko| fu] xg' ] pk;u{sf
cfi} fwLsf] dfq pbfx/0f pbfx/0f
l;lnG8/df el/Psf]
500 ldlnuf| d Uof;F sf] lk08 15 lsnfu] |fd
g]kfnsf] cg'dflgt
dflg;sf] 17-181 dfOjm| f]ld6/ hnljBt' \ Ifdtf 83,000 d]ufjf6
sDKo'6/sf] e08f/0f Ifdtf
skfnsf] Jof; 1 luuf afO6

sf]/fg] f efO/;sf] 80-120 gfgfl] d6/

cf;} t Jof;

12 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (

dflysf] tflnsfdf 7'nf] kl/df0f / ;fgf] kl/df0fsf gfkx¿nfO{ d]l6«s k0| ffnLdf JoSt ul/Psf]
5 . h;df ;fgf] gfksf] OsfOsf] cfufl8 k|of]u ePsf ldnL, dfOj|mf,] gfgf,] tyf 7'nf] gfksf
PsfOsf] cufl8 k|ofu] ePsf lsnf,] du] f, luuf cflb d]l6s« pk;u{ (Metric prefix) x'g\ . j:ts' f]
dfkgdf d]l6«s pk;u{ k|ofu] ubf{ j:ts' f] dfkg jf:tljs, ;xL, / ;lhn} a'emg\ ;lsg] xG' 5 .
7n' f] tyf ;fgf] gfksf nflu k|of]u xg' ] d]l6«s pk;u{x¿nfO{ tnsf] tflnsfdf b]vfOPsf] 5 M

dlN6kN; -multiples_ k|]mS;g;\ -fractions_

pk;u{ ;ªs\ ]t u'0ffªs\ pk;u{ ;ª\st] u0' ffª\s

(Multiplier) deci (Multiplier)
deca da or dk 101 centi d 10-1
milli c 10-2
hecto h 102 micro m 10-3
nano μ 10-6
kilo k 103 pico n 10-9
mega M 106 p 10-12
giga G 109

tera T 1012

s]xL ;fgf tyf 7n' f gfkx¿

o'Sofl/cf]6;sf] ;fOh = 10-4 – 10 mm, k|fs] fl/cf]6;sf] ;fOh = 10-6 - 10-4 μm, Pp6f
c0fs' f] ;fOh = 10-9 nm, Pp6f k/df0fs' f] ;fOh = 10-10 nm, k|sf;sf] ult Ö 3×108 m/s
k[YjLsf] lk08 = 6×1024 kg, ;o" {sf] lk08 = 2×1030 kg

kZ| gM 1 gfgf;] ]sG] 8df slt ;]s0] 8 ;do xfn] f <

;I" dtfsf] dxŒj (Importance of least count)

lrq 1.18

lj1fg tyf k|ljlw M sIff ( 13

lrqdf :6kjfr, 5f]6f] :s]n, kf| 6] o\ fS6/ b]vfOPsf] 5 . oL pks/0fx¿ s'g s'g ef}lts kl/df0f
dfkgdf k|of]u ul/G5 . oL pks/0faf6 dfkg ug{ ;lsg] ;ae} Gbf ;fgf] kl/df0fsf] dfg slt
xG' 5 < 5nkmn u/L lbPsf] tflnsf k"/f ug'{xf];\ M

j|m=; pks/0fsf] gfd efl} ts kl/df0f dfkgdf ko| f]u xg' ] ;a}eGbf ;fgf] kl/df0f
1. :sn] sfkLsf] df]6fO
2. :6kjfr 0.1 cm = 1 mm
3. Kf|f6] \ofS6/

;o ld6/ bf}8 k|lt:kwf{df klxnf], bf;] f| ] 56' \ofpg :6kafrsf] ko| fu] ul/G5 . :6kjfraf6 klxnf,]
bf];|f] vn] f8L 56' o\ fpg 0.1 ;]s]G8 ;do ko| fu] ul/G5, h:tM} klxnf] x'g] vn] f8Ln] 100 ld6/ k"/f
ug{ 9.1 ;]s]G8 / bf];|f] xg' ]n] 9.2 ;]s]G8 nufof] eg] klxnf] / bf];|f]larsf] km/s 0.1 ;s] G] 8 eof] .

h'g 1 ;s] G] 8sf] 10 efusf] 1 dfu xf] . jf 1/10 ;s] G] 8 xf] .

oxfF 0.1 ;]sG] 8nfO{ ;I" dtf elgG5 .

To:t} u/L sfkLsf] df6] fO 1.2 cm eP o;sf] ;"Idtf 0.1cm jf 1 mm xf] .

o; k|sf/ sg' } klg gfkdf ls6fg ug{ ;lsg] ;a}eGbf ;fgf] kl/df0fnfO{ gfksf] ;I" dtf (Least
count) elgG5 .

dfkgdf ko| fu] ul/g] pks/0fcg';f/ ;I" dtf Least Count klg km/s km/s x'G5 .

;"Idtfsf yk pbfx/0fx¿

1. :sn] M Scale

:sn] df bO' { lsl;dsf] dfkgsf] gfk /flvPsf] xG' 5 . Pp6f OGrdf xG' 5 eg] csf{] cm df xG' 5 .

:sn] df 1cm nfO{ 10 ;fgf v08df ljefhg ul/Psf] x'G5 .

:s]nsf] ;"Idtf = 1/10 cm = 0.1 cm = 1mm

To;sf/0f :s]nsf] ;I" dtf 1mm x'G5 .

2. k|f6] \ofS6/df 1 bl] v 10 l8uL| ;Dd 10 efu ;;fgf v08x¿ x'G5g\ . 1 v08n] 1º hgfp5F
jf k|f6] o\ fS6/sf] ;"Idtf = 10/10 = 1º xG' 5 .

o;ks| f/ xfdLn] ko| fu] ug]{ pks/0fcg';f/ ;"Idtf klg km/s km/s x'G5, h:tM} xft]
38Lsf] ;I" dtf ;]sG] 8 x'G5 eg] :6kjfrsf] ;I" dtf 8;] L ;]sG] 8, ;]lG6;s] G] 8 x'G5 .

j}1flgs cWoogdf ;"Idtf dxŒj w]/} xG' 5 . o;sf] dbtn] dfkg ;xL tl/sfn] ug{
;lsG5 . tYofªs\ x¿sf] ;ª\sng / ljZn]if0f u/L lgisifd{ f k'Ug ;lsG5 .

14 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (

ljm| ofsnfk 1.5
tflnsfdf lbPsf pksf/0fx¿sf] ;I" dtf Least Count n]Vg'xf];\ M

jm| =; pks/0f ;"Idtf
1. Pld6/
2. Eff]N6ld6/
3. d]hl/ª 6k]
4. d]hl/ª l;lnG8/
5. xft] 38L

6. sl] dsn AofnG] ;

cf};t gfksf] cfjZostf (Importance of average in measurement)

lj|mofsnfk M

Pp6f l6gsf] kftfnfO{ e'Od“ f c8\ofpgx' f];\ . pSt l6gsf] kftfdf ;g]{ u/L uR' rf jf ;fgf]
9ª' u\ fnfO{ 2 ld6/dflyaf6 v;fpgx' f;] \ . u'Rrf jf 9'ª\ufnfO+{ v;fNbf l6gsf] kftfdf kU' g nfUg]
;do clenv] /fVg'xf;] \ .

cfkm"n] u/s] f] k|ofu] nfO{ lgDgcg;' f/sf] tflnsfdf ePcg';f/ eg{'xf]; .

j|m=; 9'ª\uf÷u'Rrf Kfftfdf 7fl] sg nfu]sf] ;do cf};t ;do
1. Kflxnf] k6s v;fNbf
2. bf;] |f] k6s v;fNbf 1.2 sec (1.2+...+...)/3
3. t;] |f] k6s v;fNbf

9'ªu\ f jf u'RrfnfO{ 2 ld6/ dflyaf6 v;fn]/ kftfdf 7fl] sg cfpg] ;do clen]v ubf{ ltg}
k6sdf ;do km/s km/s cfpg ;S5, o;/L ;do dfkg ubf{ Ps} k6sdf ;xL xb'F g} . o;nfO{
bO' {tLg k6s bfx] f¥] ofpdf o;sf] cf};tn] ;xL dfkg lbG5 .

j1} flgs cWoogdf ;fgf] ;fgf] kl/df0f dfkgdf ;d:of cfp5 . t;y{ ;xL kl/df0f kf| Kt ug{
dfkg sfon{ fO{ bfx] f]¥ofO{ tx] ]¥ofO,{ cf;} t lgsfNbf ;xL dfkg kf| Kt ug{ ;lsG5 . o;/L dfkg
sfo{ ubf{ k6s k6s pxL lsl;dsf] kl/0ffd k|fKt ePdf o;nfO{ lk;| fOh -Precise) gfk
elgG5 .

lj1fg tyf kl| jlw M sIff ( 15

cEof;

1. ;xL pQ/df lrxg\ nufpgx' f;] \ M

-s_ e]6]g/L k;] f lj1fgsf] sg' zfvf;Fu ;DjlGwt 5 <

-c_ ef}lts lj1fg
-cf_hLj lj1fg
-O_ /;fog lj1fg
-O{_ e" lj1fg

2. Sir Isaac Newton sg' lj1fgsf] Ifq] ;“u ;DalGwt 5g\ <

-s_ efl} ts zf:q -v_ /;fog zf:q

-u_ lhjzf:q -3_ vufn] zf:q

3. :s]nsf] k|o]u u/L gfKbf lnOg] least account s'g xf] <

-s_ ;=] ld -v_ ldlnld6/

-u_ 8]l;ld6/ -3_ ld6/

4. 0.000024 cª\snfO{ j1} flgs ;ªs\ ]tdf s;/L nl] vG5 <

-s_ 2.4 × 10-6 -v_ 2.4 ×106

-u_ 2.4 ×10-7 -3_ 2.4 ×10-5

5. Giga prefix sf] u0' ffªs\ slt xG' 5 <

-s_ 109 -v_ 1010

-u_ 1011 -3_ 1012

6. tnsf k|Zgsf] pQ/ nV] gx' f];\ M

-s_ j}1flgs cWoog s;/L ul/G5, n]Vg'xf];\ .

-v_ lj1fgsf Ifq] x¿sf] ;"rL agfpg'xf];\ .

16 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (

-u_ lj1fgsf If]qx¿sf] cGt/;DjGwnfO{ pbfx/0f;lxt JofVof ug{'xf;] \ .
-3_ j1} flgs k4lQdf k|ofu] sf] s:tf] dxŒj x'G5 < pbfx/0f;lxt AofVof ugx'{ f];\ .
-ª_ lj1fgsf] k|o]fufTds sfo{ ubf{ ckgfpg'kg{] ;'/Iffsf pkfox¿sf] ;"rL agfpgx' f];\ .
-r_ j1} flgs ;ªs\ t] gsf] kl/efiff nV] g'xf;] \ .
-5_ j1} flgs ;ªs\ ]tg n]Vbf sg' sg' s/' fdf Wofg lbgk' 5,{ n]Vgx' f];\ .
-h_ d]l6s« pk;u{ lsg cfjZos 5 < pbfx/0f;lxt aofg ugx'{ f];\ .
-em_ ;"Idtfsf] dxŒj 5f]6s/Ldf aofg ug'{xf];\ .
-`_ lbOPsf] ;ªV\ ofnfO{ j1} flgs ;ªs\ t] gdf n]Vgx' f;] \ M
-s_ 1230000
-v_ 0.00042
-u_ 2×104 × 4 ×106
-3_ 3×104 + 2×104

lj1fg tyf k|ljlw M sIff ( 17

@ ;hLjx¿sf] juL{s/0f
(Classification of Living Beings)

tn lbOsf hLjx¿sf ;DaGwdf 5nkmn ugx'{ f;] \ M

af“b/ cldaf AofS6l] /of Rofp

lrq 2.1 hLjx¿

5nkmnsf k|Zgx¿

-c_ s] oL hLjx¿sf sf]ifdf s]xL leGgtf xG' 5 xf]nf <

-cf_ kf]if0f k|lj|mofsf cfwf/df s'g s'g hLjx¿ ;dfg / s'g s'g km/s xf]nfg\ <

-O_ k|hgg kl| jm| ofsf cfwf/df logLx¿lar s] leGgtf xf]nf <

-O{_ oL hLjx¿nfO{ sd ljsl;taf6 a9L ljsl;tsf] j|mddf s;/L ldnfpg ;lsG5 <

xfd|f j/k/ ljleGg k|sf/sf hLjx¿ kfOG5g\ . zf/Ll/s agf6] , af;:yfg / zf/Ll/s k|ljm| ofsf
cfwf/df s]xL hgfj/x¿ ;dfg x'G5g\ eg] sx] L leGg x'G5g,\ h:t}M sg' } hLjx¿ kfgLdf a:5g\
t sg' } hLj hldgdf a:5g\ . xl/ts0f ePsf jg:kltx¿ :jkf]ifs xG' 5g\ eg] cGo hLjx¿
k/kf]ifs x'G5g\ . cldaf, kf/fdl] ;odnufotsf ;I" d hLjx¿sf] hLjg k|lj|mof ;fdfGo lsl;dsf]
xG' 5 eg] :tgwf/L hLjx¿df ljsl;t hLjg kl| j|mof xG' 5 . logLx¿df kfOg] ljz]iftfx¿
zf/Ll/s agf6] , vfgf vfg] k|lj|mof, kh| Gg / j|md ljsf; cflbsf cfwf/df ;hLjsf] jlu{s/0f
ul/G5 . Pp6} k|sl[ t / u0' f ePsf ;hLjx¿nfO{ pp6} ;d"x agfO{ /flvG5 . o;/L ;hLjx¿nfO{
ltgLx¿df kfOg] ;dfg / c;dfGf ljz]iftfx¿sf cfwf/df ;d"x / pk;dx" df ljefhg ul/g]
k|lj|mofnfO{ ;hLjsf] juL{s/0f (classification of living beings) elgG5 .

hLjx¿sf] juLs{ /0fsf] dxŒj (Importance of classification of living beings)

;hLjx¿sf] juLs{ /0fsf] cWoogaf6 lgDglnlvt tYox¿ yfxf kfpg dbt u5{ M

-s_ hLjx¿sf] juLs{ /0fn] jm| d ljsf;;DaGwL tYox¿ kQf nufpg dbt u5{ .

