विज्ञान तथा प्रविधि कक्षा ९

-s_ t6:y pTkl/jt{g (neutral mutation)

clwsf+z pTkl/jtg{ n] ;hLjx¿df g t ;sf/fTds c;/ u5{ g t gsf/fTds c;/
g} . o; lsl;dsf] pTkl/jtg{ nfO{ t6:y pTkl/jtg{ (Neutral Mutation) elgG5 . o:fn]
;hLjdf sx] L c;/ u/s] f] b]lvbF g} .

-v_ kmfObfhgs pTkl/jt{g (Beneficial mutation)

;hLjx¿df sx] L To:tf] pTkl/jtg{ klg xG' 5 h;n] pgLx¿sf] hLjgdf ;sf/fTds c;/
k¥' ofpF5 . o; lsl;dsf] pTkl/jtg{ nfO{ kmfObfhgs pTkl/jt{g (beneficial mutation)
elgG5 . o:tf] pTkl/jt{gdf ;hLjx¿df gofF ks| [ltsf] kf| l] 6g aG5 h;n] kl/jlt{t
jftfj/0fdf cgs' n" g xg' dbt ub5{ , h:tM} AofS6l] /ofdf x'g] pTkl/jtg{ af6 PlG6afof]l6s
cf}ifwL (antibiotic medicine) ;Fu cj/f]w ug{] Ifdtf ljsf; u/L afFRg ;Ifd x'g', wdgLx¿
s8f / ;f3F /' f] xg' ] (Atherosclerosis) af6 aRg pTkl/jt{gn] dbt ug'{ cflb .

-u_ xflgsf/s pTkl/jt{g (Harmful mutation)

jz+ f0f'sf] DNA df cfPsf] kl/jtg{ af6 ag]sf] k|f]l6gn] yf]/} dfq sfo{ ub5{ cyf{t\ k'/}
sfo{ ub}g{ . o; lsl;dsf] pTkl/jt{g xflgsf/s xG' 5 . xflgsf/s pTkl/jt{gn] genetic
disorder jf cancer Nofp5F . genetic disorder Pp6f jf sx] L lhgdf ePsf] kl/jt{gsf]
sf/0fn] xG' 5 . Pp6f lhgdf ePsf] kl/jtg{ n] afSnf], Rofk Rofk (Sticky), nfUg] Do's;
aG5 / kmfS] ;fd] f cj/f]w k'¥ofpF5 . o;sf ;fy} kfRfg cª\usf gnLnfO{ k/' } cj/fw] (Block)
u5{ . jz+ f0fd' f ePsf] pTkl/jtg{ n] SofG;/ /fu] xG' 5 h:fdf cTolws dfqfdf sf]ifsf] j[l4
xG' 5 .

cEof;

!= tnsf kZ| gx¿sf] ;xL pQ/df l7s lrx\g -√_ nufpg'xf];\ M

-s_ Kff| sl[ ts 5gf6] l;4fGtsf k|ltkfbs sf] x'g\ <

-c_ rfN;{ 8flj{g -cf_ lhg jfKl6:6 Nfd] fs{

-O_ x\o'uf] 8L le|; -O{_ hfg] u|]u/ d]G8n

-v_ ;wdL{ cª\usf] pbfx/0f s'g xf] <

-c_ xfd|f] xft / 3f8] fsf] cufl8sf] v6' 6\ f -cf_ xfd|f] xft / xfQLsf] bf/f

-O_ xfdf| ] sfg / v/fofs] f] sfg -O_{ dflg; / l;+xdf kfOg] s's/' bft

-u_ cjzi] f sg' r66\ fgdf kfOG5 <

-c_ kqr] 6\6fg -cf_ cfUgo] r66\ fg

-O_ kl/jlt{t r6\6fg -O_{ sªNnf]ld/]6

lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( 47

-3_ lhgsf] ;/+ rgfdf kl/jt{g eO{ ckem6{ ;Gtltx¿df gofF u0' f b]lvg] kl| jm| ofnfO{
s] elgG5 <
-c_ jm| dljsf; -cf_ pTkl/jt{g
-O_ kl/j[lQ -O_{ cjz]iffªs
@= sf/0f lbg'xf;] \ M
-s_ cjz]ifaf6 k|fKt kd| f0fnfO{ j|mdljsf;sf] alnof] cfwf/ dflg5 .
-v_ hGds] f ;Gtltx¿sf] ;ª\Vof w/] } eP tfklg hLjx¿sf] hg;ªV\ of a9]sf] kfOFb}g .
-u_ kl/jl[ Q dfq} gofF hfltsf] pTklQsf] sf/s tŒj xf]Og .
-3_ dflg;, afb/, 3f]8f / r/fx¿ Pp6} kv' fa{ f6 ljsl;t eO{ cfPsf] dflgG5 .
#= km/s 5'6o\ fpgx' f];\ M
-s_ kl/jl[ t / pTkl/jt{g
-v_ 8fla{g / 8L el] /hsf] l;4fGt
-u_ Homologous Organ / Analogous Organ
-3_ cjz]if / cjzi] ffª\u (fossil and vestigial Organ)
$= tnsf kZ| gx¿sf] pQ/ n]Vgx' f];\ M
-s_ j|md ljsf; egs] f] s] xf] <
-v_ cjz]if sn] fO{ elgG5 < cjzi] fn] j|md ljsf;sf] kd| f0fnfO{ s;/L k'li6 u5{ <
-u_ cjzi] f s;/L aG5, j0fg{ ugx'{ f;] .
-3_ jm| dljsf;sf k|df0fx¿ s] s] x'g < pbfx/0f;lxt JofVof ug'x{ f;] \ .
-ª_ 8fla{gsf] jm| dljsf;sf] l;4fGtnfO{ 5f6] s/Ldf j0fg{ ug{x' f];\ .
-r_ k|fs[lts 5gf6] eg]sf] s] xf,] j0fg{ ugx'{ f;] \ .
-5_ 8flag{ sf cg;' f/ gofF hfltsf] pTklQ s;/L xG' 5, j0f{g ug{'xf];\ .
-h_ pTkl/jt{gsf ljz]iftfx¿ pNn]v ug{'xf;] \ .
-em_ pTkl/jtg{ n] j|mdljsf;nfO{ s;/L dbt u5{ <

48 lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff (

-`_ j|mdljsf;sf nflu pTkl/jtg{ g} d'Vo sf/s geO{ of] klg Pp6f yk sf/s tŒj
xf,] :k:6 kfgx'{ f;] \ .

-6_ 8fla{gsf] l;4fGtcg;' f/ afRF gsf nflu ;ª\3if{ / ;Ifd g} afRF g ;S5 eGg] s/' fsf]
k'i6o\ fO ug{x' f;] \ .

-7_ 8fla{gn] kl| tkfbg u/s] f] jm| dljsf;;DaGwL l;4fGtsf] s;/L cfnfr] gf ul/Psf] 5,
JofVof ug'x{ f;] \ .

-8_ hLjfjz]ifsf] cWoogaf6 xfnsf hLjx¿ ljutsf] cljsl;t Pssfi] fLo / axs' fi] fLo
hLjaf6} pTklQ ePsf xg' \ eGg] s/' f kl' i6 ug{x' f;] \ .

-9_ lbOPsf] lrq cWoog ug'x{ f;] /
lgDg kZ| gsf] pQ/ n]Vg'xf;] \

-c_ lrqdf s] bv] fOPsf] 5 <

-cf_ o; lrqn] jm| d ljsf; ePsf] ;DaGwdf
yk kd| f0f s;/L lbG5 n]Vg'xf;] \ .

-O_ lrqdf b]vfOPsf] j|md ljsf;sf] kd| f0fn] sg' sg' jun{ fO{ hf8] g\ vfH] 5,
nV] g'xf;] .

-0f_ lbPsf] lrq cWoog ug'x{ f];\ / kZ| gsf] pQ/ n]Vgx' f;] \ .

-c_ b]vfOPsf lrqdf s] kl/jtg{ ePsf] 5 <

-cf_ s] o:tf u0' f ;a} hLjdf b]vf k5{g\ <

-O_ of] u0' f b]vf kgs'{ f] sf/0fx¿ s] xf]nf <

-O{_ o;n] jm| dljsf;df s;/L dbt k'¥ofp5F <

-p_ o; ks| f/sf] kl/jtg{ sf tLgcf]6f kmfObf
nV] gx' f;] \ .

lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff ( 49

% hLjg kl| jm| of
(Life Process)

x/]s ;hLjsf] hLjg Pp6f sf]ifaf6 ;?' x'G5 . Pssf]ifLo hLjn] x/]s sfo{ ToxL Pp6f sf]ifaf6
g} u5{ . ax'sf]ifLo hLjx¿df sf]if sf]if ldn]/ tGt' ag]sf] xG' 5 . ljleGg tGtx' ¿ ldn]/ cª\u
ags] f] xG' 5 . cª\ux¿sf] ;dx" ldn]/ s'g} ljz]if sfo{x¿ ub5{ . cªu\ x¿sf] ;d"xnfO{ k0| ffnL
elgG5 . ;hLjx¿sf] hLjgrj|m ;'rf? /fVgsf nflu z/L/df ljleGg lj|mofsnfkx¿ eO/x]sf
xG' 5g,\ h:t} M kfi] f0f, Zjf;k|Zjf;, ks| fz ;+Zni] f0f, kl/jxg, lgisf;g, kh| gg\ cflb . ;hLjdf
x'g] oL ;a} lj|mofsnfkx¿nfO{ hLjg kl| j|mof elgG5 . ljsl;t hLjx¿df k|Tos] hLjg k|lj|mof
;~rfng ug{ k0| ffnLsf] ljsf; ePsf] xG' 5 .
5.1 tGt' (Tissue)

lrqsf] cjnfs] g u/L 5nkmn ug{x' f;] \ M

-c_ oL sf]ifx¿ sxfF x'G5g\ < lrq 5.1

-cf_ oL sf]ifx¿df s:tf] leGgtf bV] g'x'G5 <

-O_ jg:klt / hGts' f] z/L/df logLx¿sf] s:tf] el" dsf /x]sf] xG' 5 <

-O_{ s] ;a} jg:klt sfi] f / hGt' sfi] fx¿ Ps} lsl;dsf xG' 5g\ t <

-p_ jg:klt / hgfj/x¿df kfOg] tGtx' ¿ s;/L ag]sf x'G5g\ <

k|Tos] ;hLjx¿sf] z/L/ ;/n / ;;fgf PsfOx¿ ldn]/ ags] f] x'G5 . pSt ;;fgf PsfOx¿nfO{
sfi] f elgG5 . hLjx¿ Pssf]ifLo xf;] \ jf axs' f]ifLo ltgLx¿sf] agfj6 / sfo{ sf]ifaf6 g} ;'?
x'G5 . sf]ifx¿af6 g} hLjsf hLjg kl| j|mofx¿ ;~rfng x'G5g\ / z/L/ lgdf0{ f xG' 5 . To;n} ]
sf]ifnfO{ hLjx¿sf] z/L/sf] ;+/rgfTds -structural_ / sfo{d"ns -functional_ PsfO elgG5 .

50 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (

Pssfi] fLo hLjdf Zjf;k|Zjf;, kf]if0f lgisf;g, j[l4, rfn / kh| gg h:tf hLjg k|lj|mofx¿
Pp6} sf]ifleq k"/f x'G5g\ . ljsl;t / ax'sf]ifLo hLjdf oL ljleGg sfo{x¿ 5'66\ f5'66\ } sf]ifx¿sf
;d"xaf6 ;DkGg x'G5g\ . hLjx¿df xg' ] ljleGg hLjg k|ljm| ofx¿ ;~rfng ugs{ f nflu p:t}
lsl;dsf cyjf ljleGg lsl;dsf sfi] fx¿sf] ;d"x ag]sf] x'G5 . pSt sfi] fx¿sf] ;dx" nfO{ tGt'
elgG5 . jg:klt tyf hGt'x¿sf] z/L/df ;~rfng xg' ] ljleGg lsl;dsf sfos{ f nflu km/s
km/s ljz]iftf ePsf tGt'x¿ x'G5g\ . tGt'x¿sf af/d] f cWoog ug]{ hLj lj1fgsf] zfvfnfO{
lx:6fn] fh] L (Histology) elgG5 . jg:klt / hGt' tGt' u/L tGt' bO' { ks| f/sf xG' 5g\ .

ljrf/0fLo kZ| g M Ps sf]ifLo hfOuf]6af6 hLjx¿sf] k"/f z/L/ s;/L lgdf{0f xG' 5 xfn] f <

jg:klt tGt' (Plant Tissue)

lj|mofsnfk 5.1
Kofh sfi] fsf] cjnf]sg u/f}“ M

cfjZos ;fduL| M Kofh, :nfO8, ;fkm| flgg, lUn;l/g, se/ l:nk, ;I" dbz{s oGq

ljlw

-c_ Kofhsf] Pp6f kq lng'xf];\ .

-cf_ pSt kqsf] leqL efudf /x]sf] kftnf] lemNnL lgsfnL sfrF sf] :nfO8df /fVg'xf];\ .

-O_ kftnf] lemNnLdf Ps yfk] f ;fk|mflgg /fVg'xf];\ .

-O{_ Ps yfk] f lUn;l/g /fvL se/ l:nk -cover slip) n] xfjf gl5g]{ u/L lj:tf/}
9fSgx' f];\ . Kofhsf] c:yfoL :nfO8 tof/ eof] .

cjnf]sg / 5nkmn M ;"Idbzs{ oGqsf] k|of]u u/L :nfO8 cjnfs] g ug{x' f];\ . cjnfs] g
ubf{ bl] vPsf sfi] fx¿sf] lrq s]fg'{xf];\ / sIffdf 5nkmn ug{'xf];\ .

Kofhsf] lemNnLdf h:t} jg:kltsf] z/L/sf kT| os] efu p:t} cyjf km/s km/s jg:klt
sfi] fx¿sf] ;d"x ldnL ag]sf] xG' 5 . pSt sfi] fx¿sf] ;d"xnfO{ jg:klt tGt' elgG5 .
jg:kltsf] z/L/df ljleGg sfo{x¿ ;~rfng ug{sf nflu ljleGg lsl;dsf jg:klt
tGt'x¿ /x]sf x'G5g\ . jg:klt tGt'x¿nfO{ o;sf] ks| l[ t, pTklQ / sfos{ f cfwf/df
dl] /:6dl] 6s tGt' / :yfoL tGt' u/L bO' { lsl;ddf ljefhg ug{ ;lsG5 .

!= dl] /:6d]l6s tGt' (Merisematic tissue)

jg:kltx¿sf] z/L/df /xs] f ljleGg lsl;dsf sf]ifx¿dWo] s]xL sf]ifx¿ lg/Gt/ sf]if
ljefhg eO/xG5g\ . kl/kSs sf]if ljefhg eO{ cGo sf]ifx¿ aGg] k|ljm| ofnfO{ sfi] f
ljefhg elgG5 . pSt sfi] fx¿nfO{ d]l/:6dl] 6s sf]if elgG5 . d]l/:6dl] 6s sf]ifx¿ ldnL
d]l/:6d]l6s tGt' aGb5 . oL sfi] fx¿ cGt/sf]ifLo vfnL efux¿ g/xg] u/L Pscfk;df
ldnL a;]sf xG' 5g\ . sfi] fx¿sf] leQf kftnf] xG' 5 . sf]ifdf Go'lSno; / ;fO6f]KnfHd xG' 5 .

lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff ( 51

d]l/:6d]l6s sfi] fdf sf]if ljefhg eO{ cGo ks| f/sf sf]ifx¿ aGb5g\ . d]l/:6dl] 6s tGt'x¿
la?jfsf] j[l¢ Ifq] df kfOG5g\ . d]l/:6dl] 6s tGt'sf] d'Vo sfd jg:kltsf] j[l¢ ljsf; ug'{
xf] . of] tGt' kfOg] :yfgsf cfwf/df Plksn d]l/l:6d, N]f6]/n dl] /l:6d / OG6/ Sofn/L
d]l/l:6d u/L tLg k|sf/sf x'G5g\ .

lj|mofsnfk 5.2

udnfdf /f]ks] f bO' c{ f]6f slnnf la?jfx¿dWo] Pp6f la?jfsf] 6K' kf] efFlrlbg'xf];\ . Ps
xKtfkl5 pSt la?jfx¿df ePsf] ljsf;sf] cjnfs] g ugx'{ f;] \ . s] b'j} la?jfsf] jl[ ¢sf]
ks| l[ t Ps} lsl;dsf] 5 < lsg o:tf] ePsf] xf]nf sIffdf 5nkmn ug{x' f;] \ .

-s_ Plksn d]l/l:6d (Apical meristem)

la?jfsf] jl[ ¢ x'Fbf 6K' kfsf] efu j[l¢ ePsf]
bl] vG5 . la?jfsf] 6K' kfsf] efudf /x]sf
d]l/:6dl] 6s tGtx' ¿nfO{ Plksn d]l/l:6d
elgG5 . of] tGt' 8f7F / h/fsf 6K' kfdf
xG' 5 . o;n] 8f7F / h/fsf] nDafO a9fp5F ,
h:fn] ubf{ la?jfsf] prfO a95\ . olb
la?jfsf] 6'Kkf] efFlrlbof] eg] pSt la?jfsf]
prfO a9b\ g} .

-v_ n6] ]/n d]l/l:6d (Lateral meristem)

la?jfsf] h/f tyf 8fF7sf] 5p] sf] efudf lrq 5.2 dl] /:6dl] 6s tGt'

klg dl] /:6dl] 6s tGtx' ¿ xG' 5g\ . logLx¿n] h/f tyf sf08sf] df6] fO j[l4 u5{g\ .

la?jfsf] 8fF7 tyf h/fsf] af]j|mfsf] leq kd| 'v cIf;uF ;dfgfGt/ x'g] u/L 5p] df

(lateral side) /xs] f dl] /:6d]l6s tGtn' fO{ N]f6]/n dl] /l:6d elgG5 .

-u_ OG6/Sofn/L d]l/l:6d (Intercalary meristem)

la?jfsf] 8fF7df /xs] f] ufF7f] (node) sf] tndfly klg dl] /:6d]l6s tGt' /x]sf
xG' 5g\ . pSt tGtn' fO{ OG6/Sofn/L d]l/l:6d elgG5 . oL tGtn' ] OG6/gf8] sf] nDafO
a9fp5F g\ .

@= :yfoL tGt' (Permanent Tissue)

d]l/:6dl] 6s tGtn' ] sfi] f ljefhg Ifdtf ud' fO;sk] l5 :yfoL tGt'df kl/0ft x'G5g\ . :yfoL
tGt'df kfOg] sf]ifx¿df ;fwf/0ftof sfi] f ljefhg x'Fb}g . logLx¿sf] lglZrt cfsf/ /
;fOh xG' 5 . logLx¿sf] sf]ifleQf afSnf] jf kftnf] x'G5 . of] tGt' hLljt jf d[t sfi] fx¿
ldn]/ ags] f] xG' 5 . la?jfdf kfOg] :yfoL tGt'x¿ ;/n tGt' (Simple tissue), Hfl6n tGt'
(Complex tissue) / ljlzi6 tGt' (Special tissue) u/L tLg k|sf/sf xG' 5g\ .

52 lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff (

ljm| ofsnfk 5.3
la?jfdf kfOg] tGt'sf] cjnf]sg
cfjZos ;fdu|L M la?jfsf] g/d sf08, An]8, jfr Unf;, :ofkm| flgg, lUn;l/g, se/ l:nk,
;"Idbz{s oGq

tnsf :6]k b]lvg] lrq

lrq 5.3 ....................

ljlw

-c_ Pp6f la?jfsf] g/d 8fF7 lnO{ wfl/nf] An]8sf] dbtn] kftnf rSsf cyjf :nfO;x¿
sf6g\ 'xf];\ .

-cf_ pSt rSsfx¿nfO{ jfr Unf;df /fVg'xf;] \ .

-O_ jfr Unf;df Ps yfk] f :ofkm| flgg /fVg'xf;] \ .

-O_{ sx] L ;dokl5 ;ae} Gbf kftnf] rSsf 5fgL :nfO8df /fvL Psyfk] f lUn;l/g /fVgx' f;] \ .

-p_ xfjf gl5g{] u/L se/ l:nkn] 5f]Kg'xf;] \ .

