विज्ञान तथा प्रविधि कक्षा ९

kfgL pDng] tfkjm| d 7fpFcg';f/ km/s xG' 5 . ;d'›L ;txdf v'nf efF8fdf kfgL pdfNbf 100°C

df pDnG5 . kxf8df vn' f ef8F f] k|of]u u/L kfgL ttfpbF f sd tfkjm| dd} cyf{t\ 100oC tfkjm| d
gk'Ub} kfgL pDnG5 . pdfn/] /fv]sf] tftf] kfgLdf pDng] lj|mof kg' M ;'? ug,{ of t kfgL 100°C
df ttfpgk' 5{ jf kfgLsf] ;tx dflysf] rfk 36fpgk' 5{ . jfo'd08nLo rfk Ps P6d\ f]l:kml/s
-1 atm_ eGbf sd eP kfgL pDng] lj|mof 100°C eGbf sd tfkj|mddf klg b]vf kg{ ;S5 .
dflysf ljm| ofsnfkdf l;l/Ghsf] lk:6g tfGbf kfgLsf] ;txdf kg]{ rfk 365\ / tftf] kfgL
pDng] lj|mof kg' M ;?' xG' 5 .

k];| / s's/sf] sfo{ l;4fGt (Working principle of presser cooker)

k];| / ss' /df vfgf ksfpFbf

o;leq afkm hDdf xG' 5 / o;n]

kfgLsf] ;txdf yk rfk lbG5 .

sg' } lglZrt rfk ;Ldf;Dd pSt

afkm s's/af6 aflx/ cfpg glbg

/a/sf] l;lnª, e]l/Pan nf]l8ª

lkg eNe /flvPsf x'G5g\ . pSt lrq 9.9 k;]| / ss' / sfo{ljlw
rfk cfjZostfeGbf a9L x'bF f

eNe vN'5 / aflx/ lg:sG5 .

rfkn] ubf{ kfgLsf] pDng] tfkjm| d ;fdfGo cj:yfdfeGbf a9/] 120°C–130°C x'G5 . o;

cj:yfdf kfgLsf c0f'x¿df Psbd} w/] } ult zlSt xG' 5 . h;n] ubf{ k;|] / ss' /leq /flvPsf]

ksfpg' kg]{ vfB kbfyl{ eq rfF8f] tfk k|;f/0f xG' 5 / vfgf rfF8f] kfS5 . kxf8L tyf lxdfnL

e]usf cUnf :yfgx¿df v'nf ef8F fdf eGbf k;]| / ss' /df vfgf ksfpFbf ;xh x'G5 .

ydfl]{ d6/ (Thermometer)

lj|mofsnfk 9.6

kfnk} fnf] kf/f] ydfl{] d6/, l8lh6n ydf]l{ d6/ / /]l8P;g ydf{l] d6/sf] k|of]u u/L cfkm\ gf ;fyLsf]
tfkjm| d dfkg ugx{' f;] \ . >JobZ[ o ;fdu|L jf rf6{x¿sf] ko| fu] af6 tL ydf]{ld6/x¿n] tfkjm| d
dfkg ug]{ k|ljlw cjnf]sg ugx{' f];\ / ltgsf ljzi] ftfx¿ n]Vg'xf];\ . tfkjm| d dfkgsf] ko| fh] g,
ko| f]u ug{ ;xhtf, z'4tf -accuracy_ pknAwtf h:tf ljifodf 5nkmn u/L pkoS' t ydf]l{ d6/
5'6o\ fpgx' f];\ .

t/n ko| fu] ul/Psf] ydf]{ld6/ l8lh6n ydf]l{ d6/ /l] 8P;g ydfl]{ d6/

k|ofu] ljlw ljz]iftfx¿ ko| fu] ljlw ljzi] ftfx¿ k|of]u ljlw ljzi] ftfx¿
dfkg ul/Psf] ===========
dfkg ul/Psf] =========== dfkg ul/Psf] =========== tfkjm| d Ö ===
tfkj|md Ö === tfkjm| d Ö ===

148 lj1fg tyf kl| jlw M sIff (

ydf]l{ d6/ tfkj|md dfkg ug{] pks/0f xf] . t/n ko| f]u ul/Psf] ydf{l] d6/, l8lh6n ydf{]ld6/ /
/]l8P;g ydf{]ld6/ k|foM ko| f]udf cfpg] ydfl]{ d6/ x'g\ .

t/no'St ydf{l] d6/ (Liquid used thermometer)

t/no'St ydfl]{ d6/df Ps tfk ;+jb] gzLn aNaleq ydfd{] ]l6«s t/n /flvPsf] xG' 5 . kf/f] Ps
tfksf] ;r' fns / a9L 3gTj ePsf] ydfd{] ]l6«s t/n xf] . ha ydfl{] d6/sf] aNanfO{ tftf] j:ts' f]
;Dks{df NofOG5, j:t'af6 kf/fd] f tfk k;| f/0f x'G5 / kf/f] k;| f/ x'G5 . k|;f/ ePsf] kf/f] aNa
;Fu} hf]l8Psf] sz] gnL -capillary tube_ x'Fb} cufl8 ;5{ . gnLdf kf/f] ;g{] j|mddf hg' 7fpFdf
uP/ ;g{ 5f8] 5\ , pSt laGbn' ] j:t'sf] tfkjm| dnfO{ hgfp5F . t/noS' t ydf{]ld6/df aflx/af6
pNn]v ul/Psf] :sn] sf] cªs\ k9]/ tfkjm| d dfkg ul/G5 .

l8lh6n ydf]l{ d6/ (Digital thermometer)

of] ljB't\ kl/kydf hl8t tfk ;+jb] gzLn yld:{ 6/ lrq 9.10 l8lh6n ydfl]{ d6/
-thermistor_ sf] k|ofu] af6 j:ts' f] tfk dfkg ug{] pks/0f
xf] . o;sf] k|ofu] ubf{ ydf]l{ d6/ cg u/L yld{:6/ ePsf]
5p] sf] efu -tip_ nfO{ z/L/sf] ;Dks{df /flvG5 . z/L/af6
k;| f/0f x'g] tfknfO{ yld:{ 6/n] 7Dofp5F / ydf{l] d6/sf]
kl/kydf x'g] cj/f]w;Fu} ljB't\ wf/fdf kl/jt{g cfpF5 .
pSt kl/jtg{ sf cfwf/df ydfl{] d6/sf] l8:Kn] l:j|mgdf
dfkg ePsf] tfkj|md cª\ssf ¿kdf k|bz{g x'G5 .

/l] 8P;g ydf{]ld6/ (Radiation thermometer)

/]l8o;g ydf]l{ d6/ j:t;' Fusf] ;Dks{lagf To;af6 pTkGg lrq 9.11 /l] 8P;g ydf{l] d6/
OGkm| f/8] ljls/0f -infrared radiation_ sf cfwf/df tfkj|md
dfkg ug]{ pks/0f xf] . o;sf] ko| fu] sf nflu ydf]{ld6/sf] ;]G;/

-sensor_ ePsf] efunfO{ j:t'tkm{ kmsf{OG5 . ydf{l] d6/df
k|ofu] ePsf] nG] ;n] j:ta' f6 cfPsf OGkm| f/]8 ljls/0fnfO{
;]G;/df s]lGbt| ub{5 . ljls/0f t/ªsf cfwf/df ljBt' \ ;ª\s]t
pTkGg x'G5 / j:t'sf] tfkjm| d l8:Kn] l:jm| gdf kb| zg{ xG' 5 .
o; lsl;dsf] ydf]{ld6/n] tfkj|md dfkg ug{ lgs} l56f] /
;xh xG' 5 .

lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( 149

ydfl]{ d6/sf] Soflna;|] g (Calibration of a thermometer)

ljm| ofsnfk 9.7

Pp6f ko| fu] zfnf ydfl]{ d6/ lng'xf];\ . o;df ePsf] :s]ndfly sfuh 6f;F /] 9fSgx' f];\ . Pp6f
las/df a/km lng'xf;] \ . kfgL pdfNgsf nflu cfjZos las/, ag/{ , :6o\ fG8 cflbsf] klg
Joj:yf ug'x{ f;] \ .

ydf]{ld6/sf] aNanfO{ a/kmleq /fv]/ ydf{]ld6/sf] aNanfO{ plDn/xs] f] kfgLaf6

o;sf] :6]dnfO{ :6]G8df c8\ofpg'xf];\ . lg:ss] f] afkmdfly /xg] u/L c8\ofpgx' f];\ .

ydf]{ld6/sf] s]zgnLdf kf/f] emb}{ u/]sf] ydfl{] d6/sf] sz] gnLdf kf/f] r9\b} u/s] f]

cjnf]sg ug'{xf];\ . h'g laGb'df kf/f] l:y/ cjnf]sg ug'{xf];\ . h'g laGbd' f kf/f] l:y/

/xG5 pSt laGb'df lrx\g nufpg'xf];\ . /xG5 pSt laGbd' f lrx\g nufpgx' f];\ . o;n]

o;n] ydf]{ld6/sf] tNnf] l:y/ laGb' -0°C_ ydf]l{ d6/sf] dflyNnf] l:y/ laGb' -100°C_

nfO{ hgfpF5 . nfO{ hgfpF5 .

lrq 9.12 lrq=9.13

dflyNnf] l:y/ laGb' / tNnf] l:y/ laGbl' arsf] b'/LnfO{ bz a/fa/ efudf ljefhg u//] lrxg\
nufpgx' f];\ . ca ydf{]ld6/df ;]lN;o; :sn] tof/ eof] . k|To]s v08n] 10°C hgfp5F .

ydf{l] d6/sf] Soflna];| g o;sf tNnf] l:y/ laGb'
-lower fixed point_ / dflyNnf] l:y/ laGb' -upper
fixed point_ lar lglZrt v08x¿ ljefhg u/L
:sn] lgwf{/0f ug{] lj|mof xf] . ;]lN;o; :s]n
-Celsius scale_ sf nflu bO' { l:y/ laGb' 0°C

/ 100 oC x'g\ . km/]gxfO6 :s]nsf nflu tNnf]
l:y/ laGb' 32°F / dflyNnf] l:y/ laGb' 212°F
xg' \ . sl] Neg :s]ndf tNnf] l:y/ laGb' 273 K /
dflyNnf] l:y/ laGb' 373 K lgwf/{ 0f ul/Psf] xG' 5 .

lrq 9.14 ;]lN;o;, km/]gxfO6 / sl] Neg :sn]

150 lj1fg tyf kl| jlw M sIff (

Uof;“ df x'g] rfk (Pressure in a gas)

lj|mofsnfk 9.8

Pp6f an] g' df xfjf egx{' f];\ / o;sf] dv' af6 xfjf aflx/ glg:sg] u/L af“Wgx' f];\ . pSt an] g' nfO{
dgtftf] kfgLdf 8'afpgx' f];\ . s]xL ;dokl5 an] 'gnfO{ kfgLaf6 lgsfn/] o;sf] klxn]sf] cfsf/;+u“
tn' gf ug{'xf;] \ . oxL k|lj|mof a]n'gnfO{ lr;f] kfgLdf /fVbf klg bf]x¥ofpg'xf;] \ . ydn{ zlSt / tfksf]
kl/efiffsf cfwf/df tkfOs“{ f] cjnfs] g / To;sf] sf/0faf/] 5nkmn u/L lgisif{ n]Vgx' f];\ .

a]ng' df x'g] lj|mof c0f'x¿sf] ult c0f'x¿n] a]ng' sf] an] 'gsf] leQfdf glthf
zlSt leQfdf nufpg] an kg{] Uof;“ rfk

a]n'gleqsf] a95\ ÷36\5 =========== an] g' sf] cfotg
xfjfsf] tfkjm| d ================== a9\5 .
a9b\ f ==================

a]n'gleqsf]

xfjfsf] tfkj|md ================== ================ ================= ==================

36\bf

olb an] g' sf] ;66\ f s8f agf6] sf] ef8F f] ePdf s] cfotg kl/jtg{ x'g] lyof] < sg' } UofF; vfFlbPsf
:k|] af]tnnfO{ lg/Gt/ tfk lbbF f s] x'G5 <

UofF;sf c0f'x¿ clgoldt rfn -random motion_ df /x]sf xG' 5g\ . UofF;sf c0f'x¿lar tyf
c0f' / UofF; /flvPsf] efF8fsf leQflar lg/Gt/ 7fl] sg] lj|mof -collision_ eO/xs] f] xG' 5 . UofF ;
/flvPsf] ef8F fsf] leQfdf c0fx' ¿sf] 7fl] sg] lj|mof xF'bf k|ltPsfO If]qkmndf nfUg] an UoFf;n] lbg]
rfk xf] . UofF;df aflx/af6 tfk ylkFbf o;sf c0f'x¿sf] ult zlSt a95\ / UofF;n] lbg] rfk
klg a9\5 . an] g' h:t} g/d cfj/0f ePsf] ef8F fdf rfk a9b\ f To;sf] cfotg klg a95\ . olb
lg/Gt/ rfk a9b\ } uPdf UofF; /flvPsf] ef8F fn] rfk y]Ug g;Sbf lj:kmf6] x'G5 . tfkjm| d a9g\ ]
lj|mofsf] l7s ljk/Lt Uof;F sf] tfkj|md 36b\ f Uof;F n] lbg] rfk klg 365\ .

lj|mofsnfk 9.9

Pp6f xft] kDksf] g'hn yg' ]/ xfjfnfO{ vfb“ ]/ /fVg'xf;] \ . sx] L ;dokZrft\ kDksf] cj:yf ;fdfGo
eO;sk] Zrft\ PSsfl; lk:6g tfg/] leqsf] xfjfnfO{ km' Sg lbg'xf];\ . oL ljm| ofx¿df OGkm| f/]8
ydf]l{ d6/sf] ko| f]u u/L kDksf] tfkj|mdsf] kl/jtg{ cjnfs] g u/L lgisif{ nV] gx' f;] \ .

cjnf]sg lgisif{

xfjf vfFb\g'÷lk:6g tfGg' kj" s{ f] tfkjm| d PSsfl; lk:6g tfgk] Zrfts\ f]

xfjf vflF b;sk] Zrft\sf] tfkj|md tfkj|md

===================== ========================= =====================

lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( 151

Pp6f lglZrt cfotg ePsf] ef8F fdf /flvPsf] Uof;F nfO{ crfgs 7'nf] ef8F fdf ;f/d] f UofF;sf]
rfk 36/] tfkjm| d 365\ . To:t} s8f leQf ePsf] ef8F fdf ePsf] UofF;nfO{ kDksf dfWooaf6
aflx/ tfGbf klg efF8f] leqsf] rfk 365\ / ef8F f] lr;f] x'G5 . To;} u/L UofF;nfO{ crfgs
vfbF b\ f o;sf c0f'x¿lar x'g] 6s/fjn] UofF;sf] tfkjm| d a95\ .

/]lk|mh/]6/sf] sfo{ l;4fGt (Working principle of a refrigerator)

/]lkm| h/]6/n] o;leq /flvPsf j:t'x¿af6 tfk ux| 0f
u/L aflx/L jftfj/0fdf 5f8] \5 . To;n} ] /]lkm| h/6] /n]
Jf:tn' fO{ lr;f] agfp5F . /l] km| h/6] /df j:tx' ¿nfO{
lr:ofpg s'nG] 6 -coolant_ nfO{ kfOkx¿dfkm{t
o;sf] leq / aflx/ kDk ul/G5 . s'nG] 6sf ¿kdf
ko| f]u ul/g] Pdf]lgof UofF;n] /l] km| h/6] /sf] leqaf6
ux| 0f u/]sf] tfk aflx/L efudf af]S5 .

/l] km| h/]6/df sDk;]| / -compressor_ n] pRr lrq 9.14 /]lkm| h/]6/sf] agf6]
rfkdf vflF bPsf] t/n s'n]G6nfO{ PS;kfG;g eNe / o;df xg' ] sn' ]G6sf] k|jfx

-expansion valve_ df k7fP/ PSsfl; km' Sg lbOG5 .
h;n] ubf{ s'nG] 6sf] cfotg jl[ 4 tyf jf:kLs/0f
-evaporation_ eO{ sn' G] 6sf] tfkj|md 36\5 . lr;f]
ePsf] sn' G] 6 gnL xF'b} /]lkm| h/]6/sf] leQfdf k|jfx
x'G5 . /l] km| h/6] /df /flvPsf j:t'x¿af6 tfk lr;f]
sn' ]G6df ;5{ . h;n] ubf{ /l] km| h/6] / leq lr;f]
sfod xG' 5 . o;/L tfk s'n]G6df ;bf{ of] yk

jf:kLs/0f eO{ sn' G] 6 sd rfko'St jf:kdf -low
pressure vapour_ kl/jtg{ x'G5 . pSt sd rfk
ePsf] s'nG] 6 jf:knfO{ sDk|];/df k7fOG5 .

sDk];| / -compressor_ n] s'nG] 6nfO{ vfFb\5 / o;sf] lrq 9.14 /]lkm| h/];g ;fOsn
tfkj|md jl[ 4 x'G5 . tftf] pRr rfk ePsf] sn' ]G6
jf:k -high pressure vapour_ df ePsf] yd{n PnkLhLsf] sg' } /ª / uGw x'“b}g\ . of]
zlSt /l] k|mh/]6/ aflx/ k7fpg o;nfO{ sG8G] ;/ Psbd} k|HjngzLn ePsfn] r'xfj6 yfxf
-condenser_ af6 k7fOG5 . sG8G] ;/df sn' ]G6af6 kfpg o;df Ps s8f uGw ePsf] /;fog
tfk aflx/lt/sf] xfjfdf k|;f/0f x'G5 . o; jm| ddf OyfOn d/s]K6fg -ethyl mercaptan_
sn' G] 6 jf:k lr;f] eP/ t/ndf kl/jtg{ x'G5 . /flvPsf] x'G5 .
o; ljm| ofnfO{ sG8G] ;];g -condensation_ elgG5 .
pSt pRr rfkoS' t t/nnfO{ kg' M PS;kfG;g eNe
-expansion valve_ df k7fP/ csf{] r/0fdf j:t'x¿
lr:ofpg ko| f]u ul/G5 .

152 lj1fg tyf kl| jlw M sIff (

l;lnG8/df Uof“; eg{] ljlw (Filling gas in a cylinder)

OGwgsf ¿kdf k|ofu] ul/g] lnSo'kmfO8 k6] f« ]lnod UofF; -Liquified

Petroleum Gas- LPG_ kf| k] ]g / Ao'6g] sf] ld>0fnfO{ vfbF /] t/n

cj:yfdf kl/0ft ul/Psf] x'G5 . o;nfO{ kDkdfk{mt vfnL l;lnG8/df

k7fOG5 . Pn=kL=hL l;lnG8/ ebf{ l;lnG8/df nueu 20 kl| tzt

:yfg vfnL /flvPsf] x'G5 . pSt :yfgdf t/n OGwgaf6 aGg] af:k

hDdf ePsf] x'G5 . To;sf/0f xfdLn] UofF; l;lnG8/sf] /]u'n]6/ vfN] bf

t/n geO{ Uof;F aflx/ cfpF5 . ha UofF; aflx/ cfpF5 ta yk jf:k

aGg] lj|mof ;'? x'G5 . o; j|mddf l;lnG8/ leqsf] OGwgaf6 tfk

pkof]u x'G5 / tfkj|md 36\5 . lrq 9.14 Pn=kL=hL= Uof;“

cEof;

1. tn lbOPsf k|Zgsf] ;xL pQ/ 5fGg'xf];\ M
-s_ s'g ljj/0fn] tfknfO{ hgfp5F <
-c_ c0fx' ¿sf] sn' ult zlSt
-cf_ c0f'x¿sf] cf};t ult zlSt
-O_ c0fx' ¿sf] cf;} t ult zlStsf] cGt/n] xg' ] zlStsf] k;| f/0f
-O_{ c0fx' ¿sf] ult zlSt / l:ylt zlStsf] of]u
-v_ j:tn' fO{ ttfpFbf To;sf] cfotg a9\gn' fO{ sg' cfwf/df JofVof ug{ ;lsG5 <

j|md c0f'÷k/df0fx' ¿sf] c0f'÷k/df0f'x¿sf larsf] c0f'÷k/df0f'x¿sf

ultzlSt cfsif{0f larsf] b'/L

-c_ a95\ 365\ 365\

-cf_ a95\ a9\5 36\5

-O_ a9\5 a95\ 365\

-O_{ a9\5 36\5 a9\5

lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( 153

10c. 40c. 300c. 200c.