18 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (

-v_ o;sf] dbtaf6 ;hLjx¿sf af/]df 5f6] f] ;dodf g} cWoog ug{ ;lsG5 .
-u_ o;n] ubf{ ;hLjx¿sf] j}1flgs gfdfs/0f ug{ ;lhnf] ljlwsf] JofVof u5{ .
-3_ o;n] ;hLjx¿sf] k|fs[lts ;DaGwsf] af/d] f JofVof ub5{ .
-ª_ o;n] ;hLjx¿sf] cWoognfO{ ;lhnf] / j1} flgs agfp5F .
afOgf]ldon gfdfs/0f k0| ffnL (Binomial system of nomenclature)
lrqdf b]vfOPsf s'g sg' hLjx¿ Ps csf{df ldNbfh'Nbf 5g\, 5nkmn u/L tnsf] tflnsf
eg{x' f;] \ M

af3 l;x+ uwf 3f8] f

abfdsf] af6] cfn ' sfutL ;'Gtnf

lrq 2.2 jg:klt / hgfj/x¿

j|m=;= hLjsf] gfd glhssf] ldNg] csf{] hLj
!= af3
@= cfn'
#= ;G' tnf
$= 3f]8f

hLjsf] juLs{ /0f ug{] kl| jm| ofdf Carolus Linnaeus sf] klxnf] gfd cfp5F . pgn] ;hLjx¿nfO{
hGt' hut\ (Animal Kingdom) / jg:klt hut\ (Plant Kingdom) u/L bO' { hutd\ f ljefhg
u/] . ;fy} ;hLjx¿sf] gfdfs/0f ug{] Pp6f vfsf (Frame Work) klg tof/ u/] . pgsf
cg;' f/ hGt' tyf jg;Dkltx¿nfO{ j}1flgs gfd lbg] kl| j|mofnfO{ Nomenclature elgG5 . o;/L

lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( 19

;hLjx¿sf] juL{s/0f tyf j1} flgs gfdfs/0f ug{] klxnf] JolSt Linneaus ePsf]n] pgnfO{
Father of Modern Taxonomy elgG5 .

Carolous Linnaeus n] hGt' tyf jg:kltsf] gfdfs/0f ubf{ Nofl6g efiffsf b'O{cf] 6f zAbsf]
k|ofu] u/s] f lyP . h:fdf klxnf] Genus (Generic Name) / bf;] |f] Species (Specific Name)
/xs] f 5g\ . o;/L ;hLjx¿nfO{ hg] ]l/s gfd / :k]l;lkms gfd bO' {cf6] f gfdaf6 gfdfs/0f ug{]
k|lj|mofnfO{ jfOgf]ldon l;:6d ckm gf]dg] Snr] / elgG5 . of] j1} flgs gfdfs/0f k|0ffnL xf] . o;
k|0ffnLcg;' f/ gfdfs/0f ubf{ Generic gfdsf] klxnf] Alphabet nfO{ Capital / Specific name
sf] klxnf] alphabet nfO{ Small letter df nV] gk' 5{ . o;sf ;fy} gfd n]lv;s]kl5 underline
ul/G5 eg] 6fOk ubf{ italic font df ug'{k5{ .

Common Name Generic Name Specific Name

Tf]/L (Mustard) Brassica compastris

s/] fp (Pea) Pissum sativum

ds} (Maze) Zea mays

wfg (Paddy) Oryza sativa

cfn' (Potato) Solanum tuberosum

af3 (Tiger) Panthera tigris

dflg; (Man) Homo sapiens

la/fnf] -Cat) Felis catus

ss' /' -Dog) Canis lupus

ufO{ (Cow) Bos taurus

l;+x (Lion) Panthera leo

Genus: ;ae} Gbf a9L u'0fx¿ ldNg] kh| fltx¿sf] ;dx" nfO{ lhGf; (Genus) elGg5 . juL{s/0f
ubf{ o;nfO{ { Family eGbf tn / :k]l;heGbf dfly /flvG5, h:t}M Soflg; (canis) cGtu{t
s's/' , :ofn, Ajf;f] cflb h:tf hgfj/x¿ kb5{ g\ .

Species: kf| oM Ps} lsl;dsf ljzi] ftfx¿ ePsf ;hLjx¿sf] ;d"x h'g Pscfk;df kh| gg

ug]{ Ifdtf /fV5g\, To;nfO{ :kl] ;h elgG5 . of] Taxonomy sf] cfwf/et" PsfO xf] . o;nfO{
lhg;eGbf tNnf] txdf /flvG5 . ;hLjx¿sf] juLs{ /0f ubf{ ltgLx¿nfO{ ljleGg txdf ljefhg
ul/Psf] x'G5 . ;hLjx¿df kfOg] u'0fx¿sf cfwf/df Kingdom , Phylum, Class , Order,
Family, Genus / Species u/L ljleGg txdf juL{s/0f ul/G5 . h;nfO{ lgDgcg';f/ rf6{df
bv] fpg ;lsG5 M

20 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (

kingdom Animalia

Phylum Chordata

Class Mammalia

Order Primates
Family Hominidie
Genus Homo
Species Sapiens

juLs{ /0fsf] o; rf6d{ f hlt dflylt/ uof] w]/} ;hLjx¿ ;d]l6G5g eg] tNnf] txlt/ cfpFbf
ljz'4 lglZrt k|hfltnfO{ dfq ;d]6\5, h:t}M dflg;sf] juL{s/0fsf] ljleGg txsf] cWoog ubf{
hut\ (kingdom) df ;a} hgfj/x¿ -9f8 ePsf / gePsf, Pssfi] fLo / axs' f]ifLo cflb_ kb5{ g\
eg] hutc\ Gtut{ kg]{ kmfOnd sf]8]{6f (Chordata) df 9f8 ePsf hgfj/x¿ dfq kb{5g\ . To;}
u/L ju{ -class_ Dofdl] nof (Mammalia) df :tgwf/L hgfj/x¿ dfq kb5{ g\ . o;sf ;fy} u/L
c8/{ (order) primates df afFb/, ufl] /Nnf, luaG; (Gibbons), nd] :f{ (lemurs) / dflg; kb{5g\ .
c8{/cGtu{ tsf Family hominidie df Chimps, gorillas, humans, and orangutans cflb kb{5g\
eg] juL{s/0fsf] tNnf] tx h]g; (homo) df s]jn dflg; dfq kb{5g\ . o;/L juLs{ /0f ubf{
dflyNnf] txn] w/] } hLjx¿nfO{ ;d]6\5 eg] ;ae} Gbf tNnf] txn] Pp6f dfq kh| flt ;d6] \g] ub{5 .
o;af6 j|mdzM tNnfa] f6 dflyNnf] txdf hfFbf Pscsf{]df ;DaGw ePsf] kl' i6 x'G5 .

kf“r hut\ juLs{ /0f k|0ffnL (Five kingdom system of classification)

ljm| ofsnfk 2.1

b'O{ hut\ juL{s/0f k0| ffnLcg;' f/ xl/ts0f gePsf] Rofp / xl/ts0f ePsf] plgp“
bj' }nfO{ kmn" gkmN' g] la?jfdf juLs{ /0f ul/Psf] 5 . o; lsl;dsf] juL{s/0fn] logLx¿sf ;a}
ljzi] ftfx¿ ;d6] g\ ;ss] f] jf g;s]sf] ;DaGwdf 5nkmn ugx{' f;] \ / sIffdf k|:t't ug'x{ f];\ .

;hLjx¿sf] juLs{ /0f ug{sf nflu ljleGg j}1flgsx¿n] km/s km/s juL{s/0f k|0ffnLsf]
l;kmfl/; u/s] f 5g\ . xfn b'O{ hut\ k0| ffnLeGbf kfFr hut\ k0| ffnL a9L k|rngdf cfPsf]
kfOG5 . bO' { hut\ k|0ffnLn] lgDglnlvt ;hLjx¿sf af/d] f ki| 6;Fu JofVof u/s] f] kfObF }g M

!= k|f]sfl/of6] ; / o'Sofl/of6] ; ;hLjnfO{ k|i6;uF 5'6\ofPsf] 5g} .

@= Pssf]ifLo / ax'sfi] fLo ;hLjnfO{ 5'6\ofPsf] 5g} .

#= Photosynthetic (Algae) / Non-Photosynthetic (Fungi) nfO{ k|i6;Fu 5'6o\ fPsf] 5g} .

$= ;a} ;hLjx¿nfO{ ;d]6g ;s]sf] 5}g .

bO' { hut\ k|0ffnLsf sdL sdhf/] Lx¿ x6fpg / ;hLjx¿sf] juL{s/0fnfO{ a9L ;fGble{s /

lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff ( 21

j1} flgs agfpg kfFr hut\ k0| ffnL] kr| ngdf cfPsf] kfOG5 . KffrF hut\ juLs{ /0f k0| ffnLsf]
cjwf/0f ;g\ !(^( df cd]l/sL 6ofS;f]gfl] d:6 (American Taxonomist) /f]af6{ Pr lj6]s/
-Robert Harding Whitaker_ n] NofPsf x'g\ . o; k0| fnLn] a9LeGbf a9L ;hLjx¿nfO{ juL{s/0fdf
;d]6\g] k|of; u/s] f] 5 .

ljleGg lsl;dsf juLs{ /0fdWo] kf“r hutLo k|0ffnL a9L pko'St / j}1flgs k0| ffnL x'gfsf
sf/0fx¿nfO{ lgDglnlvt tYon] kl' i6 ub{5 M

!= kf| ]Sofl/of]6\; (Prokaryotes) / os' fl/of6] ;\ (Eukaryotes) nfO{ 56' \ofP/ /flvPsf] 5 .
-kf| ]Sofl/of]6; (Prokaryotes) Gol' Sno; gePsf] clt ;fwf/0f sfi] f ePsf hLjx¿ xg' \ eg]
os' fl/of6] ;\ (Eukaryotes) Gol' Sno; ePsf] ;fwf/0f sf]if ePsf hLjx¿ xg' \_

@= Pssfi] fLo ;hLjx¿nfO{ 5'66\ f5'66\ } /flvPsf] 5 .

#= xl/ts0foS' t jg:klt / xl/ts0f gePsf jg:kltx¿nfO{ 56' 6\ f56' 6\ } ;dx" df /flvPsf] 5 .

$= of] juLs{ /0f k|0ffnL ;hLjx¿sf] jm| dljsf;sf] Oltxf;;uF ;DalGwt ePsfn] logLx¿sf]
hLjgzn} L (Life Cycle) af/] k|:6 xG' 5 .

kFr“ hut\ juL{s/0f k0| ffnLcg;' f/ ;hLjx¿nfO{ kf“rcf6] f km/s km/s hutd\ f ljefhg ul/Psf]
5 . of] juLs{ /0f k0| ffnL lgDglnlvt u'0fx¿df cfwfl/t xG' 5 M

!= k|fs] fl/of]6\; / os' fl/of6] ; sfi] fx¿sf] ;+/rgfsf] hl6ntf

@= Pssfi] fLo tyf ax'sfi] fLo ;hLjx¿sf] z/L/sf] agf]6sf] ;ªu\ 7g txsf] hl6ntf

#= kf]if0fsf] cfwf/ — :jfkf]ifs / k/kf]ifs
$= hLjgz}nL — pTkfbs, pkefS] tff / ljR5]bs

%= ;hLjx¿sf] j|mdljsf;sf] Oltxf;

o;nfO{ lgDgcg';f/ lrqdf bv] fOPsf] 5 M

d'Vo Osfn] fl] hsn e'ldsf pTkfbs ljR5b] s pkefS] tf
k/kf]ifs
kf]if0f lng] tl/sf ;kfi] fs k/kfi] fs

22 lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff (

kf“r hut\ k0| ffnLsf] juLs{ /0fcGtut{ sf hut\x¿ lgDgfg';f/ /x]sf 5g\ M

!= hut\ M dfg] /] f (Kingdom: Monera)

@= hut\ M k|fl] 6:6f (Kingdom: Protista)

#= hut\ M kmGhfO{ (Kingdom: Fungi)

$= hut\ M KNffG6L (Kingdom: Plantae)

%= hut\ M Plgdlnof (Kingdom: Animalia)

dflysf kfFrcf]6f hutx\ ¿DfWo] dfg] ]/f, k|f]l6:6f / kmGhfO{ huts\ f ljzi] ftfx¿sf af/]df oxfF
pNn]v ul/Psf] 5 .

