How Psychology Works - The Facts Visually Explained

HWPOSOWYRCKHSOLOGY



PHWSOOWYRCKHSOLOGY

APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY visually explained

Consultant editor Jo Hemmings

Senior editor Kathryn Hennessy CONTENTS
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First American Edition, 2018
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PSYCHOLOGICAL
DISORDERS

Diagnosing disorders 36 Schizophrenia 70

Depression 38 Schizoaffective disorder 72

Bipolar disorder 40 Catatonia 73

Foreword 8 Perinatal mental illness 42 Delusional disorder 74

DMDD (disruptive mood Dementia 76

WHAT IS dysregulation disorder) 44 CTE (chronic traumatic
PSYCHOLOGY?
SAD (seasonal affective encephalopathy) 78

disorder) 45 Delirium (acute confusional

Panic disorder 46 state) 79

Specific phobias 48 Substance use disorder 80

Agoraphobia 50 Impulse-control and addiction 82

The development of Claustrophobia 51 Gambling disorder 83
psychology
12 GAD (generalized anxiety Kleptomania 84
Psychoanalytical theory 14
Behaviorist approach 16 disorder) 52 Pyromania 85
Humanism 18
Cognitive psychology 20 Social anxiety disorder 53 DID (dissociative identity
Biological psychology 22
How the brain works 24 Separation anxiety disorder 54 disorder) 86
How memory works 30
How emotions work 32 Selective mutism 55 Depersonalization and

OCD (obsessive compulsive derealization 88

disorder) 56 Dissociative amnesia 89

Hoarding disorder 58 Anorexia nervosa 90

BDD (body dysmorphic Bulimia nervosa 92

disorder) 59 Binge-eating disorder 94

Skin-picking and hair-pulling Pica 95

disorders 60 Communication disorders 96

Illness anxiety disorder 61 Sleep disorders 98

PTSD (post-traumatic stress Tic disorders 100

disorder) 62 PD (personality disorders) 102

ASR (acute stress reaction) 63 Other disorders 108

Adjustment disorder 64

Reactive attachment

disorder 65

ADHD (attention deficit

hyperactivity disorder) 66

ASD (autism spectrum

disorder) 68

PSYCHOLOGY IN
THE REAL WORLD

HEALING Psychology of self-identity 146
THERAPIES Identity formation 148
Personality 150
Self-actualization 152

Health and therapy 112 Humanistic therapies 130 The psychology of 154
Physical and psychological Person-centered therapy 132 relationships 156
114 Reality therapy 132 158
health 116 Existential therapy 133 Psychology and attachment 160
The role of therapy Gestalt therapy 133 The science of love
Emotion-focused therapy 134 How dating works 162
Solution-focused brief therapy 134 Psychology and the stages
Somatic therapies 135
EMDR (eye movement of relationships
136
Psychodynamic therapies 118 desensitization and 136 Psychology in education 166
reprocessing) 137 Educational theories 168
Psychoanalysis 119 Hypnotherapy 137 The psychology of teaching 172
Arts-based therapies Assessing problems 174
Jungian therapy 120 Animal-assisted therapy

Self psychology and object

relations 121

Transactional analysis 121 Psychology in the workplace 176

Selecting the best candidate 178

Cognitive and behavioral Managing talent 180
therapies
Behavioral therapy 122 Team development 182
Cognitive therapy 124
CBT (cognitive behavioral 124 Leadership 184

therapy) 125 Systemic therapies 138 Organizational culture and
Third wave CBT 126 Family systems therapy 139
CPT (cognitive processing Strategic family therapy 140 change 186
127 Dyadic developmental therapy 141
therapy) Contextual therapy 141
REBT (rational emotive 127
128 Biotherapies 142
behavior therapy) 129
Methods used in CBTs
Mindfulness

HFE psychology 188 Changing consumer behavior 228 CONTRIBUTORS

Engineering displays 190 Consumer neuroscience 230 Jo Hemmings (consultant editor)
is a behavioral psychologist who
Human error and prevention 192 The power of branding 232 studied at the Universities of
Warwick and London. She has
The power of celebrity 234 authored several successful books
on relationships, writes regularly for
Forensic psychology 194 national newspapers and magazines,
is a regular on TV and radio, and
Psychology and criminal The psychology of sports 236 runs a counseling practice in
London. She is also the consultant
investigations 196 Improving skills 238 psychologist on ITV’s Good Morning
Britain in the UK.
Psychology in the courtroom 200 Keeping motivated 240
Catherine Collin is a clinical
Psychology in prisons 202 Getting in the zone 242 psychologist and Director of
Outlook SW Ltd (IAPT) and an
Performance anxiety 244 Associate Professor (Clinical
Psychology) at Plymouth University.
Psychology in politics 204 Catherine’s interests lie in primary
care mental health and the cognitive
Voting behavior 206 Psychometric tests 246 behavioral therapies.

Obedience and Joannah Ginsburg Ganz is
a clinical psychotherapist and
decision-making 208 Index 248 journalist who has worked in private
and public settings for the past 25
Nationalism 210 years. She also regularly contributes
to psychology publications.
Acknowledgments
Merrin Lazyan is a radio producer,
Psychology in the and picture credits 256 writer, editor, and classical singer
who studied psychology at Harvard
community 214 University. She has worked on
several fiction and nonfiction books,
How community works 216 spanning a broad range of topics.

Empowerment 218 Alexandra Black is a freelance
author who writes on a range of
Urban communities 220 subjects, from history to business.
Her writing career initially took her
Safety in the community 222 to Japan, and she later worked for a
publisher in Australia before moving
Consumer psychology 224 to Cambridge, UK.
Understanding consumer 226

behavior



HOW PSYCHOLOGY WORKS 89
Foreword

Foreword

Lying at the intersection of a number of disciplines, including
biology, philosophy, sociology, medicine, anthropology, and artificial
intelligence, psychology has always fascinated people. How do
psychologists interpret human behavior to understand why we
do what do? Why are there so many branches and approaches, and
how do they work in a practical sense in our day-to-day lives? Is
psychology an art or a science, or a fusion of both?