A B C D

-u_ dflysf] lrqdf b]vfOPsf kfgLsf lunf;x¿nfO{ ltgdf ePsf] kfgLsf] 3gTjsf cfwf/df
a9b\ f] 3gTjcg;' f/ sg' j|mddf ldnfP/ /fVg'x'G5 <

-c_ A, C, D, B -cf_ C, D, A, B

-O_ D, A, C, B -O{_ A, D, C, B

-3_ 3fddf /fvs] f] xfjf el/Psf] a]ng' km' 6g\ s' f] sf/0f s'g xf] <

-c_ a]ng' df nfUg] jfod08nLo rfk 36\g'

-cf_ an] g' df nfUg] Uof;F rfk 36\g'

-O_ an] g' leqsf] xfjfsf c0f'x¿sf] ult zlSt a9g\ '

-O{_ a]ng' sf] ;txsf c0fx' ¿sf] ult zlSt a9g\ '

-ª_ /]lk|mh/6] /df PS;kfG;g eNe -expansion valve_ nfO{ sg' bO' { cjojx¿sf lardf h8fg
ul/Psf] x'G5 <

-c_ sDk|;] / -compressor_ / sG8G] ;/ -condenser_

-cf_ sG8]G;/ -condenser_ / Oefkf/] ]6/ -evaporator_

-O_ Oefkf/] ]6/ -evaporator_ / sDk|;] / -compressor_

-O{_ sDk;|] / -compressor_ / sn' ]G6 -coolent_

2. km/s nV] gx' f;] \ M

-s_ yd{n zlSt / tfk

-v_ tfk / tfkj|md

-u_ pDng] ljm| of / kUng] ljm| of

-3_ ydf]{ld6/sf] tNnf] crn laGb' / ydfl]{ d6/sf] dflyNnf] crn laGb'

3. sf/0f n]Vg'xf;] \ M

-s_ xyf8} fn] s]xL ;do nuftf/ lxsfP{ sf] kmnfdsf] sf6F L tfT5 .

154 lj1fg tyf k|ljlw M sIff (

-v_ v'nf 5f]8]sf] lrof skdf ePsf] lrof sx] L ;dokl5 lr;f] xG' 5 . lrof lr;f] xg' ] j|md
lg/Gt/ geO{ sx] L ;dokl5 /fl] sG5 .

-u_ hf8f]ofddf cTolws lr;f] x'g] :yfgx¿df kfgLsf kfOk rls{G5g\ .

4. tnsf kZ| gx¿sf] pQ/ n]Vgx' f];\ M

-s_ Ps hgf dflg;sf] a'emfOdf Pp6f aflN6gdf /x]sf] dgtftf] kfgLdf eGbf 8f8'df
plDn/xs] f] kfgLdf tfk a9L x'G5 eGg] /xs] f] 5 . pSt ae' mfOnfO{ ydn{ zlSt /
tfkjm| dsf] kl/efiffsf cfwf/df ;Rofpg'xf];\ .

-v_ tftf] lrofsf] sknfO{ 5b'F f tftf] / a/kmsf] l9Ssf /fvs] f] sfFrsf] lunf;nfO{ 5bF' f
lr;f] cge' j x'G5 . o;nfO{ c0fx' ¿sf] rfnsf cfwf/df JofVof ug'x{ f;] \ .

-u_ l;;fsf] af]tnsf] lasf]{ gv'nd] f tfksf] c;/;DaGwL 1fgsf] ko| fu] u/L s;/L lasf]{
vf]Ng ;lsG5 < c0fx' ¿sf] ult zlStsf cfwf/df JofVof ug{x' f];\ .

-3_ tnsf] u|fkmdf b]vfOPsf] kfgLsf] cfotg / tfkj|mdsf] ;DaGw cWoog ug{x' f;] \ /
lbOPsf] kZ| gx¿sf] pQ/ nV] gx' f];\ M

-c_ u|fkmdf b]vfOPsf] kfgLsf] ljzi] f u0' fnfO{ s] elgG5 <

-cf_ kfgLnfO{ 0°C af6 10°C ;Dd ttfpbF f cfotgdf b]lvg] kl/jt{g pNnv] ugx'{ f];\ .

-O_ uf| kmdf bv] fOPsf] kfgLsf] u'0f cGo t/nsf] eGbf s;/L leGg 5 <

-O{_ laGb' A df kfgLsf] 3gTj slt x'G5 <

-p_ b}lgs hLjgdf o;af/] xg' 'kg{] 1fgsf] dxŒj n]Vgx' f;] \ .

-pm_ uf| kmdf bv] fOPsf] ;DaGwsf cfwf/df kfgLsf] 3gTj / tfkj|mdlar ;DaGw
bv] fpg Ps gdg' f uf| km lvRg'xf;] \ .

-ª_ ;ld/n] hf8fo] fddf l:6nsf] lunf;df lkpg egL 6]an' df /fvs] f] kfgL sx] L ;dokl5
lkpFb} hfFbf lunf;sf] lkFwlt/sf] kfgL tn' gfTds ¿kdf lr;f] cg'ej u/] . pgsf]
cg'ejnfO{ j}1flgs tYosf cfwf/df kl' i6 ug'x{ f];\ .

lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( 155

-r_ tfnsf] ;txdf kfgL hd]/ a/kmaGbf klg o;df /xg] hnLo hLj s;/L ;/' lIft
/xG5g\ < pSt k|lj|mof JofVof ug{x' f;] \ .

-5_ kfgL hDg] lj|mof / l3p hDg] lj|mofdf s] leGgtf kfOG5 < sf/0f;lxt JofVof
ug{'xf];\ .

-h_ ;dfg cfsf/sf a/kmsf b'Oc{ f]6f 6'jm| fx¿dWo] Pp6fnfO{ kmnfdsf] s;' L{df / csfn{] fO{
sf7sf] s';L{df /fVbf sg' klxn] kUnG5 < kUng] ljm| ofsf cfwf/df JofVof ug'{xf;] \ .

-em_ 100°C eGbf sd tfkj|mddf kfgL pdfNg ;Sg] cj:yfsf] j0f{g ug{'xf];\ .

-`_ jfo'd08nLo rfkn] kxf8L eu] / t/fOd{ f vn' f efF8f] k|ofu] u/L vfgf ksfpbF f nfUg]
;dodf s:tf] ke| fj k5{ <

-6_ kxf8L tyf lxdfnL e]usf cUnf :yfgx¿df v'nf efF8fdf vfgf ksfpg a9L ;do
nfUbf xg' ] c;xhtf k|];/ ss' /sf] k|of]un] s;/L ;dfwfg xG' 5 <

-7_ UofF; rfk egs] f] s] xf] < ;/' hn] udL{ ofddf cfkm\ gf] ;fOsnsf] rSsfdf eg{] xfjf
hf8f] dlxgfdf eg{] u/]sfe] Gbf s]xL sd /fVg] u5g{ \ . pgsf] of] lj|mofsnfk 6fo/sf]
;'/Iffsf nflu pko'St /x]sf] af/] j1} flgs tYosf cfwf/df k'li6 ug'x{ f;] \ .

-8_ UofF;nfO{ vfFbb\ f jf km' Sg lbFbf To;sf] tfkjm| ddf kl/jt{g cfpg] tYonfO{ /]lk|mh/]6/sf]
sfo{ l;4fGtdf s;/L nfu' ul/Psf] x'G5 <

-9_ b}lgs hLjgdf ko| f]u xg' ] ydf{]ld6/sf lsl;dx¿ n]Vg'xf];\ . ltgsf] sfo{ l;4fGt klg
pNn]v ugx'{ f];\ .

-0f_ ydf{l] d6/ Soflna;]| g eg]sf] s] xf] < pSt ljlw nV] g'xf];\ .

156 lj1fg tyf kl| jlw M sIff (

!) t/ªu\

t/ª\u ;~hfn (Wave network) (Heat)

lrq 10.1 t/ªu\ x¿sf] ko| f]u

lrq 10.1 df b]vfOP h:t} xfdL sof}F t/ª\un] 3l] /Psf 5fF} . tL t/ªu\ x¿ xfdf| ] z/L/;Fu
7fl] Ss/x]sf x'G5g\ . xfdLn] k|sfzsf t/ª\u, 3fddf Gofgf] lbg] t/ªu\ , ;~rf/sf nflu ljleGg
Pkm=Pd=/l] 8of] 6f« G;ld6/af6 k;| fl/t t/ª\u, df]afOn ;~rf/sf nflu k|ofu] xg' ] t/ª\u, 3/df
jfOkmfO /fp6/n] 5f8] \g] t/ª\u cflbn] af]Sg] zlStsf] k|of]u ul//xs] f xG' 5fF} . t/ª\ux¿sf] k|of]u
;/' Iff vt/fsf j:t'x¿ r]shfrF ug],{ b'/L lx;fa ug{] h:tf sfo{df klg ul/G5 . dfgj z/L/sf
leqL cªu\ x¿sf] r]shfrF sf nflu Wjlg t/ªu\ tyf PS; /s] f] k|of]u ul/G5 .

lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( 157

t/ªu\ (Wave)

ljm| ofsnfk 10.1

Pp6f cfwfeGbf a9L kfgL el/Psf] af6f, sfuhsf] 8'ª\uf, 8f/] L / l/agsf] 6j' m| f
lngx' f;] \ . kfgLsf] ;tx l:y/ aGg lbgx' f];\ . kfgLdf sfuhsf] 8ª' \uf /fVg'xf;] \ . o;sf] ;txdf
Psgf;n] 6o\ flkª -tapping_ u/L nx/ -ripple_ l;hg{ f ugx{' f;] \ . To:t} 8f/] Ldf l/agsf]
6'jm| f afW“ g'xf];\ . o;sf] Pp6f 5p] sg' } cf8df af“Wgx' f;] \ / csf]{ 5p] nfO{ xftn] lg/Gt/ tn
dfly rnfpgx' f];\ . o; lj|mofsnfkdf sfuhsf] 8ª' u\ fsf] rfn / 8f]/Ldf afl“ wPsf] l/agsf]
rfn cjnfs] g ugx'{ f;] \ . cjnf]sgaf6 kf| Kt lgisifn{ fO{ tnsf] h:t} tlnsfdf nV] gx' f];\ .

kfgLdf sfuhsf] 8'ªu\ fsf] 8f/] Ldf afl“ wPsf] l/agsf] lgisif{

rfn / o;sf] ;txdf p7s] f] rfn / 8f/] Lsf] p7s] f] efu

efu -kN;_ ;g]{ lbzf -kN;_ ;g{] lbzf

s] l/kn (ripple) ;bf{ 8'ªu\ f jf l/ag klg ;5{ <

kfgLsf c0f'lar sDkg ;5{ . o;sf] ;txsf] Pp6f

:yfgdf ePsf c0f' tn jf dfly ;bf{ tL c0f';Fus} f

c0f' klg tn tflgg] jf dfly wsl] ng] xG' 5 . olb

kfgLsf] ;txdf 8'ª\uf /flvPdf kfgLsf c0fx' ¿ cfk\mg}

:yfgdf tn dfly u/]/ rln/xg] tYo cjnf]sg ug{

;lsG5 . kfgLsf c0f'x¿ tn dfly rln/xFbf o;sf]

;txdf p7]sf] efu ;tx xF'b} ;b{} uPsf] b]lvG5 . lrq 10.2 kfgLdf pTkGg t/ª\u
8f/] Lsf] Ps 5p] nfO{ s'g} cf8df afwF /] csf]{ 5p] nfO{

xftn] 8f/] L rnfpbF f kf| Kt xg' ] ult zlStn] 8f]/Lsf

c0fx' ¿ klg xftsf] rfnsf] lbzfdf ;5{g\ . pSt rfn

glhss} f] csf]{ c0f'df klg ;bf{ klxnf] c0fs' f] rfnnfO{

k5o\ fpF5 . of] jm| d lg/Gt/ rln/xFbf 8f/] Lsf] s'g}

v08 dfly p7s] f] / sg' } v08 ba]sf] b]lvG5 . olb

8f/] Ldf l/ag aflF wPdf pSt l/agsf] rfnn] o;df

l/kn (ripple) cufl8 a9\bf c0f'x¿ oyf:yfgdf tn lrq 10.3 8f]/Ldf pTkGg t/ª\u

dfly rln/xg] tYo cjnfs] g ug{ ;lsG5 . ;'?df rfndf cfpg] kfgLsf c0f'x¿af6 glhss} f

cGo c0fd' f zlSt ;5{ . tL c0f'x¿ klg oyf:yfgdf tn dfly rNg yfN5g\ . h;n] ubf{ kfgLdf

t/ªu\ pTkGg eO{ zlSt k;| f/0f xG' 5 . ljB'tLo / r'DasLo Ifq] df x'g] kl] /of]l8s l8:6/aG] ;n]

158 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (

klg zlSt k;| f/0f u5{ . zlSt k;| f/0f ug{] Ps kl] /ofl] 8s l8:6/a]G; -periodic disturbace_
t/ªu\ -wave_ xf] .

es" Dksf t/ª\ux¿n] kY[ jLsf] leqL efudf r6\6fg 7f]lSsbf pTkGg x'g] zlStnfO{ o;sf]
;tx;Dd Nofp5“ g\ .

t/ª\usf ks| f/ (Types of waves)

kfgLsf c0fx' ¿sf] sDkgaf6 pTkGg t/ªu\ kfgLsf] ;tx x'Fb} k|;f/0f xG' 5 . t/ª\u k|;f/0fsf]
lbzf / dfWoddf xg' ] sDkgsf cfwf/df t/ªx\ ¿ 6f« G;e;{ t/ª\u -transverse wave_ /
nlª\uRo'l8gn t/ª\u -longitudinal waves_ u/L bO' { lsl;dsf xG' 5g\ . kY[ jLaf6 lgs} 6f9f /x]sf]
;"o{af6 tfk / ks| fz cGtl/Ifdf /xs] f] z"Gotf xbF' } kY[ jL;Dd cfOkU' 5 . t/ª\ux¿ k|;f/0fsf nflu
dfWodsf] cjZostf kg]{ jf gkg]{ cfwf/df t/ª\ux¿nfO{ oflGqs t/ªu\ -mechanical waves_
/ ljB't\ rDasLo t/ª\u -electromagnetic waves_ sf ¿kdf juL{s/0f ul/G5 .

t/ª\usf ks| f/

oflGqs t/ªu\ ljB't\ rDasLo t/ª\u
-Mechanical Wave)
(electromagnetic wave)

nª\uRol' 8gn t/ªu\ 6f« G;e;{ t/ª\u
-Longitudinal wave _ -transverse wave)

6f« G;e;{ t/ª\u / nª\uRo'l8gn t/ª\u (Transverse wave and longitudinal wave)

lj|mofsnfk 10.2

;dtn eF' Odf otfptf grNg] u/L Pp6f ld6/ 6]k la5\ofpgx' f];\ . l:nªs\ L -slinky_
sf] s'g} v08df /ª\uLg wfufsf 6j' |mf afW“ g'xf];\ . l:nªs\ LnfO{ ld6/ 6]kdfly /fv]/
Psgf;n] sx] L cufl8 wsN] g] / k5fl8 tfGg] lj|mofaf6 pTkGg xg' ] nª\uRo'l8gn t/ª\usf]
cjnfs] g ug'x{ f];\ . k'gM l:nª\sLnfO{ Psgf;n] bfof“ afof“ rnfp“bf pTkGg x'g] 6f« G;e;{ t/ª\usf]
cjnf]sg ugx'{ f;] \ . bj' } lsl;dsf t/ª\ux¿;“u ;DalGwt hfgsf/Lx¿ tnsf] h:t} tflnsfdf
eg'x{ f;] \ . 5nkmnaf6 oL b'O{ lsl;dsf t/ªu\ x¿lar leGgtfx¿ 56' o\ fpgx' f;] \ .

u'0fx¿ nªu\ Rol' 8gn t/ª\u 6«fG;e;{ t/ª\u

lrq 10.4 lrqM lqmofsnfdf
pNn]v ul/P pg;' f/
xftsf] rfnsf] lbzf /
t/ª\u k;| f/0fsf] lbzf
b]vfpgk' g]{

lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff ( 159

wfufsf] rfn / wfuf]nfO{ 10 k6s cufl8 k5fl8 rNg =============================

t/ªu\ cfjl[ Q -f_ nfus] f] ;do Ö wfufn] fO{ 10 k6s bfofF

======================= 1 s df cufl8 k5fl8 ;/]sf] -f_ Ö ==== afoF f rNg nfus] f] ;doÖ

Hz ==== 1 s df bfofaF fFof ;/]sf] -f_
Ö ==== Hz

t/ª\u nDafOnfO{ Pp6f vfFlbPsf] efu -compression_ b] 6]kaf6 ;a}eGbf 6f9f

λ n] hgfOG5 . lv glhs}sf] vflF bPsf] efusf] b/' L Ö afoF flt/ k'us] f] efu
==== m -crest_ af6;Fus} f]

csf]{ To:t} efularsf]

b'/L Ö ==== m

t/ª\usf] ult ================ Ö ==== m/s ============ Ö ==== m/s

v=f×λ

l:nª\sL -slinky_ nfO{ Psgf;n] cufl8 ws]Ng] / k5fl8 tfGg] jm| ddf o;sf] sg' } v08df l/ªx¿
cufl8 ;//] vflF bg] / k'gM k5fl8 kms]/{ km' Sg] jm| d lg/Gt/ rln/xG5 . ;uF ;+u} slinky df pTkGg
t/ª\u klg cufl8 al9/xs] f] b]lvG5 . t/ªu\ k|;f/0fsf] lbzf / k]l/of]l8s xnrn -periodic
disturbance_ jf sDkg -vibration_ Pp6} lbzfdf x'g] t/ª\ux¿ nªu\ Rol' 8gn t/ª\u x'g\ . Wjlg
t/ª\u nªu\ Ro'l8gn t/ªu\ sf] pbfx/0f xf] . nªu\ Ro'l8gn t/ªu\ x¿ 7f];, t/n, / Uof;F tLgcf6] }
dfWodf l;hg{ f ug{ ;lsG5 .

l:nª\sL -slinky_ nfO{ Psgf;n] bfofF afofF rnfpbF f o;sf] sg' } v08df l/ªx¿ bfofF ;g{] / afofF

;g]{ jm| d lg/Gt/ rln/xG5 . o;;uF } slinky df pTkGg t/ªu\ eg] cufl8 al9/x]sf] b]lvG5 .

t/ª\u k;| f/0fsf] lbzf / kl] /ofl] 8s xnrn -periodic disturbance_ jf sDkg -vibration_ Ps
csf{l] ;t nDa xg' ] t/ª\ux¿ 6f« G;e;{ t/ªu\ x'g\ . kfgLdf pTkGg x'g] t/ªu\ , 8f/] Ldf pTkGg xg' ]
t/ªu\ , cflb 6«fG;e;{ t/ªu\ sf pbfx/0fx¿ xg' \ . 7f;] dfWod / t/n dfWoddf 6f« G;e;{ t/ª\
ux¿sf] l;hg{ f ug{ ;lsG5 t/ Uof;F dfWodf l;hg{ f ug{ ;lsbF g} .

nª\uRo'l8gn t/ªu\ sDk]|;g -compression_ /

/]o/km] S;g -rarefaction_ sf ¿kdf k|;f/0f x'G5 .

t/ª\u k|;f/0fsf jm| ddf dfWodsf c0fx' ¿ vfFlbPsf]

v08 sDk;]| g xf] / c0f'x¿ km' ss] f] v08 /o] /k]mS;g

xf] . 6«fG;e;{ t/ª\u j|m]:6 -crest_ / 6k« m -trough_ sf

¿kdf k;| f/0f x'G5 . t/ªu\ k;| f/0fsf j|mddf o;sf]

dWo efuaf6 ;ae} Gbf dfly p7]sf] efu j|m:] 6 xf] / lrq 10.5 6f« G;e;{ t/ªu\ / nlªu\ Rol' 8gn
;a}eGbf tn ba]sf] efu 6k« m xf] . t/ªu\ sf] PlDKnRo8' t/ªu\ ;+u ;DalGwt zAbfjnLx?