!= hut\ M dfg] ]/f (Kingdom : Monera)

df]g/] f hutc\ Gtut{ ;a} kf| ]Sofl/cf]l6s (Prokyarotic)
;"Id ;hLjx¿ Kfb{5g\ . ltgLx¿sf ljzi] ftfx¿ lgDgfg;' f/
5g\ M

-s_ df]lg/f hLjx¿ ;I" d Pssf]ifLo k|fs] fofl] 6s ;hLjx¿
x'g\ .

-v_ logLx¿sf sfi] fdf Go'lSno; xb'F g} / l8clS;/fOjf] lrq 2.3 kf| S] ofl/of]6\;

Gol' Sns Pl;8 -Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) x'G5 .

-u_ logLx¿sf sfi] fdf s8f sfi] f leQf (rigid cell wall) x'G5 .

-3_ logLx¿sf] kfi] f0f :jkfl] ift (Autotrophic), k/hLjL (Parasite), :ofk|fk] mfOl6s
(Saprophytic) / l;Djfofl] 6s (Symbiotic) xG' 5g\ . l;Dafofl] 6s ;hLjx¿
k/:k/df cGt/;DalGwt x'G5g\ / ;femf hLjg latfp5F g .

-ª_ o; hut\sf pbfx/0fx¿ M AofS6]l/of, ;fogf] AofS6]l/of, dfOsfK] nfHdf, Phf]AofS6/,
Anl' ug| cNuL cflb xg' \ .

dfl] g/fdf cflsA{ ofS6l] /of -Archaabacteria_ o'AofS6]l/of -Eubacteria_ / ;fogf]AofS6l] /of
-Cyanobacteria_ u/L tLg lsl;dsf hLjx¿ kb{5g\ . cfls{AofS6]l/of ;ae} Gbf k|frLg
AofS6]l/of xf] . logLx¿ w]/} tftf], gl' gnf] / bnbn (marshy place_ h:tf kl| tsn"
jf;:yfg -extreme habitat_ x¿df kfOG5g\ . logLx¿df xl/ts0f x'G5 . logLx¿ :jkf]ifs
xG' 5g,\ h:t} M xfOk/yd;{ -Hyperthermus_, kfO/f]nf]a; -Pyrolobus_ cflb . o'AofS6l] /of
;fFrf] (true) AofS6]l/of x'g\ . logLx¿sf sf]if leQf kl] K68f]UnfOsg -peptidoglycon_ n]

ag]sf] xG' 5 . logLx¿n] km\nfhn] f (flagella_ sf dbtn] rfn bv] fpF5g,\ h:t}M /fOhfl] aod,
Snf]:6«fl] 8od cflb . ;fogf] AofS6]l/ofnfO{ An'lu|g cNuL klg elgG5 . logLx¿df klg
xl/ts0f x'G5 . logLx¿ :jkf]ifs x'G5g,\ h:t} M g:6s, Pgflagf, :kfO?lngf cflb .

lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff ( 23

@= hut\ M kf| l] 6:6f (Kingdom: Protista)

k|f]l6:6f hut\cGtut{ Pssf]ifLo ;hLjx¿ Kfb{5g\ .
logLx¿df kfOg] ljzi] ftfx¿ lgDgfg';f/ 5g\ M

-s_ o; hut\df kg{] hLjx¿ o'sfl/of]l6s xG' 5g\ .
logLx¿sf] sfi] fdf Go'lsNo; x'G5 .

-v_ o; hutd\ f kg]{ k|fo hLjx¿ Pssfi] fLo x'G5g\ .

sfi] fsf cjojx¿ (cell organelles) nfO{

dD] a|]gn] 3/] /] /fv]sf] xG' 5 . lrq 2.4 Pssf]ifLo hLjx¿

-u_ logLx¿sf z/L/df l;p8f]kf]l8of -pseudopodia_, l;lnof, ˆnfhn] f x'G5 h:fsf]

dbtn] lx8F 8'n u5g{ \ .

-3_ sx] L Pssfi] fLo os' fl/of6] ;\x¿ k/hLjL xG' 5g\ . logLx¿n] cf>osf]if (host cell) af6
vfgf ;f;] /] lnG5g\ . Zooplankton x¿ k/kfi] fs x'G5g\ .

-ª_ logLx¿sf] kh| gg cdy} 'lgs / dy} 'lgs b'j} tl/sfaf6 x'G5 .

-r_ o; huts\ f pbfx/0fx¿ cldaf, o'lUngf, kf/fdl] ;od cflb xg' \ .

sx] L kf| ]l6:6fcGtut{ kg]{ hLjx¿sf] sf]if hGt'sfi] f;uF ldNg] vfnsf] xG' 5 . o:tf hLjnfO{
hGt' h:tf kf| l] 6:6f elgG5, h:t} M cldaf, kf/fdl] ;od cflb . sx] L hLjx¿sf] sfi] f jg:klt
sf]if;Fu ldNg] vfnsf] xG' 5 . o:tf sf]if xg' ] hLjx¿nfO{ jg:klt h:tf k|f]l6:6f elgG5 .
logLx¿sf] sfi] fdf xl/ts0f xG' 5 To;n} ] logLx¿n] ks| fz ;+Zni] f0f u5{g,\ h:t} M ol' Ungf,
8fo6D; cflb . s]xL hLjx¿sf] sfi] f kmGhfO{;Fu ldNg] x'G5 . o:tf hLjx¿nfO{ kmGhfO{
h:tf k|f]l6:6f elgG5, h:t} M :nfOd dfN] 8 -slime mold_, jf6/ df]N8 -water mold_ cflb .

#= hut\ M kmGhfO{ (Kingdom: Fungi)

o; hutc\ Gtu{ t 9;' L, Rofp h:tf
;hLjx¿ Kfb{5g\ . logLx¿ axs' f]lifo ljR5b] s
(multicellular decomposer) x'g\ . o; hut\df
kg]{ hLjx¿sf ljzi] ftfx¿ lgDgfg;' f/ 5g\ M

-s_ kmGhfO{ hut\cGtut{ sf hLjx¿ xl/ts0f

gePsf Pssfi] fLo -lo:6_ tyf axs' fl] ifo

;hLjx¿ -Rofp, 9;' L_ Kfb{5g\ . lrq 2.5 Rofp

-v_ oL ;hLjx¿ Kff| oh;f] Saprotrophic x'G5g\ / logLx¿n] ;8]un]sf÷sl' xPsf hl} js

j:t'af6 vfgf kf| Kt u5{g\ .

-u_ logLx¿sf] z/L/ yfNjf8] (thalloid) xG' 5 .

24 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (

-3_ logLx¿sf] z/L/ dfO;l] nodaf6 ag]sf] x'G5 .

-ª_+ logLx¿df cdy} 'lgs / dy} 'lgs b'j} tl/sfaf6 k|hgg x'G5 .

-r_ logLx¿n] UnfOsfh] g] sf ¿kdf vfgfnfO{ u5g{ \ .

-5_ Pssfi] fLo hLj lo:6 cNsf]xn agfpg k|ofu] ul/G5 .

-h_ o; hut\sf pbfx/0fx¿ M Dos' / (Mucor), lo:6 (yeast), Rofp cflb x'g\ .

kfi] f0f kf| Kt ug{] cfwf/df kmGhfO{ tLg lsl;dsf 5g\ hg' lgDgfg';f/ 5g\ M

-c_ :ofkf| ]6f« l] kms kmGhfO{ M logLx¿n] d/]sf hl} js j:t'x¿af6 cfˆgf] kf]if0f k|fKt u5g{ \,
h:t}M Dos' /, Rofp, k]lGfl;lnod -penicillium_ cflb .

-cf_ k/hLjL kmGhfO{ M logLx¿n] hLjLt hgfj/ / jg:ktLx¿sf] z/L/af6 kfi] f0f kf| Kt
u5{g\, h:t} M klS;lgof -puccinia_, 6\oflkm| gf -Taphrina_ cflb .

-O_ l;Dafof]l6s kmGhfO{ M o:tf kmGhfOx{ ¿ c¿ hLjx¿;Fu cGt/cfl>t ;DaGwdf
afRF 5g\ . o:tf] ;DaGwdf b'j} hLjx¿ Ps csfa{ f6 nfeflGjt x'G5g\ . cNuL /
kmGhfO{ cGt/cfl>t ;DaGwdf afRF g'nfO{ nfOsg] elgG5 . h;df kmGhfO{n] cNuLnfO{
cf>o lbG5 eg] cNuLn] kmGhfOs{ f nflu sfaf]{xfO8«6] agfOlbG5 .

kl/ofh] gf sfo{

9;' Lsf] cWoog (Study of fungus)

-c_ kfp/f6] L jf /f]6Lsf] ;fgf] 6j' m| f lng'xf;] \ .

-cf_ pSt 6'jm| fnfO{ k|sfz gkU' g] cf]l;nf] 7fpd“ f /fVg'xf;] \ .

-O_ bO' { tLg lbgkl5 /f]6Ldf ePsf] kl/jt{g cjnf]sg ugx'{ f;] \ .

-O{_ kfp/f]6L jf /f6] Ldf ePsf] ;t] f] skf; h:tf] agf6] nfO{ 9;' L elGfG5 . pSt 9';LnfO{ ;"Id
bzs{ oGqdf /fvL cjnf]sg ugx'{ f;] \ .

-p_ cjnf]sgkl5 ;kmf lrq agfO{ sIffdf k|:t't ugx'{ f]; / o;sf u'0fx¿sf af/d] f 5nkmn
ug{'xf;] \ .

lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( 25

cEof;

!= tn lbOPsf kZ| gx¿sf] ;xL ljsNkdf uf]nf] 3/] f nufpgx' f;] \ M

-s_ An'lu|g cNuL sg' hutc\ Gtu{t kb{5 <

-c_ df]g/] f -cf_ kf| l] 6:6f -O_ kmGhfO{ -O_{ KNffG6L

-v_ sg' sf/0fn] ol' Ungf c¿ hGt'eGbf km/s 5 <

-c_ xl/ts0f kfOg] x'gfn] -cf_ Pssfi] fLo x'gfn]

-O_ kfgLdf kfOg] x'gfn] -O{_ c¿ hLjdf cfl>t xg' fn]

-u_ Binomial System of Nomenclature sf kj| t{s sf] x'g\ <

-c_ Carolus Linnaeous -cf_ R. H. Whitaker

-O_ Chatton -O_{ Robert Koch

-3_ sfi] fsf] Gol' Sno;sf ¿kdf DNA ePsf] ;hLj s'g hutd\ f kb{5 <

-c_ dfg] /] f -cf_ k|fl] 6:6f -O_ kmGhfO{ -O_{ KnfG6L

-ª_ tn lbOPsf dWo] k|fs] fl/ofl] 6s ;I" d hLjsf] pbfx/0f sg' xf] <

-c_ chf]6f]AofS6/ -cf_ o'lUngf -O_ lo:6 -O_{ cldaf

@= sf/0f lbgx' f;] \ M

-s_ hLjx¿sf] b'O{ hut\ k|0ffnLeGbf kfrF hut\ k0| ffnL a9L pkoS' t / j}1flgs 5 .

-v_ kmGhfO{ hut\cGtut{ kg]{ ;hLjnfO{ :ofkf| k] mfO6 klg elgG5 .

-u_ df]g]/f hut\df kg{] hLjx¿eGbf k|fl] 6:6fcGtu{t kg{] hLjx¿ a9L ljsl;t dflgG5g\ .

#= km/s nV] gx' f];\ M

-s_ kf| S] ofl/of]6;\ / o'Aofl/of6] ;\

-v_ ;hLjx¿sf] b'O{ hut\ k|0ffnL / kfFr hut\ k|0ffnL

26 lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff (

-u_ dfl] g/f / k|fl] 6:6f -3_ k|fl] 6:6f / kmGhfO{
-ª_ lo:6 / Rofp -r_ h]g; / :k]l;h
-5_ hut\ / kmfOnd
$= tnsf k|Zgx¿sf] pQ/ nV] g'xf];\ M
-s_ afOg]ldon l;:6d ckm gd] ]Gsnr] / egs] ]f s] xf] <
-v_ dflg;, s]/fp, tf/] L / lrtj' fsf] j}1flgs gfd nV] gx' f;] \ .
-u_ hg] ; / k|hflt egs] f] s] xf] <
-3_ kfFr hut\ k0| ffnLsf] juL{s/0f rf6{ agfpg'xf];\ .
-ª_ dfl] g/f huts\ f ljzi] ftfx¿nfO{ pbfx/0f;lxt n]Vg'xf;] \ .
-r_ k|f]l6:6f hut\sf ljz]iftfx¿nfO{ pbfx/0f;lxt n]Vgx' f];\ .
-5_ kmGhfO{ huts\ f ljz]iftfx¿nfO{ pbfx/0f;lxt n]Vg'xf];\ .
-h_ lbOPsf hLjx¿sf huts\ f] gfd nV] gx' f];\ M

9';L, cldaf, ol' Ungf, kf/fd]l;od, KnfHdf]l8od, An'lu|g PNuL, Phf]AofS6/,
Rofp, Dos' /
-em_ hLjx¿sf juLs{ /0fsf ljleGg txx¿larsf] cGt/;DaGwnfO{ pbfx/0f;lxt k|:6
kfgx{' f;] \ .
-`_ lbOPsf] lrq cWoog ug'{xf;] \ / oL ;hLjx¿ sg' s'g hut\df kb5{ g\
56' o\ fpg'xf];\ . kT| os] sf tLg tLgcf]6f ljz]iftf klg nV] g'xf];\ .

lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( 27

# Rofp
(Mushroom)

lbOPsf lrq cjnf]sg u/L 5nkmn ugx'{ f];\ M

lrq 3.1 ljleGg lsl;dsf Rofpx¿

-c_ Rofp s:tf] 7fp“df pld|G5 < -cf_ Rofp lsg xl/of] gePsf] xfn] f <

-O_ s] ;a} Rofp vfg of]Uo x'G5g\ < -O{_ Rofp vt] L lsg ul/G5 <

Jfiffo{ fddf df6fsf] l9:sf], ufa] /, ?vsf af]jm| fnufotsf :yfgdf Rofp pldP| sf] bV] g ;lsG5 .
Rofp Ps ks| f/sf] 9';L -fungus_ xf] . Rofpdf xl/ts0f xF'bg} / of] dt[ f]khLjL -sapro_ x'G5 .
sx] L Rofpx¿ vfgof]Uo xG' 5g\ . 8Nn] Rofp, k/fn] Rofp, sGo] Rofp, uf]a]| Rofp cflb vfg ofU] o
Rofpsf pbfx/0fx¿ xg' \ . s]xL hªu\ nL Rofpx¿ ljiffn' klg x'g ;S5g\ . cfhefl] n Rofp v]tL
cfDbfgLsf] Ps ;|ft] sf ¿kdf ljsf; xFb' } uPsf] kfOG5 .