While theories come and go out of fashion—and new studies,
experiments, and research are conducted all the time—the essence of
psychology is to explain the behavior of individuals based on the
workings of the mind. In these often turbulent and uncertain times,
people are increasingly looking to psychology and psychologists to
help them make sense of why the powerful and influential behave the
way that they do, and the resulting impact that might have on us. But
psychology also has huge relevance to those much closer to us than
politicians, celebrities, or business magnates—it tells us a great deal
about our own families, friends, partners, and work colleagues. It also
resonates a great deal in understanding our own minds, leading to a
greater self-awareness of our own thoughts and behaviors.

As well as offering us a basic understanding of all the various
theories, disorders, and therapies that form part of this ever-changing
field of study, psychology plays a huge role in our everyday lives.
Whether it is in education, the workplace, sports, or our personal and
intimate relationships—and even the way that we spend our money or
how we vote—there is a branch of psychology that impacts every
single one of us in our daily lives on a constant and continued basis.

How Psychology Works considers all aspects of psychology—from
theories to therapies, personal issues to practical applications, all
presented in an accessible, stylish, and beautifully simple way. I wish
it had been around when I was a psychology student!

Jo Hemmings, consultant editor

WHAT IS
PSYCHOLOGY?

There are many different approaches to psychology—
the scientific study of the human mind and how
individuals behave. All seek the key to unlock
people’s thoughts, memories, and emotions.



The development
of psychology

Most advances in psychology are recent, dating back about 150 years,
but its origins lie with the philosophers of ancient Greece and Persia.
Many approaches and fields of study have been developed that give
psychologists a toolkit to apply to the real world. As society has changed,
new applications have also arisen to meet people’s needs.

PSYCHOLOGY AS A FORMAL
DISCIPLINE

1808 Franz Gall writes about
phrenology (the idea that a
person’s skull shape and 1879 Wilhelm
c.1550 bce The Ebers placement of bumps on Wundt founds a
Papyrus (Egyptian the head can reveal laboratory in Leipzig,
medical papyrus) personality traits) 1698 John Locke Germany, dedicated to
describes the human psychological research,
mentions depression mind as a tabula rasa
(blank slate) at birth in marking the start of
ANCIENT GREEK 1629–1633 René An Essay Concerning formal experimental
PHILOSOPHERS Descartes outlines his Human Understanding
dualistic theory of mind psychology 
470–370 bce Democritus versus matter (pp.24–25) mid-1880s Wundt trains
makes a distinction in Treatise of the World 1620s Francis Bacon
between the intellect writes on psychological Hugo Münsterberg and
and knowledge gained topics, including the James McKeen Cattell,
through the senses; 1590 Rudolph Goclenius nature of knowledge
Hippocrates introduces first coins the term and memory who sow the seeds of I/O
the principle of scientific “psychology” (industrial/organizational)
medicine
psychology (pp.176–187)
387 bce Plato 350 bce Aristotle writes EUROPEAN PHILOSOPHERS 1890–1920 Methods
suggests that the on the soul in De Anima, of teaching in schools
brain is the seat of and he introduces the are changed with the
mental processes tabula rasa (blank slate) advent of educational
concept of the mind
psychology (pp.166–175)
c.300–30 bce Zeno 705 ce The first hospital c.900 Ahmed ibn Sahl 1025 Avicenna’s Canon 1896 Clinical psychology
teaches stoicism, for the mentally ill is built al-Balkhi writes of mental of Medicine describes
in Baghdad (followed by illness, with physical and/ many conditions, begins with the first
the inspiration for CBT hospitals in Cairo in 800 or psychological causes; including hallucinations, psychological clinic at
(cognitive behavioral and Damascus in 1270) mania, insomnia, and
therapy) in the 1960s Rhazes practices the dementia the University of
first recorded 850 Ali ibn Sahl Rabban Pennsylvania
al Tabari develops the idea
psychotherapy of clinical psychiatry to
treat mental patients
SCHOLARS OF THE EARLY
MUSLIM WORLD

WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? 12 13
The development of psychology

2000 The World Congress
of Psychology takes place in
Stockholm. Diplomat Jan
1920s Dr. Carl Diem 1920s Behavioral psychologist Eliasson discusses how
founds a sports John B. Watson begins psychology can help
psychology laboratory working in the advertising conflict resolution
in Berlin (pp.236–245) industry and develops the

1920s onward The use discipline of consumer 1990 Jerome Bruner 2000 Sequencing
of psychometric tests to psychology (pp.224–235) publishes Acts of Meaning: of the human
measure intelligence starts Four Lectures on Mind and genome opens
individual-differences up a new area of
psychology (pp.146–153) Culture, drawing on research into the
philosophy, linguistics, and human mind
1920 Jean Piaget Early 1930s Social and body
publishes The Child’s psychologist Marie anthropology (cultural 1980s Health
Conception of the World, Jahoda publishes the first psychology, pp.214–215) psychology
prompting the study of study of community (pp.112–115) becomes
cognition in children psychology (pp.214–223) 1976 Richard Dawkins a recognized branch
1916 Lewis Terman publishes The Selfish Gene, of the profession
popularizing evolutionary

psychology (p.22)

applies psychology
to law enforcement,
heralding the beginnings BIOLOGICAL

of forensic psychology 1935 Kurt Koffka 1935 onward 1965 The Swampscott 1971 A CT
(pp.194–203) publishes Principles Biological psychology Conference of Education (computed
1913 John B. Watson of Gestalt Psychology (pp.22–23) emerges tomography) scan
publishes Psychology as as a discipline of Psychologists in makes the first image
the Behaviorist Views It, (p.18 and p.133) 1938 ECT Community Mental of a living brain
outlining the principles of (electroconvulsive Early 1960s Systemic
behaviorism (pp.16–17) therapy) (pp.142−143) is Health takes place (family) therapy
used for the first time 1960s Interest in (pp.138–141) emerges
as a field of study
community psychology
(pp.214–223) surges due
to political unrest
1960s Aaron T. Beck
BEHAVIORAL 1939 HFE psychology 1956 George A. Miller pioneers the practice
1913 Carl Jung breaks (pp.188–193) develops in applies cognitive psychology of CBT (p.125)
away from his colleague
Freud and develops his World War II to help (pp.20–21) in The Magical
own theories (p.120) of operators make and use Number Seven, Plus
the unconscious mind complex machines and or Minus Two
weaponry with accuracy