160 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (

-amplitude_ n] lj>fd l:yltaf6 dfWodsf c0f'x¿sf] clwstd lj:yfkg jf t/ª\usf] dWo
efuaf6 jm| :] 6 jf 6«km;Ddsf] lj:yfkgnfO{ hgfp5F .

l:nª\sL -slinky_ df t/ªu\ k;| f/0fsf j|mddf y'k|} t/ªu\ nx/ -wave cycle_ x¿ l;h{gf eO{
kN; -pulse_ cufl8 a9s] f] cjnf]sg ug{ ;lsG5 . kl| t ;]sG] 8 pTkGg x'g] t/ª\u ;ªV\ ofn]
t/ª\u cfjl[ Q -frequency_ hgfp5F . cfj[lQsf] P;=cfO={ PsfO - SI unit_ xh{ -Hertz_ xf] . Ps
k"0f{ t/ªu\ pTkGg xg' nfUg] ;donfO{ t/ªu\ sf] ;dofjlw -time period_ elgG5 . o;nfO{ 'T'
n] hgfOG5 .

t/ªu\ cfj[l Q (f) = t/ª;\udsof] ;ª\Vof

(t)

olb 'f' cf]6f t/ªu\ x¿ 1 s df l;h{gf ePdf, Ps k"0f{ t/ªu\ l;h{gf xg' nfUg] ;do,

; dof jlw ( T) = 1 (f)

cfj[lQ

nªl\ uRol' 8gn t/ª\udf Pp6f vflF bPsf] efu -compression_ sf] dWo efuaf6 glhs}sf] csf]{
vfFlbPsf] efu -compression_ sf] dWo efu;Ddsf] b/' L cyjf Pp6f k'mss] f] efu -rarefaction_
sf] dWo efuaf6 glhs}sf] csf{] km' s]sf] efu -rarefaction_ sf] dWo efu;Ddsf] b'/L t/ªu\

nDafO xf] . 6f« G;e;{ t/ª\udf Pp6f j]m| :6 -crest_ af6 glhss} f] csf]{ j|m]:6 -crest_ ;Ddsf] b/' L
cyjf Pp6f 6k« m -trough_ af6 glhss} f] csf{] 6k« m -trough_ ;Ddsf] b/' L t/ª\u nDafO xf] .
t/ªu\ nDafOnfO{ lus| cIf/ nfD8f -lambda_, …λÚ n] hgfOG5 .

;a} t/ª\ux¿ Psgf;n] k;| f/0f xbF' g} g\ . t/ª\u k|;f/0fsf] b/ ;f| ]taf6 kf| Kt zlSt, dfWod,
t/ª\usf] k|sl[ t cflbdf e/ k5{ . t/ª\u k;| f/0fsf j|mddf k|ltPsfO ;dodf t/ªu\ n] kf/ ug]{
b'/L t/ªu\ sf] ult -wave velocity_ xf] . o;nfO{ t/ªu\ nDafO / t/ªu\ cfjl[ Qsf] u0' fgkmnaf6
kf| Kt ug{ ;lsG5 .

t/ªu\ sf] ult (v) = t/ª\u cfjl[ Q (f) × t/ª\u nDafO (λ)

oflGqs t/ª\u / ljB't\ r'DasLo t/ªu\ (Mechanical wave and electromagnetic wave)

xfdf| ] cfjfhnfO{ Wjlg t/ª\un] xfjf x'bF } ;l' g/x]sf dflg;x¿;Dd k'¥ofpF5 . xfjflagf xfdf| ]

cfjfhsf] Wjlg t/ª\u k;| f/0f xg' ;Sb}g . Wjlg t/ª\u Ps oflGqs t/ªu\ -mechanical

waves_ sf] pbfx/0f xf] . oflGqs t/ªu\ kbfyd{ f sDkgåf/f xg' ] zlStsf] k|;f/0f xf] . zlSt

k;| f/0fsf jm| ddf sDkg xg' ] kbfyn{ fO{ dfWod elgG5 . t;y{ dfWod ePdf dfq oflGqs t/ª\

ux¿ k|;f/0f xg' ;S5g\ . oflGqs t/ªu\ sf] zlSt dfWoddf vkt x'Fb} hfbF f o;sf] zlSt 36b\ }

hfG5 . To;sf/0f oflGqs t/ª\usf] k|;f/0f dfWodcg';f/ lglZrt ;Ldf;Dd x'G5 . oflGqs t/ª\

usf] ult 7f];, t/n / UofF ; dfWoddf km/s km/s x'G5 . pbfx/0fsf nflu ;fdfGo cj:yfx¿df

xfjf, kfgL, / kmnfddf Wjlgsf] ult j|mdzM 343 m/s, 1481 m/s / 5120 m/s x'G5 . oflGqs

t/ª\ux¿ nª\uRol' 8gn t/ªu\ jf 6f« G;e;{ t/ª\u x'g\ .

lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( 161

;"o{nufot cGo tf/fx¿af6 cfpg] ks| fz aflx/L cGtl/Ifsf] z"Go -vacuum_ xbF' } k[YjL;Dd
cfOkU' 5 . lagf s'g} dfWod k;| f/0f x'g] k|sfzsf t/ª\u tyf cfFvfn] gbl] vg] tfk af]Sg] OGk|mf/8]
t/ªu\ , cN6«fefon]6 t/ª\u, cflb ljB't\ r'DasLo t/ªu\ x'g\ . ljB't\ r'DasLo t/ªu\ x¿sf
dfWodaf6 zlStsf] k;| f/0f x'g] ljlw ljls/0f -radiation_ xf] . oL t/ª\ux¿ dfWodlagf k;| f/0f
xFb' f zlSt ;+/lIft /xG5 . h;n] ubf{ ljBt' \ r'DasLo t/ª\u ks| fzsf] ultdf lgs} 6f9f;Dd
k|;f/0f x'G5g\ . pbfx/0fsf nflu ;o" {df pTkGg ks| fzsf t/ªu\ x¿ 3×108 m/s sf] ultn] k;| f/0f
eO{ nueu 8 ldg6] 20 ;s] G] 8df kY[ jL;Dd cfOk'U5g\ . ljB't\ rD' asLo t/ªu\ (electromagnetic
waves) x¿ 6f« G;e;{ t/ª\u xg' \ lsgls ljB'tLo Ifq] / r'DasLo Ifq] sf] sDkg t/ª\u k|;f/0fsf]
lbzf;uF nDa x'G5g\ . sl[ qd ¿kdf /l] 8of] 6«fG;ld6/, PS; /] dl;g cflb af6 ljB't\ r'DasLo
t/ªu\ x¿ pTkGg u/fOG5 .

ljB't\ rD' asLo j0fk{ 6 (Electromagnetic spectrum)

ljm| ofsnfk 10.3
tkfOn“{ fO{ hfgsf/L ePsf sx] L ljB't\ r'DasLo t/ª\ux¿ h:t} ks| fz t/ª\u, cN6f« efon]6
t/ªu\ , cflbsf ;f| t] / ltgsf ljz]iftfx¿ af/] 5nkmn ugx'{ f;] \ .

lah'nL aQLaf6 cfpg] pHofnf] afs] ]sf t/ª\u / /]l8of] k|;f/0f s]Gba| f6 ;~rf/sf] ;ª\st]
af]s]sf] t/ª\u bO' { km/s ljB't\ r'DasLo t/ªu\ x¿ x'g\ . ;a} ljBt' \ r'DasLo t/ª\ux¿nfO{
a9b\ f] cfjl[ Q cyf{t\ 36b\ f] t/ª\u nDafOsf cfwf/df ul/Psf] juLs{ /0f ljB't\ rDasLo j0f{k6
-electromagnetic spectrum_ xf] . /l] 8of] t/ªu\ -radio waves_, dfOj|mf]ja] -microwaves_,
OGk|mf/]8 t/ª\u -infrared waves_, ks| fz -light_, cN6«fefon]6 t/ªu\ -ultraviolet waves_, PS;
/] -X-ray_ / ufdf /] -y -ray_ ljBt' \ rD' asLo j0fk{ 6 lgdf{0f ug]{ t/ª\ux¿ x'g\ .

lrq 10.6 ljBt' \ rD' asLo j0fk{ 6

ljBt' \ r'DasLo j0f{k6sf] Pp6f 5p] df ;a}eGbf nfdf] t/ª\u nDafO cyf{t\ sd cjl[ Q ePsf
/l] 8of] t/ªu\ x¿ /xs] f 5g\ . o;sf] csf{] 5p] df ;ae} Gbf 5f]6f] t/ªu\ nDafO cyf{t\ ;ae} Gbf a9L
cfj[lQ ePsf ufdf /] /x]sf 5g\ . ufdf /,] PS; /] h:tf 5f6] f] t/ª\u nDafO ePsf ls/0fx¿n]
a9L zlSt af]s]sf xG' 5g\ .

162 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (

ljBt' \ rD' asLo tªu\ sf pkof]ux¿ (Application of electromagnetic waves)

/l] 8of] t/ªu\ -radio waves_

/l] 8of] t/ª\ux¿sf] nDafO 108 m bv] L 1 m ;Dd x'G5 . oL
t/ª\ux¿n] hLjx¿sf] z/L/sf sfi] fx¿nfO{ c;/ gug{] ePsfn]
pkofu] sf nflu z/' lIft x'G5g\ . /l] 8of] t/ªu\ sf] sfo{df pkof]
u ul/G5 M

-c_ 6«fG;ld6/df /]l8of] t/ªu\ pTkGg u/L /]l8of,] l6eL cflbsf]
;~rf/sf ;ª\s]t k;| f/0f ul/G5 .

-cf_ /l] 8of] 6l] n:sfk] sf] dbtn] afx\o cGtl/Ifaf6 cfPsf /l] 8of]

t/ª\u u|x0f u/L ax| \df08sf af/d] f cWoog ul/G5 .

dfOj|mf]j]a -microwave_ lrq 10.7 /l] 8of] g]kfn ;v' t]{

dfOj|mfj] a] sf] t/ªu\ nDafO 1 m b]lv 10-3 m ;Dd x'G5 . o;sf] pkofu] lgDglnlvt sfos{ f
nflu ul/G5 .

-c_ dfOjm| fj] ]a cf]egdf pTkGg x'g] dfOj|mf]ja] n] kfgLsf c0fx' ¿ sDkg xbF' f tfT5g\ / vfg]s'/f
kfS5 .

-cf_ /8f/ ;~rf/df dfOjm| f]ja] sf] ko| fu] ul/G5 . xjfO{ 6«flkms lgoGq0fdf ;len{ G] ; /f8f/
-Airport Surveillance Radar_ sf] ko| fu] ul/G5 .

-O_ /f8f/ l:k8 ug -radar speed gun_ sf] k|of]uaf6 ;8sdf ul' 8/xs] f ;jf/L ;fwgx¿sf]
ult dfkg ul/G5 .

-O{_ ;~rf/sf kl| jlwdf ;ª\st] k|;f/0fsf nflu dfOjm| f]ja] sf] ko| fu] ul/G5 . ep" kux| ;~rf/,
dfa] fOn, jfOkmfO, An6' 'y -bluetooth_ cflb kl| jlwdf dfOjm| fj] a] sf] ko| fu] n] ;~rf/ :yflkt
xG' 5 .

lrq 10.8 dfOj|mfj] a] cf]eg lrq 10.9 ljdfg:yn lrq 10.10 /8f/ l:k8 ug
lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff ( ;le{n]G; /8f/ 163

OGkm| f/8] t/ª\u -Infrared wave_

OGk|mf/8] -infrared_ sf] cy{ /ftfs] f] d'lg -below red_ eGg] x'G5 . oL t/ªu\ x¿sf] cfjl[ Q /ftf]
/ªsf] ks| fz t/ª\ueGbf sd t/ t/ª\u nDafO /ftf] /ªsf] ks| fzsf] eGbf nfdf] x'G5 . ko| fKt
tLj|tf ePsf OGkm| f/]8 t/ª\u z/L/df kbf{ tftf]kgsf] cge' l' t xG' 5 . logsf] t/ª\u nDafO 10-3
m b]lv 7.5 × 10-7 m ;Dd xG' 5 . oL t/ª\usf] pkfof]u lgDgcg';f/sf sfos{ f nflu ul/G5 M

-c_ OGkm| f/]8 t/ªu\ x¿nfO{ tfk lbg k|ofu] ul/G5 . OGkm| f/]8 lx6/, s's/ cflbaf6 cfpg]
OGk|mf/8] t/ª\un] tfk lbG5g\ .

-cf_ OGkm| f/]8 ljls/0fsf] tLjt| fsf cfwf/df /]l8P;g ydf]{ld6/n] z/L/sf] tfkj|md dfkg u5{ .

-O_ OGkm| f/]8 l;l;l6eL Sofd/f -Infrared closed circuit television camera-IR CCTV
camera _ df cfvF fn] gb]lvg] OGk|mf/8] t/ª\usf dfWodaf6 /ftLsf] ;dodf klg lgu/fgL
ug{ ;lsG5 .

-O_{ l/df]6 ;]lG;ª -remote sensing_ k|ljlwdf OGk|mf/]8 t/ªu\ sf] k|ofu] ul/G5 . l6eL cg÷ckm
ug{ l/df6] af6 OGkm| f/]8 t/ª\usf ¿kdf ;ªs\ t] k7fOG5 .

-p_ OGkm| f/8] 6]ln:sf]kx¿sf] ko| f]u cGtl/If cg';Gwfgdf ul/G5 .

lrq 10.11 OGk|mf/]8 lx6/ lrq 10.12 OGkm| f/8] lrq 10.13 IR l/df6] sG6«f]n kl| jlw
l;l;l6eL Sofd/] f -6fo] sf/, l6le_

ks| fz t/ªu\ -light waves_

k|sfz ;dx" sf t/ªu\ nfO{ xfd|f] cfFvfsf] /l] 6gfn] 7Dofpg ;S5 .

cfvF fn] bl] vg] /ªx¿dWo] /ftf] ks| fzsf t/ªu\ x¿sf] t/ªu\ nDafO

;ae} Gbf nfdf] -7.5 × 10-7 m_ / a}hgL -violet_ /ªsf t/ª\ux¿sf]

t/ª\u nDafO ;ae} Gbf 5f6] f] -4 × 10-7 m_ x'G5 . k|sfzsf] ;|ft] af6

cfPsf t/ª\ux¿ sg' } j:t'df kbf{ k/fjt{g x'G5g\ . tL k/fjlt{t lrq 10.13 xl/of] k|sfzsf
t/ª\ux¿ xfdf| ] cfvF fdf kj| ]z ubf{ j:t'nfO{ bV] g ;lsG5 . ks| fz k/fjlt{t t/ªu\ x¿

t/ª\usf] pkofu] lgDglnlvt sfos{ f nflu ul/G5 .

-c_ af]6la?jfx¿df k|sfzaf6 kf| Kt zlStaf6 k|sfz ;+Zni] f0f ljm| of x'G5 .

-cf_ ks| fz t/ª\ux¿sf cfwf/df l6eL dfa] fOn cflbdf l8:Kn] l:jm| g lgdf{0f ul/Psf] xG' 5 .

164 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (

cN6f« efon6] t/ª\u -Ultraviolet waves_

cN6f« efon6] t/ª\ux¿sf] t/ª\u nDafO 4× 10-7 m

bl] v 10-9 m x'G5 . logLx¿ cfvF fn] gb]lvP tfklg nfdf]

;do 3fddf a:bf logsf] c;/n] 5fnf 89]sf] cjnf]sg

ug{ ;lsG5 . cN6«fefon6] t/ªu\ x¿ xflgsf/s xG' 5g\ .

cTolws dfqfdf cN6f« efon]6 t/ªu\ x¿ 5fnfdf kbf{

SofG;/ x'g] ;Defjg x'G5 . kY[ jLdf cfpg] cN6«fefon]6

t/ª\ux¿sf] dV' o ;f| t] ;"o{ xf] . of] t/ªu\ sf] pkofu]

lgDgcg';f/sf sfos{ f nflu x'G5 . lrq 10.14 ;fl] 8; k|ljlwaf6 kfgL z4' Ls/0f

-c_ k\mnfl] /;]G6 aQL -CFL_ leq pTkGg xg' ] cN6f« efon]6

ls/0fx¿n] o;df n]kg ul/Psf] km\ nf]l/;]G6 kfp8/ rlDsG5 / pHofnf] kb| fg u5{ .

-cf_ rsf]{ 3fddf /fv]/ vfB kbfy,{ n'uf, bl} gs k|of]u x'g] ef8F fs'F8f cflbdf x'g ;Sg]
AofS6l] /of -bacteria_ gfz u/L ;ª\jm| d0faf6 hf]lug ;lsG5 .

-O_ ;f]l8; -Solar Disinfection- SODIS_ ljlwcGtut{ kf/bz{s aft] ndf kfgL e/]/ sl/a
6 306f hlt ltgnfO{ 3fddf /fvL kfgLdf xg' ;Sg] /fu] sf hLjf0f'x¿ gi6 ul/G5 .

-O_{ 3fddf a:bf k|sfz;Fu} cfpg] cN6f« efon]6 ls/0fsf] pkl:yltn] 5fnfdf le6fldg–D
aG5 . xfdf| ] j/k/ dV' otM lzzx' ¿nfO{ bl} gs s]xL ;do laxfgsf] 3fddf /fVg] ul/G5 .

PS; /] -X-ray_

PS; /s] f] t/ªu\ nDafO 10-9 m bv] L 10-12 m ;Dd
x'G5 . PS; /] k|fs[lts ¿kdf aflx/L cGtl/Ifaf6 k[YjLsf]
jfo'd08n;Dd cfp5 . s[lqd ¿kdf PS; /] dl;gaf6 PS;
/] pTkGg u/fOG5 . PS; /s] f] pkof]u lgDglnlvt sfo{sf
nflu ul/G5 M

-c_ PS; /] sf] k|of]uaf6 z/L/sf leqL cªu\ tyf lrq 10.15
xl88\ x¿ rs{]sf] jf eflF rPsf] rs] hfrF ul/G5 .

-cf_ PS; /] ;'/Iff :Sofg/ (X-ray security scanner) sf] ko| fu] n] n'sfP/ /flvPsf ;/' Iff
vt/fsf j:tx' ¿nfO{ kQf nufOG5 . pbfx/0fsf nflu ljdfg:yndf PS; /] ;'/Iff
:Sofg/af6 ofq'x¿sf emf]nfx¿sf] r]shfFr ul/G5 .

-O_ PS; /] y]/fkL -X-ray theraphy_ df zlStzfnL PS; /] ladnfO{ SofG;/ sfi] fx¿tk{m
lgbl]{ zt u/L ltgnfO{ gi6 ul/G5 .

-O{_ PS; /s] f] ko| f]un] ljleGg lsl;dsf cWoog cg';Gwfgx¿ ul/G5g\ . logsf] ko| f]uaf6
kbfy{sf] dl0fe ;/+ rgfsf] cWoog ug{ ;lsG5 . k[YjLsf] leqL agf6] tyf vlghx¿sf]

lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( 165

klxrfgsf nflu PS; /s] f] k|of]u ul/G5 . PS; /] 6l] n:sfk] sf] k|of]uaf6 a|Xdf08;DaGwL
cWoog ul/G5 .

ufdf /] -γ ray_

ufdf /] k/df0fs' f] Go'lSno; 6'ljm| P/ zlSt lg:sg] ljm| of cyft{ /]l8of]PlS6le6L -radioactivity_
af6 pTkGg xg' ] zlStzfnL t/ªu\ xg' \ . logLx¿ ;a}eGbf a9L cfjl[ Q ePsf ljB't\ rD' asLo
t/ª\u xg' \ . o:tf ls/0fx¿ Psbd} 3fts ks| [ltsf xG' 5g\ . logn] hLljt sf]ifnfO{ gi6 ugs{' f
;fy} SofG;/ u/fpg ;S5g\ . ufdf /]sf] pkof]u lgDgcg;' f/sf sfos{ f nflu ul/G5 .