-pm_ la?jf sf]ifsf] c:yfoL :nfO8 tof/ eof] .

cjnf]sg / 5nkmn

;I" dbzs{ oGqåf/f tof/L :nfO8 cjnfs] g ug'x{ f;] \ / lrq agfpg'xf];\ . cjnfs] gsf
cfwf/df To;df b]lvPsf ljleGg lsl;dsf tGtx' ¿sf] ;fOh, cfsf/ / ljzi] ftfsf af/d] f
5nkmn ug{'xf];\ . cfjZostfcg';f/ lzIfssf] dbt lng'xf;] \ .

lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff ( 53

-s_ ;/n tGt' (Simple tissue)

;/n :yfoL tGt'x¿ Ps} k|sf/sf sf]ifx¿ ldnL ag]sf xG' 5g\ . logLx¿sf] agfj6 Psbd}
;/n xG' 5 . oL tGt'x¿df sfi] fx¿sf] Pp6fdfq tx xG' 5 . o;n] Pp6}dfq ljzi] f sfo{ u5{ .
sf]ifsf] agfj6cg;' f/ oL tGtx' ¿ tLg ks| f/sf xG' 5g\ . ltgnfO{ tn k|:t't ul/Psf] 5 M

-c_ k/] ]GsfOdf (Parenchyma)

k]/]GsfOdf tGt' kftnf] leQf ePsf hLljt lrq 5.5 k/] GsfOdf
sfi] fx¿ ldnL ags] f] xG' 5 . o; tGt'df kfOg]
sf]ifx¿ uf]nf] / nfDrf] cfsf/sf x'G5g\ . o;df
cGt/sfi] fLo vfnL 7fpF (Inter cellular space)
x'G5 . sg' d} f vfnL 7fFp gx'g klg ;S5 . o;
lsl;dsf tGt'x¿ sf08, h/f, kft, km"n /
kmnsf] g/d efudf x'G5g\ . o;sf ;fy} of]
tGtd' f lky (Pith) hfOnd / ˆnf]Pddf klg
kfOG5 .

Kfft tyf xl/of 8fF7df xg' ] k]/]GsfOdfdf Snf/] fK] nf:6 (Chloroplast) x'G5 . pSt tGt'nfO{
Snf/] ]GsfOdf (Chloroenchyma) elgG5 . o;n] ks| fz ;+Zn]if0f (Photosynthesis)
kl| jm| ofaf6 vfgf agfpF5 . o;n] vfgf agfpg,] ;~ro ug{,] ;+jfxg ug{] u5{ .
To;n} ] o;n] la?jfnfO{ k:' 6 /fVg dbt u5{ . kfgLdf t/} g] la?jfx¿sf kftdf
/x]sf sf]ifx¿sf lardf xfjf el/Psf] x'G5 . sf]ifsf lardf xfjfsf y}nLx¿ /xs] f]
k/] ]GsfOdfnfO{ P/]GsfOdf (Aerenchyma) elgG5 . o;n] xfO8f« k] mfO6;\ (hydrophytes)
nfO{ kfgLdf t}l/g dbt u5{ .

-cf_ sf]n]GsfOdf (Collenchynma)

of] tGt' afSnf] sf]if leQf ePsf /

hLljt sf]ifx¿ 6Dd ldn/] ag]sf]

xG' 5 . ;fdfGotof o; tGt'df cGt/

sfi] fLo vfnL efu (Inter cellular space)

x'bF g} . sf]ifsf] lsgf/f efudf ;n] 'nf]h

(Cellulose) / kl] S6g (Pectin) h:tf

sfaf{]xfO8]«6 kbfy{x¿ hDdf ePsf] xG' 5 .

To;}n] sf]ifleQf afSnf] x'G5 . oL tGt'x¿ lrq 5.6 sf]n]GsfOdf

sf08sf] Olk8ld;{ / kftsf] kl] 6cf]n (Petiol) df xG' 5g\ . o; tGts' f] d'Vo sfo{ j[l4

xFb' } u/]sf] la?jfsf cª\udf b/fk] g Nofpg] -Mechanical support_, la?jfnfO{ nrstf

(Flexibility) k|bfg ug]{ / kft emga{ f6 arfpg' xf] . s'g} s'g} sfn] G] sfOdf tGt'df

Snf/] fK] nf:6 kfOG5 . pSt tGt'n] ks| fz ;+Zn]if0fdf dbt u5{ .

54 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (

-O_ :sn] ]/g] sfOdf (Sclerenchyma)

of] tGt' afSnf] sfi] f leQfoS' t d[t sfi] fx¿af6 ag]sf] xG' 5 . sfi] fx¿ nfDrf,] ;fF3/' f

/ l:kG8n (Spindle) cfsf/sf xG' 5g\ . sfi] f leQf ;n] n' fh] jf lnlUggaf6 ag]sf]

x'G5 . sf]ifdf k|f6] fK] nfHd xb'F }g . sfi] fsf] lar

efudf ;fF3/' f] vfnL efu (narrow lumen) /x]sf]

xG' 5 . la?jfsf] h/f, sf08 / kftsf] g;f (Veins),

kmn tyf lapsf] s8f cfj/0fsf] txdf kfOG5 .

logLx¿sf] cfsf/cg;' f/ :sn] /] ]GsfOdf kmfOa/ /

:sn] ]l/8 u/L b'O{ lsl;dsf :sn] ]/]gsfOdf tGtx' ¿

la?jfdf kfOG5g\ . la?jfnfO{ b/f] agfpg' / l;wf

c8\ofpg' o;sf] dV' o sfo{ xf] . o;n] la?jfdf

nrstf / s8fkg lbG5 . lrq 5.7 :sn] ]/]gsfOdf kmfOa/ /
-v_ hl6n tGt' (Complex tissue) :s]nl] /8

hl6n tGt'x¿ ljleGg lsl;dsf hLljt tyf d[t sfi] fx¿sf] ;dx" ldn]/ ags] f] x'G5 . oL
tGtx' ¿ b'O{ jf bO' {eGbf a9L ;/n tGt'x¿ ldn/] ags] f x'G5g\ . To;}n] logLx¿sf] agfj6
s]xL hl6n x'G5 . logLx¿sf] dV' o sfo{ ;+jfxg ug]{ ePsfn] logLx¿nfO{ ef:sn' / tGt'
(Vascular tissue) elgG5 . hl6n tGt' b'O{ ks| f/sf xG' 5g,\ tL o; k|sf/ 5g\ M

-c_ hfOnd (Xylem)

hfOnd tGt' d[t sf]ifx¿af6 ags] f] x'G5 . of] rf/
k|sf/sf sf] ifaf6 ags] f] xG' 5 . tL xg' \ M 6f« lsof
(Trachea), 6«fls8;\ (Trachids), hfOnd kmfOa/
-Xylem fiber) / hfOnd k]/G] sfOdf (Xylem
parenchyma) . hfOndn] la?jfdf s8fkg lbg]
ePsfn] o;nfO{ p8 (wood) klg elgG5 . o;
lsl;dsf tGtx' ¿ la?jfsf] h/f, sf08, kft tyf
cGo s8f efusf] leqL txdf kfOG5g\ . hfOndn]
h/faf6 vlgh / kfgL la?jfsf ljleGg efudf
k¥' ofpF5 . o;sf ;fy} o;n] la?jfnfO{ cf8 lbG5 /
vfgs] '/f hDdf ug]{ sfo{ u5{ .

-cf_ ˆnfP] d (Phloem) lrq 5.8 -s_ hfOnd -v_ km\nf]od

ˆnf]Pd tGt' hLljt sfi] fx¿ ldnL ag]s]f x'G5 . of] tGt' klg rf/ lsl;dsf sf]ifx¿
ldnL ag]sf] xG' 5 . tL xg' \ M l;e6\ o'j (Sieve tube) sDKoflgog ;n] (companion
cell), ˆnfP] d k]/]GsfOdf (Phloem parenchyma) / ˆnf]Pd kmfOa/ (Phloem fibre) .
oL tGt'x¿ la?jfsf ;a} efu h:tM} h/f, sf08 / kftdf kfOG5g\ . of] tGtn' fO{

lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( 55

af:6 (bast) klg elgG5 . o;n] kftdf tof/ ePsf] vfgf la?jfsf ljleGg efudf
k¥' ofp5F . o;n] vfgf ;~ro ug's{ f ;fy} la?jfnfO{ cf8 (Mechanical support)
lbg] sfo{ u5{

-u_ ljlzi6 tGt' (Special tissue)

la?jfdf ljleGg lsl;dsf ljzi] f sfo{x¿ ugs{ f nflu vf; lsl;dsf tGt'x¿ xG' 5g\ .
pSt tGtx' ¿nfO{ ljlzi6 tGt' elgG5 . oL tGt'x¿ ;/n tGtx' ¿ ¿kfGt/0f eP/ ag]sf
x'G5g\ . oL tGtd' f xg' ] sf]ifx¿n] lgisf;g tyf >ljt (secretion) ug]{ sfo{ ub5{ g\ . oL
tGt'x¿ bO' { ks| f/sf xG' 5g,\ tL x'g\ M Unfg8'n/ tGt' (Glandular tissue) / n]lS6km/] ;
tGt' (Lactiferous tissue).

-c_ UnfG8'n/ tGt' (Glandular tissue)

UnfG8'n/ tGt' Ps} lsl;dsf UnfG8'n/ sf]ifx¿sf] ;d"x ldn]/ ag]sf] xG' 5 . oL tGt'n]
OGhfOd, xdf]g{ , kfrg /;, tn] , /l] hg, ud cflb pTkfbg u5{g\ . oL tGt'x¿ wt'/f,]
tN' ;L / ;Nnf h:tf la?jfdf kfOG5g\ .

-cf_ nl] S6km/] ; tGt' (Lactiferous tissue)

n]lS6km]/; tGt' ljz]if lsl;dsf sfi] fx¿ ldn/] ags] f] tGt' xf] . o;n] bw' h:tf]
t/n kbfy{ (latex) pTkfbg u5{ . lkkn, nfn'kft,] s6x/, /a/, cfFs h:tf la?jfdf
n]lS6km/] ; tGt' kfOG5 . nl] S6km]/; tGt'af6 >ljt n6] S] ;af6 ud agfOG5 .

hGt' tGt' (Animal tissue)

hGt' sfi] fx¿sf] ;d"x ldn/] ag]sf] tGtn' fO{ hGt' tGt' elgG5 . kT| o]s hGt' tGt'n] Pp6f
lglZrt sfo{ u5{ . hgfj/ tGtx' ¿ ;fdfGotM rf/ lsl;dsf x'G5g\ M

-s_ Olkyl] non tGt' (Epithelial tissue)

-v_ dfz+ n tGt' (Muscular tissue)

-u_ ;o+ fh] L tGt' (Connective tissue)

-3_ :gfo' tGt' (Nervous tissue)

-s_ Olky]lnon tGt' (Epithelial tissue)

hgfj/sf] z/L/ jf o;sf cª\ux¿sf] ;ae} Gbf aflx/L kqdf /xs] f sf]ifx¿sf] ;d"xnfO{
Olky]lnon tGt' elgG5 . Olky]lnon tGt' Ps} lsl;dsf sf]ifx¿ jf ljleGg lsl;dsf
sfi] fx¿ ldn]/ ags] f] x'G5 . Olky]lnon tGtn] dV' otof 9fSg' (covering), arfpg'
(protecting), ;f| j ug{' (secreting), lgisf;g ug'{ (excreting), ;f:] g' (absorbing) h:tf
sfox{ ¿ ub5{ .

56 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (

lj|mofsnfk 5.4 M Olky]lnon tGts' f] cjnf]sg

cfjZos ;fdfuL| M s'v'/fsf 5fnfsf] Ps 6j' |mf, kmf/] ;k] , :nfO8, se/l:nk, cfof]l8g,
;"Idbzs{ oGq

ljlw

-c_ Pp6f kmf]/;k] n] sv' '/fsf] 5fnfsf] tx sf]6\ofpgx' f;] \ .

-cf_ sf6] o\ fP/ cfPsf] efunfO{ ;kmf :nfO8df /fvL Ps yfk] f cfofl] 8g /fVgx' f];\ /
se/l:nkn] 5f]Kgx' f;] \ .

-O_ :nfO8nfO{ ;I" dbzs{ oGqåf/f cjnf]sg ug'x{ f];\ .

cjnfs] g / 5nkmn M ;"Idbzs{ oGqåf/f cjnfs] g ubf{ b]lvPsf] s'/f lrqdf ptfg'{xf];\ /
sIffdf kb| zg{ u/L 5nkmn ug{x' f];\ .

sfi] fsf] k|s[lt / df]6fOsf cfwf/df Olky]lnod tGtn' fO{ klg ljleGg efudf af“8\g ;lsG5 .
oLdWo] dxŒjk"0f{ Olky]lnod tGt'x¿ lgDgfg';f/ 5g\ M

-c_ ke] d]G6 Olky]lnod (Pavement epithelium)

-cf_ Sol' asn Olkyl] nod (Cubical epithelium)

-O_ sf]nDgf/ Olky]lnod (Columnar epithelium)

-O{_ UNofG8'n/ Olkyl] nod (Glandular epithelium)

-c_ ke] d]G6 Olky]lnod (Pavement epithelium)

k]edG] 6 tGt'df rK] 6f Kn6] h:tf ax'eh" Lo sfi] fx¿ cfk;df
6Dd ldn/] a;s] f xG' 5g\ . o;df sf]ifx¿sf] Pskq tx
dfq xG' 5 . o;nfO{ :Sjfdf]h Olkyl] nod (Squamous
epithelium) klg elgG5 . oL tGtx' ¿n] 9fSg' (covering),
arfpg' (protecting) / 5fGg' (filtrate) h:tf sfo{x¿
ub5{ g\ . oL tGt' d'6,' kmfS] ;f], ldufn}{ f cflbdf kfOG5g\ . lrq 5.9 ke] d]G6 Olky]lnod

-cf_ 3gfsf/ jf So'lasn Olkyl] nod (Cubical epithelium)

Sol' asn cyft{ 3gfsf/ (cubical) cfsf/sf lrq 5.10 Sol' asn Olky]lnod
sf]ifx¿sf] Ps kqn] 9flsP/ So'lasn Olky]lnod
tGt' aGb5 . o; k|sf/sf tGtx' ¿af6 lduf{}nfleqsf
gnLx¿, yfO/f]O8 u|lGy / lgisf;g u|lGysf ljleGg
gnLx¿, uef{zosf] leqL efu / Zjf;gnLx¿ /
Zjf;gnLsf] d'v cflbdf ag]sf] x'G5 . o;n] 9fSg,]
arfpg,] ;f| a ug]{ cflb sfo{ ub{5 .

lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff ( 57

-O_ :tDeL jf sf]nDgf/ Olky]lnod (Columnar epithelium)

nfDrf cfsf/sf sf]ifx¿ a;] dG] 6 d]Dag]| df /x/] of] tGt'
ag]sf] xG' 5 . o;df sf]ifx¿sf] Ps kq] tx /x]sf] xG' 5 .
logLx¿sf] ;tx ;;fgf /f}F h:tf l;lnofn] 9fss] f] x'G5 .
of] l;lnofn] glhs} /xs] f] t/n kbfy{nfO{ otfptf rnfpg]
sfo{ ub{5 . o;k|sf/sf] tGt' lkQ yn} L, ¥ofnul| Gy h:tf lrq 5.11 sf]nDgf/ Olky]lnod
;f| a ug{] cªu\ x¿df kfOG5 . o;sf] dV' o sfo{ ;|fa ug{] / ;f:] g' xf] .

-O_{ UnfG8'n/ Olky]lnod (Glandular epithelium)

z/L/df kfOg] ul| GynfO{ ;|fa Olky]lnod sf]ifn] 9fs]sf] x'G5 .
o:tf sf]ifx¿af6 ags] f] tGt'nfO{ UnfG8n' / Olky]lnod elgG5 .
oL sfi] fx¿n] z/L/nfO{ cfjZos kg]{ xdfg{] , OGhfOd, Dos' ;,
¥ofn, kfrg /; h:tf kbfyx{ ¿ pTkfbg ub{5g\ .

-v_ df+zn tGt' (Muscular tissues) lrq p5.T1k2GUgnfGu8g'n{]/POslkykl] ns| of/d

hGt'x¿sf] z/L/sf ljleGGf efudf vD' rg] / kmS' g] h:tf ultx¿

sf] tGt' tGt'nfO{ df+zn tGt' elgg5 . of] tGt' wfuf]h:tf] nfDrf]

cfsf/sf] df+zn kmfOa/ sf]ifx¿sf] ;d"xaf6 ag]sf] xG' 5 . o;sf]

dV' o sfo{ z/L/sf ;Dk"0f{ efu rnfpg' xf] . dfzn+ tGt' tLg ks| f/

sf 5g\ M

-c_ sª\sfnk]zL tGt' (Skeletal muscular tissues)

of] tGt' nfdf] cfsf/sf] xG' 5 . of] df+zn tGt' xf8x¿;uF
6flF ;P/ /xs] f] x'G5 . o;n] ;o+ f]hL tGt' -xf8_ ;Fu
ldn/] z/L/df rfn pTkGg u5{ . To;}n] o;nfO{
sªs\ fnk]zL tGt' elgPsf] xf] . oL tGt'x¿df ljleGg lsl;dsf lrq 5.13 sª\sfnk]zL tGt'
l/ag cfsf/sf w;f{x¿ (ribbon shaped stripes) b]lvG5g\ . To;n} ] of] v;f| ] bl] vG5 .
of] tGt'nfO{ hGtx' ¿n] cfˆgf] OR5fcg;' f/ rnfpg ;S5g\ . OR5fcg';f/ rNg] ePsfn]
o;nfO{ :j]lR5s df+zn (voluntary muscle) klg elgG5 .

-cf_ d'6'sf] dfz+ n tGt' (Cardiac muscular tisseus)

of] tGt' d6' s' f leQfdf dfq /x]sf] x'G5 . of] lg/Gt/ vl' Drg] /
k'mSg] u5{ . o;sf] vD' rfO / km' sfOsf] sf/0f d6' 'df w8\sg l;h{gf
xG' 5 . d6' n' ] /ut kDk u5{ . of] dfz+ n tGt' hGts' f] OR5fcg;' f/
rNb}g . o;df klg w;f{x¿ bl] vG5g\ . To;n} ] o;nfO{ c:j]lR5s
df+zn (Involuntary muscle) elgG5 .

lrq 5.14 d6' 'sf] df;+ n tGt'

58 lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff (

-O_ lrKnf] dfz+ n tGt' (Smooth muscular tissue)

of] df+zn tGt' l:kG8n cfsf/sf df+zn kmfOa/x¿sf] ;dx" ldn/] ag]sf] x'G5 . lrq 5.15 lrNnf]
of] tGts' f sf]ifx¿df w;fx{ ¿ xFb' }gg\ . To;n} ] of] lrNnf] bl] vG5 . o; k|sf/sf df+;n tGt'
tGt'x¿ cfdfzo / cfGb|fsf] leqL efudf kfOG5g\ . To:t} lk;fasf] gnL /
/StgnL h:tf cªu\ x¿df klg o:tf tGt'x¿ kfOG5g\ . of] tGtn' fO{ klg
hGtx' ¿sf] OR5fcg';f/ rnfpg ;lsbF }g . To;n} ] o;nfO{ klg c:jl] R5s
dfz+ n tGt' elgG5 .

-u_ ;o+ f]hL tGt' (Connective tisue)

Zf/L/df kfOg] ljleGg ks| f/sf tGt'x¿ tyf k0| ffnLx¿nfO{ hf8] g] tGtn' fO{ ;o+ fh] L tGt'
elgG5 . o:tf tGts' f sfi] fx¿ 5'6\6f 56' \6} /xG5g\ / z/L/df otfptf ;a} 7fFpdf kml} nPsf
x'G5g\ . ;+of]hL tGt'sf] dV' o sfd z/L/nfO{ yfDg,' sf]if / tGtn' fO{ hf]8g' tyf z/L/sf
ljleGg k0| ffnLx¿lar cGt/;DaGw sfod ug'{ xf] . oL tGt'x¿df sf]ifx¿sf lardf vfnL
:yfg x'G5 h;nfO{ cGt/sfi] fLo :yfgx¿ (inter cellular space) elgG5 . tL :yfgdf 7f;]
jf t/n kbfyx{ ¿ el/Psf x'G5g\ . cGt/sf]ifLo :yfgdf /xs] f o:tf kbfyn{ fO{ d]l6«S;
(Matrix) elgG5 . o;df kfgL, kmfOa/ / vlgh kfOG5g\ . tGt'sf] :j¿ksf cfwf/df
;+of]hL tGtn' fO{ tLg ks| f/df afF8g ;lsG5 .