1909 onward COGNITIVE
Developmental
psychology (pp.146–153) NEUROPSYCHOLOGY
emerges prompted by
Freud’s emphasis on the 1950s The first 1950s In his studies of 1954 Abraham Maslow
importance of childhood psychoactive drugs epilepsy, neuroscientist publishes Motivation
experiences Wilder G. Penfield links
1900 Sigmund Freud are developed; chemical activity in the and Personality, hailing
introduces his theory psychopharmacology brain with psychological humanism as a third force
of psychoanalysis in begins as a treatment phenomena (pp.22–23)
The Interpretation of in psychology (pp.18–19)
Dreams (pp.14–15) for mental illness HUMANISTIC
(pp.142–143)
PSYCHOANALYTICAL 1954 Gordon Allport
1952 The first Diagnostic identifies the stages
and Statistical Manual of social prejudice,
of Mental Disorders an aspect of political
is published psychology (pp.204–213)

Psychoanalytical
theory

This psychological theory proposes that the unconscious
struggles of the mind determine how personality develops
and dictates behavior.

What is it? of the discord because it takes because they involve both sexuality
place at a subconscious level. Freud and mental processes. At each
Founded by Austrian neurologist suggested conflict occurs between stage a person’s mind focuses on
Sigmund Freud in the early 20th three parts of the mind: the id, a different aspect of sexuality, such
century, psychoanalytical theory superego, and ego (below, right). as oral pleasure when they suck
proposed that personality and their thumb as a baby. Freud
behavior are the outcome of Freud believed that personality believed that the psychosexual
continual conflicts in the mind. develops from birth in five stages, stages trigger a battle between
The individual is not usually aware which he called psychosexual

Topographical model Dreams

Freud divided the mind into three levels of consciousness. Dreams are seen as a channel
The conscious mind forms only a small part of the whole. for unconscious thoughts that
Although it is completely unaware of the thoughts in the people cannot usually access
unconscious mind, the latter still affect behavior. because many of them are too
disturbing for the conscious

mind to cope with.

Conscious mind

This contains the ideas
and emotions that
people are aware of.

Psychoanalysis Preconscious mind

In this therapy (p.119), This stores information
the client tells the analyst such as childhood
memories, which can
about their childhood be accessed through
memories and dreams psychoanalysis.
in order to unlock the
unconscious mind and Unconscious mind
reveal how it is controlling
or triggering undesirable This hides most of
a person’s impulses,
behavior. desires, and thoughts.

WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? 14 15
Psychoanalytical theory

biology and social expectations, DEFENSE MECHANISM
and the mind must resolve this
conflict before a person can move What is it? What happens? How does it work?
on to healthy mental development.
Freud argued that The ego uses defense Denial is a common
Evaluation people subconsciously mechanisms to help defense mechanism
employ defense people reach a mental used to justify a habit
Although Freud’s model has been mechanisms when compromise when an individual feels
hugely influential in highlighting faced with anxiety or dealing with things that bad about, such as
the role of the subconscious unpleasant emotions. cause internal conflict. smoking. By saying that
(psychoanalysis, p.119), it has These mechanisms help Common mechanisms they are only a “social
proved controversial because it them to cope with that distort a sense smoker,” they can allow
focuses on sexuality as the driver memories or impulses of reality include themselves to have a
of personality. Many critics view that they find stressful denial, displacement, cigarette while not
his model as too subjective and too or distasteful by tricking repression, regression, admitting that they
simplistic to explain the complex them into thinking that intellectualization, and are in fact addicted
nature of the mind and behavior. everything is fine. projection. to smoking.

Structural model Conscious

The conscious mind is just the tip of the iceberg, Superego Ego
a small part of a hidden whole. Psychoanalytical
theory is based on the concept that the This wants to do This is the voice of
unconscious mind is structured in three the right thing. reason, negotiating
parts—the id, ego, and superego—which It is the moral with the id and the
“talk” to one another to try to resolve conscience that superego.
conflicting emotions and impulses. takes on the
role of a strict Id
NEED TO KNOW parent.
This strives
❯❯Inferiority complex When for instant
self-esteem is so low that a gratification,
person cannot function normally. is childlike,
The idea was developed by impulsive,
neo-Freudian Alfred Adler. and hard
to reason
❯❯Pleasure principle What drives with.
the id—the desire to obtain
pleasure and avoid pain. Unconscious

❯❯Neo-Freudians Theorists who
built on Freud’s psychoanalytic
theories, such as Carl Jung, Erik
Erikson, and Alfred Adler.

Behaviorist approach

Behavioral psychology analyzes and treats people on the basis that
their behavior is learned by interacting with the world and that the
influence of the subconscious is irrelevant.

What is it? stimulus that triggers a particular psychoanalytic approach (pp.14–15),
response. Once the behavioral for example—has also been seen
The starting point for behavioral psychologist has identified a as its weakness. Many of the
psychology is a focus on only person’s stimulus-response behavioral experiments were
observable human behavior, association, they can predict it, carried out on rats and dogs, and
leaving out thought and emotion. a method known as classical humanists (pp.18–19) in particular
This approach rests on three main conditioning (below). In therapy rejected the assumption that people
assumptions. First, people learn (pp.122–129), the therapist uses in the world acted in the same way
their behavior from the world this prediction to help the client as animals in laboratory conditions.
around them, and not from innate change their behavior.
or inherited factors. Second, Behavioral psychology also
because psychology is a science, Evaluation takes little account of free will
measurable data from controlled or biological factors such as
experiments and observation The strength of the behaviorist testosterone and other hormones,
should support its theories. Third, approach—that it can be reducing human experience to a
all behavior is the result of a scientifically proven, unlike Freud’s set of conditioned behaviors.

Themes of behaviorism METHODOLOGICAL BEHAVIORISM

John Watson developed behavioral psychology in 1913. Watson’s theory became known
His theory agreed with the early 20th-century trend as methodological behaviorism
toward data-backed science rather than concentrating on because of its focus on scientific
the subjective workings of the mind, and the behaviorist methods:
approach was influential for decades. Later psychologists
interpreted behavioral theory along more flexible lines, ❯❯He viewed psychology as a science,
but objective evidence remains a cornerstone of research. its goals being the prediction and
control of behavior.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
❯❯It is the most extreme theory of
Pavlov noted that his dogs salivated at the sight of food behaviorism because it rules out
and started ringing a bell at the same time as feeding any influence from a person’s
them. Soon, the dogs salivated merely at the sound of DNA or internal mental state.
the bell, which they now associated with food.
❯❯It assumes that when people are
Neutral Unconditioned Conditioned Conditioned EXTERNAL born their minds are a blank slate
stimulus response stimulus response and they learn all their behavior
from the people and things around
Unconditioned them (classical conditioning, left).
stimulus For example, a baby smiles back
when their mother smiles, or cries
if their mother raises her voice.

WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? 16 17
Behaviorist approach

OPERANT CONDITIONING

This method for inducing behavior change, in this case training a dog, involves positive or negative
actions on the part of the owner to reinforce or punish the dog’s behavior.

❯❯Positive reinforcement Giving ❯❯Positive punishment The owner
a reward encourages good does something unpleasant to
behavior. For example, the dog discourage bad behavior. When
receives a treat for sitting on the dog pulls ahead on the lead,
command. It quickly learns that its collar feels uncomfortably tight
repeating that behavior will around its throat.
earn it another treat.

❯❯Negative reinforcement The ❯❯Negative punishment Taking
owner removes something bad to away something that the dog enjoys
encourage good behavior. The lead is used to discourage undesired
goes slack when the dog walks behaviors. For example, the owner
close to its owner. The dog learns turns their back on the dog to
to walk to heel without pulling and deprive it of attention if it jumps up.
so avoid the choking sensation. The dog learns not to jump up.

RADICAL BEHAVIORISM PSYCHOLOGICAL BEHAVIORISM

EXTERNAL In the 1930s B. F. Skinner EXTERNAL COGNITION Conceived by Arthur W. Staats,
developed radical behaviorism, EMOTION psychological behaviorism gained
which allowed for the influence BIOLOGY dominance over four decades.
of biology on behavior: It informs current practice in
psychology, especially in
❯❯Like Watson, Skinner believed education:
that the most valid approach to
psychology was one based on ❯❯A person’s personality is shaped
scientifically observing human by learned behaviors, genetics,
behavior and its triggers. their emotional state, how their
brain processes information, and
❯❯Skinner took classical the world around them.
conditioning a step forward with
the idea of reinforcement— ❯❯Staats researched the importance
behavior that is of parenting in child development.
reinforced by a
reward is more ❯❯He showed that early linguistic
likely to be and cognitive training resulted in
repeated (operant advanced language development
conditioning, and higher performance in
BIOLOGY above). intelligence tests when children
were older.

Humanism

Unlike other psychological approaches, humanism places central
importance on the individual’s viewpoint, encouraging the question
“How do I see myself?” rather than “How do others see me?”

What is it? “The good life is a process,
not a state of being.”
Whereas behavioral psychology is
concerned with observing external Carl Rogers, American humanist psychologist
actions and psychoanalysis delves
into the subconscious, humanism is well-being comes from achieving and thoughts. They reasoned that
holistic, focusing on how a person this. The principle of free will, the only way to really get to know
perceives their own behavior and exercised in the choices a person someone was to talk to them.
interprets events. It centers on a makes, is also key.
person’s subjective view of Humanism is the theory that
themselves and who they would Evaluation underpins person-centered therapy
like to be, rather than the objective (p.132)—one of the most common
view of an observer. Rogers and other humanist therapies for depression. The
psychologists suggested a number humanistic approach is also used in
Pioneered by Carl Rogers and of new methods of investigation, education to encourage children to
Abraham Maslow in the 1950s, such as open-ended questionnaires exercise free will and make choices
humanism offers an alternative way in which there were no “right” for themselves, and in researching
of trying to fathom human nature. It answers, casual interviews, and and understanding motivation.
assumes that personal growth and the use of diaries to record feelings
fulfillment are primary goals in life, However, humanism ignores
and that emotional and mental other aspects of the individual such
as their biology, the subconscious
GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY mind, and the powerful influence
of hormones. Critics also say that
Influenced by humanism, gestalt the approach is unscientific,
psychology examines in detail how because its goal of self-realization
the mind takes small pieces of cannot be accurately measured.
information and builds them into
a meaningful whole. It emphasizes THE RUBIN VASE ILLUSION offers the Road to fulfillment
the importance of perception—the viewer a perceptual choice between
laws that govern how each person seeing two faces in profile and seeing a Carl Rogers identified three parts to
perceives the world. white vase. personality that determine a person’s
psychological state: self-worth,
Part of gestalt assessment self-image, and the ideal self. When
involves showing clients a series a person’s feelings, behavior, and
of images to discover how their experience match their self-
eye perceives each one. The Rubin image and reflect who they
Vase illusion is the best known would like to be (ideal self),
of these, and illustrates the law of they are content. But if there
“figure” and “ground”: a person’s is a mismatch (incongruence)
mind always works to distinguish a between these aspects,
figure (words, for example) from its they are dissatisfied.
background (a white page), and in
doing so, makes a decision about
priority and what to focus on.

18 19WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?
Humanism

INDIVIDUAL OR GROUP?

Humanism is rooted in Western ideas of personal identity SELF-ACTUALIZATION
and achievement, sometimes called individualism. In
contrast, collectivism subordinates the person to the group. SELF-ACTUALIZATION

Individualism Collectivism SELF

❯❯Identity defined in terms ❯❯Identity defined by which When a person’s perception of who they are
of personal attributes— group someone belongs to aligns with who they want to be, they achieve
such as outgoing, kind, self-actualization. This satisfies their need to
or generous ❯❯Family, then workplace, reach and express their full potential.
are most important groups
❯❯Own goals take priority
over those of the group ❯❯Goals of group take
priority over individual’s

INCREASINGLY CONGRUENT

SELF- IDEAL
IMAGE SELF

With more common ground between
self-image and ideal self, a person has
greater self-worth and adopts a more
positive frame of mind.

INCONGRUENT

SELF- IDEAL
IMAGE SELF

If there is little overlap between how a
person sees themselves (self-image) and
what they would like to be (ideal self),
they feel unhappy, with low self-worth.

Cognitive
psychology

A branch of psychology that considers the mind to be like a complex
computer, the cognitive approach analyzes the way people process
information and how that dictates their behavior and emotions.