3.1 Rofpsf] agf]6 (Structure of mushroom)

Rofpsf] z/L/nfO{ dfO;l] nod / Fruiting body bO' { efudf afFl8Psf] x'G5 . o;sf] e]lh6l] 6e

(Vegetative) efunfO{ dfO;l] nod elgG5 . of] df6fdl' g /xs] f] xG' 5 . dfO;]lnod dl;gf

wfuf h:tf /];fx¿af6 ags] f] x'G5 h:fnfO{ xfOkmL elgG5 . dfO;l] nodn] kfgL / h}ljs

vfB j:t' ;f;] /] lnG5 . hldgdflysf] efunfO{ Fruiting body elgG5 . of] Rofpsf] kh| gg

efu -Reproductive part_ xf] . Rofpdf 8fF7 / 5ftf h:tf efu xG' 5g\ . Rofpsf] 8f7nfO{

:6fOk elgG5 . 5ftf h:tf] dflyNnf] kfOn;
efunfO{ kfOn; elgG5 . kfOn;sf] luN;
tNnf] efudf kftnf] sfuh h:tf] ljhf0f'
7f8f] Kn]6 cfsf/sf agf6] x¿ x'G5g,\ 8f7
To;nfO{ luN; elgG5 . luN;df

jLhf0fx' ¿ -Basidiospore_ x'G5g\ . dfOn]l;od

xfOlkm

lrq 3.2 Rofpsf] agf6]

28 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (

3.2 Rofpsf] hLjg rj|m (Life cycle of mushroom)
Rofpsf] kfOn;sf] leqL efudf kftnf] sfuh h:tf] KNf6] cfsf/sf] agf]6 x'G5 h:fnfO{
luN; elgG5 . jo:s Rofpsf] luN;df 6f« df, ;a xfOdl] god / xfOd]lgod u/L tLg tx
xG' 5g\ . ;ae} Gbf aflx/L txnfO{ xfOdl] god elgG5 . o; txdf a]l;l8od / kf/fkmfOl;;\
u/L b'O{ lsl;dsf sf]ifx¿ xG' 5g\ . kf/fkmfOl;;\ :6]/fOn -Sterile_ x'G5 . al] ;l8oddf
Pp6f wgfTds :6g«] -plus strain_ / Pp6f C0ffTds :6«]g (minus strain) u/L b'Oc{ f]6f
XofKnfO] 8 Gol' Sno; x'G5g\ .

luN;



lrq 3.3 Rofpsf efux¿

tL XofKnf]O8 Gol' Sno;x¿ ;+ofh] g eP/ Pp6f l8Knf]O8 Go'lSno; aG5 . pSt Gol' Sno;
ldcfl] ;; ljefhg eO{ rf/cf]6f XofKnf]O8 Gol' Sno;x¿ aGb5g\ . h;dWo] b'O{cf6] f wgfTds
:6]«g / bO' {cf6] f C0ffTds :6]g« x'G5g\ . To;kl5 al] ;l8odsf 6'Kkfdf rf/cf6] f cf}Fnfh:tf
agf]6x¿sf] ljsf; xG' 5 . oL agf6] nfO{ :6]l/Udf6f elgG5 . To;kl5 k|Tos] :6l] /Udf km'n/]

lrq 3.4 Rofpsf] hLjgrjm|

lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff ( 29

cfpF5 / x/s] df Ps Pscf6] f XofKnf]O8 Gol' Sno; hfG5 . o;/L k|Tos] af6 Ps Pscf6] f
a]l;l8of]:kf]/ aG5 . al] ;l8of]:kf/] dWo] b'O{cf]6f wgfTds :6]«g / b'O{cf6] f C0ffTds :6]«g xG' 5g\ .
a]l;l8of:] kf]/ kl/kSj ePkl5 :6l] /Udf6faf6 56' \l6G5 . x/s] :kf]/ cgs' n" cj:yfdf cª\s'/0f
eP/ kf| ylds dfO;]lnod aG5 . k|Tos] k|fylds dfO;l] nodsf] sfi] fdf Pp6f Gol' Sno; x'G5 .
leGbfleGb} :6]«gsf kf| ylds dfO;l] nodsf] ;dfudaf6 låtLo dfO;l] nod aG5, h;df bj' }
:6g]« af6 cfPsf b'Ocf]6} Go'lSno; x'G5g\ . To;}n] o;nfO{ 8fOSofl/of]l6s dfO;l] nod elgG5 .
låtLo dfO;]lnoddf cg's"n tfkjm| d / cfbt| f ePkl5 Rofp pdG| 5 . ;'?df ;fgf ;fgf ufn] f]
cfsf/sf] Rofp aG5 . kl/kSj ePkl5 v'n/] 5ftf cfsf/sf] aG5 . Rofpsf] kfOn; d'lglt/
kfOg] xfOdl] god kqsf] ;txdf w/] } ;ªV\ ofdf jLhf0fx' ¿ pTkfbg xG' 5g\ . tL jLhf0f' kl/kSj
ePkl5 xfjfsf dfWodaf6 otfplt 5l/G5g\ . cg'sn" xfjf, kfgL, tfkj|md / h}ljs kbfy{
ePkl5 kT| o]s jLhf0f'af6 Rofpsf] dfO;]lnod pdG| 5g\ . o;/L Rofpsf] hLjgrj|m k/" f xG' 5 .

ljm| ofsnfk 3.1

rf6{k]k/df Rofpsf] hLjgrj|msf] ;kmf lrq agfO{ sIffdf k|bzg{ ug'{xf;] \ .

3.3 Rofpsf] k|ofu] (Use of mushroom)

kf| rLg sfnb]lv g} Rofp vfB kbfy{ / cf}ifwLsf ¿kdf ko| fu] xb'F } cfPsf] s/' f ljleGg
k|frLg wd{zf:qx¿ rrf{ ePsf] kfOG5 . cfwl' gs lj1fgn] klg RofpnfO{ k|z:t kf| ]l6g,
le6fldg / vlgh tŒjsf ;fy} zG" o sf]n]:6f« n] ePsf] :j:y / kfl] ifnf] vfB kbfys{ f ¿kdf
kd| fl0ft ul/;ss] f] 5 . ljZj vfB ;ª\u7gn] klg RofpnfO{ vfB j:tx' ¿sf ¿kdf ko| f]u
ug{ ;lsg] u/L l;kmfl/; u/s] f] 5 . RofpnfO{ dfgj :jf:Yo / cfly{s cfocfhg{ ¿kdf
ko| f]u ug{ ;lsG5 . Rofpsf] dxŒjnfO{ lgDgfg';f/ k|:t't ug{ ;lsG5 M

-s_ dfgj :jf:Yosf nflu Rofpsf] dxŒj (Importance of mushroom in hygiene)

Rofp cToGt} :j:yjws{ / kfl] ifnf] vfB kbfy{ xf] . Rofpdf le6fldg, k|fl] 6g, kmfOa/
tyf vlghnufotsf tŒjx¿ kfOG5g\ . Rofp /l;nf] / :jflbnf] xG' 5 . Rofpsf]
dxŒjnfO{ lgDgfg';f/ pNn]v ug{ ;lsG5 M

-c_ k|f]l6gsf] ;f| t] sf ¿kdf M ;V' vf tf}nsf cfwf/df Rofpdf k|f]l6gsf] dfqf sl/a
!( bl] v #% kl| tzt x'G5 hals rfdndf &=# kl| tzt, uxdF' f !@=& k|ltzt,
e6df;df #*=! k|ltzt tyf s'v'/fsf] df;'df !* b]lv @) k|ltzt /x]sf] x'G5 .
Rofpdf kfOg] k|f]l6gdf dfgj z/L/sf] ljsf;sf nflu cTofjZos Pldgf]
Pl;8x¿ klg kfOG5g\ .

-cf_ le6fldgsf] ;|f]tsf ¿kdf M Rofp Riboflavin (B2) Niacin, Pantothonic acid,
thiamine(B1), Biofin, Polate / Vitamin B12 nufotsf le6fldgsf] /fd|f]
:f|f]t xf] . df5f df;' ;]jg gug]{ JolStx¿sf nflu t Rofp cToGt} cfjZos
vfB kbfYf{ xf] .

30 lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff (

-O_ vlgh kbfys{ f] ;|ft] sf ¿kdf M Rofpdf kz| :t dfqfdf kf6] fl;od, ;fl] 8od,
km:kmf/] ;, SoflN;od, tfdf, kmnfd cflb vlgh kbfy{x¿ kfOG5g\ .

-O_{ cf}ifwLsf ¿kdf M Wf/] } klxnb] l] v g} rLg, hfkfg, sfl] /of h:tf ljsl;t d'n'sx¿n]
Rofpsf] cfi} fwLo u'0f kQf nufPsf lyP . g]kfndf klg ljifz] u/L cfoj' b]{
lrlsT;sx¿n] Rofpsf] ;j] gnfO{ hf8] lbg] u/s] f 5g\ . Rofpsf] lgoldt
;]jgn] dwd' ]x, pRr /Strfk, SofG;/nufotsf yk' }| /fu] x¿;uF kl| t/fw]
ug{] Ifdtf ljsf; x'g] s/' f cg;' Gwfgaf6 b]lvPsf] 5 . To;} u/L /ftf] Rofpaf6
ljleGg cf}ifwLx¿ Hf:tM} Concord, Sunchiha pTkfbg ul/Psf] 5 h'g bd,
dwd' ]x, SofG;/, kfON; / 3f6L;DaGwL /f]ux¿sf nflu cfi} fwLx¿ agfOG5 .

-v_ Rofpsf] cflys{ dxŒj (Economic importance of mushroom)

Rofpdf kfOg] kf}li6s tŒj / o;sf] cf}ifwLo dxŒjn] ubf{ Rofpsf] Jofj;flos v]tL
ug{] ul/Psf] 5 . o;af6 kz| :t cfly{s cfocfhg{ ug{ ;lsG5 . Rofpsf] Jofj;flos
v]tLn] :j/fh] uf/ klg l;hg{ f u5{ . hD' nfdf kfOg] Morchella hfltsf] Rofp
h:fnfO{ Guchi chyau elgG5 . o;sf] cGt/fl{ i6o« ahf/df kl| t lsnfsf] %))
8n/eGbf a9L k5{ . gk] fndf h}ljs k|ljlwaf6 RofpnfO{ ;s'6L, crf/ agfO{ /fdf| ]
cfocfhg{ sf] ;|ft] sf ¿kdf ko| f]u ul/Psf] 5 .

gk] fndf ul/g] Rofp vt] Ldf sGo Rofp (Pleurotus Ostreatus) Ps kd| 'v Rofp
vt] Ldf kb5{ . sf7df8fd}F f r}t dlxgfbl] v sflQs;Dd of] Rofpsf] v]tL ug{ ;lsG5 .
kxf8L eu] df uf]a]| Rofp -Agaricus Bisporus) Rofpsf] Jofj;flos ¿kdf v]tL u/L
pTkfbg ul/G5 .