;+of]hL tGt'

g/d ;o+ f]hL tGt' s8f ;+of]hL tGt ' t/n ;o+ f]hL tGt'

kmfOa;| (Fibrous) Pl8kfh] (Adipose) xf8 (bone) s/' s/' ] xf8 (Cartilage) /ut(Blood) lnDkmf(Lymph)

-c_ g/d ;+ofh] L tGt'

g/d ;o+ f]hL tGtx' ¿df sfi] fx¿ xn'sf lsl;dn] ldn]/ /x]sf x'G5g\ . oL tGtx' ¿sf]
cGt/sf]ifLo :yfgdf w]/} dfqfdf kmfOa/ / s]xL dfqfdf d]l6«S; /xs] f] xG' 5 . s'g}
tGtx' ¿sf] sf]ifdf w/] } dfqfdf lrNnf] kbfy{ e08f/0f eP/ /xs] f] xG' 5 . oL tGtx' ¿
Psbd} g/d lsl;dsf xG' 5g\ . kmfOa;| / Pl8kfh] u/L g/d ;+of]hL tGtx' ¿ b'O{
lsl;dsf xG' 5g\ .

kmfOa;| ;+of]hL tGt'

of] tGt' xn'sf k|sf/n] hfl] 8Psf jf 3gf ks| f/n] kmfOa/
af6 hfl] 8O ags] f x'G5g\ . xn'sf k|sf/n] hf]l8Psf

;+ofh] L tGt'x¿ 5fnfd'lg, df+zk]zLsf lardf /utsf]
gnLsf] rf/}lt/ kfOG5g\ . g/d ;o+ f]hL tGt' z/L/df lrq 5.16 kmfOa;| ;+ofh] L tGt'

lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff ( 59

kfOg] ;aeGbf ;fwf/0f ks| f/sf] ;o+ f]hL tGt' xf] . 3gf k|sf/sf] kmfOa/ ;+ofh] L tGt'
tlGsg] vfnsf] x'G5 . o;n] cªu\ x¿nfO{ afFWg] / cfsf/ lbg] ub{5 . o; ks| f/sf
tGt'x¿ lduf{n} f, sn]hf,] ul| Gy, dfzk+ ]zL cflbsf] j/k/ kfOG5g\ . oL tGt'n] dd{t ug{]
sfd klg ub{5g\ . xf8 / df+zk];LnfO{ hf]8g\ ] kmfOa;| ;+of]hL tGt'nfO{ 6]G8g elgG5
eg] xf8x¿nfO{ hf8] \g] kmfOa;| ;o+ fh] L tGtn' fO{ lnufd]G6 elgG5 .

Pl8kfh] ;+ofh] L tGt' M

of] ;+ofh] L tGtn' ] z/L/df af];f] hDdf u//] /
fV5 . of] tGt' 5fnfsf] leqk6l\ 6 tyf cfGbf| x¿df
6fFl;P/ /xs] f] x'G5 . af;] fn] yk vfgf hDdf ug{]
/ tfk ;~ro ug{] sfo{ u5{ .

-cf_ s8f ;o+ f]hL tGt' lrq 5.17 Pl8kf]h ;o+ f]hL tGt'
xf8 / s/' s/' ] xf8 s8f ;o+ fh] L tGtc' Gtu{t

kb{5g\ . oL tGt'x¿df /xs] f] sf]ifnfO{ cfl] :6of;] fO6

(osteocyte) elgG5 . xf8nfO{ aflx/af6 kftnf]

lemNnLn] 9fss] f] xG' 5 . pSt lemNnLnfO{ k]l/

cf]l:6od elgG5 . xf8x¿df SoflN;od yl' k|P/

/xs] f] x'G5 . To;}n] of] Psbd s8f x'G5 . s/' s'/]

xf8, gfs, sfg, 3f6F L, 8F8fNgs' f lar efudf /

nfdf] xf8sf] 5]p5]plt/ kfOG5 . o;n] z/L/sf rNg] cªu\ x¿df 3if0{ f 36fp5F /

rf]6 (shock) nfUgaf6 /f]S5 . lzz' cj:yfdf ags] f] s'/s/' ] xf8 SoflN;od nj0fn]

ubf{ lj:tf/} s8f x'Fb} hfG5 . 6fpsf], xftv'66\ f 8F8fNg' cflbsf xf8x¿ s8f xf8af6

ag]sf xG' 5g\ . oL ;+of]hL tGtx' ¿n] z/L/sf ljleGg tGt'x¿nfO{ hf]8g\ ] / y]Ug] sfd

u5{g\ .

-3_ t/n ;o+ f]hL tGt'

sx] L ;o+ fh] L tGt'x¿ t/n cj:yfdf /xs] f xG' 5g\ . oL ;o+ fh] L

tGt'x¿n] z/L/sf ljleGg k|0ffnLx¿ lar ;+ofh] ssf] sfo{

ub5{ g\ . oL tGt'x¿n] z/L/df kl/jxg ug{ dbt u5{g\ .

hGtx' ¿sf] z/L/df /ut / lnDkm u/L b'O{ lsl;dsf t/n

;+ofh] L tGtx' ¿ x'G5g\ . lrq 5.18 xf8sf] 6f« G;e\ ;{ ;]S;g

-c_ /ut (Blood)

/ut /ftf] t/n ;o+ f]hL tGt'sf ¿kdf z/L/df /x]sf] xG' 5 . o;n] ljleGg kbfy{nfO{
z/L/sf] Ps efuaf6 csf{] efudf k¥' ofpg] sfo{ ub5{ . /ut %% kl| tzt KnfHdf / $%

60 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (

k|ltzt /Stsfi] fx¿ ldn/] ag]sf] xG' 5 .

KnfHdf () k|ltzt kfgL / !) kl| tzt

7f]; kbfyx{ ¿ ldn]/ ags] f] xG' 5 . KnfHdfdf

3f]lnP/ ljleGg kfi] fs tŒj, OGhfOd,

xdfg{] / cGo kbfy{x¿ Ps efuaf6 csf{]

efudf kl/jxg xG' 5g,\ . /utdf /ftf

/Stsf]if, ;t] f /Stsf]if / Kn]6n6] ;\ u/L lrq 5.19 blood searm

tLg ks| f/sf sf]ifx¿ xG' 5g\ . /ftf /Stsfi] fdf x]dfU] nfl] ag aG5 . o;sf] dbtn] /

utn] kmfS] ;fa] f6 clS;hg lnO{ ;a} 7fpFdf clS;hg k¥' ofpF5 . o;n] z/L/sf ljleGg

efux¿af6 sfag{ 8fOcS;fO8 ;ªs\ ng u//] kmfS] ;f;] Dd k¥' ofpF5 . ;t] f] /Stsfi] fn]

xflgsf/s sL6f0f'nfO{ gi6 u5{ . Kn]6n6] \;n] rf]6 nfus] f 7fFpaf6 /ut aUg glbO{ /

utnfO{ hDg dbt ub5{ .

-cf_ lnDkm (Lymph)

lnDkm gnLdf kfOg] /ªxLg t/n ;+ofh] L tGtn' fO{ lrq 5.20
lnDkm elgG5 . o;df x]dfU] nfl] ag x'Fb}g . o;df
KnfHdf / lnDkmf;] fO6 xG' 5 . of] z/L/sf ljleGg
efux¿ hxfF /ut k'us] f] x'bF g} tL efux¿df /ut
h:t} lnDkm gnLdf alu/xs] f] x'G5 . o;n] z/L/sf
/ut gkU' g] efux¿df kl/jxg ug]{ sfo{ ub5{ .

-ª_ :gfo' tGt' (Nervous tissue)

hGt'sf] z/L/sf ljleGg cªu\ x¿nfO{ lgb{z] g lbg,] ;~rf/ ug{] / ;+ofh] g ug]{ tGtn' fO{
:gfo' tGt' elgG5 . :gfo' tGts' f] ;a}eGbf ;fgf] PsfOnfO{ Go/' fg] elgG5 . :gfo' tGt' w/] }
Go'/f]gx¿ (Neurons) ldn/] ags] f] x'G5 . :gfo' tGtn' fO{ Go'/fl] Unof gfds ;+of]hL tGtx' ¿n]
hf8] ]/ /fv]sf] xG' 5 .

Go'/fg] cyjf :gfo' sfi] f (Neuron or nerve cell)

:gfo' k0| ffnLsf] ;a}eGbf ;fgf] PsfOnfO{ Go/' fg]
elgG5 . Pp6f Go'/fg] sf larsf] sfi] fnfO{ ;n] a8L
(cell body) elgG5 . To;af6 lg:ss] f] Pp6f dfq
nfdf] xfuF fnfO{ PShfg] (axon) elgG5 . To:t} To;af6
lg:s]sf 5f]6f xfFufx¿nfO{ 8]G8f« O6;\ (dendrites)
elgG5 . 8]G8f« O6;\ n] cGo :gfo' sfi] fx¿af6 pQ]hgfnfO{
;n] a8L;Dd k'¥ofp5F . PShf]gn] ;n] a8Laf6 pQh] gfnfO{ cGo :gfo' sfi] fx¿df k'¥ofp5F ,
h:tM} xfd|f] v'66\ fdf rf]6 nfUof] eg] pSt rf]6sf] lk8f jf bv' fO dl:tis;Dd k'U5 / xfdLn]
dx;'; u5f}{ . of] sfo{ Go'/f]gx¿n] ug{] ;~rf/n] ubf{ ;Dej xG' 5 .

lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( lrq 5.20 Go/' f]g 61

cEof;

!= tnsf k|Zgx¿sf] ;xL ljsNkdf l7s lrxg\ -√_ nufpg'xf;] \ M

-s_ tGtd' f ePsf sfi] fx¿ ljefhg eO{ kg' M ljefhg xg' ] Ifdtf ePsf tGts' f] ks| f/ sg' xf] <

-c_ hl6n tGt' -cf_ ;o+ f]hL tGt' -O_ :yfoL tGt' -O{_ dfl] /:6dl] 6s tGt'

-v_ lduf}n{ f / ¥ofn ulG| ysf gnLx¿sf] leqL ;txdf xg' ] tGt' sg' xf] <

-c_ :Sjfd; lOlky]lnod tGt' -cf_ UnofG8n' / tGt'

-O_ Soa' fO] 8n lOlky]lnod tGt' -O{_ sfn] 'Dgf/ lOlky]lnod tGt'

-u_ d]l/:6d]l6s tGt' la?jfsf] sg' efudf xG' 5 <

-c_ h/fsf 6'Kkfd] f -cf_ sf08 tyf xfFufsf 6K' kfd] f

-O_ sf08sf] jl/kl/ -O{_ la?jfsf ;a} efudf

-3_ sfl8o{ fs df;n tGt' sg' cªu\ df kfOG5 <

-c_ cfdfzo -cf_ lduf{n} f

-O_ d'6' -O{_ Kofgls|ofh

-ª_ la?jfn] ef:sn' / tGt' s] sfdsf nflu ko| f]u u5{ <

-c_ la?jfnfO{ b/f] agfpg -cf_ vfgf agfpg

-O_ kfgL / vfgfsf] ;~rf/ ug { -O_{ la?jfsf] df]6fO a9fpg

@= sf/0f lbgx' f;] \ M

-s_ /utnfO{ t/n ;+ofh] L tGt' elgG5 .

-v_ la?jfsf] 6'Kkf] sf6b\ f prfO j[l4 xFb' }g .

-u_ nfn'kft]sf] kft r8' b\ f ;t] f] kbfy{ cfpF5 .

-3_ hfOnd tGt'nfO{ hl6n :yfoL tGt' elgG5 .

#= km/s nV] gx' f;] \ M

-s_ dfz+ kz] L tGt' / ;of]hL tGt'

-v_ hfOnd / ˆnf]Pd

-u_ dl] /:6d]l6s tGt' / :yfoL tGt'

-3_ :Sn]/]GsfOdf / sf]nG] sfOdf

62 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (

$= tnsf k|Zgsf] pQ/ n]Vgx' f];\ M
-s_ hLjg kl| j|mof eg]sf] s] xf] < pbfx/0f;lxt JofVof ug'{xf;] \ .
-v_ jg:klt tGt' / hGt' tGts' f] juLs{ /0fsf] pbfx/0f;lxtsf] sG;K] 6 Dofk tof/ ugx{' f;] \ .
-u_ d]l/:6dl] /s tGt'nfO{ lrq;lxt j0f{g ug{'xf];\ .
-3_ :yfoL tGt' egs] f] s] xf] < of] slt ks| f/sf] x'G5 < 5f]6s/Ldf pbfx/0f;lxt j0f{g
ugx'{ f];\ .
-ª_ :Ns]/g] sfOdf, sfn] G] sfOdf / k]/]GsfOd tGt'sf] ;kmf lrq agfO{ k|To]ssf sfo{x¿sf]
;r" L tof/ ug{'xf;] \ .
-r_ Olky]lnon tGts' f sfo{x¿ n]Vgx' f;] \ .
-5_ hgfj/ tGts' f k|sf/x¿sf] rf6{ tof/ u/L kfOg] :yfg n]Vg'xf];\ .
-h_ lrqsf] cjnf]sg u/L tnsf k|Zgx¿sf] pQ/ lbg'xf];\ M
-c_ lbPsf] lrq klxrfg ug{'xf;] \ .
-cf_ lrqdf b]vfOPsf efux¿sf] gfd nV] gx' f;] \ .
-O_ o; tGts' f] sfo{ nV] g'xf;] \ .
-O{_ la?jfdf o; tGts' f] dxŒj nV] gx' f];\ .
-em_ lrqsf] cjnfs] g u/L tnsf k|Zgx¿sf] pQ/ lbg'xf];\ M
-c_ lbOPsf] dfz+ n tGt'sf] gfd n]Vgx' f;] \ .
-cf_ oL tGtx' ¿ la?jfsf] s'g cª\udf kfOG5g\ <
-O_ oL tGt'x¿sf Pp6f Pp6f sfo{ nV] gx' f;] \ .

%= kl/of]hgf sfo{
hgfj/sf tGt'x¿sf] rf6k{ k] /df lrq sfg] x'{ f;] \ / sIffdf k|bz{g ugx{' f;] \ .

lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff ( 63

5.2 dfgj :gfo' k0| ffnL (Human nervous system)

xfdLn] xfdf| ] j/k/sf] jftfj/0fdf xg' ] c;/x¿ / kl/jt{gx¿sf af/d] f s;/L yfxf
kfp5F fF} < xfd|f] z/L/sf kT| o]s cª\ux¿lar ;~rf/ s;/L xG' 5 xfn] f, ljrf/ ug'{xf];\ .

xfdf| ] j/k/ ljleGg lsl;dsf j:tx' ¿ 5g\ . xfdf| ] z/L/df /x]sf 1fg]lGb|o, :gfo' tGt' /
dl:tissf] dbtn] xfdL j/k/ /xs] f ;a} j:t'x¿sf af/d] f hfgsf/L lnG5f}F . dl:tisn]
z/L/sf kT| os] cª\ux¿nfO{ lgoGq0f ug]{ / ;~rfng ug]{ u5{ . To:t} xfdL jftfj/0fdf
x'g] ljleGg kl/jtg{ n] pQ]lht eO{ k|ltljm| of bv] fpF5fF} . o; sfos{ f nflu ljzi] f lsl;dsf
cª\ux¿sf] ;d"x ldn]/ ags] f] k|0ffnL g} :gfo' k0| ffnL xf] . 1fgl] Gbo| x¿ o; k0| ffnLsf
aflx/L cª\ux¿ x'g\ . To;u} /L z/L/leqsf cªu\ x¿lar ;+ofh] g ugs{ f nflu dl:tis,
;'if'Dgf / :gfo' tGt'x¿ ldn/] :gfo' k0| ffnL ag]sf] xG' 5 . dfgj :gfo' k0| ffnLdf /xs] f ljleGg
efux¿ / ltgLx¿sf sfos{ f cfwf/df :gfo' k0| ffnLnfO{ tLg efudf ljefhg ul/Psf] 5 .

-s_ s]Gb|Lo :gfo' k0| ffnL (Central nervous System)

-v_ k]l/km]/n :gfo' k0| ffnL (Peripheral nervous System)

-u_ c6f]gfl] ds :gfo' k0| ffnL (Autonomic nervous System)

-s_ sG] bL| o :gfo' k0| ffnL (Central servous system)

dfgj z/L/sf] lar efudf /xs] f] 6fpsfb] l] v k'R5/;Dd

kml} nPsf] :gfo' k0| ffnLsf] efunfO{ sG] bL| o :gfo' k0| ffnL

elgG5 . of] dl:tis / ;'if'Dgf ldn]/ ags] f] xG' 5 . sG] b|Lo

:gfo' k|0ffnL Go'/fg] / lUnof ldn]/ ags] f] x'G5 . Go/' fg]

:gfo' k|0ffnLsf] cfwf/e"t sfi] f xf] . lUnofn] Go/' f]gnfO{

5fk] /] /fvs] f] x'G5 . s]GbL| o :gfo' k|0ffnLdf v}/f] kbfy{ (grey

matter) / ;]tf] kbfy{ (white matter) u/L bO' { efux¿

x'G5g\ . lrq 5.21 sG] bL| o :gfo' k|0ffnL

64 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (

-c_ v/} f] kbfy{ (Grey matter)

dl:tis / ;i' fD' gfdf /x]sf] xNsf un' faL /ªsf] efunfO{ v/} f] kbfy{ elgG5 . of] efu
;]na8L, 8G] 8«fO6\;, l;gfK;]; / PShf]gsf 6'Kkfx¿ ldn/] ag]sf] xG' 5 .

-cf_ ;]tf] kbfy{ (White matter)

dl:tis / ;i' fD' gfdf /x]sf] ;t] f] efunfO{ ;t] f] kbfy{ (White matter) elgG5 . o;df
Go/' fg] sf] PShf]g /x]sf] xG' 5 .

sG] b|Lo :gfo' k|0ffnLsf efux¿ (Parts of central nervous system)

-c_ dl:tis (Brain)

ljm| ofsnfk 5.5 M ;Dej eP v;Lsf] dl:tis / geP dl:tissf] gd'gf cjnf]sg u/L
dl:tissf ljleGg efux¿ klxrfg ugx{' f];\ . cfjZos k/] lzIfssf] ;xofu] lngx' f;] \ .
dl:tissf af/]df sIffdf ;dx" agfO{ 5nkmn ug{x' f];\ .

6fpsfsf] vKk/leq /x]sf] s]GbL| o :gfo' k|0ffnLsf] ;ae} Gbf 7n' f] / dflyNnf] v08 dl:tis

xf] . o;n] z/L/sf ;Dk0" f{ cª\ux¿sf]

;+of]hg / lgoGq0f ub{5 . dl:tisnfO{ tLg

txsf] lemNnLn] 9fs]sf] x'G5 . pSt txnfO{

d]lgGh;] elgG5 . 8'/fdf6/ (Duramatter),

kfodf6/ (Piamatter) / P/fSGjfO8

(Arrachnoid) d]lgGh;] sf tLg txx¿ x'g\ .

8/' fdf6/ vKk/sf] leqL txdf 6flF ;P/ /xs] f]

x'G5 eg] kfodf6/ dl:tissf] ;tx;uF

6flF ;P/ /xs] f] xG' 5 . P/fSGjfO8 / kfodf6/

sf lardf vfnL 7fpF /x]sf] xG' 5 . pSt

vfnL 7fpFdf t/n kbfy{ /x]sf] xG' 5, h;nfO{ lrq 5.22 dl:tis

;/] a] |f:] kfOgn ˆn'8 (Cerebrospinal fluid)

elgG5 . o;nfO{ rf6] k6s nfUgaf6 arfp5F . of] kfgL, vlgh, Un'sf]h, k|fl] 6g ldn/]

ag]sf] cNsnfOg t/n kbfy{ xf] .

dl:tissf klg ljleGg efux¿ 5g\ hg' o; ks| f/ 5g\ M

7'nf] dl:tis (Cerebrum)

dl:tissf] ;ae} Gbf 7'nf] efu 7'nf] dl:tis xf] . o;n] dl:tissf] 80% efu cfu] 6s] f]
xG' 5 . of] vKk/sf] k|mG6n, k]/fO6n / clS;lk6n If]qdf km}lnPsf] xG' 5 . of] bfofF / afofF
u/L bO' {cf6] f cwu{ f]nfsf/ efudf (cerebral hemisphere) ljeflht x'G5 . tL cw{ ufn] fsf/
sf dflyNnf] efu (dorsal) df ulx/f] lr/f (fissure) n] bO' { cw{ ufn] fsf/nfO{ 5'6o\ fPsf]

lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff ( 65

xG' 5 . cw{ufn] fsf/sf] aflx/L ;tx u'h'd'Hh k/s] f] xG' 5 . h;n] ;txsf] If]qkmn a9fpF5 .
7n' f] dl:tissf] aflx/L efu v/} f] kbfy{ (grey matter), leqL efu ;]tf] kbfy{ (white
matter) af6 ags] f] x'G5 . 7'nf] dl:tisn] z/L/sf ljleGg sfox{ ¿sf] ;~rfng / lgoGq0f
u5{ . o;sf ;fy} 7n' f] dl:tisn] ug]{ cGo sfox{ ¿ lgDgfg;' f/ 5g\ M

af;gf yfxf kfp5F .

af]nL, :d/0f, ;'gfOsf] ;~rfng / lgoGq0f ub5{ .

rt] gf, ljrf/, pQ]hgfx¿ l;h{gf / lgoGq0f ub{5 .

ljleGg ljifosf] ljZni] f0f, ;+Zni] f0f / eljiojf0fL ug{] Ifdtfsf] lgoGq0f ub5{ .

dfl:tissf] cGo efunfO{ klg lgoGq0f ub{5 .