What is it? recognizing that a carton of milk PROCESSING
has soured from its bad smell);
When the computer arrived in reasoning with logic to reach a (mediational
offices in the late 1950s, it sparked decision (such as whether to buy mental event)
comparisons between artificial an expensive shirt that may last
information processing and the longer than a cheap one); or After receiving information via
operation of the human mind. learning how to play a musical the senses, the brain must sort
Psychologists reasoned that in the instrument, which requires the through it to analyze it and decide
same way that a computer accepts brain to make new connections what to do with it. Cognitive
data, codes it for storage, and and store new memories. psychologists call this process
retrieves it, the human mind takes mediational because it happens
in information, changes it to make Evaluation
sense of it, stores it, and recalls it between (“mediates”) the
when needed. This computer Although cognitive psychology environmental stimulus and the
analogy came to be the foundation emphasizes internal processes, it brain’s eventual response to that
for cognitive psychology. aims to be strictly scientific, relying
on laboratory experiments to back stimulus. In the case of a car
The theories behind cognitive up any theory. What happens in breakdown, the brain might
psychology can apply to virtually controlled experiments, however, analyze the smell of burning
every aspect of daily life. Examples can be difficult to apply to real-life rubber, and connect it with an
include the brain receiving and scenarios. Similarly, the assumption earlier memory of a similar smell.
processing sensory information that the human mind functions like
to make a judgment (such as

Information INPUT
processing
(from environment)
Using evidence from
controlled experiments, A person’s sense organs detect stimuli from the external world and
psychologists have built send messages to the brain as electrical impulses containing
theoretical models of how the
mind deals with information. information. For example, if a person’s car breaks down, their brain
According to these models, focuses on warning signs, such as unexpected sounds from the engine,
the human brain handles
information in the same visual cues like smoke, or the smell of burning rubber.
sequence a computer uses
to handle data—from input,
through transformation of
the data, to retrieval.

WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? 20 21
Cognitive psychology

a computer does not take into memory loss and selective attention COGNITIVE BIAS
account realities such as people disorders. It is also valuable in
getting tired and emotional, and understanding child development, When the mind makes an error in
critics claim it treats humans as allowing educators to plan the course of thought processing,
machines, reducing all behavior appropriate content for each age it results in a skewed judgment or
to a cognitive process such as group, and to decide the best tools reaction, known as a cognitive bias.
committing things to memory. for delivering it. In the legal system, This may be related to memory
Critics have also pointed out that cognitive psychologists are (poor recall, for example) or lack
this approach ignores the roles regularly called on to assess of attention, usually because the
of biology and genetics. eyewitness reports in order to brain is making a mental shortcut
determine whether a witness has under pressure. Biases are not
However, cognitive psychology accurately recalled a crime. always bad—some are the natural
has proved useful for treating outcome of having to make a quick
decision for survival purposes.
OUTPUT
Examples of bias
(behavior and emotion)
❯❯Anchoring Placing too much
When the brain has retrieved enough information, it can make importance on the first piece of
a decision about what response to make, in the form of either information heard.
a behavioral or an emotional reaction. In the example of the
❯❯Base-rate fallacy Abandoning
car, the brain recalls memories of previous breakdowns, original assumptions in favor of
together with any relevant mechanical information stored, a new piece of information.
and then runs through a mental checklist of possible causes
and solutions. It remembers that the smell of burning rubber ❯❯Bandwagon effect Overriding
previously indicated a broken fan belt. The person pulls over, own beliefs in order to go along
with what other people are
turns off the ignition, and opens the hood to check. thinking or doing.

“Disconnected facts in the mind ❯❯Gamblers’ fallacy Mistakenly
are like unlinked pages on the believing that if something is
Web: they might as well not exist.” happening more often now, it will
happen less often in the future—
Steven Pinker, Canadian cognitive psychologist for example, if the roulette wheel
consistently falls on black,
thinking it is bound to fall on red
before long.

❯❯Hyperbolic discounting
Choosing a smaller reward now,
rather than patiently waiting for
a larger reward.

❯❯Neglect of probability
Disregarding true probability, for
example, avoiding air travel for
fear of a plane crash, but fearlessly
driving a car even though it is
statistically far more dangerous.

❯❯Status quo bias Making choices
to keep a situation the same or
alter it as little as possible, rather
than risking change.

Biological psychology

Based on the premise that physical factors, such as genes, determine
behavior, this approach can explain how twins brought up
separately exhibit parallel behavior.

What is it? way than adult brains. These differences help to offer
a biological explanation for why teenagers can be
Biological psychology assumes that people’s thoughts, impulsive, sometimes lack good judgment, and can
feelings, and behavior all derive from their biology, become overly anxious in social situations.
which includes genetics as well as the chemical and
electrical impulses that wire the brain to the nervous Evaluation
system. This assumption implies that the blueprint laid
down in the womb—people’s physiological structure Many of the ideas in biological psychology emphasize
and DNA—dictates their personality and behavior nature over nurture. As a result, critics consider the
as they go through life. approach to be oversimplistic, giving undue weight to
the influence of biology and built-in physical attributes.
Some of these ideas are based on the results of Little credit is given to the influence of events or
twin studies, which have shown that twins separated people on an individual as they grow up. On the other
at birth and brought up in different households hand, few argue with the rigorous scientific backbone
display remarkably similar behavior in adult life. of the approach, which places importance on the
Biopsychologists argue that this phenomenon can be systematic testing and validation of ideas. And
explained only if the twins’ genetics influence them so biopsychologists have enabled important medical
strongly that not even the role of their parents, friends, advances—using research from neurosurgery and
life experiences, or environment have much impact. brain imaging scans, they have made positive
contributions to treatment for patients with both
An example of biological psychology in action is the physical and mental problems, including Parkinson’s
research into how teenagers behave. Scans of teenage disease, schizophrenia, depression, and drug abuse.
brains using imaging technology have revealed that
adolescent brains process information in a different

EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY Different approaches

Psychologists in this field explore why people’s behavior and personality Biopsychologists are interested in how
develop differently. They investigate how individuals adapt their language, the body and biological processes shape
memory, consciousness, and other complex biological systems to best cope behavior. Some focus on the broad issue
with the environment they find themselves in. Key ideas include: of how physiology explains behavior,
whereas others concentrate on specific
❯❯Natural selection This has ❯❯Individual differences This areas such as the medical applications of
its origins in Charles Darwin’s seeks to explain the differences the theory, or experiments to determine
hypothesis that species adapt over between people—for example, whether an individual’s genetics dictate
time or evolve mechanisms that why some people are more their behavior.
facilitate survival. materially successful than others.