-c_ ufdf /s] f] lgolGqt k|ofu] af6 z/L/df ePsf SofG;/ sf]ifx¿nfO{ gi6 ug{ ;lsG5 . o:tf]
pkrf/ k4ltnfO{ /]l8of]y]/fkL -radiotherapy_ elgG5 .

-cf_ logsf] ko| fu] n] zNoljm| ofsf nflu k|ofu] x'g] pks/0fx¿ -surgical equipment_ lgdn{ Ls/0f
ug{ ;lsG5 .

-O_ ufdf /s] f] k|of]un] ;"Id hLjx¿ -microorganism_ gi6 u/L vfB kbfyn{ fO{ nfdf] ;do
e08f/0f ug{ ;lsG5 .

-O_{ Go'lSno/ pkrf/ k4lt -nuclear medicine_ df ufdf /] 6;]« / -gamma ray tracer_ nfO{
z/L/df k|j]z u/fO{ rs] hfFr ul/G5 .

-P_ ufdf /] 6]ln:sf]kn] aflx/ cGtl/Ifaf6 cfpg] ufdf /] u|x0f u/L a|Xdf08af/] vfh]
cg';Gwfgdf ;xof]u u5{ .

Wjlg k/fjt{g (Reflection of sound)

ljm| ofsnfk 10.4

b'O{cf6] f Psgf;sf Knfl:6s kfOksf 6j' |mf lng'xf];\ jf
sf8{af]8{ /f]n u//] 9ª' u\ f| ] tof/ kfg'x{ f];\ . 6a] 'ndf Pp6
7n' f] Pg] f c8\ofpg'xf;] \ . lrqdf b]vfOP h:t} b'j} kfOkx¿sf]
Psflt/sf] efu Pg] fsf] ;txdf el] 6g] ug'{xf;] \ / csf{]lt/
Pg] fsf] ;txaf6 ;dfg sf]0f x'g] u/L 6a] 'nsf] dfly 58s\ ]
kf/]/ /fVg'xf];\ . ca Pp6f kfOksf] d'vdf dw'/f] cjfhsf]
;|ft] /fVgx' f;] \ . ;fyLnfO{ csf{]k6l\ 6 /xs] f] kfOksf] dv' sf lrq 10.16 Wjlgsf] k/fjt{g
uP/ ;G' g eGg'xf;] \ . ;fyLsf] cjnf]sgsf cfwf/df 5nkmn u/L lgisif{ n]Vgx' f];\ .

cjnf]sg lgisif{
====================== =======================

Wjlg ;f| t] af6 pTkGg ePsf] t/ª\u s'g} dfWod eP/ k|;f/0f x'G5 . Wjlg t/ª\u k|;f/0fsf
jm| ddf s8f ;txdf 7f]lsP/ kmlsP{ sf] t/ªu\ k/fjlt{t Wjlg xf] . sg' } cUnf] kvf{nsf cufl8

166 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (

hf8] n] s/fp“bf ;'lgg] k|ltWjlg Ps k/fjltt{ Wjlg xf] .

k/fjlt{t Wjlgsf] pkof]u -Application of reflected 20,000 Hz cyf{t 20 kHz eGbf a9L
sound_
Wjlgsf] k/fjt{gsf] pkof]u kf| s[lts ¿kdf ljleGg cfj[lQ ePsf] WjlgnfO{ cN6«f;fpG8
hgfj/x¿n] ul//xs] f x'G5g\ . rd]/fn] cN6f« ;fpG8 -ultrasound_ elgG5 . o:tf] WjlgnfO{

pTkGg u5{ / pSt Wjlg jl/kl/sf cj/f]wx¿af6 xfdf| ] sfgn] ;'Gg ;lsb“ g} . cfjl[ Q a9L

kms]{/ cfpF5g\ . k/fjlt{t Wjlgsf cfwf/df rd/] fn] x'g] ePsfn] cN6«f;fpG8n] a9L zlSt
cufl8 /xs] f cj/f]w tyf cfkm\ gf] cfxf/ -ls/f_
/x]sf] :yfg kQf nufp5F . o;/L kl| tWjlgsf] dfWodaf6 afs] ]sf] x'G5 .

:yfg kQf nufpgn' fO{ Osfn] fs] ];g -echolocation_

elgG5 . 8nlkmgn] klg Osfn] f]s;] gaf6 kfgLdf

cfFvfn] gb]lvg] :yfgx¿sf af/d] f hfgsf/L k|fKt u5{ .

s[lqd ¿kdf pTkGg ul/Psf] cN6«f;fpG8sf] k|ofu] u/L b'/L lx;fa ug{ ;lsG5 . cN6f« ;fl] gs
?n/ -ultrasonic rular_ n] b'/L dfkg ug{ ;G] 8/af6 cN6f« ;fpG8nfO{ 7f]; cj/f]wlt/ k7fOG5 .
sx] L ;dosf] cGt/fndf 7f]; cj/f]waf6 k/fjltt{ Wjlg ?n/sf] l/l;e/n] kf| Kt u5{ . Wjlg
pTkGg ePsf] / kf| Kt ePsf] ;do cGt/fnsf] cfwf/df b'/L lx;fa ul/G5 . Pp6f pks/0faf6
pTkGg cN6f« ;fpG8nfO{ 7f]; ;txlt/ k7fOP/ k/fjlt{t cN6«f;fpG8 kf| Kt x'Fbf;Ddsf] ;do
u0fgf u/L b'/L lx;fa ug]{ k|ljlw ;f]gf/ -Sound navigation and ranging- SONAR_ xf] . o;
k|ljlwn] kfgL hxfhdf hl8t k]myf]ld6/ -fathometre_ sf] k|ofu] u/L ;d'bs| f] ulx/fO dfkg
ul/G5 . ;f]gf/ kl| jlws} l;4fGtdf cfwfl/t cN6f« ;fg] fu] f| kmLdf k/fjltt{ cN6f« ;fpG8sf] ko| fu]
u/L z/L/sf leqL cªu\ x¿sf] r]shfrF ul/G5 .

lrq 10.17 cN6f« ;fl] gs ?n/ lrq 10.18 kfgL hxfhdf hl8t km] yfl] d6/sf] ko| f]u

k/fjlt{t cN6f« ;fpG8df cfwfl/t ;'/Iff cnfd{ -security alarm_ lgdf0{ f ug{ ;lsG5 . 3/sf]
9fs] fdf k|of]u ul/g] aUn/ cnfd{ -burglar alarm_, sf/ kfls{ª cN6«f;fl] gs ;G] ;/ -ultrasonic
sensor_ cflb o;sf pbfx/0fx¿ xg' \ .

csl:6s ;'/Iff -Acoustic protection_

sf]7fleq x'g] Wjlg k/fjtg{ n] Wjlg c:ki6 aG5 . lrKnf] ;tx ePsf leQfx¿af6 xg' ] Wjlg
k/fjtg{ g/d / v;f| ] ;txaf6 xg' ] Wjlg k/fjtg{ eGbf clws xG' 5 . csl:6s ;/' Iff g/d /

lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff ( 167

KjfnoS' t -porous_ ;txx¿åf/f cgfjZos Wjlgsf t/ªu\ x¿ zfi] f0f -absorption_ ug{] k|ljlw
xf] . o;af6 sf7] f, ;efxn, Wjlg /s] l8{ª :6l' 8of] -sound recording studio_ cflbdf xg' ] Wjlg
k/fjtg{ lgoGq0f ug{ ul/G5 . csl:6s ;/' Iffsf nflu leQfnfO{ v;|f] agfpg], leQfdf kmf]d
6f:F g] h:tf pkfox¿ ckgfpg ;lsG5 . ;fpG8 /s] l8{ª :6'l8of,] ;efxn cflbsf leQfdf dl;gf
Kjfn ePsf] csl:6s ;/' Iff k|of]u ul/Psf] x'G5 .

lrq 10.19 leQfaf6 xg' ] k/fjtg{ / csl:6s ;/' Iffn] lrq 10.20 /l] 8of] g]kfn /]sl8ª{ :6l' 8of]
xg' ] Wjlg zf]if0f

dfgj cªu\ x¿sf] rs] hf“rdf t/ª\ux¿sf] ko| f]u (Use of waves in human organ diagnosis)

lj|mofsnfk 10.5

tkfO{“sf] glhssf] c:ktfn jf d]l8sn ;G] 6/sf] ed| 0f cyjf >Job[Zo ;fdu|L tyf rf6{x¿sf
dfWodaf6 tn pNnv] ul/Psf t/ªu\ df cfwfl/t r]shf“r k|ljlwx¿sf] cjnfs] g ug'{xf;] \ .
tL kl| jlwx¿sf] sfol{ jlwaf/] hfgsf/Lx¿ ;ªs\ ng ug'{xf;] \ .

PS; /] kmf]6f]uf| kmL l;6L= :Sofg cN6«f;fg] fu] |fkmL

-X-ray photography_ -CT scan_ -Ultrasonography_

PS; /] pTkfbgug{]pks/0fsf] sDKo6' / / PS; /] dl;gsf] r]shfFr l/kf6] { ===============

gfd==================, k|ofu] af6 8f6fsf] ;ªs\ ng 6«fG;8\o;' / / sDKo6' /sf]

kmf6] f] lvRg] ljlw,===== / kz| fw] gaf6 b'O{ cfoflds ko| f]uaf6 lelq cªu\ sf] lrq

ko| f]u ================= / lqcfoflds lrq agfpg] k|bzg{ ug{] ljlw=============

ljlw============= k|of]u==============

r]shfrF l/kf6] { =============== ko| fu] ============== r]shfrF l/kf]6{ ===============

PS; /] Od]lhª -X-ray imaging_

PS; /] ljBt' \ r'DasLo t/ª\u xf] . PS; /] Od]lhª\ Ps PS; /s] f] k|ofu] af6 z/L/sf leqL
cªu\ sf] lrq tof/ kf/L rs] hfFr ug]{ kl| jlw xf] .

168 lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff (

PS; /] kmf]6f]uf| kmL -X-ray photography_

o;nfO{ ;dfGo efiffdf PS; /] ug'{ elgG5 . PS; /] kmf]6fu] f| kmL z/L/af6 PS; /x] ¿ k7fpbF f
aGg] leqL cªu\ x¿sf] 5fofsf cfwf/df PS; /] kmf]6f] kf| Kt ug{] k|ljlw xf] . k/Dk/fut PS; /]
kl| jlwdf kmf]6f] lvRg dflg;nfO{ PS; /] dl] ;gsf] cufl8 lglZrt b/' Ldf pEofOG5 . d]l;gnfO{
cg ul/;sk] l5 dflg;sf] z/L/ eP/ uPsf PS; /]x¿ csf]{k6l\ 6 /flvPsf] PS; /] lkmNddf k5g{ \
/ 5fof aG5 . pSt 5fofsf cfwf/df PS; /] lkmNdaf6 PS; /] kmf]6f] tof/ kfl/G5 . cfw'lgs
k|ljlwdf 5fofnfO{ /]s8{ ug{ kmf]6f]uf| lkms lkmNdsf] ;6\6f OnS] 6f« ]lgs /]sl8ª{ pks/0f ko| f]u
ul/Psf] x'G5 . z/L/sf leqL cª\ux¿sf] 5fofnfO{ sDKo6' /sf] l:jm| gdf cjnf]sg ug{ ;lsG5 .

lrq 10.21 PS; /] kmf]6fu] f| kmL lkmNdsf] k|of]u lrq 10.22 PS; /] /s] 8{/sf] ko| fu]

xfd|f] z/L/df ePsf x8\8Lx¿n] PS; /] a9L zfi] f0f u5g{ \ . PS; /] kmf6] fdf logsf] 5fof uf9f
;]tf] b]lvG5 . cGo tGtn' ufot df+zkz] L, af];fa] f6 w/] }h;f] PS; /] l5/]/ hfG5g\ / sx] L dfq
zfi] f0f x'G5g\ . o:tf efux¿sf] Psbd} dw/' f] 5fof b]lvG5 . z/L/sf xfjf xg' ] efux¿ h:tM}
kmf]S;f]af6 PS; /] ;lhn} l5g{] ePsfn] PS; /] kmf]6fdf sfnf] efu bl] vG5 . z/L/df eflF rPsf
jf rss]{ f x8\8L, bftF sf] h/f, /f]usf] ;ª\j|md0f, 6o\ 'd/, /StgnLsf] Ansh] , cflbsf] rs] hfFr ug{
PS; /] ul/G5 .

w]/} zlSt ePsf PS; /] :jf:Yosf nflu xflgsf/s ljls/0f x'g\ . cTolws PS; /] z/L/df kbf{
z/L/sf sfi] fx¿ gfz xg' ] tyf j+zf0f' q'l6 xg' ] ;d:of b]lvg ;S5 . o;n] dflg;df SofG;/ xg' ]
;Defjgf xG' 5 . PS; /] dl] ;g cg ePsf] cj:yfdf PS; /x] ¿ sf]7fdf 5l/Psf x'G5g\ . 5l/Psf
PS; /] 5S] g n8] -lead_ sf] Pkf| ]g nufpgk' 5{ . r]shfrF sf jm| ddf nfdf] ;do tyf k6s k6s
PS; /] z/L/df kg{ lbg' xb'F }g .

ef}ltszf:qL ljnx]Nd /fG] 6hg -Wilhelm Roentgen_ n] ;g\ 1895 df k|of]uzfnfdf lgDg
rfkdf /flvPsf] Uof;“ x¿df ljBt' w\ f/f k7fp“bf X-ray kQf nufPsf xg' \ .

l;6L :Sofg -CT scan_

sDKo6' /fOH8 6f]df]u|fkmL :Sofg -Computerized Tomography scan- CT scan_ PS; /] kmf]6f]
uf| kmLaf6 ljsl;t ePsf] kl| jlw xf] . l;6L :Sofg ug{ dflg;nfO{ Ps 8f]g6 -doughnut_
cfsf/sf] dl;gleq k7fOG5 . d]l;gdf ePsf] PS; /] ;|ft] k/' } dl;g el/ 360o sf] sf]0fdf
3D' g ;S5 . ;f| ]tsf] l7s cufl8 PS; /] l86S] 6/ -X-ray detector_ /flvPsf] xG' 5 . ;f| ]t 3D' bf

lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff ( 169

l86S] 6/ klg ;Fu;u+ } 3'Dg] agfOPsf] x'G5 .

l;6L :Sofg ug{ PS; /] ;|ft] af6 pTkGg Pp6f

zlStzfnL ;fF3'/f] PS; /] lad -beam_ nfO{ r]

shfFr ugk{' g]{ cª\u ePsf] efult/ nlIft

ul/G5 . PS; /] ;f| ]tnfO{ z/L/sf] jl/kl/ 3d' fP/

:Sofg ubf{ kT| os] 45o sf] sf]0fsf] cGt/fndf

ljleGg lbzfaf6 z/L/sf] Pp6} v08df nlIft

u/L sDKo6' /sf dfWodaf6 8f6f ;ª\sng

ul/G5 . pSt 8f6fnfO{ sDKo6' /n] k|zfw] g

-processing_ u//] bO' { cfoflds -2D_ j|m;–

;S] ;gn lrqx¿ tof/ kfb5{ . o;nfO{

6fd] fu] |flkms -tomographic_ lrq elgG5 .

z/L/sf] leqL ;/+ rgfx¿sf] lj:tt[ cfsl[ tsf nflu lrq 10.23 ;L=6L= :Sofg ljlw

PS; /] v08x¿ -X–ray slices_ af6 8f6f ;o+ fh] g u/L lqcfoflds -3D_ lrq lgdf0{ f ul/G5 .

6f]dfu] |flkms lrqdf k/Dk/fut PS; /]eGbf clws lj:tt[ hfgsf/L ;dfjz] xG' 5 . logdf
z/L/ leqsf g/d tGt'x¿sf] cj:yf klg cjnfs] g
ug{ ;lsG5 . lqcfoflds -3D_ lrqaf6 z/L/sf] leqL
efusf] klxrfg ;xh x'G5 . o;n] leqL ;/+ rgfdf cfPsf]
kl/jt{g jf c;dfGo cj:yfnfO{ 7Dofpg ;lsG5 . l;6L
:Sofgsf] k|of]u z/L/ leqsf 3fprf6] , /ut hds] f,] lrq 10.24 PS; /] v08x¿sf] ;o+ f]hg
6o\ d' /, dl:tissf] cj:yf, kmf]S;f]sf] cj:yf cflb rs] hfrF ul/G5 .

cN6f« ;f]gf]uf| kmL -Ultrasonography_

cN6f« ;f]gfu] f| kmL pkrf/Ifq] df Wjlg t/ªu\ sf]

k|of]uaf6 z/L/sf leqL efux¿sf] rs] hfrF

ug]{ k|ljlw xf] . cN6«f;fl] gs :Sofg -ultrasonic scan_

n] ;fg] f/ -SONAR-Sound navigation and ranging_

sf] h:t} l;4fGtdf cfwfl/t eP/ sfd ub5{ . o;df

ko| f]u x'g] 6«fG;8o\ ';/ -transducer_ n] pRr cfjl[ Q

ePsf] cN6«f;fpG8 pTkGg u5{ . pSt cN6f« ;fpG8 lrq 10.25 USG sf] ko| fu] /

z/L/sf] leqL efult/ nlIft ul/G5 . z/L/sf ljleGg bO' { cfoflds ;fg] fu] f| d

txaf6 k/fjtg{ eO{ cfpg] cN6«f;fpG8nfO{ k'gM 6«fG;8\

o';/n] ux| 0f -receive_ u5{ . u|x0f xg' ] cN6«f;fpG8nfO{ cfOk'Ug nfus] f] ;do, To;sf] cfj[lQ

cflbsf] ;ª\s]t sDKo'6/df hfG5 . sDKo6' /n] kf| Kt tYofª\ssf cfwf/df leqL agfj6sf] cfsl[ t

tof/ kf5{ . pSt cfs[ltnfO{ ;fg] fu] f| d -sonogram_ elgG5 .