7n' f] dl:tisdf rf6] nfu]df r]tgf x/fpg,] :d/0f Ifdtf 36g\ ], ;o+ f]hsTj Ifdtfdf xf| ;
cfpg] ;fy} cw{dt[ (Coma) cj:yfdf ;Dd k'Ug ;S5 .

;fgf] dl:tis (Cerebellum)

;fgf] dl:tis, dl:tissf] bf];|f] 7n' f] efu xf] . o;n] k"/f dl:tissf] 10% efu cfu] 6s] f]
xG' 5 . of] 7'nf] dl:tissf] k5fl8 / d]8'nf canªu\ ]6fsf] dfly b'Oc{ f]6f sfutLsf bfgf h:tf
cwu{ fn] fsf/ efux¿ xG' 5g\ . To;nfO{ ;fgf] dl:tis elgG5 . o;sf] klg aflx/L efudf
v/} f] kbfy{ / leqL efudf ;]tf] kbfy{ x'G5 . o;n] lgDg sfox{ ¿ ub{5 M

;fgf] dl:tisn] z/L/df ljleGg sfox{ ¿nfO{ lgoGq0f ub5{ .

df+;k]zLsf] rfndf ;+ofh] ssf] sfo{ ub{5 .

lx8F b\ f dflg;sf] z/L/sf] cj:yfnfO{ ;Gtn' gdf /fV5 .

:jl] R5s rfnnfO{ klg ;~rfng u5{ .

df+;k]zLsf] 6f]g sfod ub5{ .

;fgf] dl:tisdf rf]6 nfu]df z/L/ c;Gt'lnt xG' 5 / :jl] R5s rfndf c;/ k5{ . of]
ckfªu\ tfsf] cj:yf xf] . /S;Ln] ;fgf] dl:tisdf c;/ ug{] xbF' f /S;L lkPsf] dflg;
lx8F \bf n8a\ l8G5 .

d8] n' f cAnª\u6] f (Medulla oblongata)

of] dl:tissf] ;ae} Gbf tNnf] efu xf] . of] ;i' fD' gf / kf]G; Eof/f]nLsf lardf /xs] f] x'G5 .
of] 8G8L h:tf] gnL cfsf/sf] xG' 5 . o;sf] aflx/L efudf v/} f] kbfy{ / leqL efudf ;]tf]
kbfy{ xG' 5 . of] vKk/sf] cfwf/ efudf /x]sf] kmf]/fd]g DofUgd gfds Kjfnaf6 aflx/
lgl:sG5 . o;n] c:jl] R5s sfo{ (Involuntary action) nfO{ lgoGq0f u5{ . o;sf ;fy}
o;n] lgDglnlvt sfo{x¿;d]t ub5{ M

66 lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff (

d8] 'nf cAnª\u]6fn] Zjf;kZ| jf; lj|mof ;~rfng u5{ .

o;n] afGtf ug]{, vfS] g,] xflR5pF ug,]{ vfgs] '/f lgNg] sfo{nfO{ lgoGq0f u5{ .

o;n] /StgnL vD' Rofpg] / tGsfpg] sfo{ u5{ .

o;n] xdfg]{ , kfrs /; / ¥ofn >fj ug{ dbt u5{ .

d]8'nf cAnª\u]6fdf rf]6 nfUof] eg] dflg;sf] t'?Gt} d[To' xG' 5 .

kf]G; Eof/f]nL (Pons Varoli)

d8] 'nf cAnªu\ ]6fsf] dflyk6\l6 /xs] f] @=% ;]=ld= nfdf] efu kf]G; Eof/fn] L xf] . o;n] l/n]
:6];g (relay station) sf] sfo{ ub5{ . d]8'nf cAnª\u6] faf6 dl:tissf] c¿ efux¿df
;"rgf k|jfx ug{ dbt u5{ . o;n] Zjf;kZ| jf; ;~rfngdf;d]t dbt u5{ . o;df rf6]
nfUbf lgbf| df afwf k'Ug'sf ;fy} lgNg / rkfpgdf ;dt] ;d:of cfp5F .

-cf_ ;'if'Dgf (Spinal cord)

;i' f'Dgf d?] b08sf] leqaf6

uPsf] Pp6f nfdf] :gfo' tGt'

xf] . of] d8] 'nf cAnªu\ ]6fsf]

clGtd efuaf6 ;?' eO{

9f8sf] bf];f| ] nDa/ el6{a;|] Dd

(Lumbar vertebrae) kml} nPsf]

xG' 5 . h;n] aflx/L rf6] af6

arfpF5 . o;sf] aflx/L efu

;]tf] kbfya{ f6 ags] f] xG' 5 eg]

leqL efu v/} f] kbfy{af6 ag]sf]

x'G5 . o;nfO{ klg dl] gGh;] n]

9fss] f] x'G5 . of] nueu 45 lrq 5.23 ;'ifD' gf

cm nfdf] / 2 cm Jof; ePsf] xG' 5 . ;i' fD' gfn] z/L/sf ljleGg efu / dl:tislar ;~rf/

ug's{ f] ;fy} csfDo ljm| of (reflex action) sf] sG] b|sf] sfo{ u5{ .

:gfo' /];f (Nerve fibers)

:gfo' sf]ifsf PShfg] x¿ ldnL :gfo' /];f aG5 . sfo{sf cfwf/df :gfo' /];f tLg k|sf/sf x'G5g\ M

-c_ Pkm/G] 6 jf ;G] ;/L :gfo' /;] f (Afferent or sensary nerve): o;n] pQ]hgf (nerve
impulse) nfO{ kf| ks (receptor) af6 dl:tis jf ;i' f'Dgf;Dd nh} fg] sfo{ u5{ .

-cf_ Okm/G] 6 jf df]6/ :gfo' /];f (Efferent or motor nerve): o;n] va/ jf pQ]hgf (nerve
impulse) nfO{ dl:tis jf ;'ifD' gfaf6 z/L/sf ljleGg efu;Dd k¥' ofpg] sfo{ u5{ . :gfo'
tGtx' ¿n] ;i' fD' gf jf dl:tissf nflu ;j+ fbbftfsf] sfd u5g{ \ .

lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( 67

-O_ OG6/ Go'/fg] (Inter neuron): o;n] ;G] ;/L :gfo' /];f / df]6/ :gfo' /];fnfO{ hf]8g\ ] /
;]G;/L :gfo' /;] faf6 cfPsf] pQh] gfnfO{ df6] / :gfo' /];fdf k'¥ofpg] sfo{ ub{5 .

-v_ k]l/km]/n :gfo' k0| ffnL (Peripheral nervous system)

s]GbL| o :gfo' k0| ffnL / z/L/sf ljleGg efux¿lar ;~rf/
ug]{ :gfo' k|0ffnLnfO{ k]l/km/] n :gfo' k|0ffnL elgG5 . of]
:gfo' /];fx¿af6 ag]sf] xG' 5 . :gfo' /];fx¿ lg:s]sf] If]qsf
cfwf/df :gfo' /;] fx¿ bO' { ks| f/sf xG' 5g\ M

-c_ jm| l] gon :gfo' /];f (Cranial nerve):

dl:tisaf6 ;'? eO{ dl:tisdf cGt xg' ] :gfo' lrq 5.24 kl] /km]/n :gfo' k0| ffnL
/];fx¿nfO{ jm| l] gon :gfo' /];f elgG5 . jm| ]lgon
:gfo' /;] fx¿ !@ hf8] f x'G5g\ . logLx¿n] dl:tis /
6fpsfdf /x]sf ljleGg cªu\ x¿ lha|f], cfFvf, sfg,
gfs cflblar ;~rf/ u5{g\ .

-cf_ :kfOgn :gfo' /;] f (Spinal nerves):

;i' fD' gfaf6 ;?' eO{ z/L/sf ljleGg efux¿df kmn} g] :gfo' /;] fx¿nfO{ :kfOgn :gfo'
/;] f elgG5 . :kfOgn :gfo' /];fx¿ #! hf8] f xG' 5g\ . o;n] z/L/sf ljleGg efu /
;'if'Dgflar pQh] gf Nofpg] / nh} fg] sfd sfo{ u5{ .

csfDo ljm| of (Reflex action)

slxn]sfxLF ;8sdf lx8F b\ f

cs:dft lrKn]/ n8\bf t?' Gt}

xftn] e'Odf 6]S5f}F . To:t} tftf]

j:t' 5Fb' f PSsfl; xft x6fp5fF} .

o:t} ks| f/sf sltko sfo{x¿

xfdLx¿ yfxf geOs{ g ul//x]sf] lrq 5.25 k]l/km]/n :gfo' k|0ffnL
x'G5fF} . o:tf 36gfk|lt cr]tg

cj:yf d} k|ltljm| of hgfp5F f}F .

o;/L xfd|f] z/L/sf s'g} cªu\ sf] :kz{ crfgs s'g} j:t';Fu xb'F f z/L/n] bv] fpg] pSt

zL3| k|ltljm| ofnfO{ csfDo lj|mof elgG5 . csfDo ljm| of ;'ifD' gfåf/f ;~rfng x'G5 .

cfvF fdf s]xL s/' f k:g nfUbf cfF vf lrlDng' klg csfDo lj|mof xf] . csfDo ljm| of xbF' f

pQ]hgf :gfo' k|0ffnLsf] Ps lgZlrt af6f] eP/ ;~rf/ x'G5, pSt af6fnfO{ l/ˆnS] ;

cfs{ (reflex arc) elgG5, h:t}M tftf] j:t' 5Fb' f xg' ] csfDo lj|mofdf lgDgcg;' f/

pQ]hgf ;~rf/ x'G5 .

k|fks — 5fnfsf] :gfo' 6K' kf]

68 lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff (

;]G;/L :gfo' — k|fksaf6 ;'ifD' gf;Dd va/ nh} fg] :gfo'

sgl] S6ª :gfo' — ;'ifD' gfsf] dflyaf6 tn pQh] gf Nofpg] :gfo' cyjf ;G] ;/L
:gfo' / df6] / :gfol' ar ;dGjo ug]{ :gfo'

df6] / :gfo' — ;i' f'Dgfaf6 d+fzk]zLdf pQh] gf n}hfg] :gfo'

OkmS] 6/ — pQh] gf kfpg] dfzk] z] L

-u_ :jrflnt :gfo' k0| ffnL (Autonomic nervous system)

:gfo' k0| ffnLsf] efu h;n] d6' ,' ldufn{} f, kmfS] ;f] h:tf cªu\ x¿sf] c:jl] R5s sfox{ ¿sf]
lgoGq0f u5{ . Tof] efunfO{ c6fg] fl] ds :gfo' k0| ffnL elgG5 . o;n] AoeF' ms] f] jf ;t' s] f]
cj:yfdf df;+ kz] L / lglZrt ks| f/sf ul| Gysf] sfo{ lgoGq0f u5,{ o;sf bO' { efux¿ xG' 5g\ M

lrq 5.26 :jrflnt :gfo' k0| ffnL

-c_ l;Dkfyfl] 6s :gfo' k0| ffnL
(Sympathetic nervous system)

o;n] z/L/sf] clGtd / cfsl:ds cj:yfsf nflu tof/ u5{ . o;n] d'6,' kmfS] ;f,]
cfdfzo, cfGbf| , d'qfzo cflb sfos{ f] ult a9fpF5 . sg' } cfsl:ds 36gf xb'F f /
Strfk / d6' 'sf] w8s\ g a9fp5F .

-cf_ Kof/fl;Dkfy]l6s :gfo' k|0ffnL (Parasympathetic nervous system)

o;n] l;Dkfy]l6s :gfo' k|0ffnLsf c;/x¿ /f]Sg] sfo{ ub5{ . o;n] d6' s' f] w8\sg /
/Strfk 36fp5F . o;n] d'6', Zjf;k|Zjf;, cfdfzo, cfGb|f, d'qfzo cflbsf] sfon{ fO{
;fwf/0f cj:yfdf Nofpg dbt u5{ .

lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff ( 69

cEof;

!= tnsf k|Zgx¿sf] ;xL ljsNkdf l7s lrx\g -√_ nufpgx' f;] \ M

-s_ dl] gGh; txsf] -aflx/L txaf6 leqL tx_ tnsf dWo] s'g j|md ;xL xf] <

-c_ kfoDof6/, P/fSgfO] 8 / 8'/fDof6/

-cf_ k]l/ssfl8{od, dfof]sf/l8od / OG8f]sf/l8od

-O_ P/fSgfO] 8, 8'/fDof6/ / kfoDof6/

-O{_ 8'/fDof6/, P/fSgf]O8 / kfoDof6/

-v_ yfO/f]O8 ul| Gyn] pTkfbg ug]{ xdf]g{ sg' xf] <

-c_ T4 / T3 -cf_ T1 / T2
-O{_ FLH
-O_ TSH

-u_ dl:tissf] s'g efudf rf6] k6s nfud] f dflg; sf]dfdf hfG5 <

-c_ s|l] dod -cf_ ;]/j] ]nd

-O_ ;/] j] d| -O_{ d]8'nf cAnªu\ f6f

-3_ z/L/sf ljleGg efuaf6 dl:tis;Dd va/ nfg] :gfo' sg' xf] <

-c_ df6] / :gfo' -cf_ ;G] ;/L :gfo'

-O_ UofªlUnof -O_{ df]6/ / ;]G;/L b'j}

-ª_= cfsfDo lj|mof :gfo' k0| ffnLsf] sg' efun] lgoGq0f u5{ <

-c_ ;]/]j|d -cf_ ;]/]jn] d

-O_ d8] n' f cAnª\uf6f -O{_ :kfOgn s8{

@= sf/0f lbgx' f];\ M

-s_ 7'nf] dfl:tisdf rf]6k6s nfu]df dflg; crt] g (Coma) cj:yfdf xG' 5 .

-v_ tftf] j:tn' fO{ cf}Fnfn] 5b'F f cs:dft xft x6fOG5 .

-u_ ;fgf] dl:tisdf rf]6 nfud] f z/L/ c:fGt'lnt x'G5 .

-3_ ;;' D' gfnfO{ csfDo ljm| ofsf] sG] b| elgG5 .

#= km/s nV] g'xf];\ M

-s_ sl]| gon / :kfOgn :gfo ' -v_ ;G] ;/L :gfo' / df]6/ :gfo'

-u_ ;/] a] |d / ;]/a] ]nd -3_ l;Dkfyl] 6s / kf/fl;Dkfyl] 6s

70 lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff (

$= tnsf kZ| gsf] pQ/ n]Vg'xf;] \ M
-s_ dl:tissf] ;kmf lrq agfO{ efux¿sf] gfdfªs\ g ug{'xf];\ .
-v_ d8] 'nf cAnª\u]6fn] s;/L sfo{ u5{, JofVof ugx{' f;] \ .
-u_ c6fg] fl] ds :gfo' k0| ffnLn] s;/L sfo{ u5{ < lrq;lxt j0f{g ug'x{ f;] \ .
-3_ tftf] j:tn' fO{ 5'Fbf PSsfl; xft x6fpF5f}F, pSt csfDo ljm| of s;/L x'G5, lrq;lxt
aofg ugx'{ f];\ .
-ª_ :gfo' k0| ffnL s]nfO{ elgG5 < o;sf ks| f/nfO{ 5f]6s/Ldf j0f{g ug'x{ f];\ .
-r_ ;fgf] dl:tis, 7n' f] dl:tis / ;'if'Dgfsf sfo{x¿ nV] g'xf];\ .
-5_ Go/' fg] egs] f] s] xf] < o;sf efux¿sf] ;kmf lrq agfO{ gfdfs/0f ug{x' f;] \ / k|To]s
efusf] sfd nV] g'xf];\ .
-h_ csfDo lj|mofsf] pbfx/0f;lxt j0fg{ ug{'xf];\ .
-em_ lrqsf] cWoog u/L tn lbOPsf kZ| gx¿sf] pQ/ nV] g'xf;] \ M

-c_ lbPsf] lrqsf] klxrfg ug'{xf;] \ .

-cf_ lrqdf ePsf] s, v, u sf] gfd n]Vgx' f;] \ .

-O_ s, v / u efusf sfo{ n]Vgx' f];\ .

-O_{ csfDo ljm| ofdf o;sf] el" dsf s] xG' 5, j0f{g ug'{xf];\ .

-`_ lrqsf] cWoog u/L tn lbOPsf k|Zgsf] pQ/ nV] g'xf];\ M s

-c_ lrqdf cªl\ st efux¿sf] gfd nV] g'xf];\ . 71

-cf_ s, v / u efusf sfo{ n]Vgx' f;] \ .

-O_ u efudf rf6] k6s nfud] f s] xG' 5 < v
u

lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff (

5.3 dfgj ul| Gy k|0ffnL (Human glandular system)

dfgj z/L/df ljleGg ul| Gyx¿ x'G5g\ . tL ul| Gyx¿n] z/L/nfO{ cfjZos >fjx¿ pTkfbg
u5{g\ . u|lGyx¿n] xdf]{g, OGhfOd / /;x¿ pTkfbg u5g{ \ . oL >fjx¿n] xfdf| ] z/L/sf
ljleGg lj|mofsnfknfO{ ;xh agfO{ :j:y /fVg dbt u5g{ \ . xfd|f] z/L/df /x]sf ljleGg
u|lGyx¿sf] ;d"xnfO{ u|lGy k|0ffnL elgG5 . u|lGy k0| ffnLaf6 pTkfbg xg' ] >fjx¿n] kfrg,
k|hgg, lgisf;g cflbdf ;xofu] u5{g\ . ul| Gyx¿n] pTkfbg ug{] >fjsf cfwf/df u|lGyx¿
b'O{ lsl;dsf xG' 5g\ M gnLo'St (Enocrine) / gnLljxLg (Endocrine) .

-s_ gnLo'St ul| Gy (Enocrine gland)

oL ul| Gyx¿df gnL x'G5 . oL u|lGyx¿n] OGhfOd ;|fj u5g{ \ . pSt OGhfOdx¿
gnLåf/f aflx/ lgl:sG5g\ . kl;gf ul| Gy, ¥ofn ul| Gy, c>' ul| Gy cflb . oL ul| Gyx¿af6
lgl:sPsf OGhfOdn] kfrgdf d'Vo el" dsf v]Ng'sf ;fy} lgisf;gdf ;xof]u u5{g\ .

-v_ gnLljxLg ul| Gy (Endocrine gland)

oL ul| Gyx¿df gnL xbF' g} . logLx¿n] pTkfbg ug]{ >fjnfO{ xdf{]g elgG5 . oL
xdf{g] x¿ l;w} /utdf ldl;G5g\ . xdf]g{ n] z/L/sf sf]if / cGo ul| Gyx¿sf] sfo{nfO{
pQl] ht kf5{ . xdf]g{ gnLljxLg ul| Gyaf6 pTkfbg x'G5 . t/ o;sf] sfo{ Ifq] rflxF
z/L/sf cGo efux¿df xG' 5 . To;}n] xdf{]gnfO{ /f;folgs ;j+ fbbftf elgG5 .
lk6o\ 6' /L u|lGy, yfO/fO] 8 ul| Gy, Kof/fyfO/f]O8 u|lGy, Pl8«gn ul| Gy cflb gnLljxLg
u|lGyx¿ x'g\ . oL u|lGyx¿ ;fgf ;fgf xG' 5g\ . oL ul| Gyx¿n] z/L/sf nflu lgs}
dxŒjk0" f{ el" dsf v]ns] f x'G5g\ . oL ul| Gyaf6 pTkflbt xdfg{] x¿sf] dfqfdf 36a9
x'bF f z/L/df ljleGg ;d:ofx¿ cfpF5g\ . oL xdf{g] x¿sf sf/0fn] j[l4 ljsf;df c;/
k'U5 . k|hgg Ifdtf 365\ . ljleGg lsl;dsf /f]ux¿ nfU5g\ .

gnLljxLg u|lGyx¿sf] ;dx" ldn]/ gnLljxLg ul| Gy k0| ffnL ag]sf] x'G5 . xdfg{]
gnLljxLg u|lGyx¿sf] >fj xf] .

xdfg{] sf sfo{x¿ lgDgfg';f/ 5g\ M

-c_ xdfg]{ sf sf/0fn] zf/Ll/s, dfgl;s / dgfj] }1flgs ljsf; xG' 5 .