❯❯Psychological adaptations ❯❯Information processing This
This looks at mechanisms people evolutionary view suggests that
use for language acquisition, for brain function and behavior have
differentiating kin from non-kin, been molded by information taken
for detecting cheats, and for in from the external environment,
choosing a mate based on certain and so are the product of repeatedly
sexual or intelligence criteria. occurring pressures or situations.

WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? 22 23
Biological psychology

“In the last analysis the entire field
of psychology may reduce to
biological electrochemistry.”

Sigmund Freud, Austrian neurologist

Physiological Medical Genetics
This approach is based on This branch explains and This field attempts to explain
the assumption that biology treats mental disorders in behavior in terms of patterns
shapes behavior. It seeks to terms of physical illness. that are laid down in each
discover where certain types Disorders are considered to person’s DNA. Studies of twins
of behavior originate in the have a biological basis, such (especially twins separated at
brain, how hormones and the as a chemical imbalance in the birth and raised in different
nervous system operate, and body or damage to the brain, homes) have been used to
why changes in these systems rather than causes linked to show that traits such as IQ
can alter behavior. environmental factors. are inherited.

How the brain works

Studies of the brain have given valuable insight into Mind controlling brain
the vital correlation between brain activity and human
behavior, as well as revealing the complex process Dualism argues that the nonphysical
by which the brain itself is brought to life. mind and the physical brain exist as
separate entities, but are able to interact.
Connecting brain and behavior It considers that the mind controls the
physical brain, but allows that the brain
Understanding the biology of the brain and how it works can at times influence the normally
became vital with the rise of neuroscience in the 20th rational mind, for example, in a
century. Studies in this field confirmed that the brain itself moment of rashness or passion.
is fundamentally intertwined with human behavior,
and prompted the emergence of specialist fields, such as
neuropsychology. This relatively new branch of science
combines cognitive psychology (the study of behavior and
mental processes) with brain physiology, and examines how
specific psychological processes relate to the brain’s physical
structure. Investigating the brain in this light raises the age-old
question of whether mind and body can be separated.

The relationship between brain and mind has been debated
since the time of ancient Greece and Aristotle, when prevailing
philosophical thought labeled the two entities as distinct. This
theory, which René Descartes reiterated in the 17th century
with his concept of dualism (right), permeated studies of the
brain until well into the 20th century.

Modern neurological research and advances in technology
have enabled scientists to trace certain behaviors to specific
areas of the brain, and to study connections between the
different regions. This has radically advanced knowledge of the
brain and its effect on behavior, mental function, and disease.

SPECIALIZATION OF THE CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES

CEREBRAL Right Left Left hemisphere
CORTEX hemisphere hemisphere
Nerve fibers cross ❯❯This controls and coordinates the right side of the body.
over at the base
of the brain, so ❯❯It is the analytical side of the brain.
each hemisphere
controls the ❯❯It is responsible for tasks relating to logic, reasoning,
opposite side decision-making, and speech and language.
of the body.
Right hemisphere
Front of
brain ❯❯This controls muscles on the left side of the body.

❯❯It is the creative side of the brain.

❯❯It deals with sensory inputs, such as visual and
auditory awareness, creative and artistic abilities,
and spatial perception.

WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? 24 25
How the brain works

Brain controlling mind “I think,
therefore
Monoism recognizes every living thing as I am.”
material, and that the “mind” is therefore
purely a function of the physical brain. René Descartes,
All mental processes, even thoughts and French philosopher

emotions, correlate to precise physical
processes in the brain. Cases of brain
damage reinforce this: minds alter
when the physical brain is altered.

Mind-body dualism

Humans are innately reluctant to reduce
consciousness to pure biology. But the
scientific evidence shows that the
physical firing of neurons generates
our thoughts. Two schools of thought,
monoism and dualism, dominate the
question of whether the mind is part of
the body, or the body part of the mind.

Brain studies regions suggests certain functions may be linked to
more than one area. Roger Sperry’s work in the 1960s
Linking a behavior to a specific area of the brain first on the cerebral hemispheres was a landmark in brain
began with 19th-century studies of people with brain research. Studying patients whose hemispheres had
damage, as changes in behavior could be correlated been surgically divided, he found each side had
directly to the site of injury. In one case, a worker specialized cognitive skills (left). He also realized that
survived injury to his frontal lobe, and the ensuing each hemisphere could be independently conscious.
changes in his character suggested the formation of
personality occurs in that area of the brain. The two However, all brain studies have limitations—they
linguistic functions of Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas show correlations between brain activity and behavior,
(p.27) were named after the surgeons who dissected not absolutes. Surgical procedure on, or damage to,
the brains of two patients who had linguistic problems one part of the brain may affect other areas, which
when alive. Each brain showed malformations in a could account for observed behavioral changes.
specific area, indicating where spoken language is Equally, tests on brain-damaged patients offer no
generated (Broca’s area) and understood (Wernicke’s experimental control and can only observe behavior
area). However, evidence of interconnections between occurring after the damage.

HOW THE BRAIN WORKS

Mapping the brain The frontal lobe is the seat of high-level cognitive
processing and motor performance; the temporal lobe
One of the most complex systems in nature, the human is involved in short- and long-term memories; the
brain controls and regulates all our mental processes occipital lobe is associated with visual processes;
and behaviors, both conscious and unconscious. It can and the parietal lobe deals with sensory skills.
be mapped according to its different neurological
functions, each of which takes place in a specific area. Brain-imaging techniques, such as fMRI (functional
magnetic resonance imaging), measure activity
The hierarchy of mental processing is loosely in the different brain areas, yet their value to
reflected in the brain’s physical structure: high-level psychologists can be limited. Those studying fMRI
cognitive processes take place in the upper areas, results need to be aware, for example, of the issue
while more basic functions occur lower down. The of “reverse inference”: just because a particular
largest and uppermost region (the cerebral cortex) part of the brain is shown to be active during
is responsible for the highest-level cognitive function, one cognitive process does not mean it is
including abstract thought and reasoning. It is the active because of that process. The active area
capacity of their cerebral cortex that separates humans might simply be monitoring a different area,
from other mammals. The central limbic areas (below) which is in fact in control of the process.
control instinctive and emotional behavior, while
structures lower in the brain stem maintain vital Locating brain function
bodily functions, such as breathing.
Psychologists and neurologists can map
Functional divisions neurological function when small areas of
the brain are stimulated. Using brain-
The cerebral cortex (also called the cerebrum) divides scanning techniques, such as fMRI or
into two separate but connected hemispheres, left and CT, they study and record the
right. Each one controls a different aspect of cognition sensation and movements this
(pp.24–25). Further divisions include four paired lobes stimulation produces.
(one pair on either hemisphere), each of which is
associated with a specific type of brain function.