170 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (

cN6f« ;fpG8 ubf{ z/L/sf sf]ifnfO{ xflg x'bF }g . o;n] z/L/sf sf]dn tGt' tyf t/nsf]
cfs[lt k|fKt ug{ ;lsG5 . cN6«f;fpG8sf] k|of]un] ldufn}{ f, lkQy}nL, cflbsf] kTy/L, dl:t:s,
Kofªl\ j|mofh, cflbdf x'g] 6\o'd/, sn]hf] /f]u, cfGb|fsf] ;d:of, dlxnfx¿sf] kf73] /sf] ;d:of,
cflb rs] hfrF ul/G5 . cN6«f;fpG8sf] ko| f]u uefz{ odf xs' {b} u/]sf] lzzs' f] cfsf/, cj:yf,
cªu\ x¿sf] rfn, sg' } c;dfGo cj:yf cflbsf] rs] hfFrsf nflu ul/G5 . lqcfoflds -three
dimensional – 3D_ cN6f« ;fl] gs k|ljlwsf] ko| fu] af6 lzzs' f] cj:yf cem k|:6 9ªu\ n] cjnf]sg
ug{ ;lsG5 . Osf]sfl8{ofu] f| kmL -echocardiography_ df cG6;« fpG8sf] k|of]uaf6 d6' s' f] rfn,
eNex¿sf] cj:yf / o;sf sfo{ rs] hfFr ul/G5 .

cEof;

!= ;xL pQ/ 5fGg'xf];\ M

-s_ nlª\ur'l8gn t/ª\usf] pbfx/0f s'g xf] <

-c_ Wjlg t/ª\u -cf_ kfgLdf pTkGg x'g] t/ª\u

-O_ ks| fz t/ªu\ -O{_ /l] 8of] t/ªu\

-v_ cfj[lQ a9L ePsf] t/ª\usf] ;DjGwdf tnsf dWo] sg' egfO{ l7s xf] <

-c_ ju] sd x'G5 -cf_ t/ª\u nDafO 5f]6f] x'G5

-O_ PlDKnRo'8 a9L xG' 5 -O{_ ;dofjlw a9L x'G5

-u_ l/df]6 sG6f« n] kl| jlwdf s'g ljBt' \ rD' asLo t/ªu\ sf] pkofu] ul/Psf] xG' 5 <

-c_ cN6«fefon6] t/ª\u -cf_ OGkm| f/]8 t/ª\u

-O_ ks| fz t/ª\u -O{_ /l] 8of] t/ª\u

-3_ ;8s b'36{ gfdf k/]sf dflg;sf] 6fpsfdf aflx/af6 xb] f{ ;fdfGo 3fprf6] b]lvG5 .
pSt dflg;sf] dl:tissf] lj:t[t r]shfFrsf nflu sg' kl| jlw pkoS' t x'G5 <

-c_ k/Dk/fut PS; /] kmf6] f]uf| kmL -cf_ l;6L :Sofg

-O_ l8lh6n PS; /] kmf6] f]uf| kmL -O{_ cN6f« ;f]gfu] f| kmL

-ª_ tn lbOPsf t/ª\ux¿sf] ;d"xdf a9\bf] t/ªu\ nDafOcg;' f/ ldn]sf] ;d"x s'g xf] <

-c_ PS; /,] cN6f« efon6] t/ª\u, /ftf] k|sfz t/ª\u, ah} gL ks| fz t/ª\u

-cf_ a}hgL k|sfz t/ª\u, /ftf] k|sfz t/ª\u, cn6«fefon6] t/ªu\ , PS; /]

-O_ cN6«fefon6] t/ª\u, a}hgL k|sfz t/ªu\ , /ftf] ks| fz t/ªu\ , OGkm| f/]8 t/ª\u

-O_{ ah} gL ks| fz t/ª\u, /ftf] k|sfz t/ªu\ , OGk|mf/8] t/ª\u, cN6«fefon6] t/ªu\

lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( 171

-r_ s'g cN6«f;f]gf]uk| mL / PS; /] Odl] hªlarsf] leGgtf;uF ;DalGwt 5 <

-c_ Pp6f a9L ljZj;gLo / csf]{ sd ljZj;gLo x'G5 .

-cf_ Pp6fdf sDKo'6/ kl| jlw / csfd]{ f ;fdfGo k|ljlwsf] ko| f]u xG' 5 .

-O_ Pp6f 6«fG;e;{ t/ªu\ / csf{] nª\uRol' 8gn t/ªu\ sf] ko| fu] df cfwfl/t xG' 5 .

-O{_ Pp6f x88\ Lsf] r]shfFr ug{ ko| f]u xG' 5 / csf{] sfd] n cª\usf] r]shfrF ug{ }
k|of]u xG' 5 .

@= km/s n]Vgx' f;] \ M

-s_ nªl\ url' 8gn t/ªu\ / 6f« G;e;{ t/ªu\

-v_ ljBt' \ rD' asLo t/ªu\ / oflGqs t/ª\u

-u_ k/Dk/fut PS; /] kmf]6fu] |fkmL / l;6L :Sofg

-3_ OGkm| f/]8 t/ªu\ / cN6«fefon]6 t/ª\u

#= sf/0f nV] gx' f];\ M

-s_ 8f/] Lsf] Ps5p] afFw]/ csf]{ 5]pnfO{ Psgf;n] lg/Gt/ tn dfly rnfpFbf pTkGg xg' ]
t/ª\unfO{ 6«fG;e;{ t/ªu\ elgG5 .

-v_ es" Dksf] sG] b|laGba' f6 b'/L a9b\ } hfbF f 6f9fsf dlg;x¿nfO{ jm| dzM wSsf sdhf/]
ePsf] cg'ej x'G5 .

-u_ l;6L :Sofg ubf{ dl;gdf ePsf] PS; /]sf] ;|f]tnfO{ dflg;sf] jl/kl/ 3'Dg] u/L
/flvPsf] x'G5 .

-3_ l;6L :Sofgn] z/L/sf leqL cªu\ sf] lj:tt[ rs] hfhF u/L lqcfoflds l/kf6] { k|fKt ug{
;lsg] eP tfklg kf73] /sf] lzz'sf] cj:yfaf/] r]shfrF sf cN6f« ;f]gf]uf| kmL k|ljlwsf]
k|of]u ul/G5 .

$= tnsf kZ| gx¿sf] pQ/ nV] gx' f];\ M

-s_ t/ª\u egs] f] s] xf] <

-v_ kfgLsf] ;txdf pTkGg x'g] t/ªu\ tyf xfdLn] afN] bf k;| f/0f x'g] Wjlg t/ªu\ sf]
lrq sf]gx'{ f];\ . b'j} t/ª\udf ;DalGwt zAbfjnLx¿ gfdfª\sg ug{x' f];\ .

-u_ ljB't\ r'DasLo j0f{k6 egs] f] s] xf] <

-3_ ljB't\ rDasLo t/ªu\ sf] j0fk{ 6df ;ae} Gbf sd t/ªu\ nfDafO / ;ae} Gbf a9L
t/ªu\ nDafO ePsf t/ªu\ x¿sf] gfd nv] L ltgsf bO' { bO' {cf]6f pkof]lutfx¿
nV] gx' f;] \ .

172 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (

-ª_ ;+Fus} f] lrqdf sDd/sf] PS; /] kmf6] f] / l;6L :Sofg kmf6] f] b]vfOPsf] 5 .
-c_ -cf_

-c_ PS; /] kmf6] f] / l;6L :Sofg kmf6] f] 56' \ofpgx' f;] \ .
-cf_ r]shfrF l/kf]6{ xb] f{ s] ;d:of /xs] f] bl] vG5 <
-O_ oL bj' } r]shfrF k|ljlwsf r/0fx¿ pNnv] ug'[{xf;] \ .
O_{ PS; /] kmf]6f]u|fkmL tyf l;6L :Sofgsf pkofu] x¿ nV] g'xf];\ .
-r_ Wjlg k/fjtg{ sf s'g} rf/cf]6f pkof]u n]Vgx' f];\ .
-5_ /fx] gn] Wjlg k/fjt{gaf6 cfk\mgf] 3/sf] l7s cufl8 kg]{ l5ds] Lsf] 3/sf] b'/L lx;fa u/] .
pSt ljlw JofVof ug{x' f];\ .
-h_ tkfOnF ] pN6«f;fpG8 ;]G8/, l/l;e/nufotsf cfjZos cjojx¿ h8fg u/L agfpg'
xg' ] Wjlg k/fjtg{ df cfwfl/t s'g} ;/' Iff kl| jlwsf] vfsf tof/ kfg{'xf];\ . pSt kl| jlwnfO{
gd'gf lrqsf ¿kdf sfg] {x' f];\ .
-em_ csl:6s ;/' Iff -acoustic protection_ egs] f] s] xf] < o;sf pkfox¿ nV] g'xf];\ .
-`_ cN6f« ;f]gfu] |fkmL egs] f] s] xf] < o;sf r/0f tyf pkof]ux¿ nV] g'xf;] \ .
-6_ cfw'lgs hLjgz}nLdf ljB't\ rD' asLo t/ªu\ x¿sf] e"ldsf zLifs{ df lgaGw nV] gx' f];\ .

lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( 173

!! ljB't\ (Electricity)

lrq 11 .1 wf/f ljBt' \sf] k|of]u

ljB't\ pmhf{sf] d'Vo ;f| t] xf] . ;'rfns tf/af6 ljB't\ k;| f/0f x'G5 . dfly lrq 11.1 df
bv] fOP h:t} ufx:{ Yo ljB't\ kl/kydf pks/0fx¿nfO{ ;r' fns tf/n] h8fg ul/Psf] x'G5 . ljBt' \
pks/0f h8fg u/L ko| fu] ugs{ f nflu k|To]s pks/0f;Dd b'Oc{ f6] f tf/ 56' 6\ f5'66\ } k'¥ofOPsf]
xG' 5 . xfdLn] k|of]u ug]{ ;a} pks/0fx¿n] ljB't\ zlStnfO{ cGo zlStdf ¿kfGt/0f u5{g\ .
zlSt ¿kfGt/0fsf] b/ pks/0fcg';f/ km/s km/s x'G5 . pHofnfs] f nflu ko| f]u xg' ] lrdn]
eGbf lx6/n] yf/] } ;dodf w/] } ljBt' \ zlStnfO{ ?kfGt/0f u5{ . pks/0fcg';f/ To;df hfg] ljB't\
nfO{ x'g] cj/fw] n] zlSt ¿kfGt/0fdf ke| fj kf5{ . ljBt' \ zlStsf] ¿kfGt/0fsf] dfkgsf nflu
kl/kydf Ps ld6/ /flvPsf] xG' 5 . o;n] ljB't\sf] ko| fu] afkt dx;'n ltg{ ;xh xG' 5 . o;
PsfOdf ljBt' \ k|;f/0fsf nflu cfjZos kf]6]lG;on km/s / o;sf] ljB't\ wf/f;uF sf] ;DaGw,
ljBt' \ ;fdYo,{ ljB't\ nf8] x¿sf] h8fg, ljBt' \ vkt Pjd\ dx;n' cflbsf af/d] f cWoog
ug{] 5f}F .

174 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (

ljB't\ wf/f+ (Electric current)

ljm| ofsnfk 11.1
;r' fns tf/, Aof6L«, l:jr, / aNa ;ª\sng u/L ljBt' \ kl/ky lgdf{0f ug'{xf;] \ . Pp6f
Knfl:6ssf] a6\6fdf kfgL lng'xf];\ . ljBt' \ kl/kydf k|of]u ePsf] ;'rfns tf/sf b'O{
5p] nfO{ kfgLdf 8'afpg'xf];\ . ca kfgLdf g'gkfgL yKb} sf“rsf] /8n] rnfP/ 3f]Ng'xf;] \ /
aNasf] rlDsnfk] gf cjnfs] g ug'{xf;] \ . tkfOs{“ f] cjnfs] gaf6 k|fKt hfgsf/Lsf cfwf/df
aNa aNgdf Aof6L,« 3fn] / ;r' fns tf/sf] el" dsf / lgisif{ tnsf] h:t} tflnsfdf egx{' f;] \ M

Aof6«Lsf] el" dsf 3fn] sf] el" dsf ;r' fns tf/sf] e"ldsf lgisif{

-c_ g'gkfgLsf] 3f]ndf g'gsf] dfqf a9\b} hfFbf aNasf] pHofnfd] f s:tf] kl/jtg{ cfp5F <

-cf_ gg' sf] ;66\ fdf lrgL /fvL cjnf]sg ugx{' f];\ . s] aNa aN5 < o;af/] sIffdf 5nkmn
ugx'{ f;] \ .

wfts' f k/df0fs' f] Gol' Sno;n] aflx/L ;]ndf /xs] f On]S6«f]gx¿nfO{ rfh{sf] P;= cfO={ PsfO
sn' Da -coulomb_ xf] . Pp6f
nufpg] an tn' gfTds ¿kdf w]/} sd xG' 5 . tL OnS] 6f« ]gx¿ OnS] 6f« ]gsf] rfh{ 1.6×10-19
;lhn} Ps k/df0fa' f6 csfd]{ f ;g{ ;S5g\ . To;n} ] ltgLx¿nfO{

:jtGq On]S6f« ]g elgG5 . To:t} On]S6«fn] fO6sf] 3f]ndf wgfTds C xG' 5 . Ps sn' Da rfh{

cfof]g -ion_ / C0ffTds cfof]g :jtGq ¿kdf jl/kl/ ;g{ eGgfn] 6.24 × 1018 On]S6f« ]

;S5g\ . ha Aof6«L;uF hf]l8Psf] tf/sf bO' { 5p] nfO{ 3fn] df gx¿sf] rfhn{ fO{ hgfOG5 .

8'afOG5, ltgLx¿ lglZrt lbzfdf ;b5{ g\ . o;/L :jtGq

OnS] 6f« ]g, wgfTds÷C0ffTds cfof]g ;bf{ rfh{ kj| fx x'G5 . rfhs{ f] k|jfxn] ljBt' \ wf/f pTkGg

xG' 5 . kl| tPsfO ;dodf x'g] wgfTds ljB'tLo rfh{sf] kj| fx cyf{t wgfTds rfh{ kj| fxsf]

b/nfO{ ljBt' \wf/f elgG5 . olb ;r' fnsdf C0ffTds rfh{sf] k|jfx eof] eg] Toltg} kl/df0fsf]

wgfTds rfh{ ljk/Lt lbzfdf k|jfx ePsf] dflgG5 .

olb sg' } ;'rfns tf/af6 't' ;dodf 'Q' rfh{ kj| fx eO/xs] f] 5 eg] ljBt' \ wf/fnfO{ lgDgfg';f/
k|:t't ug{ ;lsG5 M

ljBt' \ wf/f (I) = rfh{ (Q)
;do (t)

ljBt\ wf/fsf] P;= cfO={ PsfO PlDko/ -ampere) xf] . ldlnPlDko/ -mA), dfOj|mfP] lDko/ -μA_
ljB't\ wf/fsf ;fgf PsfOx¿ x'g\ .

1 mA = 10-3A,

1 μA = 10-6A

lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff ( 175

sg' } ;'rfnsaf6 1 ;]s]G8 ;dodf 1 sfn] Da -C_

rfh{ kj| fx x'bF f 1 PlDko/ -A_ ljBt' \ wf/f pTkGg
x'G5 . ljB't\ kl/kydf Pld6/ -ammeter_ nfO{
>0] fLj|md h8fg u/L ljB't\ wf/fsf] dfkg ul/G5 .

lrq 11.2 sf] ljB't\ kl/kydf af0f lrx\gn] ;n] sf] lrq 11.3 ;r' fns tf/af6 On]S6«f]gx?sf] kj| fx
wgfTds w|j' af6 C0ffTds w'|jlt/ ljBt' \ wf/f k|jfxsf]
lbzf bv] fOPsf] 5 . o;nfO{ ljBt' \ wf/fsf] sGe]
G;gn lbzf -conventional direction_ elgG5 . h=] h]
yf]d;gn] ;g\ 1897 df On]S6«f]g kQf nufP . o;eGbf
klxn]bl] v g} sGe]G;gn lbzfsf cfwf/df ljB't\
wf/f;DaGwL lgod k|ltkfbg ug]{ tyf gofF lrq 11.2 ;'rfns tf/af6 On]S6f« g] x?sf] k|jfx
cflj:sf/x¿ ug{] sfo{ eO;ss] f lyP . ;dfg dfg
ePsf wgfTds rfh{ / C0ffTds rfh{sf nflu kl| tkflbt lgodx¿ kl/jtg{ ug'{eGbf ljB't\
wf/fsf] sGe]G;gn lbzfnfO{ g} lg/Gt/tf lbOof] . o;n] ljBt' \ pks/0fx¿sf] sfo{ljlwdf s'g}
k|efj kbg{} .

pbfx/0fM 1

olb sg' } ;r' fns tf/df 0.2 C rfh{ -charge_ 5 s df axG5 eg] pSt tf/ eP/ hfg] ljBt' \ wf/f
-electric current) lx;fa ug'{xf;] \ .

xnM kZ| gdf lbOPcg';f/,

tf/df axg] rfh{ -Q_ Ö 0.2 C

rfh{ ax]sf] ;do -t_ Ö 5 s

;q" fg';f/,

ljB t' \ wf/f (I) = rfh{ (Q) = 0.2 = 0.04 A
;do (t) 5

I = 0.04 × 1000 = 40 mA

pSt tf/df 0.2 C rfh{ 5 s df axbf 40 mA ljBt' \ wf/f pTkGg x'G5 .

OnS] 6f« d] fl] 6e kmf;] { -electromotive force-e.m.f_ / kf6] l] G;on km/s -potential difference- p.d._

bO' {cf6] f Knfl:6ssf aft] ndf el/Psf] kfgLsf] ;tx km/s km/s prfO;Dd /xs] f] 5 . tL bj' s} f
lardf Pp6f gnLn] hf8] \bf kfgL stfaf6 stflt/ axG5 < s] kfgL lg/Gt/ alx/G5 < olb kfgL
axg 5f8] d] f kg' M kfgL axg] agfpg s] ug{k' 5{ <

176 lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff (

kfgL tfGg] kDksf] sfo{ / ljBt' \ kl/kydf ;n] n] rfh{ kj| fxsf nflu sfo{ ug'{kg{] ljm| oflar
;dfgtf

kfOksf bj' } 5p] df kfgLsf] ;tx ;dfg ljBt' \ kl/kydf lg/Gt/ rfh{ kj| fx ug{

prfOdf kU' of] eg] kfgL axg 5f]8\5 . Aof6L« sf] /f;folgs zlStaf6 o;sf] Pp6f

kfOkaf6 k'gM kfgL axgsf nflu kfgL tfGg] 5]p C0ffTds rfho{ 'St -lgDg kf]6l] G;on_

ljB't\ df6] /sf] pmhfn{ ] kfgLnfO{ sd prfOaf6 / csf{] 5p] wgfTds rfh{oS' t -pRr kf]6]

a9L prfO ePsf] efudf k7fpgk' 5{ . lG;on_ aGgk' 5{ .

df]6/sf] zlStn] xg' ] sfon{ ] kfgLdf zlSt Aof6L« df xg' ] /f;folgs k|ltljm| ofn] rfh{

kb| fg ub{5 . k|jfxsf nflu zlSt k|bfg ub5{ .

ljBt' \ df6] /n] zlSt lbg 5f]8b\ f kfgLsf] Aof6«Ldf xg' ] /;folgs kl| tljm| of /fl] sbf

;txsf] prfOdf leGgtf cfpg /fl] sG5 / o;sf b'j} w|'jlarsf] kf6] ]lG;on ;dfg eO{

kfgL axg 5f]8\5 . rfh{ kj| fx /fl] sG5 . o;nfO{ xfdL Aof6L« gfz

ePsf] eG5f}F .

sg' } kfOkaf6 kfgL axg o;sf] Pp6f 5]p cUnf] efudf ePsf] kfgLsf] ;|f]t;uF+ hfl] 8Psf] /
csf{] 5]p xfr] f] efudf xg' 'k5{ . kfOkdf kfgL axbF f ;l~lrt l:ylt zlSt -potential energy_
n] ubf{ sfo{ xG' 5 . ljBt' \ kl/kydf klg ;r' fns tf/ tyf ljB't\ nf8] -h:tM} aNa_ af6 rfh{
kj| fx x'Fbf sfo{ xG' 5 . hg' \ ljBt' \ ;|ft] -h:t} Aof6L« _ n] ug{] sfo{ xf] . ljBt' \ ;f| t] n] k|ltPsfO
rfh{ k|jfx ug{ ;Sg] IfdtfnfO{ kf6] ]lG;on elgG5 . pbfx/0fsf nflu Aof6L« sf] wgfTds w|'j a9L
kf6] ]lG;on ePsf] / C0ffTds w|'j sd kf]6l] G;on ePsf] xG' 5 . t;y{ ljBt' \ kl/kydf ljBt' \
wf/f pTkGg u/fpFg ljBt' \ nf8] sf Pp6f 5p] ljB't\ ;f| t] sf] pRr kf]6l] G;on / csf]{ 5p] Gog'
kf]6l] G;on;Fu hfl] 8Psf] x'gk' 5{ .

lj|mofsnfk 11.2

Pp6f efN] 6ld6/, j|mfs] f]8fOn lSnK;, ;r' fns tf/, 8«fO;]n, / aNa lng'xf];\ . tn lrqdf
bv] fOP h:t} kl/ky lgdf{0f u/L cfjZos kl/df0fsf] dfkg ug'{xf];\ . kf| Kt tYofªs\ sf
cfwf/df lgisif{ n]Vg'xf;] \ .

kl/ky cjnfs] g kl/ky cjnfs] g lgisif{

ef]N6ld6/ ef]N6ld6/
sf] dfkg Ö sf] dfkg Ö
=====volt =====volt

lrq 11.3 177
lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff (

;r' fnsdf rfh{ k|jfxsf nflu zlSt cfjZos k5{ . h]g/6] /, Aof6«L, ;f]nf/ k]gn h:tf
ljB't\sf ;|f]tx¿n] rfh{ kj| fxsf nflu zlSt lbG5g\ . ljB't\sf ;|f]tn] cGo zlStnfO{ ljB't\
zlStdf ¿kfGt/0f u5{g\ . Aof6«Ldf /f;folgs zlSt ljB'tLo zlStdf ¿kfGt/0f x'G5 . Aof6«Ldf
/f;folgs kl| tljm| ofsf dfWodaf6 l;hg{ f xg' ] wgfTds w'j| -pRr kf6] l] G;on_ / C0ffTds w|'j
-Go"g kf6] l] G;on_ nfO{ ;'rfnsn] hf]8b\ f k|fKt xg' ] zlStåf/f rfh{ kj| fx xG' 5 . ljBt' \ kl/kydf
Ps sn' Da rfh{nfO{ jl/kl/ kj| fx u/fpgsf nflu ;f| t] n] kb| fg ug]{ zlStsf] dfqfnfO{ OnS] 6f« ]
df]l6e kmf];{ (e.m.f.) elgG5 .