-cf_ ljleGg cªu\ x¿sf sfon{ fO{ pQl] ht ug]{ / lgoGq0f ug]{ sfo{ u5{ .

-O_ xdf]g{ n] z'jm| ls6 / c08f pTkfbgsf] lgoGq0f u5{ .

-O{_ dflg;x¿df nª} l\ us u0' fx¿sf] ljsf; u5{ .

-p_ xdfg{] n] kh| gg Ifdtfsf] lgoGq0f u5{ .

-pm_ xdf{]gn] z/L/df SoflN;od / km:kmf/] ;sf] dfqf ;Gtn' g u5{ .

72 lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff (

gnLljxLg u|lGy, pSt ul| Gy kfOg] :yfg / pTkflbt xdf{g] nfO{ lgDglnlvt tflnsfdf k|:t't
ul/Psf] 5 M

gnLljxLg ul| Gy z/L/df kfOg] :yfg pTkflbt xdfg{]
jl[ 4 xdfg{] ,pTk/]| s xdf]{g
!= lk6o\ '6/L u|lGy dl:tissf] cfwf/ efudf yfO/f]lS;g
Kof/fyfO/f]lS;g
@= yfO/f]O8 u|lGy 3f6F Lsf] cufl8sf] efu Pl8«glng
OG;'lng Un'sfug
#= Kof/fyfO/f]O8 3f6F Ldf yfO/f]O8 u|lGysf] k5fl8
6:] 6f]:6/] f]g
$= Pl8g« n u|lGy lduf{}nfsf] dflyNnf] efudf cfO] :6«fh] ]g (oestrogen)
kf| ]h:] 6«f]g (progestrone)
%= Kofªl\ j|mofh cfdfzosf] k5fl8 efudf
8o\ 'l8gdsf] glhs}

^= uf]gf8;\ k]6sf] bfofF afofF efudf
(a) cG8sfi] f (testis)
(b) cG8fzo

lk6\o6' /L u|lGy (Pituitary gland)

lk6\o6' /L ul| Gy s]/fpsf] bfgf h:t} cfsf/sf]
xG' 5 . of] u|lGy vKk/leq dl:tissf] tNnf]
efu xfOkfy] fnfd;sf] tnk6\l6 /xs] f] x'G5 .

of] uf]nfsf/ x'G5 . o;sf] Jof; 1 cm / tf}n
0.5 u|fd x'G5 . d'Votof o;n] pTk]/| s xdf{g]
(stimulating hormone) / j[l4 xdf]g{ (growth
hormone) pTkfbg ub{5 . o;af6 lgl:sg]
xdf{]gx¿sf] d'Vo sfo{ zf/Ll/s tyf dfgl;s
jl[ 4 ug'{sf ;fy} c¿ ul| Gyx¿nfO{ pQl] ht
ug{' klg xf] . o;n] c¿ ;a} ul| Gyx¿sf] sfo{
;+ofh] g / lgoGq0f ug]{ u5{ . To;}n] o;nfO{
gfOs] ul| Gy (master gland) klg elgG5 .

jl[ 4 xdf{]gn] dflg;sf] zf/Ll/s tyf dfgl;s jl[ 4 u5{ . olb pSt xdf]{gsf] pTkfbg sd eof]
eg] dflg; k8' \sf] x'G5 . h;nfO{ 8j\ flkm{Hd (dwarfism) elgG5 . z/L/df of] xdfg]{ sf] pTkfbg
w]/} eof] eg] dflg; lgs} cUnf], bA' nf,] kftnf] / lgal{ nof] xG' 5 . of] cj:yfnfO{ hfOulG6Hd
(gigantism) elgG5 .

yfO/fO] 8 u|lGy (Thyroid gland)

yfO/fO] 8 u|lGy kt' nL cfsf/sf] x'G5 . of] u|lGy 3fF6Ldf Zjf;gnLsf] bfofF / afoF f efudf Ps

Pscf6] f nf]a kml} nP/ /xs] f] xG' 5 . tL b'O{cf6] f nfa] x¿nfO{ ;o+ fh] L tGt'sf] kftnf] lemNnLn]

hf8] s] f] x'G5 . of] ul| Gyn] tLg lsl;dsf xdf]{gx¿ pTkfbg u5,{ tL xg' \ M yfO/fl] S;g (T4),
6f« Ocfof]8fy] fO/fl] gg (T3) / SoflN;6f]lgg .

lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff ( 73

yfO/fO] 8 u|lGyn] pTkfbg ug{] yfO/fl] S;g xdf]{gn] z/L/sf sfi] fx¿sf lj|mofdf c;/ kfg'{sf ;fy}
zf/Ll/s jl[ 4 / ljsf; u5{ . yfO/fl] S;g xdfg]{ df 65% cfofl] 8g x'G5 . To;}n] xfd|f] vfgfdf
cfofl] 8gsf] dfqf ;dfj]z ugk{' 5{ . xfn vfg] gg' df cfof]l8g ld;fOPsf] xG' 5 . cfof]l8gsf]
sdLn] yfO/f]O8 u|lGy ;l' GgP/ cfp5F . o;nfO{ unufF8 -goitre_ elgG5 . yfO/fl] S;g xdf]g{
sdL ePdf zf/Ll/s tyf dfgl;s ba' {ntf x'g], 5fnf ;V' vf xg' ,] sd kl;gf cfpg,] afn] L
n6\kl6g] / :j/ wf]b|f] xg' ] x'G5 . yfO/f]lS;g xdfg]{ a9L ePdf pkfkrfog lj|mofb/ a9\5 . cTolws
kl;gf cfpg], a9L ef]s nfUg], tf}n 36g\ ], dfgl;s cl:y/tf xg' ,] cfFvf aflx/ lg:sg] cflb
x'G5 . SoflN;6f]lgg xdfg{] n] /utdf a9L ePsf] SoflN;odnfO{ xf8df nu]/ y'kf5{ (deposite) /
/utdf o;sf] dfqf ;Gtn' g u5{ .

Kof/fyfO/f]O8 ul| Gy (Parathyroid gland)

Kof/fyfO/fO] 8 u|lGy yfO/f]O8 u|lGysf] k5fl8 /xs] f]
xG' 5 . logLx¿ rf/cf6] f x'G5g\ . logLx¿ 6 mm
;Dd nfdf] / 50 mg tfn} ePsf x'G5g\ . o;n] Kof/
fydf{g] gfds xdf]g{ pTkfbg

u5{ . o;n] /ut / xf8df SoflN;od cfbfg kb| fg
u5{ / /utdf SoflN;odsf] dfqf jl[ 4 u5{ . of]
xdf]g{ a9L ePdf 6o\ 'd/ / lduf{n} fdf kTy/L x'G5 . of]
xdf]g{ sd ePdf /utdf SoflN;odsf] dfqf 365\ ,
df;+ kz] L vD' rG5 . o; cj:yfnfO{ l66fgL (tetany)
elgG5 .

Pl8«gn u|lGy (Adrenal gland)

Pl8g« n u|lGy k|Tos] lduf}{nfsf] dflyNnf] efudf Ps Pscf6] f
xG' 5g\ . Pl8g« n ul| Gyn] Pl8«glng xdf{]g / sl6;{ g xdf{g]
pTkfbg u5{ . Pl8g« lng xdf{g] n] cfsl:ds vt/f cj:yfdf
;fdgf ug]{ agfpF5 . sl6;{ g xdf]{gn] ;S] ; xdf]g{ sf] sfd
klg u5{ . Pl8g« lng xdf]g{ a9L ePdf /Strfk a9\g] xG' 5 .
Pl8g« lng xdf{g] sd ePdf sdhf/] x'g], /Strfk 36\g,]
lrgLsf] dfqf sd xg' ], jfsjfsL nfUg] xG' 5 .

Kofªl\ jm| ofh (Pancrease)

Kofªl\ j|mofh dflg;sf] z/L/sf] ;ae} Gbf 7'nf] ul| GydWo]sf] Ps xf] . of] u|lGy cfdfzo k5fl8k6\
l6 8\o'8]gdsf] nk' df /x]sf] x'G5 . of] 12-15 cm nfdf] x'G5 . o;n] Kofªl\ jm| ofl6s /; /
xdfg]{ x¿ b'j} pTkfbg ug{] xg' fn] o;nfO{ ldl>t u|lGy elgG5 . o;n] pTkfbg ug{] Kofª\
lj|mofl6s /;df ljleGg lsl;dsf OGhfOdx¿ xG' 5g\ . oL OGhfOdx¿n] kfrgdf dbt u5{g\ .

74 lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff (

Kofªl\ jm| ofhn] pTkfbg ug]{ Un'sfug / OG;l' ngn]
Ps csf{sf] ljk/Lt sfd u5{g\ . To;}n] logLx¿nfO{
PG6fuf]lgl:6s xdfg]{ elgG5 . OG;'lngn] /utdf
Un'sf]hsf] dfqf lgoGq0f u5{ eg] Un'sfugn] /utdf
Un'sfh] sf] dfqf a9fpF5 .

z/L/df OG;'lng sdL ePdf /utdf Uns' f]hsf]

dfqf a95\ . o:tf] cj:yfnfO{ dw'dx] elgG5 . of]

cj:yfdf a9L ef]s nfUg,] ltvf{ nfUg], lk;fasf] lrq 5.31 Kofª\lj|mofh u|lGy

dfqf a9g\ ] xG' 5 . z/L/df OG;'lng a9L ePdf /utdf Un'sf]hsf] dfqf 365\ . h;n] ubf{

dflg;nfO{ rSs/ nfUg], 9Ng], dl:tis3ft cflb xG' 5 .

uf]gf8\; (Gonads)

lrq 5.32 ufg] f8;\

k?' ifdf xg' ] c08sf]if (testis) / dlxnfdf xg' ] c08fzo (ovary) nfO{ uf]gf8;\ elgG5 .

-s_ c08sfi] f (Testis)

k'?ifsf] :jm| f]6d (Scrotum) sf] bO' l{ t/ /xs] f bO' {cf]6f ;fgf ;fgf an h:tf ul| Gyx¿nfO{
c08sf]if elgG5 . o;n] jLo{ pTkfbg ug'{sf ;fy} 6:] 6f:] 6]/f]g (Testosterone) gfds xdf]g{
pTkfbg u5{ . pSt xdf]{gn] jLo{ pTkfbg ug]{ / låtLo n}ª\lus u'0fx¿ h:t} M bf/L, huF' f
cfpg] lnªu\ sf] jl[ 4 xg' ] / wfb] f| ] :j/ cfpg] cflbsf] ljsf;df dbt u5{ .

-v_ c08fzo (Ovary)

dlxnfsf] tNnf] k6] sf] b'jl} t/ ˆofnf]lkog gnL;uF } /xs] f b'O{cf6] f uf]gf8x¿nfO{ c08fzo
elgG5 . c08fzon] c08f pTkfbg ugs'{ f ;fy} O:6«fh] g] / kf| h] ]:6«fg] gfds ;]S; xdf{]g
pTkfbg u5{ . oL xdfg]{ x¿n] c08 pTkfbg / dlxnfdf b]lvg] n}ª\lus u0' fx¿sf] ljsf;
ug{ dbt u5g{ \ .

lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff ( 75

kl/of]hgf sfo{

gnLljxLg u|lGyx¿ ePsf >Jo b[Zo;fduL| cjnf]sg ugx'{ f;] \ / xfdf| ] z/L/df xg' ] ljleGg
OG8fj] m| fOg u|lGyx¿sf] cjl:yltsf] cjnfs] g u/L rf6{k]k/df lbPsf] tflnsfcg;' f/sf] ljj/0f
tof/ ug'{xf;] \ / sIffdf k|:tt' ugx'{ f;] \ .

j|m=; Uf|lGysf] gfd :yfg xdf{g] sfo{



5.4 jg:klt xdf]{g (Plant Hormone )

tkfO{Fx¿n] ljrf/ ug'{ ePsf] 5, < s] jg:kltx¿df x'g] ljleGg hLjg kl| j|mof ;~rfng
ugs{ f nflu hgfj/df h:t} xdf]g{ x¿ pTkfbg x'G5g\ xfn] f t <

la?jfsf] j[l4 ljsf; xg' , kmn nfUg, kmn kfSg, kmnaf6 lapx¿ aflx/ lgl:sgsf
nflu xdf{g] sf] cfjZostf k5{ . jg:kltx¿n] klg jftfj/0fk|lt hgfj/n] h:t} k|ltljm| of
b]vfp5F . jg:kltx¿n] u?' Tj, k|sfz, /;fog, :kz{tkm{ k|ltlj|mof b]vfpF5g\ . pbfx/0fsf
nfuL ;o" {d'vL kmn" k|sfzlt/ jl[ 4 xG' 5 . jg:kltx¿n] jftfj/0fLo pQ]hgf (stimulus)
kl| t k|ltljm| of bv] fpF5g\ . oL ;a} kl| tlj|mofx¿ jg:kltdf pTkfbg xg' ] xdfg{] x¿af6} ;Dej
xG' 5 . la?jfdf klg hgfj/x¿df h:t} Unf08'n/ tGtx' ¿ xG' 5g\ h;n] xdf{]gx¿ >fj
u5g{ \ . xdfg{] sf] ;xfotfn] Pp6f sf]ifaf6 csf]{ sfi] fdf ;~rf/ u5g{ \ . jg:klt xdf{g] x¿
sg' } kf]ifs tŒjx¿ xfO] gg\ . logLx¿ /f;folgs kbfy{x¿af6 ag]sf ;j+ fbbftf x'g\ .
jg:kltx¿nfO{ ljzi] f ;dodf, ljz]if efudf ljz]if lsl;dsf] xdf{g] sf] cfjZostf k5{ .

jg:kltsf] jl[ 4 ljsf;df jfx\o -jftfj/0fLo_ / leqL tŒjx¿n] k|efj kfl//x]sf] xG' 5 .
leqL tŒjx¿dWo] xdf]{g k|dv' tŒj xf] h:fn] la?jfsf] j[l4 ljsf;nfO{ k|ToIf ke| fj kfb5{ .
la?jfsf] j[l4 ljsf;df ;xof]u ug{] xdf]g{ x¿nfO{ jg:klt jl[ 4 xdfg{] elgG5 . lualnG{ ;
(Gibberlins), clShg (Auxin), af| l;gf:] 6]/f]O8 (Brassinosteroid), OyfOlng (Ethylene),
;fO6fs] fOlgg (Cytokinin) cflb jg:klt j[l4 xdf{g] x'g\ .

jl[ 4 xdf{g] sf sfo{x¿

jl[ 4 xdf{]gsf] dV' o sfo{ la?jfx¿sf] j[l4 ljsf; ug'{ xf] . ;fdfGotof jl[ 4 xdf{]gx¿
la?jfsf] jl[ 4 If]q h:t} 8f7F / h/fsf] 6K' kf]df pTkfbg x'G5g\ . cShLg xdf]{g 8fF7sf] 6'Kkfd] f
pTkfbg x'G5 . o;n] la?jfsf] 8fF7sf] 6'Kkf]nfO{ ks| fzlt/ j[l4 xg' ;xof]u u5{ h;nfO{
kmf6] f]6«lkHd\ (phototropism) elgG5 . o;n] Plksn 8f]ldgG] ;\ (Apical dominance) sfod

76 lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff (

ug{ klg dbt u5{ . ;fO6f]sfOlgg xdf{g] h/fsf] 6'Kkf], ODa|Lof] / kmnx¿df k|z:t dfqfdf
kfOG5 . oL xdf{g] x¿n] la?jfsf] j[l4 ljsf;df dbt u5g{ \ .

jg:klt j[l4 xdf{g] sf pkofl] utfx¿

1. l6:o' sNr/ ubf{ sl[ qd dfWoddf clShg / ;fO6f]sfOlgg xdf]{g ld;fOG5 . h; dWo]
clS;h xdfg{] n] h/fsf] jl[ 4 ug{ dbt u5{ eg] ;fO6fs] fOlgg (cytokinin) xdf{g] n]
sf08sf] j[l4 ug{ dbt u5{ . To;}n] clS;g / ;fO6fs] fOlgg xdf]g{ ;Gtl' nt ¿kdf
ldnfO{ /fVgk' 5{ h;n] ubf{ la?jfx¿sf] j[l4 ljsf; l56f] x'G5 .

2. u'0f:t/Lo kmnkmn" tyf t/sf/Lx¿ pTkfbg ug,{ ad] f;} dL t/sf/Lx¿ pTkfbg ugs{ f
nflu klg oL xdf]g{ x¿n] dxŒjk"0f{ el" dsf v]N5g\ .

kl/ofh] gf sfo{

glhss} f] afuafgL jf s[lif cg';Gwfg If]q ed| 0f ug{x' f;] \ . ;DalGwt lj1sf] ;xof]udf ko| fu] xg' ]
jg:klt xdf{g] x¿, To:fsf] k|of]u / o;af6 xg' ] kmfObfx¿sf] tYofªs\ ;ªs\ ng u/L k|ltj]bg
tof/ ug{x' f];\ / sIffdf k|:t't ugx{' f;] \ .

cEof; 77

!= tnsf k|Zgx¿sf] ;xL ljsNkdf l7s lrxg\ -√_ nufpgx' f;] \ M
-s_ /utdf lrgLsf] dfqf lgoGq0f ug{] xdfg{] sg' xf] <
-c_ yfO/fl] S;g -cf_ OG;l' ng
-O_ kf/fydfg]{ -O{_ O:6«fh] g
-v_ s'g xdf{]gn] kmn ksfpg] sfo{ u5{ <
-c_ OyfOlng -cf_ lua{lng
-O_ ;fO6fs] fOlgg -O{_ clShg
-u_ Apical dominance s'g xdf{]gn] ubf{ xG' 5 <
-c_ ;fO6fs] fOlgg -cf_ cflShg
-O_ OyfOlng -O_{ lujln{g
-3_ gfOs] u|lGy s'g ul| GynfO{ elgG5 <
-c_ yfO/f]O8 u|lGy -cf_ c>' u|lGy
-O_ lk6o\ 6' /L u|lGy -O_{ Pl8g« n ul| Gy

lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (

-ª_ k?' ifTjsf] ljsf; tyf lgoGq0f ug{] xdf]g{ s'g xf] <
-c_ kf]| h:] 6/] f]g -cf_ yfO/f]lS;g
-O_ 6:] 6f]:6]/f]g -O_{ O:6«f]hg
-r_ Kofªl\ jm| ofhnfO{ lsg ldl>t ul| Gy elgG5 <
-c_ vfgf krfpg] /; pTkfbg ug]{ ePsfn] -cf_ xdf{g] pTkfbg ug]{ ePsfn]
-O_ OGhfOd / xdfg]{ pTkfbg ug]{ ePsfn]
-O{_ cGo ul| GynfO{ lgoGq0f ug{] ePsfn]
-5_ kmn kfSg] / k'/fgf kftx¿ Efmg]{ ljm| of sg' xdf]g{ ;Fu ;DalGwt 5 <
-c_ OyfOlng -cf_ :ffO6fs] fOlgg
-O_ luj/lng -O{_ cflS;hg
@= sf/0f lbg'xf];\ M
-s_ Koflª\jm| ofhnfO{ ldl>t ul| Gy elgG5 .