3.4 Rofp v]tL (Mushroom farming)

Rofp vt] L ljleGg lsl;daf6 ug{ ;lsG5 . Rofpsf] kh| fltcg';f/ vt] L ug{] ljlw klg km/s
km/s xG' 5 . s]xL Rofpx¿ ;fwf/0f k|ljlw cKfgfO{ 3/d} klg pTkfbg ug{ ;lsG5 eg] s'g}
Rofp pTkfbg ug{ ljzi] f k|ljlwsf] ko| f]u ugk'{ 5{ . oxfF k/fndf pTkfbg ul/g] Rofp v]tL
ug{] tl/sf j0f{g ul/Psf] 5 .

lrq 3.5 Rofp v]tL

lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( 31

k/fn] Rofp v]tL ug{] tl/sf

k/fn] Rofpsf] v]tL ug{ lgDglnlvt ljlw ckgfpg] ul/G5 M

-s_ /fd|f] u0' f:t/Lo k/fn ;ª\sNfg ug]{ / o;nfO{ !Æ b]lv @Æ ;Ddsf] dl;gf] 6j' |mf
agfpg]
-v_ k/fnsf] dl;gf] 6j' m| fnfO{ kfgLdf /fvL sl/a !%—@) ldg6] /fd/| L pdfNg] h;n] ubf{
pdfNbf k/fndf ePsf ls6f0fx' ¿ gi6 xG' 5g\ / k/fn g/d x'G5 . o:tf] k/fnndf Rofp
/fd|/L pdg| ;S5 .
-u_ pdfns] f] k/fnnfO{ /fd|/L ;V' vf agfpg] / sl/a Ps lbgkl5 pSt ;V' vf k/fnsf 6j' m| fnfO{
Knfl:6ssf] y}nLdf ldnfP/ /fVg]
-3_ k/fnsf] 6j' |mfx¿nfO{ Knfl:6ssf] y}nLdf tx tx agfO{ /fVg] / kT| os] txdf Rofpsf]
lap 5g]{
-ª_ Pp6f Knfl:6ssf] y}nLdf ;fwf/0ftof 5-6 tx agfpg] / k|Tos] txsf] prfO 8-10
OGr agfpg]
-r_ k/fnsf] 6j' |mfnfO{ /fd|/L xftn] vfb\g] / To;df 10-12 cf6] f hlt Kjfn agfpg]
-5_ Knfl:6ssf] yf}nLnfO{ ;ft lbg;Dd cWof/f] sf7] fdf /fVg], o;f] ubf{ ;ft lbgkl5
Knfl:6sleq dl;gf] e'jf h:tf] ;t] f] j:t'n] 9fs]sf] x'G5 .
-h_ Knfl:6ssf] emf]nfdf tfLgrf/cf]6f Kjfn agfpg] / cfjZostfcg;' f/ kfgL 5s{g]
-Spray)
-em_ sl/a 10 lbgkl5 Rofp pds]| f] bl] vG5 / sl/a 17 lbgkl5 Kjfn agfPsf] 7fpFaf6
Rofp pdg| yfN5 .
-`_ sl/a 25 lbgkl5 k"0f{ jo:s xG' 5 / To;nfO{ l6Kg ;lsG5 .

kl/ofh] gf sfo{

ljBfno÷3/df k/fn] Rofp v]tL ug]{ tl/sf / ljlw ko| fu] u/L Rofp pTkfbg ugx{' f;] \ . Rofp
pTkfbgsf nflu ul/Psf ko| f;x¿ / pknlAwnfO{ ;d6] L kl| tjb] g tof/ u/L sIffdf k:| tt'
ugx{' f];\ .

3.5 Rofpsf] e08f/0f / pkofu] (Storage and use of mushroom)

Rofpdf ePsf] ljz]if u'0fn] ubf{ kf| rLg sfnb]lv g} o;nfO{ vfB kbfy{ tyf cf}ifwLsf
¿kdf k|ofu] ul/Fb} cfPsf] 5 . RofpnfO{ nfdf] ;do;Dd ;/' lIft /fvL k|ofu] ug{ ljleGg
kl| jlw ckgfOG5 . o;af6 ;'s'6L, crf/, s]rk, ;k' cflb agfpg ;lsG5 . oLdWo] ;s' 6' L
agfpg] ;fwf/0f ljlw o; ks| f/ /x]sf] 5 M

-c_ Rofp ;kmf;uF kvfNg]

-cf_ ;fgf ;fgf 6j' m| f kfg]{

32 lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff (

-O_ plDn/xs] f] kfgLdf 98\ofpg]
-O{_ RofpnfO{ v'nf 3fd jf cug] f jf cfw'lgs cfe] g k|ofu] u/L ;'sfpg]
-p_ /fd/| L ;'s]kl5 xfjf gl5g{] u/L Koflsª ug{]
-pm_ pSt Koflsª ul/Psf] RofpnfO{ pko'St 7fpdF f e08f/0f ug]{

lrq 3.6 Rofpsf] ;s' 6' L lrq 3.7 Rofpsf] crf/

Rofp ;'sfpg] ljlw

;fdfGotof Rofp ;s' fpg lgDglnlvt ljlwx¿sf] ko| fu] ug{ ;lsG5 M

-s_ /;fog k|of]u u/L ;'sfpg] M RofpnfO{ 1% kf]6fl;od afO;NkmfO8, 0.2% ;fOl6s«
Pl;8, 6 % lrgL / 3% gg' sf] 3fn] df 16 3G6f lehfP/ 60 b]lv 62 l8u|L ;]lN;o;
tfksd| df /fvL 8 306f ;s' fpFbf u0' f:t/Lo ;s' 6' L aG5 . ;'ls;ss] f] RofpnfO{ xfjf
gl5g{] u/L ef8fdf aGb u/L /fVg'k5{ . Rofpsf] ;s' 6' LnfO{ wn' f] kf/]/ xfjf gl5g]{
ef8fd] f aGb u/L /fVg ;lsG5 .

-v_ 3fddf ;'sfpg] M sGo] RofpnfO{ 25 l8uL| ;l] N;o;eGbf a9L tfkj|md ePsf] 3fddf
jf oflGqs tj/n] 40 bl] v 45 l8uL| ;l] N;o; tfkj|mddf ;s' fpg'k5{ . o;/L ;s' fPsf]
RofpnfO{ l;n u/]sf] kfl] nlyg Aofuleq 120 lbg;Dd e08f/0f ug{ ;lsG5 .

sr] k, r6gL / crf/sf ¿kdf RofpnfO{ nfdf] ;Do;Dd e08f/0f ug{ ;lsG5 . oL
pTkfbgx¿nfO{ 20 bl] v 22 l8uL| ;]lN;o; tfkj|mddf sDtLdf 6 dlxgf;Dd e08f/0f ug{
;lsG5 . Rofpsf] ;k' , ksf8} f, cfd] n6] :ofG8ljr, s/L, s]rk, crf/ cflb kl/sf/ agfO{
nfdf] ;do;Dd e08f/0f ug{ ;lsG5 .

kl/ofh] gf sfo{

tkfO“s{ f] ljBfno jf 3/glhs} Rofp v]tL ul/Psf] 7fp“df ed| 0f ugx{' f];\ . Ifq] e|d0fsf cfwf/df
Rofp vt] L ug{] tl/sf, Rofpsf] dxŒj tyf cfly{s cfocfh{g / dfgj :jf:Yosf nflu Rofpsf]
k|ofu] ;DaGwdf hfgsf/Lx¿ ;ª\sng u/L kl| tj]bg tof/ ug{'xf;] \ / sIffdf k:| tt' ug{'xf;] \ .

lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( 33

3.6 vfg] Rofp / ljiffn' Rofp (Edible and poisonous mushroom)

s] ljiffn' Rofp vfgfn] d[To' ePsf 36gf ;'Gge' Psf] 5 < kT| os] jif{ ljiffn' Rofp vfP/
dflg;x¿sf] csfndf g} Hofg uPsf 36g\ fx¿ ljleGg ;~rf/sf dfWodaf6 ;l' gG5 .
hªu\ ndf kfOg] RofpnfO{ vfg x'g] / vfg gx'g] -ljiffn'_ 56' \ofpg ufx|f] xG' 5 . glrgs] f]
hªu\ nL Rofp vfg' xF'bg} . cfkmn" ] lrgs] f]
jf vfg ofU] o egL kd| fl0ft Rofpx¿
dfq vfg'k5{ . ljiffn' Rofp klxrfg
ug{ 56' 6\ } lsl;dsf] kl| jlw ljsf;
ePsf] kfOFb}g . cu|hx¿sf cge' jsf
cfwf/df vfg x'g] / vfg gx'g] Rofp
5'6\ofO{ ;]jg ug]{ ul/Psf] kfOG5 .
ljiffn' Rofpx¿ 5'6\ofpg] ;lhnf] sfo{
geP klg lgDglnlvt agf]6 ePsf Rofp
ljiffn' xg' ;Sg] cg'dfg ug{ ;lsG5 .
t/ cgd' fgs} cfwf/df sg' } Rofp ljiffn'
5g} eg/] vfg' eg] ug{' xb'F }g .

-s_ xNsf v/} f] /ªsf] Rofp lrq 3.8 ljiffn' Rofp

-v_ ;t] f] luN; (gills) ePsf] Rofp

-u_ sf08df l/ª (valva) ePsf] Rofp

-3_ /ftf] /ª ePsf] Rofp

-ª_ /ftf] sf08 jf Sofk ePsf] Rofp

-r_ ls/f gnfu]sf] lrNnf] Sofk ePsf] Rofp

-5_ Rofpsf] Sofk xNsf lyRbf kxn] f] /ª cfpg] Rofp cflb .
kl/of]hgf sfo{

xfd|f] b]zdf a;l{] g ljiffn' Rofpsf] ;j] gaf6 dflg;sf] dT[ o' xg' ] u/s] f 36gfx¿sf] Rofp;DaGwL
hfgsf/ JolSt;“u ;fw] vf]h tyf OG6/g6] sf dfWodaf6 vf]hL u/L o:fsf] sf/0f, Rofpsf] ks| f/
tyf o;af6 aRg cjnDag ugk' g]{ pkfox¿nfO{ ;d]6L kl| tjb] g tof/ ug'x{ f];\ / sIffdf k:| tt'
ug'{xf];\ .

34 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (

cEof;

!= tn lbOPsf k|Zgx¿sf] ;xL pQ/df l7s lrxg\ -√_ nufpgx' f;] \ M

-s_ RofpnfO{ dt[ kfl] hjL (saprophyte) hLj eGgs' f] sf/0f s'g xf] <

-c_ o;n] cfˆgf] vfgf cfkmF} agfp5F .

-cf_ o;n] ;8]un]sf sl' xPsf j:ta' f6 vfgf kf| Kt u5{ .

-O_ cfˆgf] vfgfsf nflu c¿df e/ k5{ .

-O{_ hLjsf] z/L/af6 vfgf ;f;] ]/ lnG5 .

-v_ Rofpdf kfOg] d'Vo tŒj s] s] xg' \ <

-c_ vlgh , le6fldg, k|fl] 6g -cf_ ;f] l8od, sfafx{] fO86]| / k|f]l6g

-O_ Pldgf] Pl;8, le6fldg / kf| l] 6g -O{_ SoflN;od, lrNnf] kbfy{ / vlgh

-u_ sg' Rofpaf6 SofG;/ /fu] sf] pkrf/sf nflu cf}ifwL agfOG5 <

-c_ /ftf] Rofp -cf_ 8Nn] Rofp

-O_ sGo] Rofp -O_{ uf]a]| Rofp

-3_ xfOd]lgoddf ePsf] :6/]\ fOn sf]ifnfO{ s] elGg5 <

-c_ al] ;l8od -cf_ 6«fdf (Trama)

-O_ kf/fkmfOl;; -O_{ xfOkmf

-ª_ a]l;l8of]:kf/] -Basidiospore) sxfF aG5 <

-c_ dfO;l] nod -cf_ kfOn;

-O_ luN; -O{_ :6fOk

@= sf/0f lbgx' f];\ M
-s_ RofpnfO{ d[tfk] hLjL elgG5 .
-v_ RofpnfO{ u'0fsf/L dflgG5 .
-u_ pRr /Strfk, dw'd]x, d'6' /fu] ePsf dflg;x¿nfO{ Rofp ;j] gdf k|fT] ;fxg ul/G5 .

-3_ hªu\ nL Rofp k|of]u ug{ ;fjwfgL ckgfpgk' 5{ .

#= km/s 5'6\ofpgx' f];\ M 35
-s_ vfg] Rofp / laiffn' Rofp
-v_ kf| ylds / låtLo dfO;]lnod
-u_ kf/fkmfOl;; (Paraphysis) / al] ;l8od (Basidium)

lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff (

$= tnsf kZ| gsf] pQ/ n]Vgx' f;] \ M
-s_ Rofpdf kfOg] kfl} i6s tŒjx¿ nV] g'xf];\ .
-v_ Rofpsf] cf}ifwLo dxŒjsf] j0fg{ ug{'xf];\
-u_ dfgj :jf:Yo tyf cfocfhg{ sf nflu Rofp dxŒjk0" f{ hLj dflGfG5, ts;{ lxt nV] gx' f;] \ .
-3_ ;fwf/0f k|ljlwaf6 3/d} Rofpsf] v]tL s;/L ul/G5 < 5f]6s/Ldf j0fg{ ug'{xf];\ .
-ª_ RofphGo pTkfbgsf] ;"rL agfpg'xf];\ .
-r_ Rofpsf] ;s' 6' L agfpg] ljlw j0fg{ ugx{' f;] \ .
-5_ laiffn' Rofpsf ljzi] ftfx¿ s] s] xg' ,\ nV] gx' f;] \ .
-h_ Rofpsf] lrq agfO{ o;sf ljleGg efux¿ Gfdfs/0f ug{'xf];\ .
-em_ Rofpsf] hLjgrjm| lrq;lxt j0fg{ ug{'xf;] \ .
-`_ lrq cjnfs] g u/L ;fl] wPsf k|Zgx¿sf] pQ/ lbg'xf];\ M
-c_ lrqdf bv] fOPsf efux¿sf] gfd nv] L kT| os] sf] Ps
Pscf6] f sfd n]Vg'xf;] \ .
-cf_ jLhf0f' sg' efudf k5{ <
-O_ lbOPsf Effux¿nfO{ Fruiting body / Mycellium
df 56' o\ fpgx' f;] \ .