On]S6«f]df]l6e kmf];{ (e.m.f.) = ;|f]tn] lbg] zlStsf] dfqf
rfh{sf] dfqf

On]S6«f]dfl] 6e kmf];{ -e.m.f._ n] ljBt' \ kl/kydf h8fg ul/g] nf8] sf bO' { 5p] lar kf]6l] G;on km/s

-potential difference-p.d._ l;hg{ f u5{ . ljBt' \ nf]8sf] Pp6f 5p] A nfO{ Aof6«Lsf] wgfTds

wj'| ;F+u / csf]{ 5]p B nfO{ Aof6Ls« f] C0ffTds w'|j;uF hf8] \bf A sf] kf6] ]lG;on B sf]eGbf a9L
xG' 5 . h;n] ubf{ wgfTds rfh{ A af6 B df axG5 . kf6] ]lG;on km/s -p.d._ sf] sf/0fn]
nf8] af6 rfh{ kj| fx x'Fbf ljBt' \ zlSt cGo zlStdf ¿kfGt/0f x'G5 . ljB't\ kl/kysf sg' } bO' {
laGb'lar k|lts'nDa rfh{ k|jfx xbF' f ¿kfGt/0f xg' ] ljBt' \ zlStsf] dfqf tL b'O{ laGbl' arsf] kf]6]
lG;on km/s xf] . o;nfO{ rngrNtLdf ef]N6h] -voltage_ eg/] lrlgG5 .

kf]6l] G;on km/s (p.d.) = zlSt ¿kfGt/0fsf] dfqf
rfh{sf] dfqf

ef]N6ld6/sf] k|ofu] n] On]S6«fd] fl] 6e kmf];{ / kf6] l] G;on km/ssf] dfkg ul/G5 . oL bj' } kl/df0fsf]
dfkgdf zlSt kl| tsfn] Dasf] lx;fa ul/g] ePsfn] logsf] P;= cfO={ PsfO -SI unit_ efN] 6
- volt) xf] . afXo kl/kydf rfh{ kj| fx gePsf] cj:yfdf Aof6«Lsf] bO' { 5p] larsf] kf6] l] G;on
km/s / e.m.f a/fa/ x'G5g\ . To;}n] o;sf] dfkgsf nflu ef]N6ld6/nfO{ lrq 11.4 df b]vfOP
h:t} Aof6L« sf b'O{ 5p] ;uF hfl] 8G5 . kf6] ]lG;on km/s dfkg ugs{ f nflu ef]N6ld6/nfO{ ljBt' \
nf]8;uF ;dfgfGt/ x'g] u/L o;sf b'O{ 5p] ;uF hf]l8G5 .

nf8] ;lxtsf] kl/kydf ljBt' \ k|jfx xF'bf Aof6«Lleq s]xL zlStsf] pkofu] x'g] ePsfn] Aof6«Lsf b'O{

w|j' larsf] kf6] l] G;on km/s hlxn] klg OnS] 6f« ]df]l6e kmf];{eGbf sd xG' 5 . pbfx/0fsf nflu
e.m.f. 3 V ePsf] Aof6L« n] kl/kydf ljB't\ kj| fx ubf{ nf]8sf b'O{ 5]p -A / B_ larsf] kf6] ]
lG;on km/s 2.5 V bl] vg ;S5 . o;sf] cy{ 1 C rfh{ kj| fx ubf{ Aof6«Ln] k|of]u ug{] k"0f{

zlSt 3 J eP tfklg aNaaf6 kl| t sfn] Da (C) rfh{ kj| fx xb'F f 2.5 J ljBt' \ zlSt cGo zlSt
-tfk / k|sfz_ df ¿kfGt/0f xG' 5 eGg] a'lemG5 . OnS] 6fd] fl] 6e kmf;] { / kf]6l] G;on km/slarsf]
leGgtfnfO{ lgDgfg';f/ pNn]v ug{ ;lsG5 M

178 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (

OnS] 6«fd] fl] 6e kmf];{ (e.m.f.) kf6] ]lG;on km/s (p.d.)

e.m.f. n] ;|f]taf6 rfh{ kj| fxsf nflu k|fKt kf]6]lG;on km/sn] ljBt' \ kl/kydf rfh{ kj| fx

zlStnfO{ hgfp5F . xb'F f ¿kfGt/0f xg' ] zlStnfO{ hgfpF5 .

e.m.f. n] ;f| t] sf b'O{ 5p] lar kf]6]lG;on kf6] ]lG;on km/sn] kl/kysf b'O{ laGbl' ar

km/s :yflkt x'G5 . ljBt' \ wf/f l;hg{ f x'G5 .

of] aflx/L kl/kydf ePsf cj/f]wsx¿sf] of] aflx/L kl/kydf k|ofu] ul/Psf

cj/fw] df lge/{ xbF' g} . cj/f]wsx¿sf] cj/fw] df lge/{ xG' 5 .

e.m.f. kf6] l] G;on km/s sf] sf/s -cause_ xf] . kf6] l] G;on km/s e.m.f. sf] c;/ -effect_ xf] .

5nkmnsf nflu kZ| g

-c_ xfdLn] k|of]u ug]{ 8f« O ;n] df OnS] 6«f]dfl] 6e kmf];{ -e.m.f._ 1.5 V nl] vPsf] xG' 5 . o;sf] cy{
s] xf] <

-cf_ xfdLx¿n] ufx{:Yo ljB't\ kl/kydf pks/0f k|of]u ug{ lsg o;sf] Pp6f 5]pnfO{ nfOe
tf/ / csf{] 5p] nfO{ Go6' «n tf/;+uF h8fg ul/G5 < ;fdfGotof pSt kl/kydf x'g]
kf]6]lG;on km/s slt x'G5 <

cf]xdsf] lgod (Ohm's law)

lj|mofsnfk 11.3
1.5 V sf 4 cf]6f ;n] / 6 V sf] DC aNa lng'xf];\ . Pld6/, ef]N6ld6/, j|mfs] f]8fOn
lSnk, / ;'rfns tf/ klg lngx' f;] \ . ;'rfns tf/n] jm| dzM Ps, bO' ,{ tLg / rf/cf]6}
;]nx¿nfO{ >0] fLj|mddf h8fg u/L ljBt' \ kl/kyx¿ tof/ kfg'{xf];\ . kT| o]s k6s aNasf
b'O{ 5p] sf] kf]6l] G;on km/s -V_ / kl/ky eP/ hfg] ljB't\ wf/f -I_ dfkg ug{'xf;] \ .
pSt tYofªs\ nfO{ tnsf] h:t} tflnsfdf eg{x' f;] \ . kf6] l] G;on km/s -V_ nfO{ x-cIfdf /
;DalGwt ljBt' \ wf/f -I_ nfO{ y-cIfdf /fv]/ uf| km lvRgx' f;] \ . u|fkmsf] ks| [lt cWoog tyf
tYofª\ssf] ljZni] f0faf6 kf| Kt xg' ] lgisif{ n]Vg'xf;] \ M

;]nsf] ;ª\Vof kf6] l] G;on km/s -V_ ljB't\ wf/f -I_ V/I = .... lgisif{

1 ================== ====================== =================

lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff ( 179

hdg{ ef}ltszf:qL hfh] { ;fOdg cf]xd -Georg Simon Ohm_ n] ;'rfnssf b'O{ 5]psf]
kf]6]lG;on km/s kl/jtg{ ubf{ pSt ;r' fns eP/ hfg] ljBt' \ wf/fdf klg kl/jt{g cfpg]
tYo kQf nufPsf lyP . cfx] dsf] lgodcg';f/ tfkjm| d / cGo efl} ts cj:yf l:y/ xbF' f sg' }
;'rfnsdf k|jfx xg' ] ljBt' \ wf/f -I_ To; ;'rfnssf] bO' { 5p] lar x'g] kf]6]lG;on km/s -V_ ;Fu
;dfg'kflts x'G5 .

olb s'g} ;r' fnssf] bO' { 5p] sf] kf6] l] G;on km/s 'V' / pSt ;'rfns eP/ hfg] ljBt' \ wf/f 'I'
eP, cfx] dsf] lgodcg;' f/,

I∝V

cyjf V∝I i
V = IR

hxfF R Ps cr/ /flz xf] , o;n] kl/kydf ko| fu] ePsf] V
;'rfnssf] ljBt' \ cj/fw] nfO{ hgfp5F .
lrq 11.4 kf6] ]lG;on km/s /
efl} ts cj:yf l:y/ xF'bf, V/I = R = cr/dfg ljB't wf/fsf] uf| km

kf]6]lG;on km/s -V_ nfO{ x-cIfdf / ;DalGwt ljBt' \ wf/f -I_ nfO{ y cIfdf /fv]/ lvlrPsf]
uf| kmdf Ps l;wf /v] f k|fKt xG' 5 .

ljB't\ cj/f]w (Electric resistance)

;dfg nDafO ePsf] Pp6f df6] f] tfdfsf] tf/ / csf{] Psbd} dl;gf] tfdfsf] tf/nfO{ Pp6} ljBt' \
sf] ;|ft] ;uF h8fg ubf{ df]6f] tf/df ljB't\ rfhx{ ¿ ;lhn} kj| fx xG' 5g\ . s'g} rfnsdf ljB't\
wf/f pTkGg xFbf o;df xg' ] rfhs{ f] kj| fxnfO{ /f]Sg vf]Hg] u'0fnfO{ ljB't\ cj/fw] elgG5 . o:tf]
cj/f]w rfnsdf axg] rfh{ / o;sf k/df0f'x¿ larsf] 6s/fj -collision_ n] pTkGg x'G5 .
ljB't\ cj/fw] sf] P;=cfO{= PsfO -SI Unit_ cfx] d -ohm_ xf] hg' \ efl} tszf:qL ;fOdg cf]xdsf]
vfh] sf] sb/ :j¿k pgs} gfdaf6 /flvPsf] PsfO xf] . o;sf] ;ªs\ t] sf nflu lus| efiffsf]
cIf/ cf]du] f -omega_ 'Ω' sf] k|of]u ul/G5 . o; PsfOdf ;dfjz] /xs] f cfwf/e"t PsfOnfO{
lgDgfg';f/ k:| t't ug{ ;lsG5 M

R = V/I = Energy⁄charge = Force × displacement
charge⁄time charge2⁄time

dflysf] ;dLs/0fdf ef}lts kl/df0fnfO{ ltgsf ;ª\s]tn] kl| t:yfkg u/L ;/n ubf{

180 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (

dflysf] ;dLs/0fdf ePsf efl} ts kl/df0fsf ;ª\st] x¿nfO{ ltgsf cfwf/et" PsfOn] k|lt:yfkg
ubf{,

cfx] d PsfOdf lk08sf] PsfO 'kg' , nDafOsf] PsfO 'm', ;dosf] PsfO 's' / ljB't\ wf/fsf] PsfO
'A' ;dfjz] 5g\ . t;y{ of] Ps tThGo PsfO xf] .

1 Ω cj/f]w M cf]xdsf] lgodcg';f/,

s'g} ;r' fnssf bO' { 5p] lar 1 V sf] kf]6l] G;on km/s xbF' f pSt ;r' fnsdf 1 A sf] ljBt' \ wf/f
pTkGf x'G5 eg] To;sf] cj/fw] 1 Ω x'G5 .

pbfx/0fM 2 lrq 11.5

Pp6f kfgL ttfpg k|ofu] xg' ] Od;g{ /8 -Immersion rod_ sf] cj/f]w 40Ω
5 . pSt /8nfO{ 220 V sf] kf]6l] G;on km/s ePsf] kfj/ Knudf hf8] b\ f To;af6
hfg] ljBt' \ wf/f lx;fa ug'x{ f;] \ M

xn M kZ| gdf lbOPcg;' f/,

kf]6l] G;on km/s (V) = 220 V

cj/fw] (R) = 40 Ω
cfx] dsf] lgodcg;' f/,

s/G] 6 (I ) = kf6] ]lG;on km/s (V) lrq 11.6 ;"q lqe'h -cfx] dsf]
ljBt' \ cj/fw] (R) lgod_

I = 220/40 = 5.5 A

pSt Od;{g /8 eP/ hfg] ljBt' \ wf/f 5.5 A xG' 5 .

ljBt' \ cj/fw] nfO{ k|efj kfg]{ tŒjx¿ -Factors affecting resistance_

ljm| ofsnfk 11.4

Pp6f l;;fsndaf6 gefFlrg] u/L u|fkmfO6 /8 lgsfNgx' f;] \ . 1.5 V sf bO' {cf]6f ;]n,
aNa, Pld6/, efN] 6ld6/, jm| fs] f8] fOn lSnk / ;r' fns tf/ lng'xf];\ . ca klxnf] k6s
uf| kmfO6 /8sf] bj' } 5]pdf lSnkn] hf8] /] kl/ky tof/ kf/L Pp6f ;n] / bO' {cf6] f ;n]
hf8] b\ f k|fKt x'g] kf]6l] G;on km/s / ljB't\ wf/fsf] dfqf dfkg u/L tYofªs\ ;ªs\ ng
ugx{' f;] \ . bf;] |f] k6s uf| kmfO6 /8sf] b'j} 5p] df ePsf lSnknfO{ larlt/ ;f//] kl/ky
tof/ kf/L klxn] h:t} u/L tYofª\s ;ªs\ ng ug{'xf;] \ . kf| Kt tYofª\snfO{ tnsf] h:t}
tflnsf agfP/ egx{' f;] \ / bj' } cj:yfdf V / I sf] cgk' ft lx;fa ug'{xf;] \ . k|fKt glthfnfO{
ljZn]if0f u/L lgisif{ nV] g'xf;] \ .

lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( 181

uf| kmfO6 /8df b'O{ lSnk R1 = V/I uf| kmfO6 /8df bO' { lgisif{
larsf] b/' L (l1 = ……) lSnklarsf] b/' L (l2= …… R2 = V/I

VI VI

…. ….. …. …..

rfnsx¿sf] cj/f]w ltgsf] nDafO, df]6fO, tfkjm| d, agf]6 cflbdf e/ k5{ . df6] fO
a/fa/ ePsf 5f6] f] / nfdf] tf/x¿dWo] nfdf] tf/df ljB't\ cj/f]w a9L xG' 5 . dl;gf] tf/sf]
cj/fw] df6] f] tf/sfe] Gbf a9L xG' 5 . ;r' fns tf/sf] tfkj|md a9\bf cj/f]w klg a9\5 . j:t'sf]
cj/fw] To;sf] agfj6df klg e/ k5{ . pbfx/0fsf nflu p:t} cfsf/ / ;fOh ePsf sk/sf]
tf/ / gfOj|mf]dsf] tf/dWo] gfOjm| fd] sf] cj/fw] a9L xG' 5 . ;r' fnssf] cj/fw] cj:yfcg;' f/
km/s kg]{ eP tfklg s'g} lglZrt ef}lts cj:yfsf nflu V/I = R = cr/ dfg, tYo nfu' xG' 5 .

cj/f]wsx¿sf] h8fg (Combination of resistors)

lj|mofsnfk 11.5

bO' {cf6] f 8«fO ;n] , b'O{cf6] f aNa, Pld6/, efN] 6ld6/, / j|mfs] f]8fOn lSnk;\ lng'xf];\ . klxnf]
kl/kysf nflu aNax¿nfO{ Pskl5 csf{] u/]/ >]0fLj|mddf h8fg ug'x{ f];\ . bf;] |f] kl/kysf nflu
aNax¿nfO{ ;dfgfGt/ ¿kdf h8fg ugx'{ f;] \ . ca kfnk} fnf] b'j} kl/kysf nflu tn tflnsfdf
pNnv] ul/Pcg;' f/ kf6] l] G;on km/s tyf ljBt' \ wf/fsf] dfkg u/L egx'{ f;] \ . pSt
tYofª\ssf] ljZni] f0f u/L lgisif{ nV] g'xf;] \ M

kl/ky kT| os] aNasf b'O{ 5]plarsf] bj' } aNax¿larsf] lgisif{

kf6] l] G;on km/s kf6] l] G;on km/s (V) V1,V2 / V larsf] ;DaGw

klxnf] aNa V1 bf];f| ] aNa V2

s ========== ============ =============== V=…

v =========== =========== ===============

kl/ky k|To]s aNa eP/ hfg] ljB't\ ;Dk0" f{ kl/ky eP/ lgisif{

wf/f hfg] ljB't\ wf/f (I) I1, I2 / I larsf] ;DaGw

klxnf] aNa I1 bf;] |f] aNa I2 I = ………..
s ========== ============ ===============

v =========== =========== ===============

182 lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff (

dflysf kl/kydf Pp6f Pp6f aNa yk h8fg u/L aQLx¿sf] pHofnf] cjnf]sg ug'x{ f];\ .
aNasf] pHofnf]kgfdf s]xL kl/jt{g cfof] < cfk\mgf] cjnfs] gsf cfwf/df sf/0f kQf nufpg
sIffdf 5nkmn ug{'xf];\ .

cj/f]wsx¿sf] >]0fLjm| d h8fg (Series combination of resistors)

>]0fLjm| d h8fgdf cj/fw] sx¿nfO{ jm| lds ¿kdf Pskl5 csf{] h8fg u/L cGTodf klxnf] /
clGtdnfO{ ljBt' s\ f] ;f| t] l;t h8fg ul/G5 . >]0fLj|md h8fgdf ljBt' \ wf/fsf nflu Pp6f dfq
af6f] x'G5 . t;y{ k|Tos] cj/f]wsdf ;dfg ljBt' \ wf/f -I_ x'G5 t/ kf6] l] G;on km/s -V_ eg]
k|To]s cj/fw] sdf aflF 8G5 . o; lsl;dsf] h8fgdf s'g} Pp6f cj/f]wsdf ql' 6 cfpbF f kl/ky
vn' f aG5 / h8fg el/sf cGo cj/f]wsn] sfd ug{ 5f]85\ g\ . o:tf] h8fgdf k|To]s cj/f]wssf
nflu 5'6\6f5'66\ } l:jr /fvL k|ofu] ug{ ;lsFb}g . lbkfjnL cflbdf ko| fu] xg' ] ;hfj6sf jQLx¿df
o; lsl;dsf] h8fg ul/G5 .

dfgfF} klxnf], bf;] f| ,] / t];|f] cj/fw] ssf b'O{ 5]plarsf] kf]6]lG;on km/s j|mdzM V1 , V2 , / V3
5, ltgsf] cj/f]w j|mdzM R1, R2, / R3 5 / ;du|df tLgcf6] } cj/f]wsx¿sf] cj/f]w R 5 . o;
lsl;dsf] h8fgdf kf]6]lG;on km/s aflF 8g] ePsfn] kf]6l] G;on km/snfO{ lgDgfg';f/ k:| t't ug{
;lsG5 M

V = V1 + V2 + V3
cf]xdsf] lgodcg;' f/,

IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR3

\ R = R1 + R2 + R3

t;y{ >0] fLj|md h8fgdf cj/fw] sx¿sf] s'n cj/fw] kT| o]ssf] 5'66\ f5'6\6} cj/fw] sf] of]ukmn;uF
a/fa/ xG' 5 .