-v_ lk6\o'6/L ul| GynfO{ gfOs] uG' yL (master gland) elgG5 .
-u_ xdf]{gnfO{ /f;folgs :fj+ fbbftf elgG5 .
-3_ Ufns' fufg] / OG;'lngn] Ps csf{ lj?4 sfo{ ub5{ g\ .
#= km/s nV] gx' f;] \ M
-s_ gnLo'St u|lGy / gnLljxLg ul| Gy
-v_ ;fO6fs] fOlgg / clS;hg xdf{g]
-u_ k/] fyfO/fO] 8 / yfO/fO] 8 u|lGy
$= tnsf kZ| gsf] pQ/ nV] g'xf;] \
-s_ u|lGy egs] f] s] xf] < o;sf ks| f/nfO{ pbfx/0f;lxt rf6d{ f k|:tt' ug'x{ f;] \ .
-v_ jg:klt xdf]{gx¿ s] s] x'g\, n]Vg'xf];\ .
-u_ dfgj z/L/df kfOg] ljleGg gnLljxLg ul| Gy b]lvg] lrq sf]g{'xf];\ .
-3_ lk6\o'6/L ul| Gysf af/]df 5f6] s/Ldf j0f{g ug{'xf;] \ .
-ª_ jg:klt xdfg]{ sf] ;"rL tof/ ug'x{ f];\ .
-r_ jg:klt xdf{]gsf] pkofl] utfx¿ n]Vgx' f;] \ .
-5_ Kofª\ljm| ofhsf] lrq;lxt j0fg{ ug'{xf];\ .

78 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (

-h_ cfjZoseGbf a9L dfqfdf xdfg{] sf] pTkfbg ePdf z/L/df s:tf] c;/ k5{ <
pbfx/0f;lxt j0fg{ ugx'{ f];\ .
-em_ lbOPsf] lrqsf] cjnf]sg u/L tnsf k|Zgx¿sf] pQ/ n]Vgx' f;] \ .

-c_ lrqdf bv] fOPsf efux¿sf] gfd nV] g'xf;] \ .
-cf_ kT| os] efun] pTkfbg ug]{ xdf]g{ sf] gfd /
Pp6f Pp6f sfo{ nV] g'xf];\ .
-O_ l66fgLsf nflu sg' xdf{g] ;DalGwt xG' 5 <

lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( 79

^ k|s[lt / jftfj/0f
(Nature and Environment)

xfd|f] j/k/ y'k}| ;hLj tyf lghLj{ j:t'x¿ /x]sf xG' 5g\ . ;hLj j:t'x¿cGtu{t cfv“ fn] bV] g
g;lsg] ;"Id hLjb]lv dflg;nufotsf cGo hGt' tyf jg:kltx¿ kb{5g\ . o;sf cnfjf df6f],
xfjf, kfgL, ks| fz cflb lghLj{ j:t'x¿ klg jftfj/0fdf /xs] f x'G5g\ .
xfd|f j/k/ ePsf oL ;Dk0" f{ j:t'x¿sf] ;du| ¿knfO{ s] elgG5 xfn] f / logLx¿larsf] ;DaGw
s:tf] x'G5 xfn] f, 5nkmn ug'{xf;] \ .
6.1 kfl/l:ylts k4lt (Ecosystem)

lj|mofsnfk 6.1 lrq cjnf]sg u/L tn lbOPsf kZ| gx¿df 5nkmn ug'{xf;] \ M

lrq 6.1 hnLo Kffl/l:ylts k4lt lrq 6.1 ======================

lrq 6.2 :ynLo kfl/l:ylts k4lt

-c_ lrqdf s'g s'g 7fpsF f] kfl/l:ylts k4lt bv] fOPsf] 5 <

-cf_ oL bj' } kfl/l:ylts k4ltdf kg]{ hl} js tŒjx¿ s] s] 5g\ <

-O_ oL b'j} kfl/l:ylts k4ltdf kg{] chl} js tŒjx¿ s] s] 5g\ <

-O{_ lrqdf bv] fOPsf kfl/l:ylts k4ltdf s] s] km/s kfOG5 <

-p_ lrqdf hl} js / ch}ljs tŒjlar s:tf] ;DaGw /xs] f] 5 <

xl/of jg:kltn] df6faf6 kfgL, nj0f, jfo'd08naf6 sfag{ 8fOcS;fO8af6 k|fKt u/L

;"o{sf] ks| fzsf] pkl:yltdf kftdf /x]sf] xl/ts0fdf vfgf agfpF5 . jg:kltn] tof/

u/s] f] vfgf hgfj/x¿n] pkef]u u5{g\ . hLjx¿n] :ff; kmg] { jftfj/0faf6 clS;hg

lnG5g\ / sfag{ 8fOcS;fO8 UofF; kmfN5g\, h'g la?jfn] vfgf agfpg k|of]u u5g{ \ .

80 lj1fg tyf k|ljlw M sIff (

kfv] /Ldf x'g] hnsD' eL tyf cGo hnLo jg:kltx¿n] kf]v/Ldf ePsf] kfgL, df6faf6
cfjZos tŒjx¿ ;f;] / lnG5g\ . oL ;a} hLjx¿ d/]kl5 logLx¿sf] z/L/ ljR5]bsåf/f
sl' xG5 / ;;fgf c0f'df kl/0ft xG' 5 h:fnfO{ la?jfn] ;f];/ lnG5g\ . o;/L jftfj/0fdf
Pp6f rj|m rln/xs] f] x'G5 h'g rjm| df hGt,' la?jfx¿ / jftfj/0flar cGt/;DaGw /xs] f]
xG' 5 / Ps csfd{ f lg{e/ /x]sf xG' 5g\ . o;sf ;fy} jftfj/0fdf ePsf ;hLj / lghL{j
j:tx' ¿lar klg cGt/;DaGw /xs] f] x'G5 eg] hGt' tyf jg:kltlar klg Ps csfd{ f
lge/{ /xs] f] x'G5 . Pp6} ;femf jftfj/0fdf /x]/ Pscsf{df lge{/ xg' ] ;hLjx¿sf] ;dx" nfO{
;db' fo (Community) elgG5 . o; lsl;dsf] k0" f{ ;db' fo / ef}lts jftfj/0flarsf]
cGt/;DaGw lg/Gt/ ¿kdf ;~rfng eO/x]sf] x'G5 .

;hLjx¿ / ltgsf jl/kl/ /x]sf] k|sfz, tfk, kfgL, df6f], xfjf cflb ldn]/ jftfj/0f
aGb5 . jftfj/0fsf tŒjx¿ / ;hLjx¿lar kT| oIf jf ck|ToIf ¿kdf ;DaGw /xs] f] xG' 5 .
jftfj/0fdf ePsf ;hLjx¿ / ef}lts jftfj/0flarsf] lg/Gt/ tyf :yfoL ¿kdf rln/xg]
cGt/;DaGwnfO{ kfl/l:ylts k4lt (Ecosystem) elgG5 .

kfl/l:ylts k4ltsf af/d] f cWoog ug]{ lj1fgsf] zfvfnfO{ kfl/l:ylts lj1fg (Ecology)
elgG5 . a]nfotL Osf]nf]lh:6 (Ecologyst) P=hL= 6fG:nL (A.G Tansley) n] ;g\ 1935 df
;jk{ y| d kfl/l:ylts k4ltsf] cjwf/0ff ljsf; u/s] f lyP .

h}ljs tŒjx¿ / chl} js tŒjx¿ kfl/l:ylts k4ltsf k|dv' efux¿ x'g\ . h;nfO{

kfl/l:ylts k4ltdf c;/ kfg]{ ;hLj / lghL{j sf/s tŒjx¿ klg elgG5 .

hl} js kIfcGtu{t jg:klt,

dflg;, kzk' G5L, hLjf0f'

cflb ljleGg lsl;dsf

;hLjx¿ kb5{ g\ h;nfO{

;d'bfo elgG5 . ch}ljs

kIfx¿cGtu{t df6f,] k|sfz,

xfjf, kfgL, cfb|tf h:tf

ljleGg lsl;dsf] lghL{j

j:tx' ¿ tyf efl} ts tŒjx¿

kb{5g\ . kfl/l:ylts k4lt

cGtut{ sf h}ljs / chl} js

kIfx¿lar Ps lsl;dsf]

zlSt / cGo j:tx' ¿sf]

lg/Gt/ cfbfg kb| fg

eO/xG5 . o; lsl;dsf] lrq 6.3 hl} js / chl} js tŒjx?larsf] cGt/;DaGw

zlSt kj| fxn] ubf{ g} kfl/l:ylts k4ltdf ;Gtn' g eO/xG5 .

lj1fg tyf k|ljlw lzIff M sIff ( 81

kfl/l:ylts k4ltsf tŒjx¿ (Factors of ecosystem)

;a} lsl;dsf kfl/l:ylts k4ltdf ch}ljs / h}ljs u/L b'O{ k|sf/sf tŒjx¿ xG' 5g\ . tL
tŒjx¿sf] j0fg{ lgDgfg;' f/ /xs] f] 5 M

!= ch}ljs tŒjx¿ (Abiotic factors)

chl} js tŒjcGtut{ xfjf, ;f}o{ pmhf,{ tfkj|md, df6f,] kfgL, cfbt| f cflb kb5{ g\ . ch}ljs
tŒj / h}ljs tŒjx¿ Ps csfd{ f lge/{ / cGt/;DalGwt x'G5g\ . chl} js tŒjx¿nfO{
lj:tt[ ¿kdf lgDgfg';f/ pNnv] ug{ ;lsG5 M

-s_ xfjf (Air)

chl} js tŒjx¿ dWo] xfjf Ps dxŒjk0" f{ tŒj xf] . jfo'd08ndf ljleGg lsl;dsf
Uof;F x¿ h:t} gfO6f« ]hg, clS;hg, sfa{g 8fxfOcS;fO8, kfgLsf] afkm cflb /xs] f
xG' 5g\ . xl/of jg:kltx¿n] vfgf agfpbF f sfag{ 8fOcS;fO8 lnG5g\ / clS;hg
UoFf; kmfN5g\ . dflg;nufot jg:klt tyf cGo hLj hGtn' ] Zjf; lnbF f clS;hg
UofF; lnG5g / sfag{ 8fOcS;fO8 kmfN5g\ . o;/L hLjhGt' / jg:kltx¿lar
cfk;df ;DaGw sfod /x]sf] x'G5 . gfO6f« ]hg tŒj jg:kltx¿df Snf/] fl] kmn agfpg
cfjZos k5{ h:fsf] dbtn] la?jfx¿n] k|sfz ;Z+ ni] 0f ljm| ofaf6 vfgf agfp5F .
jfod' 08ndf ePsf] gfO6f« h] g 3n' gzLn gfO6«]6 of}lusdf kl/0ft x'G5 / la?jfsf]
h/fn] ;f];]/ lnG5 . To;} u/L kfgLsf] afkm jfo'd08ndf /xgfn] jfo'd08ndf cfb|tf
agfp5F . To;}n] xfjf kfl/l:ylts k4ltsf] Ps dxŒjk"0f{ / geO{ gxg' ] tŒj xf] .

-v_ ;fo} { pmhf{ (Solar energy)

;fo} { pmhfn{ ] jftfj/0fdf kfOg] af6] la?jf, hgfj/ / cGo hLjhGts' f] hLjg k4ltdf
dxŒjk0" f{ e"ldsf vN] b5 . ;"oa{ f6 kf| Kt xg' ] k|sfz / tfk zlStn] ;hLjx¿sf]
hLjgdf dxŒjk0" f{ el" dsf v]n]sf xG' 5 . ;fo} { pmhf{sf] pkl:yltdf af6] la?jfx¿n]
k|sfz ;Z+ n]if0f kl| so| fåf/f cfˆgf] vfgf tof/ u5g{ \ . ef}uf]lns sf/0fn] ubf{ ;a}
:yfgdf ;dfg ¿kdf ;f}o{ pmhf{ kf| Kt x'Fb}g . o;n] ubf{ ljleGg :yfgsf] xfjfkfgL,
ToxfF x'g] jif{fsf] dfqf tyf vfBfGg pTkfbg cflbdf leGgtf kfOG5 . To;}n] ljleGg
7fpFdf kfOg] hgfj/ tyf af]6la?jf klg km/s km/s x'G5g\ . ;"o{af6 k|fKt x'g] tfkn]
jfod' G8nsf] tfkjm| d ;Gt'lnt /fVg dbt u5{ . o;n] hLjx¿sf] hLjg kl| jm| of
;xh agfpF5 . tfkj|mdsf cfwf/df km/s km/s 7fpF df km/s km/s lsl;dsf la?jf
pd|G5g\ . ;o" a{ f6 cfpg] tfkn] hnrj|m sfod ug{ dxŒjk"0f{ el" dsf v]ns] f] x'G5 .

-u_ kfgL (Water)

hGt' tyf jg:kltx¿sf nflu kfgL clt cfjZos tŒj xf] . af6] la?jfx¿df xg' ]
ks| fz ;Z+ ni] f0f k|lj|mofsf nflu kfgL Ps dxŒjk0" f{ tŒj xf] . To:t} u/L hGt' tyf
jg:kltsf] z/L/ lgdf{0fdf kfgLsf] cfjZostf kb{5 . dflg;, kzk' G5L, cflbn]

82 lj1fg tyf k|ljlw M sIff (

kfv] /L, tfn, s'jf, em/gf gbL tyf ;db' | cflbsf] kfgL cfˆgf] hLjgsf nflu k|of]u
u5{g\ . h}ljs j:ts' f] hLjg ;~rfng ugs{ f nflu kfgLsf] dxŒjk"0f{ e"ldsf /xG5 .
hGt' jf jg:kltsf] z/L/df kfgLsf] lglZrt dfqf xG' 5 . o; lsl;dsf] kfgLsf]
dfqfnfO{ hLjx¿n] vfB kbfy{sf dfWodaf6 jf zf]if0f u//] cfk"lt{ ub{5g\ . z/L/df
x'g] ljleGg /f;folgs lj|mof ;~rfng ug{sf] nflu kfgLsf] cfjZos kb5{ , h:t} M
zf/Ll/s pkfkRfog kl| j|mofsf nflu hLjhGt'nfO{ kfgLsf] dfqf km/s km/s ¿kdf
rflxG5 . kfgL gePsf 7fpFdf hgfj/ tyf jg:kltnfO{ hLjg hLpg ufxf| ] xG' 5 .

-3_ df6f] (Soil)

ch}ljs tŒjdWo] df6f] klg dxŒjk"0f{ tŒj xf] . df6fd] f vlgh tŒjx¿, k|fªu\ fl/s
kbfy,{ hLjf0f' tyf /f;folgs tŒjx¿ h:t} gfO6f« ]hg, km:kmf]/;, kf]6fl;od cflb
xG' 5g\ hg' af6] la?jfsf nflu cfjZos xG' 5 . af]6la?jfx¿n] hldgaf6 kfgL, vlgh
h:tf kbfyx{ ¿ lnG5g\ . oL tŒjx¿n] af]6la?jf xs' {g tyf j[l4sf nflu ;xof]u
u5{g\ . la?jfaf6 pTkfbg ePsf cGg, ;fukft, kmnkm"n, 3f;F nufotsf j:t'x¿nfO{
dflg; tyf cGo hGt'x¿n] cfjZostfcg';f/ pkef]u u5g{ \ . dflg;nufotsf
hLjx¿sf] jf;:yfg klg df6fdf g} /xs] f] xG' 5 .

@= hl} js tŒjx¿ (Biotic factors)

h}ljs tŒjx¿n] hLj ;db' fonfO{ hgfpF5 . kfl/l:ylts k4ltdf ePsf jg:klt, hgfj/,
kmGhfO,{ AofS6l] /of tyf clt ;"Id hLjf0fx' ¿nfO{ h}ljs tŒj elgG5 . oL ;Dk"0f{ hLJfx¿lar
cGt/;DaGw /xs] f] xG' 5 . cfˆgf] ;d'bfodf x'g] ;hLjx¿sf] ;DaGwn] jftfj/0fnfO{ c;/
kf/s] f] xG' 5 eg] cfkm" klg kT| oIf / ckT| oIf ¿kdf k|efljt ePsf] x'G5 . vfgf, jf:f:yfg,
kl/jxgsf h'g;s' } cj:yfsf nflu ;DaGw :yflkt xG' 5g\ . hLj ;db' fon] pTkfbs
(producer) pkefS] tf (consumer) / ljR5b] s (decomposer) h:Tff kIfnfO{ ;d6] 5\ .
kfl/l:ylts k4ltdf zlSt kj| fxsf cfwf/df hLj ;d'bfonfO{ lgDdfg;' f/ juL{s/0f ug{
;lsG5 M

-s_ pTkfbs (Producer)

xl/ts0foS' t Pssfi] fLo, ax'sfi] fLo tyf af]6la?jfx¿ h:fn] cfˆgf] vfgf cfkmF} tof/
u5{g\ To;nfO{ pTkfbs elgG5 . ;fOgf] AofS6l] /of, 8fOP6d cflb kmfO6fK] nfª6\ gsf
pbfx/0f xg' \ . logLx¿n] ks| fz ;+Zn]if0f lj|mofåf/f vfgf agfpF5g\ . vfgf agfpg]
k|lj|mofdf pTkfbsn] ;f}o{ zlSt jf /f;folgs zlStsf] k|of]u u/L chl} js j:t'nfO{
h}ljs j:t'df kl/0ft ub{5 . o;nfO{ dflyNnf] txsf hLjx¿n] pkef]u u5{g\ .
pTkfbsx¿ vfgfsf nflu c¿ ;hLjdf e/ kb}{gg\ t;y{ logLx¿nfO{ :jkf]lift hLj
klg elgG5 . kf]v/Ldf x'g] kmfO6fK] nfª6\ g, n]p, 3f;F kft / cGo ;a} lsl;dsf xl/of
af6] la?jf pTkfbs xg' \ . kfl/l:ylts k4ltdf logLx¿sf] ;ªV\ of ;a}eGbf a9L x'G5 .

lj1fg tyf k|ljlw lzIff M sIff ( 83

-v_ pkefS] tf (Consumer)

hLjx¿sf] ;db' fodf cfˆgf] vfgfsf nflu pTkfbsdf e/ kg]{ hLjnfO{ pkefS] tf
elgG5 . vfgfsf cfwf/df pkef]StfnfO{ lgDglnlvt tLg ;d"xdf ljefhg ug{
;lsG5 M

-c_ kf| ylds pkef]Stf (Primary consumer)

vfgfsf nflu jg:kltx¿df e/ kg]{ ;hLjnfO{ k|fylds pkefS] tf elgG5 .
oL ;hLjx¿ zfsfxf/L x'G5g\ . jg:kltdf e/ kg]{ xG' 5g\ . oL ;hLjcGtu{t
h'Knfª6\ g, ls/f km6o\ fª\u|f, v/fof], ufO{, eF;} L, xl/0f cflb kb{5g\ .

-cf_ låtLo pkefQ] f (Secondary consumer)

cfˆgf] vfgfsf nflu kf| ylds pkef]Stfdf e/ kg]{ ;hLjx¿nfO låtLo pkef]Stf
elgG5 . ;fgf df5f, :ofn, Eofut' f cflb låtLo pkef]Stfsf pbfx/0f x'g\ .

-O_ t[tLo pkefQ] f (Tertiary consumer)

kfl/l:ylts k4ltdf låtLo pkef]StnfO{ vfP/ afFRg] ;hLjnfO{ t[tLo pkefS] tf
elgG5 . oL hgfj/x¿ pRr ju{sf df;+ fxf/L x'g\ . af3, l;+x, 7n' f]df5f -Xj]n_,
ufx] L cflb t];|f] pkef]Stfsf pbfx/0f x'g\ .