The limbic system Thalamus

This complex set of structures is involved Processes and sends data
in processing emotional responses to higher brain areas.
and the formation of memories.
Hippocampus
Hypothalamus
Converts short-term
Involved in regulating memories into
body temperature and long-term ones.
water levels and key
behavioral responses.

Olfactory bulb Amygdala

Relays messages about Processes emotions;
smell to the central limbic affects learning and
areas for processing. memory.

WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? 26 27
How the brain works

FRONTAL LOBE PARIETAL Motor cortex
LOBE
Broca’s area This is the primary area
of the cerebral cortex
Area in the left hemisphere; involved in motor
vital to the formation of function. It controls
articulated speech. voluntary muscle
movements, including
TEMPORAL Wernicke’s area OCCIPITAL planning and execution.
LOBE LOBE
Plays a key role in Sensory cortex
the comprehension
of spoken language. Information gathered by
all five senses is processed
Cerebellum and interpreted here.
Sensory receptors from
Involved in balance and around the body send
posture; coordinates neural signals to
sensory input with this cortex.
muscle response.
Primary visual
Brain stem cortex

Main control center for key Visual stimuli are initially
bodily functions, such as processed in this cortex,
swallowing or breathing. enabling recognition of
color, movement, and
shape. It sends signals on
to other visual cortices to
be processed further.

Dorsolateral OFC (orbital Supplementary Tempo-parietal
prefrontal cortex frontal cortex) motor cortex junction

This area is linked to Part of the prefrontal One of the secondary Located between the
various high-level mental cortex, the OFC connects motor cortices, this area temporal and parietal
processes, including with the sensory and is involved in planning lobes, this area processes
“executive functions”— limbic areas; it plays a and coordinating any signals from limbic and
the processes involved role in the emotional complex movements. It sensory areas, and has
in self-regulation or and reward aspect of sends information to the been linked with the
mental control. decision-making. primary motor cortex. comprehension of “self.”

HOW THE BRAIN WORKS

Lighting up the brain transmission indicate that pathways within
this vast network link to specific mental
The human brain contains around 86 billion functions. Every new thought or action creates
specialized nerve cells (neurons) that “fire” a new brain connection, which strengthens if
chemical and electrical impulses to allow it is used repeatedly, and it is then more likely
communication between them and the rest of that the cells will communicate along that
the body. Neurons are the core building blocks pathway in the future. The brain has “learned”
of the brain, and connect to form complex the neural connections associated with that
pathways through the brain and central particular activity or mental function.
nervous system.
ACETYLCHOLINE
Neurons separate at a narrow junction
called a synapse. In order to pass a signal Acetylcholine
on, the neuron must first release biochemical
substances, known as neurotransmitters, The effects of this neurotransmitter
which fill the synapse and activate the are mostly excitatory, and activate
neighboring cell. The impulse can then flow the skeletal muscles; it is also linked
across the synapse in a process known as to memory, learning, and sleep.
synaptic transmission. In this way the brain
sends messages to the body to activate the
muscles, and the sensory organs are able to
send messages to the brain.

Forming pathways

A neuron’s unique structure enables it to
communicate with up to 10,000 other nerve
cells, creating a complex, interconnected
neural network that allows information to
travel at great speed. Studies of synaptic

86 billion neurons GLUTAMATE
exist in the brain

Neurotransmitters Glutamate

Many different types of neurotransmitters The most
are released at a synapse, and may have either common
an “excitatory” or an “inhibitory” effect on a target neurotransmitter,
cell. Each type is linked with a specific brain glutamate has an
function, such as regulating mood or appetite. excitatory effect
Hormones have a similar effect but are transmitted and links to
by blood, whereas neurotransmitters are memory and
transmitted across the synaptic cleft. learning.

WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? 28 29
How the brain works

Adrenaline ADRENALINE Norepinephrine

Released in stress situations, Similar to adrenaline, this excitatory
adrenaline creates an energy neurotransmitter is mainly associated
surge that increases heart rate, with the fight-or-flight mechanism; it
blood pressure, and blood flow is also linked to stress resilience.
to the larger muscles.

NOREPINEPHRINE

GABA GABA

The brain’s DOPAMINE
main inhibitory
neurotransmitter,
GABA slows the
firing of neurons
and is calming.

SEROTONIN Serotonin Dopamine

With an inhibitory effect, serotonin With either an
is linked to mood enhancement inhibitory or an
and calmness. It regulates appetite, excitatory effect,
temperature, and muscle movement. dopamine plays a
key role in reward-
motivated behavior
and links to mood.

CHEMICAL EFFECTS AND OVERLAPS

These three neurotransmitters NOREPINEPHRI NE SER
have distinct yet interrelated roles. Mobilizing Emotional
body under well-being
❯❯All affect mood. MOOD
ENDORPHINS Endorphins stress OTONIN
❯❯Norepinephrine and dopamine DOPAMI
Released by the pituitary are both released in stressful Fluid muscle
gland, endorphins have situations. motion; rewarding
an inhibitory effect on NE motivation
the transmission of ❯❯Serotonin moderates a neuron’s
pain signals; they are response to the excitatory effects
associated with pain relief of dopamine and norepinephrine.
and feelings of pleasure.

How memory works

Every experience generates a memory—whether it lasts depends on
how often it is revisited. Intricate neural connections allow memories
to form, and these can strengthen, aiding recall, or fade away.