cj/fw] sx¿sf] ;dfgfGt/ h8fg -Parallel combination of resistors_

;dfgfGt/ h8fgdf b'O{ jf b'Oe{ Gbf a9L cj/f]

wsx¿nfO{ 56' \6f5'66\ } ljBt' \sf] ;f| t] ;uF hf]l8Psf] xG' 5

. ;a} cj/fw] ssf bO' { 5p] lar ;dfg kf]6l] G;on km/s

-V_ x'G5 / kT| os] cj/f]wssf nflu ljB't\ wf/fsf]

56' \6} af6f] x'G5 . h;n] ubf{ ;dfgfGt/ h8fgdf ljB't\ lrq 11.7 cj/fw] x?sf] >0] fLjm| d h8fg
wf/f ljeflht x'G5 . olb sg' } Pp6f cj/f]wsdf ql' 6

cfP klg h8fgsf cGo cj/fw] sx¿df ljB't\ wf/f ;'rf? u/L ltgsf] ko| fu] ug{ ;lsG5 . o:tf]

h8fgdf kT| o]s cj/f]wssf nflu 5'66\ f5'66\ } l:jr /fvL ko| f]u ug{ ;lsG5 . xfdLx¿sf] 3/x¿df

ul/g] ljBt' \ nf]8x¿sf] h8fg ;dfgfGt/ h8fg xf] .

lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( 183

dfgf}F klxnf,] bf;] |f,] / t;] f| ] cj/fw] sdf ljBt' \ wf/f jm| dzM I1 , I2 , / I3
5, ltgsf] cj/f]w jm| dzM R1 , R2 / R3 5 / ;du|df tLgcf]6} cj/f]
wsx¿sf] cj/f]w R 5 . ;dfgfGt/ h8fgdf sn' ljw't\ wf/f -I_ ;a}
cj/fw] sx¿df afFl8g] ePsfn] ljBt' \ wf/fnfO{ lgDgfg';f/ k|:tt' ug{
;lsG5 M

I = I1 + I2 + I3 lrq 11.8 cj/fw] x¿sf]
cfx] dsf] lgodcg';f/, ;dfgfGt/ h8fg

V = V + V +RV3
R R1 R2

1 = 1 + 1 + 1
\ R R1 R2 R3

t;y{ ;dfgfGt/ h8fgdf, cj/fw] sx¿sf] s'n cj/f]wsf] Jo'Tj|md -reciprocal_ k|To]ssf]

56' 6\ f5'6\6} cj/fw] sf] JoT' j|mdsf] of]ukmn;uF a/fa/ x'G5 .

pbfx/0fM 3

Pp6f ljB't\ kl/kydf 10Ω, 20Ω / 30Ω sf cj/f]wsx¿nfO{ 12 V sf] Aof6«L;u“ klxn]
>]0fLjm| d h8fg ul/Psf] 5 / To;kl5 ltg} cj/fw] snfO{ klxns] } Aof6L« sf] ko| f]u u/L ;dfgfGt/
h8fg ul/of] . oL b'j} cj:yfsf nflu ljBt' \ wf/f lx;fa u/L ltgsf] dfg tn' gf ug'{xf;] \ M

xn M k|Zgdf lbOPcg;' f/,

klxnf] cj/f]wssf] cj/f]w -R1_ Ö 10Ω
bf];f| ] cj/f]wssf] cj/f]w -R2_ Ö 20Ω
t];|f] cj/f]wssf] cj/f]w -R3_ Ö 30Ω
ljB't\ kl/kydf ePsf] kf]6l] G;on km/s -V_ Ö 12 V

184 lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff (

>0] fLj|md h8fgsf nflu ;dfgfGt/ h8fgsf nflu

s'n cj/f]w R Ö R1 + R2 + R3 sn' cj/f]wsf nflu

R Ö 10Ω + 20Ω + 30Ω = 60Ω 1R = R11 + 1 + 1
R2 R3
ljB't\ wf/f I = V = 12 = 0.2 A
R 60 R1 = 1 1 1
10 + 20 + 30

>]0fLjm| d h8fgdf s'n cj/fw] 60Ω xG' 5 /

kl/kydf ljB't\ wf/f 0.2 A xG' 5 . 1 = 6 +3 + 2 = 11
R 60 60

R = 5.45 Ω

ljBt' \ wf/f I= V = 12 = 2.202 A
R 5.45

;dfgfGt/ h8fgdf sn' cj/f]w 5.45 Ω x'G5 /
kl/kydf ljB't\ wf/f 2.202 A xG' 5 .

pxL cj/f]wsx¿nfO{ >0] fLj|md h8fgaf6 ;dfgfGt/ h8fgdf ¿kfGt/0f ubf{ kl/kydf ljB't\
wf/f a9\5 . o; pbfx/0fdf >]0fLj|md h8fgnfO{ ;dfgfGt/ h8fgdf ¿kfGt/0f ubf{ ljB't\
wf/f nueu 11 u'0ff a9]sf] 5 .

ljBt' s\ f] tfk c;/ (Heating effect of electric current)

lj|mofsnfk 11.6

Pp6f 6rn{ fO6sf] lrd b'O{cf6] f 8«fO;]n, l:jr, / ;'rfns tf/ lng'xf];\ . oL ;a}nfO{ h8fg u/L
ljB't\ kl/ky tof/ kfg'x{ f];\ . l:jr cg u/s] f] s]xL ;dokl5 o;nfO{ ckm ugx{' f;] \ / lrdsf]
tfkjm| d cjnfs] g ugx'{ f];\ / kf| Kt glthfsf] sf/0faf/] 5nkmn ugx'{ f];\ .

ljB't\ nf]8df xg' ] cj/f]wn] ljBt' \ zlSt cGo zlStdf ¿kfGt/0f x'G5 . gfOj|mf]d ljBt' \
lx6/df k|ofu] ul/Psf] tf/sf] cj/f]wn] ljBt' \ zlSt tfkdf ¿kfGt/0f xG' 5 . o;df ko| f]u
xg' ] gfOj|mfd] Ps pRr ljBt' \ cj/f]w ePsf] lgsn] / jm| f]ldodsf] ld>0faf6 agfOg] lxl6ª
OlndG] 6 -heating element_ xf] . o;sf] kUng] laGb' klg pRr xG' 5 . o;nfO{ ko| fu] ubf{ 900
oC sf] pRr tfkjm| d;Dd klg clS;hgsf] pkl:yltdf hNb}g . cj/fw] a9fP/ ljB't\ zlStnfO{
rf8F } tfk zlStdf ¿kfGt/0f ug{ ;lsG5 . lkmnfd]G6 lrddf ljB't\ zlStnfO{ tfk / ks| fzdf
kl/jtg{ ug{ lgs} dl;gf] 6ªu\ ;6]g lkmnfd]G6 /flvPsf] xG' 5 . ljBt' \ nf8] sf] k|of]u ubf{ ljB't\
zlSt tfkdf ¿kfGt/0f xg' ' ljBt' \sf] tfk c;/ xf] . ljBt' \ lx6/, kfgL ttfpg k|of]u x'g] Od;g{
/8 -immersion rod_, l:q -iron_, /fO; ss' /, ljBt' \ s]6nL, cflb ljBt' s\ f] tfk c;/df cfwfl/t

lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( 185

pks/0fx¿ xg' \ . ljBt' s\ f] tfk c;/ kl/kydf axg] ljBt' \ wf/fdf klg e/ k5{ . slxn]sfxLF
PSsfl; kf]6l] G;on km/s a9b\ f nf]8df cTolws ljBt' \ kj| fx x'g uO{ ;r' fns tf/ cTolws
tft/] klUnG5 .

lrq 11.9

ljB't\ ;fdYo{ (Electric power)

ljm| ofsnfk 11.7

lrqdf b]vfOPsf pks/0fdf 145 W ;fdYo{ nl] vPsf] 5 .
o;}u/L tkfOs“{ f ljBfnodf ko| f]u ul/Psf ljleGg ljBt' Lo
pks0fx¿ -LED aQL, kª\vf cflb _ sf] ;fDfYo{ l6kf6]
ug'{xf;] \ . pSt ljj/0fnfO{ k|ofu] u/L tn lbOPsf] h:t}
tflnsfdf egx{' f];\ M

pks/0f ;fdYo{ -P_ Ps ;s] G] 8df x'g] zlStsf] ¿kfGt/0fsf] dfqf

LCD TV 145 W 145 J

============ ============== ======================

tkfOFn] cjnfs] g ug{' ePsf pks/0fx¿dWo] k"0f{ ¿kn] sfo{ ul//x]sf] cj:yfdf s'g pks/0fn]
k|lt ;s] ]G8 ;a}eGbf a9L zlStnfO{ cGo zlStdf ¿kfGt/0f ug]{ /x5] <

ljB't\ nf8] sf] ko| fu] af6 zlSt ¿kfGt/0f xG' 5 . sg' } ljBt' \ pks/0fsf] k|ofu] ubf{ kl| tPsfO
;dodf x'g] ljBt' \ zlStsf] ¿kfGt/0f pSt pks/0fsf] ;fdYo{ xf] .

ljBt' \ ;fd Yo{ (P) = ljB't\ pks/0fn] ¿kfGt/0f ug{] zlSt ====================== -i_
;do (t)

pks/0fsf b'O{ 5]pdf x'g] kf6] l] G;on km/sn] On]S6f« g] kj| fx eO{ ljB't\ zlSt ¿kfGt/0f x'G5 .

kf6] l] G;on km/ssf] kl/efiff cg';f/,

kf]6l] G;o n km/ s (V) = pks /0fsf b'O{ 5]prlafhr{ rfh{ k|jfx u/fpFbf x'g] sfo{ (W)

(Q)

186 lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff (

ljB't\ pks/0fn] ug]{ sfo{ (W) = QV = ljBt' \ pks/0fn] ¿kfGt/0f ug{] zlSt

;dLs/0f -i_ af6

ljB t' \ ; fdYo{ (P) = QV
t

lj Bt' \ ; fdYo{ ( P) = I V \ l jBt' \ wf/f ("I) = Q
t

pbfx/0fM 4
/f]xgn] cfk\mgf] efG5f sf7] fdf ePsf] /fO;ss' /df ljB't\ ;fdYo{
900 W n]lvPsf] kfP . /fO;s's/nfO{ cfjZos kg]{ ljB't\ wf/f
lgsfNgx' f];\ . -ufx{:Yo ljBt' \ kl/kydf x'g] kf]6]lG;on km/s = 220 V_

k|Zgdf lbOPcg;' f/,

kl/kydf xg' ] kf]6]lG;on km/s -V_ Ö 220 V lrq 11.10

/fO;s's/sf] ;fdYo{ -P_ Ö 900 W

;"qfg';f/,

ljBt' \ wf/f ;fdYo{ -P_ = IV

ljB t' \ wf/f (I) = P
V

ljB t' \ wf/f (I) = 900 = 4.09 A
220

/fO;s's/df vfgf kfsfpFbf To;sf] SjfOn -coil_ df 4.09 A ljB't\ wf/f pTkGg xG' 5 .

ljBt' \ vkt (Electricity consumption) lrq 11.11

ljBt' \ pks/0fsf] ko| f]u ubf{ ¿kfGt/0f x'g] ljBt' \
zlStsf] dfqf ljBt' \ vkt xf] . ljleGg pks/0fx¿
ko| fu] ubf{ x'g] ljBt' \ vktnfO{ ljB't\ ld6/sf]
k|of]u u/L dfkg ul/G5 . ljB't\ vktsf] Jofj;flos PsfO

lsnfj] f6 306f -kWh_ xf] . 1 kWh eg]sf] s'g} Ps lsnf]
jf6 ljB't\ ;fdYo{ ePsf] pks/0fnfO{ 1 306f ko| f]u ubf{
¿kfGt/0f xg' ] ljB't\ zlStsf] kl/df0f xf] . ljB't\ zlStsf]
dfqf xf] . 1 kWh nfO{ ;dfGo afl] nrfnLsf] efiffdf 1
o'lg6 elgG5 .

lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff ( 187

1 kW h = 1000 W × 1 h

1 kWh = 1000 W ×3600 s

= 3.6 × 106 J =3.6 MJ

ljB't\ ;fdYo{sf] kl/efiffcg';f/, pks/0fn] ubf{ ¿kfGt/0f x'g] ljB't\ zlSt o;sf] ;fdYo{ /
k|ofu] sf] ;dfojlwdf e/ k5{ .
ljBt' \ pks/0fn] ¿kfGt/0f ug]{ zlSt (E) = ljB't\ ;fdYo{ (P) × ;do (t)
ljBt' \ dx;n' (Electricity bill)

lj|mofsnfk 11.8
tkfOs“{ f] 3/df ko| fu] ul/g] ljBt' \ pks/0f;DaGwL ljj/0f tnsf] h:t} tflnsfdf egx{' f;] \ .
pSt ljj/0fsf cfwf/df b}lgs ljBt' \ vkt / dfl;s ljB't\ dx;'n lx;fa ugx{' f];\ .

pks/0f CFLaQL LED aNa ====== ============== =============
;fdYo{ -P_ lsnf]jf6df
15 W =
15/1000 kW

;ª\Vof -n_

bl} gs k|of]u ul/g] ;do -t_
306fdf

ljB't\ vkt Ö P × n × t

unit (kW h)

;a} pks/0fsf] bl} gs vkt hf]8g\ x' f];\ . pSt vktnfO{ 30 n] u0' fg ubf{ dfl;s vkt kf| Kt
xG' 5 . dfl;s ljB't\ vktnfO{ kl| t ol' g6 z'Nsn] u0' fg u/L dfl;s ljBt' \ dx;'n kQf
nufpgx' f];\ .

xfdLn] laB't\ pks/0fx¿ k|of]u ubf{ x'g] ljB't\ vktsf] dx;'n e'Stfg u5f+{} . o;sf nflu ljB't\
ld6/df xfn bl] vPsf] cª\s / cluNnf] dlxgfdf bl] vPsf] cª\ssf] leGgtf lgsfNgk' 5{ . o;/L
lgsflnPsf] cªs\ nfO{ k|lto'lg6 zN' sn] u'0fg u/L ljB't\ dx;'n lgsflnG5 .

ljB't\ pks/0fsf] ;fdYo{ 'P' -lsnfj] f6df– kW_, To;nfO{ k|of]u ul/Psf] ;do 't' -306fdf– h_,
/ pxL pks/0fx¿ PseGbf a9L ePsf] cj:yfdf tL pks/0fx¿sf] ;ª\Vof 'n' ePdf ljB't\
vkt lgDgfg';f/ lx;fa ul/G5 M

ljBt' \ vkt Ö P × n × t unit (kW h)

188 lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff (

pbfx/0fM 5

Pp6f 3/df 15 W ;fdYo{ ePsf 6 cf6] f l;PkmPn -CFL_ bl} gs 5 306f, 7 W ;fdYo{ ePsf
4 cf]6f PnO8L (LED_ aNax¿ b}lgs 6 306f, 1 kW ;fdYo{ ePsf 2 cf]6f lx6/x¿ b}lgs 2
306f, 900 W ;fdYo{ ePsf] /fO;ss' / b}lgs 50 ldg6] / 800 W ;fdYo{ ePsf] Ol:t/L xKtfdf
30 ldg]6 sf nflu k|of]u ul/G5g\ . pSt 3/sf] dfl;s ljBt' \ vkt slt xG' 5 < olb 1 o'lg6
ljBt' \sf] zN' s ?= 10 eP dfl;s ljB't\ dx;'n lx;fa ugx{' f];\ .

xn M k|Zgdf lbOPcg;' f/,

pks/0f CFL LED lx6/ /fO;ss' / Ol:t/L
;fdYo{ -P_
15 W = 7W= 1 kW 900 W= 800 W

15/1000 kW 7/1000 kW 900/1000=9/10 = 800/1000=8/10
kW kW

;ª\Vof -n_ 6 4 21 1
6h
b}lgs k|ofu] 5 h 2 h 50 30 min k|ltxKtf

ul/g] ;do min=50/60=5/6 =(30/60)/7=0.5/7 h
h
-t_ b}lgs

;"qfg';f/,

Ps lbgdf l;PkmPn -CFL_ n] ubf{ xg' ] ljB't\ vkt = P × n ×t

= 15/1000 × 6 × 5 = 0.45 kW h

Ps lbgdf PnO8L -LED_ n] ubf{ x'g] ljB't\ vkt = P × n × t

= 7/1000 × 4 × 6 = 0.168 kW h

Ps lbgdf lx6/n] ubf{ xg' ] ljBt' \ vkt = P × n × t

= 1 × 2 × 2 = 4 kWh

Ps lbgdf /fO;ss' / n] ubf{ x'g] ljBt' \ vkt = P × n × t

= 9/10 × 1 × 5/6 = 0.75 kWh

Ps lbgdf Ol:t/Ln] ubf{ xg' ] ljBt' \ vkt = = P × n × t

= 8/10 × 1 × 0.5/7 = 0.057 kWh

Ps lbgdf xg' ] hDdf ljB't\ vkt = 0.45+0.168+4+0.75+0.057 = 5.425 kWh (unit)

lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( 189

Ps dlxgfdf x'g] hDdf ljB't\ vkt = 5.425 × 30= 162.75 unit
Ps dlxgfsf] ljB't\ dx;'n = 162.75× 10 = Rs.1627.5
pSt 3/sf] dfl;s ljBt' \ vkt 162.75 unit x'G5 / dfl;s ljBt' \ dx;'n ?= 1627.5 xG' 5 .

cEof;

!= ;xL pQ/ 5fGg'xf];\ M
-s_ tnsf u|fkmx¿dWo] s'gn] cf]xdsf] lgdonfO{ k|bz{g ub5{ <
-c_ A -cf_ B -O_ C -O_{ D

-v_ ljB't\ lx6/df ko| fu] x'g] lxl6ª OlndG] 6 -heating element_ sg' kbfya{ f6
agfOG5 M

-c_ tfdf -copper_ -cf_ sG;6]G6g -constantan_

-O_ 6ª\U:6g] -tungsten_ -O{_ gfOj|mfd] -nichrome_

-u_ ufx:{ Yo ljBt' \ kl/kydf ljBt' \ nf8] x¿nfO{ ;dfgfGt/ ?kn] h8fg ug{'sf] sf/0f sg'
xf] <

-c_ ;a} nf]8x¿af6 ;dfg s/]G6 k7fpg

-cf_ ;a} nf8] x¿nfO{ ;dfg kf]6]lG;on km/sdf /fVg

-cf_ ljB't\ kl/kydf cj/fw] oyfjt /fVg

-O_ ljB't\ kl/kydf cj/fw] a9fpg

-3_ aNa A df 220 V, 0.5 A / aNa B df 220 V, 0.45 A pNnv] ul/Psf] 5 . b'jn} ] k"0f{
Ifdtfdf sfo{ ul//x]sf] cj:yfdf tnsf dWo] s'g egfO ;xL xG' 5 <

-c_ k|lt306f B n] A eGbf a9L ljB't\ vkt u5{ .

-cf_ k|lt;s] ]G8 A n] B eGbf a9L zlSt ¿kfGt/0f u5{ .