-u_ ljR5]bs (Decomposer)

df6fdf xg' ] AofS6]l/of, kmGhfO{ tyf ;"Id hLjx¿ ljR5]bs (decomposer) xg' \ . oL
;I" d hLjf0fn' ] d/s] f hLjsf] z/L/nfO{ s'xfpg], unfpg] sfo{ ub{5g\ / ;/n c0f'df
kl/0ft u/L df6f]df ldnfpF5g\ . AofS6l] /of tyf kmGhfOn] d/]sf hGt' tyf jg:kltsf]
z/L/nfO{ ;/n c0fd' f 6s' \ofO{ df6fd] f ldnfp5g\ / jftfj/0fnfO{ ;kmf agfpF5g\ .
To;n} ] logLx¿nfO{ natural scavenger elgG5 . ljR5]bsåf/f df6fdf ld;fPsf
kf}li6s tŒjx¿nfO{ jg:kltx¿n] ;f;] ]/ lnG5g\ .

kfl/l:ylts k4ltsf ks| f/ (Types of ecosystem)

d'Votof kfl/l:ylts k4ltnfO{ lgDgfg';f/ juL{s/0f ug{ ;lsG5 M

kfl/l:ylts k4lt

:ynLo kfl/l:ylts k4lt hnLo kfl/l:ylts k4lt
rp/sf] kfl/l:ylts k4lt kf]v/Lsf] kfl/l:ylts k4lt
hª\UfNfsf] kfl/l:ylts k4lt tfnsf] kfl/l:ylts k4lt
Df?Ef"ldsf] kfl/l:ylts k4lt ;db' s| f] kfl/l:ylts k4lt

84 lj1fg tyf kl| jlw M sIff (

!= :ynLo kfl/l:ylts k4lt (Terrestrial ecosystem)

kY[ jLsf] PsltxfO efu hldgn] 9fs]sf] 5 . hldgsf] kfl/l:ylts k4ltnfO{ ljleGg
lsl;dsf xfjf kfgL e"agf]6n] c;/ k'¥ofpF5 . log} ea" gf]6 tyf xfjf kfgLsf] c;dfg
ljt/0fsf sf/0fn] km/s km/s kfl/l:ylts k4ltsf] l;h{gf ePsf] kfOG5 . hldgdf
ePsf chl} js tyf hl} js tŒjx¿larsf] cGt/;DaGwaf6 ag]sf] k4ltnfO{ :ynLo kfl/
l:ylts k4lt elgG5 . o; k|sf/sf] kfl/l:ylts k4ltcGtut{ rp/sf] kfl/l:ylts k4lt,
hªu\ nsf] kfl/l:ylts k4lt, d?e"ldsf] kfl/l:ylts k4lt cflb kb5{ g\ . oL kfl/l:ylts
k4ltx¿dWo] oxfF rp/sf] kfl/l:ylts k4ltsf] af/]df j0f{g ul/Psf] 5 .

rp/sf] kfl/l:ylts k4lt (Grassland ecosystem)

v'nf kmfF6 tyf rp/df hl} js / chl} js tŒjx¿larsf] cGt/;DaGwaf6 ags] f] kfl/l:ylts
k4lt g} rp/sf] kfl/l:ylts k4lt xf] . o;df x'g] ch}ljs / h}ljs tŒjx¿nfO{ lgDgcg;' f/
pNnv] ug{ ;lsG5 M

-s_ ch}ljs tŒjx¿ (Abiotic factor)

rp/sf] kfl/l:ylts k4ltcGtut{ kg]{

ljleGg lsl;dsf chl} js tŒjx¿df

xfjf, df6f], vlgh kbfy,{ ;f}o{ pmhf{,

cfbt| f, kfgL cflb kb5{ g\ . oL

ljljw tŒjx¿cGtu{t la?jfnfO{ clt

cfjZos kg]{ tŒj kfgL xf] . la?jfn]

kfgL / xfjfaf6 sfag{ 8fOcS;fO8sf] lrq 6.4 rp/sf] kfl/:ylts k4lt
ko| f]u u/L ;fo} { pmhf{sf] pkl:yltdf

vfgf agfpg] ub{5g\ . o; kfl/l:ylts k4ltsf ;Dk0" f{ hLljt j:tx' ¿n] Zjf;k|Zjf; ubf{

xfjfdf ePsf] clS;hg lng] / sfag{ 8fOcS;fO8 kmfNg] ub{5g\ . o;sf ;fy} rp/sf]

kfl/l:y2lts k4ltsf ;Dk"0f{ hLjx¿sf] cf>o :yn df6f] xf] . df6fdf ePsf nj0f,

kfgL la?jfn] ;f];/] lnG5 . o;/L rp/sf] kfl/l:ylts k4ltdf chl} js tŒjx¿n] h}ljs

tŒjx¿lar cGt/;DaGw sfod u/L ;Gtl' nt kfl/l:ylts k4lt sfod ug{ dbt ub5{ g\ .

-v_ h}ljs tŒjx¿ (Abiotic factors)

rp/df x'g] jg:klt / hLjx¿ ToxfsF f hl} js tŒjx¿ xg' \ . oL h}ljs tŒjx¿nfO{
pTkfbs, pkefS] tf / ljR5]bs u/L tLg efudf afFl8G5 h;sf] rrf{ tn ul/Psf] 5 M

-c_ pTkfbs (Producer) M

rp/df ePsf xl/of 3fF;kft, af6] la?jfx¿ pTkfbs x'g\ . oL pTkfbsx¿n]
kfgL, sfag{ 8fOcS;fO8, ;f}o{ pmhf{sf] dbtn] cfkm\gf] vfgf cfkm}F agfp5F g\ .
pTkfbsnfO{ :jkf]lift klg elgG5 .

lj1fg tyf kl| jlw lzIff M sIff ( 85

-cf_ pkefS] tf (Consumer)

rp/sf] kfl/l:ylts k4ltdf lgDglnlvt lsl;dsf pkefS] tfx¿ /xs] f xG' 5g\ M

kf| ylds pkef]Stf (Primary consumer)

rp/df ePsf xl/of 3f;F kft, emf/kft vfP/ afFRg] ls/f, km6ofªuf| , u8o\ f}nf,
v/fof,] du[ cflb klxnf] pkefS] tf x'g\ . oL k/kfl] ift x'G5g\ / cfˆgf] vfgfsf
nflu k|ToIf ¿kdf c¿df e/ k5g{ . logLx¿nfO{ zfsfxf/L hLj klg elgG5 .

låtLo pkef]Stf (Secondary consumer)

cfˆgf] vfgfsf nflu k|fylds pkefS] tfdf e/ kg{] ;hLjnfO{ lålto pkef]Stf
elgG5 . rp/sf] kfl/:ylts k4ltdf Eofu'tf, r/fr?' ªu\ L, :ofn, AjfF;f] cflb
låtLo pkef]Stf x'g\ . oL hgfj/x¿ cfˆgf] vfgfsf nflu klxnf] pkefS] tfdf
e/ kb{5g\ . o; txdf kg]{ s'g} hgfj/x¿ ;j{xf/L klg x'G5g\ .

t[tLo pkef]Stf (Tertiary consumer)

cfˆgf] vfgfsf nflu l4tLo pkefS] tfdf e/ kg]{ hLjx¿nfO{ t[tLo pkefS] tf
elgG5 . oL hLjx¿ zf/Ll/s ¿kdf alnof df;+ fxf/L klg xG' 5g,\ h:tM} ;k,{ af3,
lrt'jf, l;+x cflb . logLx¿ df;+ fxf/L eP tfklg ckT| oIf ¿kdf logLx¿n]
k|fs[lts pmhf{nfO{ ko| f]u u/]sf xG' 5g\ .

-u_ ljR5b] s (Decomposer)

rp/sf] kfl/l:ylts k4ltdf pTkfbs, kf| ylds pkef]Stf, l4tLo pkef]Stf / t[tLo
pkef]Stf d/k] l5 logLx¿sf] d[t z/L/nfO{ ToxfF ePsf AofS6]l/of tyf kmGhfOn{ ] ;8fpg]
unfpg] sfo{ ub{5g\ / df6fdf ;/n c0fd' f kl/0ft ub5{ g\ . df6fdf ldn]sf ;/n
c0fx' ¿nfO{ la?jfsf] h/fn] ;f;] ]/ lnG5 . AofS6l] /of, efO/;, kmGhfO{ ljR5b] ssf pbfx/0f
x'g\ .

ljm| ofsnfk 6.2

tkfO{Fsf] j/k/ /x]sf] 3f;F ] db} fgsf] ed| 0f ug'{xf;] \ . To; jftfj/0fdf ePsf hl} js /
ch}ljs tTjx¿sf] cWoog tyf cjnfs] g ugx{' f;] \ / lgDgfg;' f/ tflnsf egx'{ f];\ .
cjnfs] g / cWoog u/]sf cfwf/df 3f;F ] d}bfgsf] kfl/l:ylts k4ltsf] lrq agfO{
sIffdf k|:t't ug{'xf;] \ .

jm| =; pTkfbs kf| ylds pkef]Stf låtLo pkef]Stf t[tLo pkef]Stf

86 lj1fg tyf kl| jlw M sIff (

@= hnLo kfl/l:ylts k4lt (Aquatic ecosystem)

kfgLdf xg' ] h}ljs / chl} js tTjx¿larsf] cGt/;DaGwaf6 ag]sf] kfl/l:ylts k4ltnfO{
hnLo kfl/l:ylts k4lt elgG5 . ljleGg k|sf/sf kfgLsf] ;|ft] x¿sf] agfj6 / cj:yf
km/s km/s lsl;dsf] xG' 5 . logLx¿sf] cj:yfcg;' f/ ToxfF ljleGg lsl;dsf] jg:klt
tyf hLjhGt' kfOG5g\ .

hnLo kfl/l:ylts k4ltcGtut{ kfv] /L, gbL, ;db' ,| tfn, l;d;f/ cflbsf] kfl/l:ylts k4lt
kb5{ g\ . oL ljleGg lsl;dsf hnLo k4ltdWo] oxfF kfv] /Lsf] kfl/l:ylts k4ltsf] j0fg{
ul/Psf] 5 . kfv] /Lsf] kfl/l:ylts k4ltdf lgDglnlvt hl} js / chl} js tTjx¿ kfOG5g\ .

kf]v/Lsf] kfl/l:ylts k4lt (Pond ecosystem)

kfv] /Ldf x'g] hl} js / chl} js
tTjx¿larsf] cGt/;DaGwnfO{
kfv] /Lsf] kfl/l:ylts k4lt
elgG5 . kfv] /Ldf x'g] chl} js
/ h}ljs tTjx¿nfO{ lgDgfg';f/
pNn]v ug{ ;lsG5 M

-s_ ch}ljs tŒj (Abiotic factor) lrq 6.5 kf]v/Lsf] kfl/:ylts k4lt

kfv] /Lsf] kfl/l:ylts k4ltsf] chl} js tŒjcGtut{ vlgh kbfy,{ kfgL, df6f], ks| fz,
tfk, clS;hg, sfa{g 8fOcS;fO8 UofF ;, gfO6f« h] g cflb /xs] f xG' 5g\ . kfgLdf
3n' gzLn clS;hg lnO{ df5fn] Zjf;kZ| jf; u5{g\ . kfv] /Lsf] lkwF ;Dd ks| fzsf
ls/0fx¿ kU' 5g\ h;n] ubf{ kfv/Ldf ePsf jg:kltn] kfgLdf 3n' s] f] sfag{ 8fOcSS;fO8,
kfgLsf] pkofu] u/L vfgf agfpg] u5g{ \ . o;sf cnfjf jg:kltn] kfv] /Ldf ePsf]
gfO66]« of} lus lnO{ vfgf agfp5F g\ . ToxfF ePsf hl} js ;db' fodf xg' ] ;hLjx¿ vfgf
/ afRF gsf nflu chl} js tTjx¿df e/ kb5{ g\ / Ps csfd{ f cfl>t xG' 5g\ .

-v_ hl} js tTjx¿ (Biotic factors)

kfv] /Lsf] kfl/l:ylts k4ltcGtu{t kf]v/Ldf ePsf xl/of jg:klt pTkfbs,
pTkfbsnfO{ vfP/ afRF g] ls/f km6o\ fªu\ f| , ;fgf df5f, Eofut' f, 7n' f df5f, ;k{ cflb
pkefS] tf xg' \ eg] AofS6l] /of ljR5]bs x'g,\ h;nfO{ lgDgfg;' f/ j0fg{ ul/Psf] 5 M

-c_ pTkfbs (Producer)

kfv] /Ldf pdg| ] n]p, eneS; (Volvox), SnfdfO8fd] f]g; (Chlamydomonas),
snf]:6]l/od (Closterium) cflb pTkfbs x'g\ . kfgLdf kfOg] ;"Id jg:kltx¿nfO{
Phytoplankton elgG5 . Phytoplankton n] ;f}o{ zlStaf6 vfgf tof/ u5g{ \ .

lj1fg tyf kl| jlw lzIff M sIff ( 87

To:t} u/L Pisita, Hydrilla h:tf jg:kltn] ks| fz ;Z+ n]if0f k|lj|mofåf/f vfgf
agfp5F g\ .

-cf_ pkefS] tf (Consumer)

pTkfbsnfO{ vfP/ afFRg] ;hLjx¿nfO{ pkefS] tf elgG5 . oL ;hLjx¿ k/kf]ifs
x'G5g\ / cfˆgf] vfgfsf nflu pTkfbsdf kT| oIf ¿kdf e/ k5{g\ . kfv] /Ldf x'g]
pkefS] tf lgDgfg;' f/ 5g\ M

kf| ylds pkef]Stf (Primary consumer)

kfgLdf xg' ] zfsfxf/L ;hLjx¿ h:fn] pTkfbsnfO{ vfP/ afR5g\ ltgnfO{
kf| ylds pkef]Stf elgG5 . logLx¿ kfv] /Ldf ePsf ;"Id jg:klt vfP/
afFR5g . o:tf ;I' d hLjx¿nfO{ Zooplankton elgG5, h:t} Cyclops,
Dephina, Beatles, Molluscus cflb . kf]v/Ldf x'g] ;fgf df5f, rk] fuFf8f,
u8o\ fn} f cflb k|fYflds pkef]Stf xg' \ .

l4tLo pkef]Stf (Secondary consumer)

kf| ylds pkef]StfnfO{ vfP/ afFRg] hLjnfO{ l4tLo pkef]Stf elgG5 . kf]v/Ldf
ePsf ;;fgf df5fnfO{ vfP/ afRF g] Eofut' f, uuF 6f, 7n' f df5f l4tLo pkef]Stf
xg' \ . olb ;k{ klg kf]v/Ldf ePsf] v08df ;k{n] Eofu'tf vfP/ afFRg] ePsfn]
o;nfO{ t[tLo pkefS] tfsf ¿kdf lnOG5 .

-u_ ljR5b] s (Decomposer)

kf]v/Ldf ePsf pTkfbs tyf pkef]Stfx¿ d/]kl5, ToxfF ePsf ;"Id hLjf0fx' ¿ AofS6l] /of,
kmGhfO{ cflbn] d/s] f hLjx¿nfO{ s'xfpg,] ;8fpg] sfo{ u5{g\ . To;kl5 tL ljR5b] sn]
d/s] f hLjx¿nfO{ ;/n c0f'df kl/0ft u5g{ \ / df6fdf ldnfpF5g\ . To;/L df6fdf ldn]sf
tTjx¿nfO{ ToxfF ePsf jg:kltn] ;f;] ]/ lnG5g\ . o;/L of] k|lj|mof lg/Gt/ rln/xs] f]
xG' 5 .

ljm| ofsnfk 6.3
jl/k/Lsf] kf]v/L ed| 0f ugx'{ f;] \ . To; jftfj/0fdf ePsf hl} js / chl} js tTjx¿sf]
cWoog tyf cjnf]sg ugx{' f;] / lgDgfg;' f/ tflnsf eg{x' f];\ . cjnfs] g u/]sf]
/ cWoog u/s] f cfwf/df kf]v/Lsf] kfl/l:ylts k4ltsf] lrq agfO{ sIffdf k:| t't
ugx{' f];\ M

j|m=;= pTkfbs Kf|fylds pkef]Stf låtLo pkefS] tf Tf[tLo pkefS] tf

88 lj1fg tyf kl| jlw M sIff (

vfB >ª[ \vnf / vfB hfn (Food chain and food web)

hLjg k|lj|mof ;~rfng ug{sf nflu zlSt rflxG5 . zlSt vfgfaf6 k|fKt xG' 5 . xl/of jg:kltn]
ks| fz ;+Zn]if0faf6 vfgf tof/ u5g{ \ . hGt'x¿df xl/ts0f gePsf sf/0fn] cfˆgf] vfgf
cfk}mF agfpg ;Stg} g\ . logLx¿n] pTkfbsaf6 vfgf kf| Kt u5g{ \ . pbfx/0fsf nflu kmfO6f]Knfª\6g,
3f;F nfO{ ls/f km6\ofªu\ f| n] vfG5g\ . ls/f km6ofªu\ |fx¿nfO{ vfP/ r/f, Eofu'tf afFlr/x]sf
x'G5g\ . df5fn] kfgLdf kfOg] ;;fgf hLjnfO{ vfG5, km]l/ ;k,{ asN' nfn] df5fnfO{ vfG5 .
kl/l:yltcg;' f/ hLjx¿n] cfkmn" fO{ rflxg] vfgf ljleGg ;f| t] af6 kf| Kt ul//xs] f xG' 5g\ . o;/L
:jkf]ifs / k/kfi] fs hLjlar ;DaGw sfod ePsf] x'G5 . o; ks| f/ kfl/l:ylts k|0ffnLdf Pp6f
hLjn] csf{] hLjnfO{ vfFbf zlStsf] :yfgfGt/0f xF'b} hfG5 / vfB zª[ \vnf aG5 .

kf/l:ylts k4ltdf /x]sf af6] la?jf tyf hGt'lar cfˆgf] kfi] f0f;DaGwL cfjZostfcg;' f/
Ps csfd{ fly lge/{ xG' 5g\ . pSt k4ltdf Ps hLjn] csf{] hLjnfO{ vfFbf zlSt vfg] hLjdf
;b}{ hfG5 / vfBz[ªv\ nfsf] tx aG5 . o:tf] tx pTkfbsaf6 pkef]Stf;uF :yfgfGtl/t eP/
hfG5 . af6] la?jfdf ;f}o{ zlSt l:y/ zlStsf ¿kdf /xs] f] xG' 5 . To;sf/0f af]6la?jf ;a}
ks| f/sf hLjhGts' f nflu k|fylds ;f| t] xg' \ h;nfO{ kY| fd kf]if0f tx (first trophic level)
elgG5 . pTkfbsnfO{ k|fylds pkefS] tfn] vfFbf pTkfbsdf ePsf] zlSt k|fylds pkef]Stfdf
:yfgfGt/0f xgF' ] xFb' f k|fylds pkefS] tfnfO{ bf;] f| ] kf]if0f tx -second trophic level) elgG5 .
Pjd\ jm| dn] zlSt dflyNnf] kfi] f0f txdf :yfgfGt/0f xbF' } hfG5 .

;uF }sf] lrqdf :yn Osfl] :f:6ddf

x'g] tLg tx, rf/ tx / kfFr txsf

pTkfbs / pkef]Stflarsf] ;DaGw

b]vfOPsf] 5 h;df ds}, ufh/,

3f;F kft pTkfbs x'g . pTkfbsx¿

klxnf] kf]if0f txdf k5{g\ .

pTkfbsnfO{ vfP/ afRF g] d;' f], v/fof]

/ ls/f km6ofªu\ |f klxnf] pkefS] tf

x'g\ / ltgn] bf];|f] txsf] kf]if0f tx

agfpF5g\ . klxnf] pkfe] f]StfnfO{

vfP/ afFRg] pNn', ˆofp/f,] Eofu'tf

cflb bf;] f| ] pkfe] f]Stf xg' \ h;n] t];|f] lrq 6.6 vfB >[ª\vnf
kf]if0f tx agfpF5g\ . o;} u/L bf;] f| ]

pkfe] f]StfnfO{ vfP/ afFRg] hLjn] t];|f] kf]if0f tx agfpF5g\ . Pjd\ j|mdn] kfi] f0fsf] tx a9b\ }

hfG5 . cGtdf pSt pTkfbs / pkef]Stf d/k] l5 ljR5b] sn] ltgLx¿nfO{ sx' fP/ df6fdf

ldnfp5F g\ . la?jfn] df6fa] f6 ;f;] /] vfgfsf ¿kdf lnO{ zlStdf g} kl/jtg{ ub{5 . o;/L

c¿nfO{ vfg] / c¿åf/f cfkm" vfOg] ub{} pTkfbsb]lv dflyNnf] bhfs{ f] pkef]Stf;Dd Pp6}

lbzfdf zlSt :yfgfGt/0f xg' ] k|ljm| ofnfO{ vfBzª[ \vnf elgG5 .

lj1fg tyf k|ljlw lzIff M sIff ( 89

ljm| ofsnfk 6.4 vfBzª[ v\ nf (Food chain) sf] k|bzg{

Pp6f rp/sf] kfl/l:ylts k4ltdf xg' ] pTkfbs, pkefS] tf, klxnf] pkefS] tf, bf];|f]
pkefS] tf, t];|f] pkef]Stf tyf ljR5]bssf] Flash card agfpgx' f;] \ . o;kl5 ;fyLx¿sf] ;d"x
agfpgx' f];\ . pTkfbsdf !) hgf ;fyLx¿, klxnf] pkef]Stfdf cf7 hgf, bf;] |f] pkef]Stfdf
5 hgf clg t];f| ] pkef]Stfdf rf/ hgf rog ug'{xf;] \ . s:fsf] cfxf/f s] xf] < s;nfO{ vfg]
xf] < j|md ldnfP/ a:gx' f];\ / vfBzª[ v\ nfsf] kb| zg{ ugx'{ f];\ . k|bzg{ kZ| rft\ pTkfbsaf6
dflyNnf] pkefS] tf;Dd vfgf / zlSt kj| fx ;DaGwdf 5nkmn u/L lgisif{df k'Ug'xf];\ .

vfB hfn (Food web)

lbOPsf] lrqdf sltcf6] f vfBz[ª\vnf b]vfOPsf] 5, 5nkmn ug'{xf];\ M

kfl/l:ylts k4ltdf tLgb]lv kfrF kfi] f0f

tx;Ddsf] vfBz[ªv\ nf alg/x]sf] x'G5 . w/] }

vfBzª[ v\ nf ldn]/ cfk;df h]lnbF } hfFbf

Pp6f hl6n ;~hfn aG5, h;nfO{ vfBhfn

elgG5 . vfBhfn :yfoL k|sl[ tsf] x'G5, o;df

pkef]Stfx¿n] k|fKt ug{] vfgfsf ;|ft] x¿

w]/} x'G5g\ . pbfx/0fsf nflu dflyNnf] txsf

pkef]Stfn] tNnf] txsf w]/} pkef]StfnfO{

vfgfsf ¿kdf lnG5 . vfBzª[ \vnf cfxf/ /

zlStsf] cfk;L ;DaGw xf] .

lrqcg;' f/ 3f;kft, r/f / afhdf tLg txsf] lrq 6.7 vfB hfn

vfBz[ª\vnf xf] eg] 3f;kft, km6\ofªuf| ,

Eofu'tf, ;k,{ afhlarsf] kf]if0f kfF r txsf] vfBz[ªv\ nf xf] . o;/L yk' }| ;ªV\ ofdf /xs] f]

vfBzª[ \vnf ldn/] vfBhfn agfpF5 . h:fdf 3f;kftnfO{ vfP/ ls/f km6\ofªu|f afFR5g\ .

o;nfO{ r/fn] vfG5, km]l/ o;n} fO{ Eofut' fn] klg vfG5 . o;/L op6} hGtd' f w]/} hLjx¿ vfgsf

nflu e/ kg{] j|md bf]xfl] /bF } hfG5 / hl6n hfnf] aG5 . o;/L kfl/l:ylts k4ltdf c¿nfO{ vfg]

/ c¿åf/f cfkm" vfOg] ub}{ pTkfbsb]lv dflyNnf] bhf{sf] pkefS] tfx¿;Dd axl' bzfdf zlSt

:yfgfGt/0f x'g] kl| jm| ofnfO{ vfBhfn elgG5 .

lj|mofsnfk 6.5

dflysf] lrq ^=^ sf] vfBhfnsf] lrqdf ePsf] vfBzª[ \vnfsf] cjnf]sg ugx'{ f;] \ / vfBhfn
s;/L ags] f] 5 5nkmn ug'x{ f];\ .