-6_ lrqdf luN;sf] ;S] ;g b]vfOPsf] 5, lrqsf cfwf/df lgDglnlvt k|Zgsf] pQ/
nV] g'xf;] \ M

-c_ lrqdf bv] fOPsf efux¿sf] gfd nV] g'xf;] .
-cf_ Sterile cell / Fertile Cell lar km/s 56' o\ fpgx' f;] \ .
-O_ Basidiospore s;/L pTkfbg xG' 5, j0f{g ug'{xf;] \ .
36 lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff (

$ j|md ljsf;
(Evolution)

4.1 jm| d ljsf;sf] kl/ro (Introduction to evolution)

lrq 4.1

tn lbOPsf kZ| gx¿df cfwfl/t eO{ 5nkmn ug'x{ f;] \ M

-c_ kY[ jLdf ;ae} Gbf klxn] s'g ;hLjsf] pTklQ ePsf] lyof] xfn] f <

-cf_ s] xfdf| ] jl/kl/ kfOg] ;hLjx¿ klxnfbl] v g} cl:tTjdf lyP xfn] fg\ <

-O_ ;hLjx¿df km/skgf s;/L cfof] xfn] f <

-O_{ nfvfF} jif{ klxn] cl:tTjdf /x]sf hLjx¿sf af/d] f s;/L yfxf kfOG5 <

cfw'lgs dfGttfcg';f/ k[YjLdf xfnsf ljsl;t hLjx¿ clt ;/n ;"Id hLjx¿af6 jm| dz
ljsf; ePsf] dflgG5 . kY[ jLsf] jftfj/0fdf kl/jt{g xbF' } hfbF f ;hLjx¿sf z/L/df klg kl/jtg{
xF'b} uof] . jm| dljsf;sf ljleGg kd| f0fx¿sf cfwf/df ;fwf/0f ;hLjaf6 hl6n z/L/ ePsf
;hLjx¿ pTkGg eP . o;/L ;hLjx¿df jm| dzM ;fwf/0faf6 ljleGg ks| f/sf hl6n hLjx¿sf]
pTklQ x'gn' fO{ j|mdljsf; elgG5 .

xfdf| ] jl/kl/ ljleGg lsl;dsf ;hLjx¿ kfOG5g\ . tL ;hLx¿cGtu{t AofS6l] /of, cldaf h:tf
;/n agf]6 ePsf hLjb]lv hl6n agf]6 ePsf ax'sf]ifLo :Qgwf/L hgfj/ tyf km"n kmN' g]
jg:kltx¿ kb{5g\ . kT| os] hLjx¿ Ps csf{df leGg bl] vG5g\ . kY[ jLsf] agf6] , xfjfkfgL
cg;' f/sf] hLjx¿sf] cg'sn" tfnufot cGo ljljw sf/0fn] ubf{ hLjx¿df km/s u'0fx¿ ljsf;
xFb' } uPsf] dflgG5 . pbfx/0fsf nflu dflg; tyf xfQL bj' } hLj hldgdf a:g] 9f8 ePsf
:tgwf/L hgfj/ xg' \ t/ klg logLx¿sf w/] } u'0fx¿ km/s 5g\ . oxfF;Dd ls k[YjLsf ljleGg

lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( 37

e"efudf a:g] dflg;x¿lar klg 5fnfsf] /ª, prfOnufot w/] } u'0fx¿df cGt/ /x]sf] kfOG5 .
To:t} u/L kmn" kmN' g] jg:kltx¿ Pp6} ;dx" df kb{5g\ t/ o:tf jg:kltx¿ xhf/f}F lsl;dsf
5g\ / Ps csfd{ f km/s 5g\ .

cfheGbf w/] } jif{ klxn] cl:tTjdf /xs] f hLjx¿sf af/d] f ltgLx¿sf cjz]ifsf] cWoogaf6
yfxf kfpg ;lsG5 . o;/L ;hLjx¿df kfOg] ;dfgtf / leGg u'0fx¿sf cfwf/df s] cgd' fg
ug{ ;lsG5 eg] k[YjLsf] ;txdf ;a}eGbf klxn] ;fwf/0f hLjsf] pTklQ ePsf] x'g'k5{ . jftfj/0f
kl/jtg{ ;uF } ljleGg k|sf/sf ;hLjx¿sf] pTklQ ePsf] dflgG5 .

lrqdf ;hLjx¿sf] j|mdljsf;sf] gdg' f bv] fOPsf]

5 . k[YjLsf] pTklQ ePsf] nfvf} jifk{ l5 dfq}

k[YjLsf] ;txdf hLjx¿sf] pTklQ ePsf] ljZjf;

5 . ;'? ;?' df hLjx¿ afFRg ;Sg] cgs' n" jftfj/0f

lyPg . k[YjLsf] ;txdf lg/Gt/ kl/jt{g eof] .

kfgL k/k] l5 jftfj/0f kl/jtg{ xb'F } uof] . ljleGg

ks| f/sf tŒjx¿lar /f;folgs k|ltljm| of eof,]

kmn:j¿k hf}ljs c0fs' f] lgdf0f{ eof] . jftfj/0f

kl/jtg{ x'g] jm| d lg/Gt/ rln/x\of] . hl} js c0f'

ag]kl5 clt ;/n ;I" d hLjf0f' (Virus) sf] pTklQ

xg' uof] . ;hLjsf nflu cg's"n jftfj/0f aGb}

uof] . j|mdljsf;sf] j|mddf k|fS] ofl/of6] AofS6l] /of

h:tf hLjx¿sf] pTklQ eof] . To;kl5 ofe] Gbf

a9L ljsl;t o'Sofl/cf]l6s sfi] fsf] pTklt eof] . lrq 4.2 hLjx¿sf] j|md ljsf;

Pssf]ifLo hLjx¿ tyf jg:kltx¿sf] ljsf; eof] . cgs' "n jtfj/0f ;uF ;uF } ax'sf]ifLo hGt'

tyf jg:kltx¿sf] pTklQ tyf ljsf; eof] .

;hLjx¿df lg/Gt/ kl/jt{g xg' ] j|md rln/xFbf tGt' ePsf hGtx' ¿sf] pTklQ eof] . To;kl5
j|mdzM cªu\ ePsf hGt'x¿ / cªu\ x¿ ldn]/ ags] f k|0ffnLoS' t hgfj/x¿sf] ljsf; eof] .
o;/L ljsf; x'Fbf 9f8 gePsf hGtx' ¿ h:tM} xfO8«f, 6k] jd,{ u8\ofn} f, k'tnL, hfFtl] s/f, tf/]df5f
h:tf hGt'x¿sf] ljsf; xFb' } uof] . 9f8 gePsf hGt'af6 9f8 ePsf kfgLdf a:g] ;/n hLj
;db' L| 3f8] f, df5f cflbsf] ljsf; eof] . kfgLdf a:g] hLjaf6 peor/, peor/af6 3;|]/ lx8F g\ ]
hLj xbF' } 9f8 ePsf hl6n hgfj/x¿ h:t} 3f]8f, xfQL, dflg;s]f ljsf; eof] .

To:t} k|sf/n] jg:kltcGtu{t Pssf]ifLo cNuLx¿sf] pTklQkl5 axs' f]ifLo cNuLx¿sf] ljsf;
eof] eg] jftfj/0f kl/jtg{ ;uF ;Fu} of]eGbf ljsl;t af| ofk] mfO6f, 6]l/8fk] mfO6f jg:kltsf] pTklQ
eof] . Pjd\ j|mdn] km"n gkmN' g] jg:kltx¿kZrft\ kmn" kmN' g] jg:kltx¿ h:tM} lhDgf]:kd{ /
km"n km'Ng] hl6n agf]6 ePsf jg:kltx¿sf] pTklQ tyf ljsf; eof] . oL ;du| kl| jm| ofnfO{
jm| d ljsf;sf ¿kdf lnOG5 .

38 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (

4.2 j|md ljsf;sf l;4fGtsf k|df0fx¿ (Evidences of organic evolution)

k[YjLdf hLjx¿sf] ljsf; j|md ;/naf6 hl6n ePsf] xf] eGg] s/' fsf cfwf/x¿nfO{ kl' i6
ug{ ;xofu] ug]{ kd| f0fx¿ g} jm| d ljsf;sf l;4fGtsf k|df0fx¿ x'g\ . o:tf jm| d ljsf;sf
l;4fGtsf kd| f0fx¿dWo] dV' o k|df0fx¿nfO{ lgDgfg';f/ pNnv] ul/Psf] 5 M

-s_ hLjfjzi] faf6 k|fKt kd| f0f (Evidences from fossil)

w]/} jif{ klxn] d/]sf hGt' tyf jg;kltx¿sf s'g} c+z 5fk jf lrxg\ kq] r66\ fgdf
kfOG5, To;nfO{ cjzi] f (Fossil) elGg5 . cjz]ifsf] af/]df cWoog ug{] ljifonfO{

Paleontology elgG5 .

cjz]ifsf] cWoogaf6 nfvfF} jif{ cl3 cl:tTjdf /xs] f ;hLjx¿sf af/]df hfgsf/L
lng ;lsG5 . cjz]ifaf6 k|fKt k|df0fnfO{ jm| d ljsf;sf] alnof] cfwf/ dflgG5 .

cjz]if s;/L aG5 xfn] f < lrq x]/L
5nkmn ug'{xf];\ .

cjzi] f kq] r66\ fgdf dfq
kfOG5 . ;hLjx¿ d/]kl5 ltgsf] dt[
z/L/nfO{ vfn] f, gbL, df6f] afnj' f;Fu}
aufP/ nh} fG5 . cGtdf 7'nf] tfn
jf ;db' |df ldl;G5 / lj:tf/} lylug|
yfN5 . of] k|lj|mof lg/Gt/ rlNf/xG5 .
tfn jf ;db' |sf] lkwF df Pskl5 csf]{
tx aGb} hfG5 . nfvfF} jif{kl5 kq]
r6\6fg aGb5 . k|To]s txdf ePsf
;hLjx¿sf] sdnf] efu tyf
dfz+k]zL un]/ hfG5 eg] xf8 tyf
;n] 'nfh] afsF L /xG5g\ . oL efux¿
Gf} r6\6fgsf kqdf d/s] f ;hLjsf]
5fksf ¿kdf /xG5 h;nfO{ cjzi] f
elgG5 .

o;/L ag]sf] kq] r6\6fgsf] ;ae} Gbf lrq 4.3 cjzi] f

tNnf] kqdf ;fwf/0f agf]6 ePsf ;hLj h:t} clNusf] cjzi] f kfOPsf] 5 eg]

dflyNnf] kqdf :tgwf/Lsf] cjzi] f kfOPsf] 5 . o;af6 s] olsg ug{ ;lsG5 eg]

;hLjx¿sf] ljsf; j|mdzM ;/naf6 hl6n ;+/rgf ePsf ;hLj ljsf; EfPsf]

:ki6 xG' 5 . o;sf/0f ljsf;sf] b[li6sf0] fn] cjz]ifaf6 kf| Kt k|df0fnfO{ w/] } dxŒj

lbPsf] 5 . slt k'/fgf] r6\6fg xf] egL olsg ug{ sfa{g 8l] 6ª / o'/]lgod 8]l6ª

ljlwaf6 cfo' lgwf/{ 0f ul/G5 . To;df ePsf] cjz]ifsf] cfo' klg Tolt g} jif{ ePsf]

lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( 39

dflgG5 . o;sf cfwf/df cfheGbf nfvfF} jif{ cl3 cl:tTjdf /x]sf ;hLjx¿sf
af/]df hfgsf/L lng ;lsG5 M

-v_ tn' gfTds z/L/ /rgfaf6 k|fKt k|df0f (Evidences from comparative morphology

and anatomy)

k|sl[ tdf kfOg] hGt' tyf jg:kltx¿sf] zf/Ll/s agf6] cfcfˆg} lsl;dsf] x'G5 . t/
klg oL ;hLjx¿df s'g} g s'g} ;femf u0' fx¿ kfOG5g\ . o;n] s] bv] fpF5 eg] oL
;hLjx¿ Pp6} kv' f{af6 pTklQ ePsf xg' \ eGg ;lsG5 . tn' gfTds z/L/ /rgfaf6
kfOg] k|df0fx¿ lgDgcg';f/ /x]sf 5g\ M

-c_ ;wdL{ cªu\ x¿ (Homologous organs)

9f8 ePsf hgfj/x¿sf] z/L/
ljleGg xf8sf 6j' |mfx¿ ldnL ag]sf]
xG' 5 . 9f8 ePsf hgfj/x¿sf
ljleGg cªu\ x¿sf] agf]6sf] cWoog
ubf{ Pp6} 9frF f / jm| daf6 xf8x¿sf
6j' m| f ldnL ag]sf] kfOG5 . o;n]
hGtx' ¿sf] kf/:kfl/s ;DaGw /x]sf]
yfxf kfpg ;lsG5 . ;hLjx¿df
kfOg] cª\ux¿ Hf;sf] pTklQ
(Embroyic origin) Pp6} x'G5 t/
km/s km/s sfdsf nflu ko| f]u
ul/G5 eg] To;nfO{ ;wdL{ cªu\ x¿
(Homologous organ) elgG5,

Hf:tM} dflg;sf] xft, 3f8] fsf]
cuf8Lsf] v6' 6\ f, rd]/fsf] lrq 4.4 3f8] fsf cufl8sf] v6' 6\ f / dflg;sf] xft
kv6] f, Xjn] sf] kv]6fdf kfOg] xf8x¿sf] agfj6 Ps cfk;df ldNbfh'Nbf
kfOG5 . dflg;sf] xft / 3f8] fsf] cuf8Lsf] v6' 6\ fsf] xf8x¿sf] ;/+ rgfdf
jm| dz Humerus, Radius, Ulna, Carpels, Meta carpels kfOG5 .