190 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (

-O_ k|lt;]sG] 8 B af6 pTkGg x'g] tfk A sf] eGbf a9L x'G5 .
-O_{ aNa A eGbf B sf] k|of]u a9fpFbf ljBt' \ dx;n' a95\ . .
-ª_ ;+Fu}sf] lrqdf bv] fOPsf] kl/kydf R sf] dfg slt xG' 5 <
-c_ 6 Ω -cf_ 12 Ω
-O_ 18 Ω -O{_ 24 Ω
-r_ 1 kW sf] lx6/nfO{ 1 306f ko| f]u ubf{ ¿kfGt/0f x'g] ljBt' \ zlSt slt xG' 5 <
-c_ 3.6 × 105 J -cf_ 3.6 × 104 J
-O_ 3.6 × 103 J -O{_ 3.6 × 106 J
@= km/s nV] gx' f;] \ M
-s_ On]S6f« d] fl] 6e kmf];{ / kf6] l] G;on km/s
-v_ nf]8x¿sf] >]0fLj|md h8fg / nf8] x¿sf] ;dfgfGt/ h8fg
#= sf/0f nV] g'xf;] \ M
-s_ aNanfO{ Pp6f 8«fO ;]n;uF h8fg ul/Psf] eGbf bO' c{ f]6f ;n] sf] ;dx" ;uF+ h8fg ubf{
a9L rlDsnf]kgf b]lvof] .
-v_ ljB't\ wf/f ePsf] tf/df a;]sf] r/fnfO{ ljBt' \ em8\sf nfUbg} .
-u_ lx6/df gfOj|mf]d tf/sf] k|ofu] ul/G5 .
-3_ ufx:{ y ljBt' \ kl/kydf ljBt' \ nf]8x¿sf] ;dfgfGt/ h8fg ul/G5 .
$= tnsf k|Zgx¿sf] pQ/ nV] g'xf];\ M
-s_ ljB't\ s/]G6sf] kl/efiff nV] gx' f;] \ .
-v_ OnS] 6«f]df]l6e kmf];{ eg]sf] s] xf] < s] of] jf:tljs ¿kdf cGo anx¿ h:t} xf], JofVof
ugx{' f];\ .
-u_ Pp6f 8«fO ;]ndf nl] vPsf] 1.5 V sf] cy{ n]Vg'xf;] \ .
-3_ cf]xdsf] lgod nv] L V= IR x'G5 egL bv] fpg'xf];\ .
-ª_ ljB't\ cj/fw] eg]sf] s] xf] < 1 Ω ljB't\ cj/fw] kl/eflift ug'{xf];\ .
-r_ ;dfg nDafO ePsf df]6f] tf/ / dl;gf] tf/dWo] sg' sf] cj/f]w a9L xG' 5 <
-5_ ljB'ts\ f] tfk c;/ eg]sf] s] xf] < o;df cfwfl/t bO' {cf]6f pks/0fx¿sf] gfd
nV] gx' f];\ .

lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff ( 191

-h_ ljB't\ ;fdYo{ egs] f] s] xf] < Pp6f df]afOn kmfg] df n]lvPsf] 5 W sf] cy{
nV] gx' f];\ .

-em_ ;/' hn] Pp6f 3 V sf] Aof6L« ko| f]u u/]/ ul/Psf] aNax¿sf] h8fgdf Pp6 aNa
x6fP/ afsF L aNax¿nfO{ k'gM Aof6L;« uF hf]8b\ f pHofnf] a9]sf] cge' j u/] . aNax¿
sg' lsl;dn] h8fg ul/Psf /x]5g\ . pSt h8fg b]vfpg] ljB't\ kl/kysf] lrq
sfg] 'x{ f];\ . aNax¿sf] pHofnf] a9\g'sf sf/0f pNnv] ugx{' f];\ .

-`_ tkfOn{F fO{ ;dfg ;fdYo{ ePsf b'O{cf6] f aNa, b'O{cf6] f 8f« O;]n / ;'rfns tf/ lbOPsf]
5 . tL aNax¿nfO{ clwstd pHofnf] xg' ] u/L afNgsf nflu s'g lsl;dn] h8fg
ug{'x'G5, lsg < lrq;lxt k|i6 kfgx{' f];\ .

%= ul0ftLo ;d:ofx¿ xn ug'{xf;] \ M

-s_ 10 mA ljB't\ wf/f ePsf] ;r' fns tf/df 0.2 C rfh{ axg nfUg] ;do lx;fa
ugx'{ f;] \ . ( 20 s)

-v_ Pp6f ;'rfns tf/df 5 mA sf] ljB't\ wf/f 5 . 1 ldg6] sf] ;dodf pSt tf/ eP/
axg] rfh{ lx;fa ug'x{ f;] \ . (0.3 C)

-u_ Pp6f 6r{ nfO6sf] aNadf 3 V, 500 mA pNn]v ul/Psf] 5 . aNasf] cj/fw] /
;fdYo{ lx;fa ug'x{ f;] \ . -6 Ω ,1.5 W )

-3_ kT| os] cj/fw] ssf bO' { 5p] df xg' ] kf]6l] G;on km/s ->]0fLj|md h8fgsf nflu
30 Ω,0.3 A,3 V / 6 V / ;dfgfGt/ h8fgsf nflu 6.67 Ω,0.9 A / 0.45 A ,9 V_

-ª_ 220 V sf] ufx{:Yo ljB't\ kl/ky h8fg ePsf] Pp6f 3/sf] sf]7fdf 1100 W
;fdYo{ ePsf] lx6/ / 11 W ;fdYo{ ePsf] CFL aflnPsf 5g\ . ;'rfns tf/sf]
cj/fw] gu0o dfgL k|To]s pks/0f eP/ hfg] s/]G6 / k|To]ssf] ljB't\ cj/fw] lx;fa
ug'x{ f];\ . -lx6/– 5 A, 44 Ω , CFL- 0.05 A, 4400 Ω)

-r_ ;Fus} f] lrqdf b]vfOsf] kfgL ttfpg k|ofu] x'g] lsTnL
-kettle_ df 6fFl;Psf] l:6s/ cjnf]sg ugx{' f;] \ . pSt
lsTnLnfO{ 220 V kf6] ]lG;on km/s ePsf] ufx{:Yo ljB't\
kl/kydf h8fg ubf{ To;af6 hfg] clwstd s/]G6 slt
x'G5 < lsTnLdf kfgL plDng 4 ldg6] ;do nfUof] eg]
Tof] lsTnLn] clwstd slt ol' g6 ljB't\ vkt u5{,
lx;fa ugx'{ f;] \ . (13.63 A, 0.2 kW h)

-5_ Pp6f 3/sf] ufx:{ Yo ljBt' \ kl/kydf h8fg ul/Psf ljleGg ljBt' \ pks/0fx¿sf]
;dYo{ / ltgsf] k|of]u ljj/0f lgDgfg;' f/ 5 M

192 lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff (

-c_ 7 W ;fdYo{ ePsf 10 cf]6f PnO8L -LED _ b}lgs 6 306f
-cf_ 150 W ;fdYo{ ePsf] Pp6f l6eL b}lgs 8 306f
-O_ 150 W ;fdYo{ ePsf 4 cf]6f kª\vf b}lgs 10 306f
-O_{ 750 W ;fdYo{ ePsf] Pp6f Ol:t/L xKtfsf] 40 ldg6]
pSt 3/df x'g] dfl;s ljBt' \ vkt slt xG' 5 < olb Ps ol' g6 ljB't\sf] dN" o ?= 10

eP Ps dlxgfsf] ljB't\ dx;n' lx;fa ugx'{ f;] \ . (Ans: 230.7 kW h, Rs. 2037)

kl/ofh] gf sfo{

b}lgs ljB't\ vktsf] cWoog ug{ tkfOFsf] jl/kl/sf kfr“ cf]6f 3/x¿sf] ;j{I] f0f u/L tnsf] h:t}
tflnsf ljj/0fx¿ ;ª\sng ug'{xf];\ / k|fKt glthfnfO{ sIffdf 5nkmn ug{x' f];\ .

3/ g= =====

ljB't\ nf8] ljB't\ ;fdYo{ -P_ ;ª\Vof k|of]u ul/g] ljBt' \ vkt ljB't\ dx;n'
-kW) -n_ ;do -t_ -P × n × t_ (kWh × rate)

============= ============ ========== ============== ======== kWh ================

lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( 193

!@ ax| \df08 (The Universe)

lrq 12.1 The Milky Way reflected in Gosaikunda in an award-winning photograph titled ‘Calmness of

Eternity. Photo : YEVHEN SAMUCHENKO

a|x\df08 cGtl/Ifsf] cyfx lj:tf/ xf] . ;Dk0" f{ kbfy{, pmhf{ tyf ;do oxL a|Xdf08df lglxt
5g\ . lrq 12.1 df kY[ jLaf6 vfnL cfvF fn] /ftLsf] vn' f cfsfzdf x]bf{ cGtl/Ifdf bl] vg]
cfsfzuªu\ f -milkyway galaxy_ sf cglulGt tf/fx¿ bv] fOsf] 5 . tL tf/fx¿df klg xfd|f]
;fo} d{ 08nsf] ;o" { h:t} tfk / k|sfz pTkGg x'G5 . ltgLx¿sf] ;a}sf] lglZrt cfo' x'G5 .
a|Xdf08df tf/fx¿sf] lj:kmf]6g x'g], cyfx u?' Tjan ePsf lk08;+uF } csf]{ tf/f klg 3'Db}
u/s] f] h:tf 36gfx¿ 6]ln:sfk] sf] dbtn] cjnfs] g ug]{ ul/G5 . 6l] n:sfk] cjnf]sgaf6 k|fKt
hfgsf/Lsf cfwf/df a|Xdf08sf af/d] f j1} flgs tYox¿ kl| tkfbg ul/Psf 5g\ . j1} flgs
tYo ks| flzt xg' k' "j{ g} k"jLo{ ;Eotfdf a|Xdf08;DaGwL wf/0ffx¿ :yflkt lyP . sx] L To:tf
wf/0ffx¿ / j}1flgs tYox¿lar tfbDotf /xs] f] kfOG5 .

194 lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff (

tf/fsf] hLjg rjm| (Life cycle of stars)

ljm| ofsnfk 12.1

;“u}sf] lrqdf ;"o{df Gol' Sno/ km\ oh' g -nuclear fussion_ åf/f

phf{ pTkGg xg' ] sf/] , pSt pmhf{ ;~rfng tyf ljls/0fsf

dfWoodaf6 aflx/lt/ k|;f/0f x'g] /]l8Pl6e hf]g / ;+jfxgsf

dfWoodaf6 pmhf{ k|;f/0f x'g] sGel] S6e hfg] bv] fOPsf] 5 .

tnsf] tflnsf cWoog u/L lbOPsf k|Zgx¿sf ;Gbed{ f 5nkmn

ugx{' f;] \ . lrq 12.2 ;o" s{ f] leqL ;/+ rgf

tf/f ;f}od{ 08n ;fOh -cwJ{ of; lk08 /ª ;txsf] cfo'
;"o{ -Sun_ af6sf] b'/L tfkj|md
– 695,700 km 2×1030 kg kxn]F f] 5778 K 4.6 ca{
-yellow_

l;l/o; P 8.6 k|sfz 1.711 u0' ff 2.063 u'0ff lgnf] ldl>t 9940 K 2 s/f8]
;f}o{lk08 ;]tf] -bluish 42 nfv
-Sirius A_ jif{ ;o" {sf] cwJ{ of; white_
0.122 u0' ff xNsf /ftf] 3042 K 4.8 ca{
k|fl} S;df ;] 4.2 k|sfz 0.1542 u'0ff ;fo} {lk08 -faint red_

G6f}/L jif{ ;o" {sf] cwJ{ of;

gf]6 M l;l/o; P -Sirius A_ /ftL cfsf;df b]lvg] sfnk'?if -orion_ tf/fd08n ;uF s} f] ;a}eGbf
rlDsnf] tf/f xf] . k|f]lS;df ;G] 6f/} L -Proxima centauri_ ;o" a{ f6 glhssf] tf/f xf] . -1 ks| fz
jif{ Ö 9.46×1015 m_

dflysf] tflnsfsf cfwf/df tn lbOPsf kZ| gx¿df 5nkmn ug'x{ f;] \ M

-c_ ;o" { slt jif{ klxn] ags] f /x]5 <

-cf_ a|Xdf08df ePsf tf/fx¿sf] ;fOh, tfkjm| d, /ª / cfo' ;"o{sf] eGbf km/s xfn] f <

-O_ ;"os{ f] tfk pTkGg xg' ] sf]/ / cGo efu 5'6l\ 6P h:t} cGo tf/fx¿sf] ;+/rgf s:tf] xG' 5
xfn] f < s] ;o" s{ f] sf]/af6 tfk ;we}F l/ lg/Gt/ pTkGg x'G5 xfn] f <

;"o{ xfdf| ] ;f}o{d08nsf] tf/f xf] . tf/fx¿ tfk / k|sfz pTkGg ug]{ vufn] Lo -celestial_
lk08x¿ x'g\ . a|Xdf08df c;ªV\ o tf/fx¿ 5g\ . xfO8f« h] g k/df0f'x¿ ;o+ fh] g eO{ lxlnod aGg]
ljm| ofaf6 tf/fx¿df tfk / ks| fz pTkGg xG' 5 . tf/fx¿df k/df0f' ;o+ fh] g xg' ] lj|mof logsf]

lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff ( 195

hGd -lgdf0{ f_ bl] v dT[ o' -lj:kmf6] g_ ;Dd rln/xG5 . lj:kmf6] gkZrft\ k'gM gofF tf/f aGg] lj|mof
;?' xg' ] ePsfn] kY[ jLdf hLjx¿sf] hLjg rjm| eP h:t} cGtl/Ifdf tf/fx¿sf] klg hLjgrjm|
x'G5 . hGdsf] cj:yf tyf hLjgrj|msf r/0fcg;' f/ tf/fx¿sf] cfsf/, ;fOh, tfkj|md, /ª
cflbdf leGgtf kfOG5 .

tf/fsf] hGd (Birth of a star)

tf/fx¿sf] hGd g]a'nfdf x'G5 . g]a'nf Ps ljzfn Uof;F

/ w'nfsf s0fx¿sf] afbn xf] . g]an' fdf d'VotM xfO8f« h] g

/ lxlnod Uof;F /x]sf] x'G5 . oL Uof;F / wn' fsf s0fx¿

cGo tf/fx¿ lj:kmf6] xb'F f aG5g\ . zlStzfnL 6]ln:sf]ksf]

dbtn] aX| df08df /xs] f sx] L ga] n' fx¿sf] cjnf]sg ug{

;lsG5 . pbfx/0fsf nflu sfnk'?if tf/fd08n -orion lrq 12.3 cfl] /og g]a'nf Credits: NASA,

constellation_ ;uF } /xs] f] cf]l/og g]a'nf ;lhn} cjnfs] g ESA and the Hubble Space Telescope

ug{ ;lsG5 . Orion Treasury Project Team)

tf/f aGg] jm| ddf u?' Tjansf sf/0f ga] 'nfdf /xs] f w'nfsf s0f / Uof;F cfslif{t eO{ vl' DrP/
Ps lk08sf] ¿k lnG5 . yk Uof;F / 3n' fsf s0f cfsif{0f u/L o;sf] cfsf/ a9\b} hfG5 . lk08
a9b\ } hfbF f o;sf] s]Gbd| f rfk a9b\ } hfG5 . h;n] ubf{ sf]/sf] tfkjm| d j[l4 x'G5 . o;/L wn' fsf
s0f / UofF;x¿sf] ;o+ fh] gaf6 aGg] ljzfn lk08nfO{ k|f6] f:] 6f/ elgG5 . k|f]6f:] 6f/ aGgsf nflu
nfvf}F jif{ nfU5 . pRr rfk ;uF } tfkjm| d a9b\ } hfbF f kf| ]6f]:6f/sf] sf]/df Gol' Sno/ k\moh' g ;'?

xG' 5 / tf/fsf] hGd xG' 5 . Go'lSno/ km\ o'hg ;'? xg' sl/a 107 K tfkjm| d rflxG5 .

a|Xdf08df xfO8f« h] g / lxlnod ePsf y'k|} lk08x¿ 5g\ . t/ tL ;a} lk08x¿ tf/f aGg
;Sbg} g\ . lsgls ltgLx¿df Go'lSno/ k\mo'hg xg' sf nflu cfjZos kg]{ Go'gtd tfk / rfk
xFb' }g . gofF tf/fdf x'g] Go'lSno/ k\mo'hg kl| tljm| ofaf6 c/afF} jif{;Dd tfk / ks| fz pTkGg x'G5 .

tf/fsf] d[To' (Death of a star)

gofF tf/fx¿sf] sf]/df ko| fKt dfqfdf xfO8«fh] g /xs] f] xG' 5 . logdf ydfG]{ o'lSno/ k\moh' g
-thermonuclear fusion_ lj|mof lg/Gt/ rln/xG5 . tf/fsf] a9\bf] pd/] ;uF } sf]/df x'g] xfO8f« h] g
lg/Gt/ lxlnoddf ¿kfGt/0f xb'F } hfG5 . cGtt sf]/df xg' ] xfO8f« h] g ;dfKt x'G5 . To;kl5
Go'lSno/ km\ o'hg csf]{ r/0fdf k|j]z u5{ . h;cGtu{t lxlnodsf k/df0fx' ¿ sfag{ df ¿kfGt/0f
x'G5g\ . o;/L tf/fsf] s]Gbd| f uxf| }F k/df0fx' ¿ aGb} hfG5g\ . t/ sf]/df GolSno/ k\moh' gsf] dfqf
36\b} hfg] ePsfn] tf/fsf] tfkj|md eg] 36b\ } hfG5 . tfkjm| dcg';f/ tf/fsf] /ª klg kl/jt{g
x'Fb} hfG5 . tf/fx¿sf] /ª / o;sf] tfkj|mdn] pd]/ hgfp5F . ev{/ pTklt ePsf tf/fsf] /ª
lgnf] / clGtd cj:yfdf ku' ]sf tf/fsf] /ª /ftf] x'G5 . tf/fsf] /ª / tfkjm| d oxfF lbOPsf] 5 .

tf/fsf] /ª lgnf] kxn“] f] ;'Gtnf /ftf]

Tffkjm| d 11,000°C- 25,000 °C 5,000°C- 6,000°C 3,500°C- 5,000°C 3,000°C- 3,500°C

196 lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff (

tf/fsf] sf/] df pTkGg tfksf sf/0fn] tf/fsf] aflx/L txdf /xs] f] Uof;F kmS' b} hfG5 . t;y{ pd]/
cg;' f/ tf/fsf] ;fOh klg j[l4 xFb' } hfG5 . k/' fgf tf/fx¿ /ftf] /ªsf xg' fsf ;fy} lgs} 7'nf
bl] vg] ePsfn] ltgLx¿nfO{ /]8 hfOG6 elgG5 . w/] } 7'nf tf/fx¿af6 aGg] /]8 hfOG6nfO{ /]8
;'k/ hfOG6 elgG5 . ;fgf tf/fx¿rflxF /]8 hfOG6 gaGg klg ;S5g\ .

w/] } k'/fgf tf/fx¿df aflx/L txsf] Uof;F kmS' b} hfbF f sg' } laGbd' f sf/] n] cfsif0{ f ug{ g;s]/
aflx/L tx lj:kmf]6 xG' 5 . o:tf] lj:kmf]6gnfO{ gf]ef elgG5 . w/] } zlStzfnL lj:kmf6] g eof]
eg] ;k' / gf]ef elgG5 . lj:kmf]6g x'bF f tf/fsf] aflx/L txdf ePsf] UofF; / w'nf] axd\ f08df
5l/G5 . tL UofF; / wn' fsf s0fx¿ ;ª\slnt eO{ k'gM csf{] ga] 'nf aG5 . aflx/L tx lj:kmf6] eP/
5'6\l6Pkl5 tf/fsf] sf/] dfq afsF L /xG5 . o;sf] eljZo tf/fsf] ;?' sf] lk08df e/ k5{ .

kf| ]6f]:6f/
tf/f

/]8 hfOG6

/8] ;'k/ hfOG6

gf]ef ;'k/ gf]ef
-/8] hfOG6sf] lk08 ;"os{ f] -/8] hfOG6sf] lk08 ;"o{sf] eGbf

eGbf sd_ w/] } u'0ff a9L_

AxfO6 8k{m Go'6«fg] tf/f ANofs xf]n
- tftf,] dw/' f] b]lvg]_ - Go'6f« ]goS' t rf“8f] rf8“ f] -cTolws v'Drg] jm| ddf w]/}

Ans] 8k{m 3'Dg_] u?' Tj an ePsf] lk08_
-AxfO6 8k{m lr;f] eO{ cbZ[ o aG5_
kN;/ lrq 12.4 tf/fsf] hLjgrjm|
lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( -lg/Gt/ PS; /] kN;
197
5f]8\g] Go6' f« g]