90 lj1fg tyf kl| jlw M sIff (

vfBzª[ \vnf / vfB hfndf leGgtf

jm| =;= vfB>[ªv\ nf jm| =;= vfBhfn

1. vfBzª[ \vnfdf vfgf / zlSt l;wF} 1. vfBhfndf w/] } vfBz[ªv\ nfx¿

pTkfbsaf6 pkf]efS] tfdf hfG5 . Ps csf{df hf]l8P/ /x]sf] xG' 5g\ .

2. o;df dflyNnf] txsf] hLjn] tNnf] 2. o;df dflyNnf] txsf] hLjn] tNnf]

txsf lglZrt lsl;dsf] hLjx¿nfO{ txsf w]/} lsl;dsf] hLjx¿nfO{

vfg] ub5{ . vfg] u5{ .

3. o;n] kfl/l:ylts k4ltnfO{ cl:y/tf 3. o;n] kfl/l:ylts k4ltnfO{ l:y/tf

(Instability) lbG5 . (Stability) lbG5 .

4. o;df ;hLjx¿ lar vfgfsf nflu 4. o;df ;hLjx¿lar vfgfsf nflu

kl| t:kwf{ x'Fbg} . kl| t:kwf{ a9L x'G5 .

6.2 hLjx¿larsf] cGt/ljm| of (Interaction between living beings)

xfdf| ] j/k/ /xs] f hLjx¿df Ps csf{;uF k|ToIf jf ck|ToIf ¿kdf lge/{ tf /x]sf] x'G5 . s]
dflg;x¿ cGo hLjx¿ gxg' ] cj:yf x'GYof] eg] afRF g ;Dej xG' Yof] xfn] f <

ljm| ofsnfk 6.6
lbPsf] tflnsf h:t} sfkLdf tflnsf agfO{ k/" f ug'x{ f];\ M

j|m=; hGt' jf jg:kltsf] gfd cf>o lbg] hLj Kfs| l[ t hLjx¿larsf]
cGt/;DaGw

1 6k] jd{ ufO,{ dflg;sf] z/L/ leqL k/hLjL

2 nfdv6' 6\ ] hgfj/sf] z/L/ aflx/L k/hLjL

3 ;'gufef

4 Pe] m]?

5 9ª' \ufdf xg' ] jf ?vsf]

af]j|mfdf x'g] em\ofp



Rfp/df ufO{ eF};L r/gdf xb'F f r/fx¿ ltgLx¿sf] z/L/df a;s] f], 7n' f 7'nf ?vsf a]fsf| df
emo\ fp ePsf,] hgfj/sf] /ut r;' ]/ afFRg] k/hLjLx¿ 6]kjd{, k]6df kg]{ h'sf b]Vg' ePsf]
xf]nf . To:t} u/L sf];a] fnL, s]/fp, l;dLsf h/fdf dl;gf uf7F fx¿ (Nodules) ePsf] b]Vg'
ePsf] 5 xfn] f .

oL ;a} hLjx¿larsf] cGt/;DaGw / cGt/ljm| ofsf pbfx/0fx¿ x'g\ . r/fx¿n] hgfj/sf]

lj1fg tyf kl| jlw lzIff M sIff ( 91

z/L/df a;/] sfgdf ePsf ls/fx¿ vfOlbG5 . To:t} u/L ?vsf af]s|fdf xg' ] nfOsg]

hxfF clNun] fungus af6 cf>o k|fKt u5{ eg] Fungus n] clNuaf6 vfgf kf| Kt u5{ .
o;/L ;hLjx¿lar ljleGg lsl;dsf] cGt/;DaGw / cGt/lj|mof /x]sf] x'G5 . hLjx¿n]
pgLx¿sf] hLjgk|lj|mof ;~rfngsf nflu ljleGg lsl;daf6 cGt/lj|mof ul//x]sf x'G5g\ .
cGt/lj|mofx¿ ljleGg lsl;dsf x'G5g\ . tLdWo] dV' o cGt/ljm| ofx¿ lgDgfg';f/ 5g\ M

-s_ kf/:kfl/stf (Symbiosis/Mutualism)

;uF }sf] lrqdf Pp6f r/fn] kmn" sf] /; vfO/x]sf]

5 . oL b'Ol{ arsf] ;DaGwdf r/fn] km"naf6 /;

lnG5 eg] r/fn] k/fu;]rgdf dbt ub5{ .

o;df r/f / la?jf bj' }nfO{ k/:k/df kmfObf

xG' 5 . o;/L ;hLjx¿lar nfdf] ;do;Dd

/lx/xg] ;DaGw h:fdf b'j} ;hLjx¿ k/:k/df

nfeflGjt x'G5g\ eg] To;nfO{ kf/:kfl/stf

(symbiosis/mutualism) elgG5 . o; lsl;dsf] lrq 6.8 kf/:kfl/stf
;DaGwdf hLjx¿ Ps csf{df cfl>t xG' 5g\ .

kf/:kfl/stfsf cGo pbfx/0fx¿nfO{ lgDgfg;' f/ pNnv] ug{ ;lsG5 M

-c_ dflg;sf] kfrggnLdf xg' ] AofS6l] /ofx¿lar klg cGt/;DaGw /x]sf] xG' 5 .
kfrg gnLdf xg' ] ;I" d hLjf0f' AofS6]l/ofn] vfgf krfpg dbt u5g{ \ eg]
csft{] km{ tL AofS6]l/ofn] dflg;n] vfPsf vfgfaf6 vfgf k|fKt ub5{ g\ .

-cf_ Clownfish / Sea Anemones lar klg cGt/;DaGw /xs] f] x'G5 . h;df Sea
anemones sf] 6G] 6fsN;df Clownfish a;s] f] xG' 5 / ;'/lIft xG' 5g\ eg] Clown
Fish n] c¿ hGt'nfO{ cfsif{0f u5{ / Sea Anemone n] vfG5 .

-v_ sdG;lnHd (Commensalism)

lrqdf ufO{ rl//x]sf] ;dodf

glhs} Sof6n Ou/]6n] ls/f

km6ofª\uf| x¿ vfg vfl] h/x]sf]

5 . ufO{ rl//xs] f] an] f ls/f

km6ofªu\ f| x¿ plk|mG5g\ /

ltgnfO{ r/fn] vfOlbG5 . o;

k|lj|mofdf To:tf] hl} js ;DaGw

x'G5 h:fdf cfl>t ;hLj a9L

nfeflGjt xG' 5 eg] cf>o

lbg]nfO{ xfgL k'¥ofpbF g} . o; lrq 6.9 kf/:kfl/stf

lsl;dsf] cGt/lj|mofnfO{ Commensalism elgG5 .

92 lj1fg tyf k|ljlw M sIff (

o;sf cGo pbfx/0fnfO{ lgDgcg;' f/ pNnv] ug{ ;lsG5 M

-c_ Pp6f dfs'/fn] ?vdf a:gsf nflu hfnf] agfp5F t/ o;n] ?vnfO{ xfgL
k'¥ofpFb}g .

-cf_ Spiky burrs hgfj/sf] z/L/df 6flF ;Psf] x'G5, pSt hgfj/ lx8\b} hfbF f Tof]
burrs em5{ / seed 5l/g dbt u5{ .

-u_ k/hLljttf (Parasitism)

hl} js cGt/ljm| of h:fdf cfl>t hLjn] cf>o
lbg] hLjsf] z/L/af6 vfgf ;f;] ]/ lnG5 . o;
lsl;dsf] cGt/;DaGwdf Pp6f ;hLj nfeflGjt
x'G5 eg] csfn]{ fO{ xflg k'¥ofpF5 . o;sf
pbfx/0fx¿ lgDgfg';f/ 5g\ M

-c_ plkof, nfdv'66\ ], p8'; h:tf hLjn] lrq 6.10 k/hLjLttf
hgfj/sf] /ut ;f];/] lnG5g\ . o:tf
hLjnfO{ afxo\ k/hLjL elgG5 .

-cf_ hgfj/sf] cfGbf| df a:g] 6]kjdn{ ] hgfj/sf] z/L/af6 vfgf ;f;] /] lnG5 . of]
hgfj/sf] z/L/leq a:g] ePsfn] o;nfO{ leqL k/hLjL elgG5 .

-O_= Barnacles / whale: Barnacles xj\ n] sf] z/L/df 6flF ;P/ a;]sf] xG' 5, o;n]
Xjn] sf] kfl} 8g] ult sd u/fpF5 .

-O{_ Head lice: dflg;sf] skfndf kg{] h'df| n] dflg;sf] /ut r;' /] hLljt /xG5 .
of] cj:yfdf hd' |fnfO{ kmfObf x'G5 eg] dflg;nfO{ o;n] xflg k'¥ofp5F .

-3_ kl| t:kwf{ (Competition)

Pp6f kfl/l:ylts k4ltdf ;hLjx¿n] Pp6} ;|f]t -vfg, a:g_ sf nflu k|lt:kwf{
ul//x]sf xG' 5g\ . kfl/l:ylts k4ltdf ;a} hl} js tŒjx¿lar ;Gt'ng sfod ePsf]
x'g'k5{ . olb h}ljs tŒjx¿sf] ;ª\Vof c;Gt'ng ePdf pSt kfl/l:ylts k4lt
lau|G5 . kfl/l:ylts k4ltdf hLjx¿n] ug]{ kl| t:kwf{nfO{ lgDgfg;' f/ pNnv] ug{
;lsG5 M

-c_ Sea sponges / coral larsf] ;DaGw M Sea sponge / coral n] vfgfsf nflu
;fdl' b|s ;f| ]tsf nflu kl| t:kwf{ ub{5g\ .

-cf_ Ajf;f] / efn' (Wolves and Bear) M b'j} Ajf;f] / efn' hgfj/sf] l;sf/ ug{df
kl| t:kwf{ u5{g\ .

lj1fg tyf kl| jlw lzIff M sIff ( 93

-ª_ l;sf/ (Predation)

hª\undf a:g] df;+ fxf/L hgfj/x¿n]
cfkme" Gbf sdhf/] hgfj/x¿nfO{ df//]
cfˆgf] vfgf kf| Kt u5g{ \ . o;/L cGo
hgfj/x¿nfO{ df//] vfg] kl| j|mofnfO{
l;sf/ ug{' elgG5 . o:tf] lsl;dsf]
cGt/ljm| of df+;fxf/L hgfj/x¿df
kfOG5 . o; lsl;dsf] cGt/lj|mofsf sx] L
pbfx/0fx¿ lgDgfg;' f/ 5g\ M

-c_ lrtj' fn] xl/0fsf] l;sf/ u//] vfG5 . lrq 6.11 l;sf/
-cf_ pNnn' ] d';fsf] l;sf/ u5{ .

-O_ af3n] cGo peGbf sdhf/] hgfj/x¿sf] l;sf/ u5{ .

cEof;

!= tnsf kZ| gx¿sf] ;xL ljsNkdf l7s lrx\g -√_ nufpgx' f];\ M

-s_ lbOPsf dWo] s'g hLj ljR5b] s xf] <

-c_ n]p -cf_ ls/f -O_ Rofp -O_{ emofp

-v_ ;hLjx¿df kf]if0f pknAw xg' ] kl| j|mofdf pTkfbs / pkefS] tflar cfxf/sf ¿kdf
s] aGb5 <

-c_ vfB hfn -cf_ vfB z[ªv\ nf

-O_ Osf]l;:6d -O{_ ;d'bfo

-u_ ?vsf afj] m| fdf x'g] clNu / Fungus sf larsf] ;DaGw sg' k|sf/sf] cGt/lj|mof xf] <

-c_ Mutualism -cf_ Commosalism

-O_ Parasitism -O{_ Competition

-3_ hl} js cGt/;DaGwdf cfl>t hLjn] cf>o lbg] hLjsf] z/L/af6 vfgf ;f];/]
lnG5 . o; lsl;dsf] cGt/;DaGwdf s] xG' 5 <

-c_ Pp6f dfq hLj nfeflGjt x'G5 .

-cf_ b'O{ hLjnfO{ kmfObf x'G5 .

-O_ bj' } hLjnfO{ xflg xG' 5 .

-O{_ b'j} hLjnfO{ g xflg xG' 5 g kmfObf xG' 5 .

94 lj1fg tyf k|ljlw M sIff (

-ª_ k|fylds kfi] f0f tx s'g xf] <

-c_ xl/ofaf6] la?jfx¿ -cf_ ls/f km6\ofªu|f

-O_ Eofut' f -O_{ ;k{

@= sf/0f lbg'xf;] \ M

-s_ kfl/l:ylts k4ltdf ljR5]bs dfq gx'g] xf] eg] of] k4lt vnalnG5 .

-v_ rp/sf] Osf]l;:6ddf, klxnf] pkefS] tf ls/fkm6o\ fªu\ |fsf] ;ª\Vof cTolws a9g\ hfF bf
pSt Osf]l;:6d c;Gtl' nt xG' 5 .

-u_ vfBzª[ \vnfdf pkf]efS] tfsf] ;ªV\ ofeGbf pTkfbssf] ;ª\Vof a9L x'G5 .

-3_ kf/:kl/stfdf b'j} ;hLjx¿ nfeflGjt x'G5 .

-ª_ kfl/l:ylts k4lt ;Gt'lnt ePsf 7fpF df jftfj/0f :j:ys/ xG' 5 .

#= km/s nV] g'xf];\ M

-s_ pTkfbs / ljR5b] s

-v_ rp/sf] kfl/l:ylts k4lt / kfv] /Lsf] kfl/l:ylts k4lt

-u_ vfB zª[ v\ nf / vfB hfn

-3_ h}ljs / ch}ljs tŒj

-ª_ kf/:kfl/stf / sdG;lnHd

-r_ k/hLljttf / kf/:kl/stf

$= tnsf kZ| gsf] pQ/ nV] g'xf];\ M

-s_ kfl/l:ylts k4ltdf xg' ] ch}ljs tŒjx¿sf] ;r" L agfO{ kT| o]ssf] 5f]6s/Ldf j0f{g
ug{'xf;] \ .

-v_ kfl/l:ylts k4ltdf ljR5]bsn] v]Ng] el" dsf JofVof ug'x{ f];\ .

-u_ rp/sf] Osfl] ;:6dsf] ;kmf lrq agfO{ 5f6] s/Ldf j0f{g ug'{xf];\ .

-3_ kf]v/Lsf] Osfl] ;:6ddf Eofut' fsf] ;ª\Vof cTolws a9]/ uof] eg] o;n] pSt k4ltdf
s:tf] c;/ k'¥ofpnf, JofVof ugx{' f;] \ .

-ª_ v]tdf sfd ug]{ Ps ls;fgn] d';fn] wfg vfof] egL eP hlt ;a} d';f df/] . t/
pgsf] v]tdf wfg pTkfbg ;fx|} Go"g ePsf] kfP . wfgsf] pTkfbgdf lsg sdL ePsf]
xfn] f < cfˆgf] ts;{ lxt kl' i6 ug{x' f;] \ .

-r_ kf]v/Ldf x'g] vfB z[ª\vnfsf] lrq agfO{ 5f]6s/Ldf j0fg{ ug'{xf;] \ .

lj1fg tyf kl| jlw lzIff M sIff ( 95

-5_ Pp6f Osf]l;:6ddf x'g] pTkfbs, pkefS] tf, ljR5b] s / jftfj/0flar ;Gtl' nt
rj|m rln/xs] f] xG' 5 . oLdWo] s'g} tŒjx¿larsf] ;Gtn' g vNalnPdf Osf]l;:6d lauG| 5,
o; egfOnfO{ sf/0f;lxt kl' i6 ug'x{ f];\ .

-h_ cGt/lj|mofsf ks| f/x¿ pNnv] ugx{' f];\ . kT| o]ssf] pbfx/0f;lxt aofg ug'{xf;] \ .

-em_ lbOPsf pbfx/0fx¿ s'g sg' k|sf/sf ;hLjx¿sf larsf] cGt/ljm| of xf] <
5'6o\ fpg'xf];\ .

-c_ df/} L, ed/fn] kmn" sf] /; vfg'
-cf_ dfs'/fn] ?vdf hfnf] agfpg'
-O_ ufFy} nLn] 3/df u'8 agfpg'
-O{_ hgfj/sf] /ut r;' /] afRF g] p8;' , plkof, nfdv'6\6]
-p_ hgfj/sf] z/L/leq a:g] 6k] jd{, hs' f cflb .

-`_ lbOPsf] Osf]l;:6dsf] cWoog ug{x' f];\ / lgDglnlvt k|Zgsf] pQ/ nV] gx' f;] \ M

-c_ o;df ePsf pTkfbs pkefS] tfsf] klxrfg ugx'{ f;] \ .
-cf_ pTkfbsx¿n] s;/L vfgf kf| Kt ub5{ g\ <
-O_ o; k4ltdf pTkfbssf] ;ªV\ of ;ae} Gbf a9L xG' 5, lsg <
-O_{ o;df ljR5]bsn] v]Ng] el" dsf j0fg{ ugx'{ f;] \ .

-p_ ;Gt'lnt Osf]l;:6daf6 xg' ] kmfObfx¿ nV] gx' f;] \ .

kl/ofh] gf sfo{

-s_ kfv] /L tyf rf}/sf] Osfl] ;:6dsf] pTkfbs, klxnf] pkefS] tf, bf;] f| ] pkef]Stf, ljR5b] s /
chl} js tŒjx¿ k:| 6;Fu bl] vg] lrq rf6{kk] /df tof/ kfg{x' f];\ .

-v_ cfkm\gf] j/k/ jf cfkm"n] ljleGg ;dodf bv] s] f hLjx¿larsf] cGt/lj|mofsf k|sf/x¿sf]
;"rL tof/ kfg{x' f;] \ . tL cGtlj|mofx¿ s;/L Pscfk;df cGt/;DalGwt 5g\ < ;f]wvf]h u/L
k|ltj]bg tof/ ug{'xf];\ / sIffdf k|:t't ug'{xf;] \ .

96 lj1fg tyf kl| jlw M sIff (