;hLjx¿df kfOg] To:tf cªu\ x¿ Hf:fsf] pTklQ (Embryomic origin) km/s
km/s xG' 5 t/ Pp6} sfos{ f nflu ko| ]fu ul/G5 eg] To:tf cª\ux¿nfO{ Pgfnfu] ;
(Analogous organ) elgG5 . Pjd\ k|sf/n] cGo cª\ux¿ Kflg ;dfGftf kfOG5 .
To;}n] ;wdL{ cª\ux¿sf] cWoogaf6 kf| Kt k|df0fn] j|mdljsf;sf] k'li6 ug{
dbt k'¥ofpF5 .

40 lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff (

-cf_ cjzi] ffª\uaf6 kf| Kt k|df0f (Evidence from vestigial organ)

xfd|f] z/L/df w/] } cªu\ x¿ x'G5g\ tLdWo] s]xL cª\ux¿ gd'gfsf ¿kdf dfq
/x]sf x'G5g\ eg] sx] L cª\u cGo hgfj/df ljsl;t / sfo{dn" s xG' 5g\ o:tf
gdg' fsf ¿kdf dfq /x]sf cª\unfO{ cjzi] ffª\s elgG5 .

pbfx/0fsf nflu df+;xf/L hgfj/x¿ h:tM} l;+x, lrt'jf, ss' /' cflbdf x'g]

Canine teeth alnof] / ltvf] xG' 5 h:fsf] dbtn]

hgfj/sf] df;' n5' /] vfG5g\ t/ ;fx] L Canine

Teeth zfsfxf/L hgfj/df Reduced form df x'G5 .

o;sf ;fy} dflg;sf] 7'nf] cfGbf| glhs} Vermiform

appendix x'G5, of] Reduced form df dfq xG' 5 t/

;f]xL cªu\ e;F} L, v/fof] h:tf hgfj/x¿df ljsl;t /

sfo{d"ns x'G5 . dflg;sf] z/L/df o:tf cjzi] fªu\ w]/}

kfOG5g\ . o;af6 s] kd| fl0ft x'G5 eg] ;a} hgfj/x¿ lrq 4.5 eld{kmd Pk] ]lG8S;

Pp6} k'vf{af6 ljsl;t eO{ cfPsf] xg' 'k5{ .

-u_ bO' {ju{ larsf hgfj/af6 k|fKt kd| f0fx¿ (Evidences from bridge animals)

lrq 4.6 Knl] 6k; lrq 4.7 cf/lsK6f]l/S;sf] cjz]if

8s ljN6, Knl] 6k;sf] zf/Ll/s agf6] sf] cWoog ubf{ o;df b'O{ ju{sf hgfj/
x¿sf u'0f kfOG5g\ . o;sf] r'Rrf] xf;F sf] h:tf] xG' 5 eg] z/L/ :tgwf/Lsf]
h:tf] /f}n] 9fs]sf] xG' 5 . To:t} u/L r/fn] h:tf] km'n kl5 eg] :Tgwf/Ln] em}
aRrfnfO{ :tgkfg u/fpF5 . o;af6 s] k|:6 xG' 5 eg] 8s ljN8, Knl] 6Kf; tNnf]
ju{sf r/faf6 dflyNnf] ju{ :tgwf/Ldf ljsf; eO{ cfPsf] eGg ;lsG5 .
o:t} u/L cf/lsK6fl] /S;sf] cjz]ifsf] cWoogn] /]K6fOn / r/flarsf] ;DaGw
b]vfpF5 . kf| ]6f]K6/] ; Protopterus df5fdf z/L/ :sn] n] 9fss] f] xG' 5 eg]
:jf; kmg] {sf nflu peor/sf] h:t} kmfS] ;f] x'G5 . oxfF 8s ljN8 Knl] 6Kf;,
cf/lsK6fl] /:s / kf| ]6fK] 6/] ; Bridge animal sf pbfx/0f xg' \ . h:fn] tNnf] ju{
/ dflyNnf] ju{nfO{ hf8] 5 .

lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff ( 41

-3_ e0|' f;DaGwL k|df0f (Embryonic evidences)
9f8 ePsf hgfj/x¿sf] ljsf;sf r/0fx¿sf] cWoog ubf{ ;'?sf e0|' fx¿sf
cj:yfx¿ -5'6\ofpg g;lsg_] p:t} x'G5g\ . lrqdf bv] fOP h:t} dflg;, ;fnfdfG8/,
s5j' f, s'v/' f, df5fsf] ;?' cj:yfsf] e'0| fsf] ljsf; r/0f sl/a p:t} xG' 5 . o;
ks| f/ oL ;a} 9f8 gePsf hgfj/x¿ Pp6} kv' fa{ f6 ljsl;t ePsf x'g'k5{ . o;n]
klg jm| dljsf;sf] l;4fGtnfO{ k'li6 ug{ dbt k'¥ofpF5 .



kl/ofh] gf sfo{ lrq 4.8 e'0| f;DaGwL kd| f0f

OG6/g6] jf cGo ;f| t] x¿af6 jm| d ljsf;sf k|df0fx¿;DaGwL ljleGg lrqx¿ vf]hL ;ªs\ ng
ug{'xf;] \ . ;ªs\ lnt lrqx¿ rf6k{ k] /df 6fF:g'xf];\ / sIffdf kb| z{g u/L 5nkmn ug{x' f];\ .

4.3 jm| dljsf;sf] l;4fGt (Theory of evolution)

jm| dljsf;sf] l;4fGtsf] k|ltkfbgdf w]/} j}1flgsx¿n] ofu] bfg u/]sf 5g . Jean Baptise

Lamark (France), Alfred Russel Wallace, Charles Darwin (Enlgand) / Hugo De Vries

(Holland) j}1flgsx¿n] jm| dljsf;;DaGwL ljleGg l;4fGtx¿sf] kl| tkfbg u/s] f 5g\ .
oLdWo] Charles Darwin / Hugo De Vries sf j|mdljsf;;DaGwL l;4fGtx¿ oxfF pNn]v
ul/Psf] 5 .

8flag{ sf] l;4fGt (Darwin’s Theory)

Charles Darwin cª\u|]h j1} flgs x'g\ . pgn] gofF hfltsf] pTklQ -Origin of new
species) k:' ts ;g\ 1859 df ks| flzt u/] . 8flj{gsf] l;4fGtnfO{ kf| s[lts 5gf6] sf]
l;4fGt -Theory of natural selection_ klg elgG5 . pgn] k:' tsdf hLj ljsf;;DaGwL
lgDglnlvt cjwf/0fx¿ cl3 ;f/]sf 5g\ .

42 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (

-s_ cTolws ;Gtfgf]Tkfbg Ifdtf (Enormus fertility)

Kf|Tos] ;hLjx¿df ;Gtfgf]Tkfbg ug]{ Ifdtf x'G5 . ;hLjx¿n] hGdfPsf ;GttLx¿
;a} afRF g] xf] eg] csf]{ k:' tf kU' bf bfA] Af/ x'G5 . ;hLjx¿sf] ;ªV\ of HofldtLo
cgk' ftdf jl[ 4 x'bF } hfG5 t/ ks| [ltdf ;hLjx¿sf] ;ªV\ ofsf] cg'kft o;/L cTolws
;ªV\ ofdf geO{ sl/a plQg} /x]sf] kfOG5 . pbfx/0fsf nflu xfQLn] cfˆgf] hLjgdf
sl/a ^ cf]6f aRrfx¿ dfq hGdfpF5 . o;/L hGds] f hlt ;a} xfQLsf 5fjfx¿
afRg] xf] eg] &%) jif{df Ps hf]8L xfQLaf6 !()))))) ;Gtfg pTkfbg x'G5g\ .

-v_ afR“ gsf nflu ;ª\3if{ (Struggle for existence)

;hLjx¿n] hGdfPsf hlt ;a} ;Gtltx¿ afFRg] xf] eg] k|sl[ tdf ;hLjx¿sf] ;ªV\ of
cTolws jl[ 4 eP/ hfG5, h;n] ubf{ vfgf / a:gsf] cefj x'G5 . kT| o]s ;hLjx¿n]
vfg, a:g, k|hgg\ nufot kl/jlt{t jftfj/0f;uF afRF gsf nflu ;ª\3if{ jf k|lt:kwf{
ugk{' g]{ x'G5 . o:f lsl;dsf] kl| t:kwf{ cfkm\g} ;dx" lar tyf km/s km/s k|hfltsf
;d"xlar x'g] ub{5 . hg' hLjx¿ ;ª\3if{ ug{ ;Ifd x'G5g\ tL ;hLjx¿ afFRg ;Ifd
xG' 5g\ eg] ;ª3\ if{ ug{ g;Sg] hLjx¿ nf]k eP/ hfG5g\ . o;nfO{ afRgsf nflu
;ª3\ if{ elgG5 .

-u_ kl/jl[ Q / jz+ h (Variation and heredity)

Kfs| l[ tdf kfOg] ;hLjx¿ Pp6} k|hfltsf eP tfklg s]xL g sx] L u'0fx¿df leGgtf
jf km/s xG' 5 . cfkmg\ } ;xf]b/ jf afac' fdf tyf ;GttLx¿lar klg km/skg kfOG5,
h:fnfO{ kl/j[lQ (Variation) elgG5 . jftfj/0f kl/jtg{ sf sf/0fn] jf jz+ f0fd' f xg' ]
kl/jt{gsf (Genetic reason) sf/0fn] kl/j[lt x'G5 . kl/jl[ Qsf] sf/0faf6 gofF u'0f
;hLjn] kf| Kt u5{ / csf{] j+zdf ;//] hfG5 . ;a} ;hLjx¿df jftfj/0fcgs' "n
kl/j[lQ gxg' klg ;S5 . t;y{ h'g ;hLjx¿df jftfj/0fcg's"n kl/j[lQ xG' 5 tL
afRF g ;Ifd x'G5g\ t/ k|ltsn" kl/j[lQ ePdf afRF g ;Ifd xFb' g} g\ .

-3_ k|fs[lts 5gf6] (Natural selection)

;hLjx¿df jftfj/0fcg;' f/ cgs' n" u0' fx¿ ljsf; ePdf afRF g ;S5g\ t/ k|lts"n
u'0f ljsf; ePdf lj:tf/} nf]k xF'b} hfG5g\ . sg' } ;hLj slt afRF g] / s;/L afRF g] eGg]
s'/f ks| [lt :jod\ cfkm}nF ] lgwf/{ 0f ub5{ . afRF gsf nflu ;ª\3if{ ubf{ cgs' "n u'0fx¿
ljsf; xF'b} hfG5g\ . tL u'0fx¿ ;Gtltx¿df ;b}{ hfG5g\ / kT| os] jz+df cem a9L
cg's"n u0' fx¿ ljsf; xF'b} hfG5g\ . w/] } jif{kl5 ;Gtltx¿ laNs'n} gofF u0' f ePsf
b]vf k5g{ \ . o;ks| f/ a9t\ f pGgltzLn hLjsf] 5gf]6 / sd pGgltzLn hLjsf]
ljgfz xG' 5, o;n} fO{ k|fsl[ ts 5gf]6 elgG5 . o;/L ;hLjx¿ ;ª\3ifd{ f ljhoL xg' ]
dfq afR5g\ .

lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff ( 43

-ª_ gof“ kh| fltsf] pTklQ (Origin of new species)

afRF gsf nflu ;ª3if{ ub{} cgs' l" nt ePsf ;hLjx¿ afRF gsf nflu ;Ifd x'G5g\ .
o:tf cgs' l" nt xg' ] u0' f ;Gtltx¿df ;b}{ hfG5g\ . o;/L kl/jlt{t jftfj/0fdf
afRF gsf nflu ;Ifd ;hLjsf cgs' 'lnt u'0fx¿ ;Gtltx¿df ;b}{ hfbF f w]/} jz+ kl5
kv' fx{ ¿eGbf km/s u0' f ePsf ;Gtfgsf] pTklQ x'G5 . log} ;Gtltx¿ gofF ;hLjsf
¿kdf ljsl;t x'G5g\ . Pp6} kv' f{af6 b'O{ jf ;f]EfGbf a9L gofF hLjsf] pTklQ xg'
hfG5 .

8flag{ sf] l;4fGtsf] cfnfr] gf (Criticism of Darwinism)

1. 8fla{gn] kl/jl[ Qaf6 hLjsf] pTklQ;DaGwL TfYonfO{ :ki6 ¿kdf j0f{g u/]sf 5g} g\ .

2. s]xL ;hLjx¿df dfq cg'sn" kl/j[lQ x'g] clg c¿df kl| ts"n kl/j[lQ lsg xg' ] eGg]
af/]df :ki6 JofVof u/s] f 5g} g\ .

3. kf| s[lts 5gf]6 gofF hfltsf] ljsf;sf] sf/s dfq xf] lsgeg] pTkl/jt{gaf6 klg
hLjx¿df leGgtf cfpF5 .

4. kf| s[lts 5gf]6df olb pkofu] L u0' f dfq 5gf6] ePsf] eP sfd gnfUg] u'0fx¿ 5gf6]
gxg' ' kg{] xf] t/ ePs} kfOG5 .

5. pgsf] l;4fGtn] ;Ifd g} afFRg] -Survival of the fittest) sf] dfq j0f{g u5{
t/ Arrival of fittest sf af/d] f j0f{g ub}g{ .

kl/jl[ Q / pTkl/jt{g (Variation and mutation)

sg' } vf; kh| fltsf] ;d"xdf /xg] x/s] ;hLjsf sx] L g s]xL u'0fx¿df km/skgf xG' 5 . h'DNofx¿
klg 7ofSs} p:t} kfObg} g\ . o;/L lglZrt k|hfltx¿sf k|To]s ;b:ox¿lar x'g] km/skgfnfO{
kl/j[lQ (Variation) elgG5 . o:tf] kl/jl[ Q pxL k|hfltsf ;hLjx¿df klg b]lvG5 .

j|mdljsf;df kl/jl[ Qsf] el" dsf

;hLjx¿df kl/jl[ Q b'O{ lsl;dn] ePsf] kfOG5 . o:tf] kl/jl[ Q klxnf] Somatogenic Variation
/ bf];f| ] Blastogenic Variation xG' 5 . pbfx/0fsf nflu v]nf8Lsf] df+zkz] Lo'St z/L/,
intelligence cflb somatogenic variation sf pbfx/0fx¿ x'g\ . o:tf u0' fx¿ cfkmg\ f k':tfaf6
;/]/ cfPsf xb'F }gg\ / ;Gtltdf klg ;/]/ hfFbg} g\ cyft{ \ ;hLjsf] dT[ o;' uF } ;dfKt xG' 5g\ .

s'g} ;hLjsf] sfi] fdf ePsf jz+ f0f'ut u0' f (Gene) df ePsf] kl/jt{gn] ubf{ xg' ] kl/j[lQ
Blastogenic Variation xf] . o; lsl;dsf] kl/jl[ Q csf{] jz+df ;/]/ hfG5 . pbfx/0fsf nflu
5fnfsf] /ª, z/L/df x'g] /f+F}sf] /ª, cfFvfsf] /ª cflb . ;hLjx¿df kl/jl[ Q jl/kl/ /x]sf]
jftfj/0fsf] c;/n] ubf{ klg xg' ] ub5{ . ;hLjx¿n] Jfftfj/0fdf cgs' n" g x'g ;f]xLcg;' f/sf
u'0fx¿ ljsf; u5{g\ .

44 lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff (

;hLjx¿n] kf| Kt u/s] f kl/j[lQ ;a} cg'sn" kl/jl[ t (Favourable variartion) ePdf To:tf
;hLj afFRg ;S5g\ / csf{] jzd+ f hfg ;Ifd xG' 5g\ t/ k|lts"n kl/jl[ Q (Unfavourable
variation) ljsf; ePdf To:tf ;hLjx¿ nfk] eP/ hfG5g\ . o;/L cgs' "n kl/j[lQ ljsf;
x'Fb} hfFbf ;hLj afF Rg ;Ifd x'G5g,\ o;sf ;fy;fy} csf{] jz+df hfg klg ;Ifd x'G5g\ . o:tf
cj:yfdf cfˆgf k'vfe{ Gbf km/s u0' f ePsf ;Gtlt ljsf; x'G5g\ . jftfj/0fn] ubf{ ;hLjx¿df
kl/jt{g ePsf] xG' 5 . Pp6} cfdfaa' fsf ;Gtfgx¿ km/s km/s jftfj/0fdf xFb' f pgLx¿sf]
aflx/L ¿kdf km/skg cfp5F . oL hLjx¿ jz+ f0fu' t ¿kn] Pp6} eP klg jftfj/0fsf] c;/n]
aflx/L ¿kdf leGgtf xG' 5, o;nfO{ jftfj/0fLo kl/j[lQ elgG5 . j+zf0f'af6 ePsf] kl/jl[ Q /
jftfj/0fsf] c;/n] ePsf] kl/jl[ Q b'jn} fO{ lg/Gt/ kl/jl[ Q elgG5 .

k'jh{ af6 ;//] cfPsf geO{ PSsfl; hLjx¿df ljsf; ePsf gofF u'0fnfO{ cfsl:ds kl/
j[lQ (Discontinuous variation) elGg5 . cs:dft\ jm| f]dfhf]ddf kl/jt{g x'g uO{ gofF u'0f
ePsf] ;Gtltx¿ ljsf; x'g'nfO{ pTkl/jtG{ f (Mutation) elgG5 . o; lsl;dsf u'0fx¿ nK' t
(recessive) xG' 5g,\ h:t} M xftdf ^ cf]6f cfn}F f xg' ', cf]7 sfl6Psf] aRrf hGdg,' 6fpsf]
hf]8LPsf] aRrf hGdg', /f}F gePsf] d';f ljsl;t xg' ' cflb .

kl/of]hgf sfo{

1. j/k/sf] ;db' fo, ljBfno tyf 5/l5d]sdf xftdf ^ cf]6f cf}Fnf ePsf dflg;, k8' \sf
dflg; cyjf kfFrcf6] f v6' 6\ f ePsf hgfj/ jf cGo cs:dft ePsf] kl/jt{gsf] cjnfs] g
jf vfh] L ug{x' f;] \ / tL pTkl/jtg{ x'gsf sf/0fx¿ / tL kl/jt{gaf6 xg' ] kmfObf a]kmfObf;DaGwL
hfgsf/L ;ªs\ ng u/L kl| tj]bg tof/ ug{x' f;] \ / sIffdf k|:tt' ugx'{ f];\

2. cfˆgf] kl/jf/df ePsf h]i7 ;b:o;“u rf/ kFr“ k':tf cuf8L;Ddsf kv' fx{ ¿df ePsf
u'0fx¿sf] ljj/0f ;ª\sng ugx{' f;] \ . kv' f{ / clxns] f ;Gtltx¿df kfOg] u'0fx¿sf] tflŒjs
km/s;lxtsf] ljj/0f tof/ u/L sIffdf k|:t't ug{'xf];\ .

3. OG6/g6] sf dfWodaf6 pTkl/jt{g;DaGwL pbfx/0fx¿sf] lrq ;ªs\ ng ug{'xf]; / tL
lrqx¿nfO{ rf6k{ k] /df 6fF; u/L k|bz{ g ugx{' f];\ .

Xo'uf] 8L e]l/hsf] pTkl/jt{gsf] l;4fGt (Hugo De Vries Mutation Theory)

xo'uf] 8L e]l/h (Hugo De Vries) g]b/Nof0fsf jg:klt lj1 (Botanist) xg' \ . pgn] ;g 1901
Dff pTkl/jt{g;DaGwL l;4fGt kl| tkfbg u/s] f xg' \ . cWoogsf jm| ddf pgn] Evening Prime
Rose (Oenothera lamarkina) la?jf ko| fu] u/]sf lyP . pgn] pSt la?jfdf 14 cf]6f jm| f]dfh] f]d
x'g'kgd{] f o;sf kh| fltdf 15, 16, 20, 22 sf| d] f]hfd] ;ª\Vof kfP . xo\ u' f] 8L el] /hsfcg;' f/ gofF
hfltsf] pTklQ lg/Gt/ kl/jl[ t (Continuous variaton) af6 geO{ pTkl/jt{g (mutation) af6
x'G5 . pgsf cg;' f/ pTkl/jt{gsf (mutation) l;4fGtx¿ lgDgcg;' f/ 5g\ M

1. gofF hfltsf] pTklQ pTkl/jtg{ cyjf cfsl:ds kl/j[lQ (discontinuous varition) sf
sf/0fn] xG' 5 .

lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( 45

2. pTkl/jt{g j|mdljsf;sf] Pp6f cfwf/ xf] .
3. pTkl/jt{gdf PSsfl; gofF u0' f b]vfk5g\{ / t?' Gt} (functional) sfo{d"ns xG' 5 .
4. ;a} pTkl/jtg{ x¿ csf]{ jz+df ;/]/ hfGf ;S5g\ .
5. pkof]uL kl/jl[ Q ePsf hLjx¿ 5gf6] xG' 5g\ / cg'pkofu] L kl/j[lQ ePsf hLjx¿ x/fP/
hfG5g\ .
6. kl/j[lQ w/] } ePdf gofF hfltsf] pTklQ x'G5 .

x\ou' f] 8L e]l/hsf] pTkl/jt{g;DaGwL l;4fGtsf] cfnf]rgf

x\o'uf] 8L e]l/hsf] pTkl/jt{g;DaGwL l;4fGtsf /fd|f kIfx¿ xF'bfxF'b} klg sx] L cfnfr] gfx¿ klg
/x]sf 5g\ h;nfO{ lgDgfg';f/ pNnv] ug{ ;lsG5 M

1. Oenothera Lamarkiana la?jf k/' fgf] k|hfltsf] xfOla8| (Hybrid) xf] o;df bl] vPsf gofF
u'0f s|fd] f]hf]dsf] 56' \l6g] / Rearrangement n] ubf{ xf] .

2. pTkl/jt{gsf] l;4fGtn] j|mdljsf;sf] sg' } lglZrt lbzf lbbF }g .

3. olb pTkl/jtg{ ckem{6 bv] f kg{] u0' f eP pSt hLjx¿ (Mutant) jftfj/0fdf cgs' n" g
x'g ;Sb}g lyof] t/ To;f] ePsf] kfObF }g .

4. pgn] pTkl/jtg{ df k|s[ltsf] e"ldsfsf] j0fg{ u/s] f] kfObF g} .

5. ;fwf/0ftof pTkl/jt{g recessive x'G5 .

ljm| ofsnfk 4.1

sIffdf cWoog ug{] ;fyLx¿ ;dx" df ljefhg xg' 'xf];\ / cfkm\gf ;dx" sf ;fyLx¿lardf
cfkmg\ f k':tf / cfkmx" ¿df cfPsf] kl/j[lQ tyf pTkl/jt{gsf af/d] f 5nkmn ug[x'{ f];\ /
tnsf] tflnsfdf e/L sIffdf k|:t't ugx{' f];\ .

cfPsf] kl/jt{g kl/jtg{ sf] ks| f/ kl/jtg{ sf] k|efj
kl/j[lQ
pTkl/jt{g


pTkl/jt{gn] jm| d ljsf;df kfg]{ c;/x¿ (Effects of mutation on evolution)

j|md ljsf; x'g'sf w/] } sf/0fx¿dWo] pTkl/jtg{ klg Ps xf] . pTkl/jt{gn] j|mdljsf;df kfg]{
c;/x¿nfO{ lgDgfg;' f/ pNnv] ug{ ;lsG5 M

46 lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff (

-s_ t6:y pTkl/jt{g (neutral mutation)

clwsf+z pTkl/jtg{ n] ;hLjx¿df g t ;sf/fTds c;/ u5{ g t gsf/fTds c;/
g} . o; lsl;dsf] pTkl/jtg{ nfO{ t6:y pTkl/jtg{ (Neutral Mutation) elgG5 . o:fn]
;hLjdf sx] L c;/ u/s] f] b]lvbF g} .

-v_ kmfObfhgs pTkl/jt{g (Beneficial mutation)

;hLjx¿df sx] L To:tf] pTkl/jtg{ klg xG' 5 h;n] pgLx¿sf] hLjgdf ;sf/fTds c;/
k¥' ofpF5 . o; lsl;dsf] pTkl/jtg{ nfO{ kmfObfhgs pTkl/jt{g (beneficial mutation)
elgG5 . o:tf] pTkl/jt{gdf ;hLjx¿df gofF ks| [ltsf] kf| l] 6g aG5 h;n] kl/jlt{t
jftfj/0fdf cgs' n" g xg' dbt ub5{ , h:tM} AofS6l] /ofdf x'g] pTkl/jtg{ af6 PlG6afof]l6s
cf}ifwL (antibiotic medicine) ;Fu cj/f]w ug{] Ifdtf ljsf; u/L afFRg ;Ifd x'g', wdgLx¿
s8f / ;f3F /' f] xg' ] (Atherosclerosis) af6 aRg pTkl/jt{gn] dbt ug'{ cflb .

-u_ xflgsf/s pTkl/jt{g (Harmful mutation)

jz+ f0f'sf] DNA df cfPsf] kl/jtg{ af6 ag]sf] k|f]l6gn] yf]/} dfq sfo{ ub5{ cyf{t\ k'/}
sfo{ ub}g{ . o; lsl;dsf] pTkl/jt{g xflgsf/s xG' 5 . xflgsf/s pTkl/jt{gn] genetic
disorder jf cancer Nofp5F . genetic disorder Pp6f jf sx] L lhgdf ePsf] kl/jt{gsf]
sf/0fn] xG' 5 . Pp6f lhgdf ePsf] kl/jtg{ n] afSnf], Rofk Rofk (Sticky), nfUg] Do's;
aG5 / kmfS] ;fd] f cj/f]w k'¥ofpF5 . o;sf ;fy} kfRfg cª\usf gnLnfO{ k/' } cj/fw] (Block)
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