What is memory? in which case it is encoded (below) memory can merge accidentally
in the long-term memory. In with new information, which fuses
A memory is formed when a group recalling a memory, the nerve cells irrevocably with the original
of neurons fire in a specific pattern that first encoded it are reactivated. (known as confabulation).
in response to a new experience— This strengthens their connections
these neural connections can then and, if done repeatedly, solidifies Endel Tulving explained memory
refire in order to reconstruct that the memory. A memory’s component as two distinct processes: storing
experience as a memory. Memories parts, such as related sounds or information in long-term memory,
are categorized into five types smells, reside in different areas of and retrieving it. The link between
(right). They are briefly stored in the brain, and in order to retrieve the two means that being reminded
the short-term (working) memory the memory all of these brain parts of the circumstances in which a
but can fade unless the experience must be activated. During recall a memory was stored can act as a
is of emotional value or importance, trigger to recall the memory itself.

How memories form 0.25 SECONDS 2a. Emotion

The process of laying down (encoding) High emotion increases
a memory depends on many factors. attention, making an
Even once encoded a memory can take event more likely to be
two years to be firmly established. encoded into a memory.
Emotional responses to
0.2 SECONDS stimuli are processed in
the amygdala.

0.2—0.5 SECONDS

1. Attention 2b. Sensation

Focusing attention on an event Sensory stimuli are part
helps to solidify the memory: the of most experiences, and
thalamus activates neurons more if of high intensity they
intensely, while the frontal lobe increase the chances of
inhibits distractions. recollection. Sensory
cortices transfer signals
to the hippocampus.

WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? 30 31
How memory works

TYPES OF MEMORY CASE STUDY: BADDELEY’S DIVERS

❯❯Episodic memory Recalling past events or Studies by psychologists indicate that in retrieving
experiences, usually closely linked with sensory memories humans are aided by memory cues. British
and emotional information. psychologist Alan Baddeley conducted an experiment
in which a group of divers were asked to learn a list of
❯❯Semantic memory Retaining factual information, words—they learned some words on dry land and some
such as the name of a capital city. underwater. When they were later asked to recall the
words, most divers found recall easier in the physical
❯❯Working memory Storing information temporarily; environment in which they had first memorized them,
capable of holding between five and seven items at so it was easier to remember the words learned
any one time; also known as short-term memory. underwater when they went underwater. Baddeley’s
experiment suggested that context itself could provide
❯❯Procedural (body) memory Using learned actions a memory cue. Similarly, when a person goes to collect
that require no conscious recall, such as riding a bicycle. an object from another room but on arriving cannot
recall what they were looking for, often returning to
❯❯Implicit memory Bringing back an unconscious the original room triggers that memory cue.
memory that influences behavior, such as recoiling from
a stranger reminiscent of someone unpleasant.

“Memory is the treasury
and guardian of all things.”

Cicero, Roman politician

0.5 SECONDS—10 MINUTES 10 MINUTES—2 YEARS 2 YEARS ONWARD

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3. Working memory 4. Hippocampal processing 5. Consolidation

Short-term memory stores Important information transfers The neural firing patterns that
information until needed—it is to the hippocampus, where it is encode an experience carry on
kept active by two neural circuits encoded. It can then loop back to looping from the hippocampus
that incorporate the sensory the brain area that first registered to the cortex—this firmly fixes
cortices and the frontal lobes. it, to be recalled as a memory. (consolidates) it as a memory.

How emotions work

The emotions an individual feels on a daily basis dictate the type
of person they feel they are. And yet it is a series of biological
processes in the brain that generate every feeling a person has.

What is emotion? construct. Emotions evolved Processing emotion
to promote human success and
Emotions impact hugely on people’s survival by initiating certain The limbic system (p.26), located
lives—they govern their behavior, behaviors: for example, feelings just under the cortex, generates
give meaning to their existence, of affection prompt the desire all emotions. They are processed
and are at the core of what it is to find a mate, reproduce, and via two routes, conscious and
to be considered human. Yet in live in a group; fear generates unconscious (below). The
reality emotions result from a physiological response to avoid primary receptor that “screens”
physiological responses in the brain danger (fight-or-flight); reading the emotional content of all
triggered by different stimuli—the emotions in others makes social incoming stimuli is the amygdala,
psychological significance read into bonding possible. which signals to other areas of
emotions is an entirely human the brain to produce an

Conscious and unconscious emotive routes

Humans experience their emotional responses through an before the person is even aware of it, provoking
unconscious route, which is designed to prepare the body an automatic, unconscious reaction. A simultaneous, but
for rapid action (fight-or-flight), or via a conscious route, slower, transmission of sensory information to the cortex
which enables a more considered response to a situation. creates a conscious secondary route for the same stimulus,
The amygdala responds to threat and can detect stimuli and can modify this initial reaction.

CONSCIOUS Sensory cortex Hippocampus

SLOW, ACCURATE All sensory information comes Consciously processed
ROUTE to the sensory cortex for information is encoded in the
recognition. It extracts more hippocampus to form memories.
UNCONSCIOUS information along this path, but The hippocampus also feeds
the process takes longer than the back stored information,
unconscious route. confirming or modifying the
initial response.

Thalamus Amygdala Hypothalamus

All sensory information The amygdala instantly assesses Signals from the amygdala come
comes to the thalamus for incoming information for to the hypothalamus, which
distribution to the amygdala emotional content. It sends triggers hormonal changes that
for quick assessment and signals to other areas for make the body ready for “fight or
action, and to the cerebral immediate bodily action. It flight” in response to emotional
cortex for slower processing operates unconsciously and stimuli. The muscles contract and
to conscious awareness. so is liable to make errors. the heart rate increases.

WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? 32 33
How emotions work

appropriate emotional response. EMOTIVE BEHAVIORS AND RESPONSES
Connections between the limbic
system and the cortex, in particular Typical behavioral patterns in response to emotion have evolved in order
the frontal lobes, enable emotions to neutralize any perceived threat, through either fight or appeasement. In
to be processed consciously and contrast, moods last longer, are less intense, and involve conscious behaviors.
experienced as valuable “feelings.”
POSSIBLE STIMULUS BEHAVIOR
Each emotion is activated by a
specific pattern of brain activity— ANGER Challenging behavior Provokes unconscious response
hatred, for example, stimulates the from another person and rapid emotion; “fight” reaction
amygdala (which is linked to all prompts dominant and threatening
negative emotion) and areas of the stance or action
brain associated with disgust,
rejection, action, and calculation. FEAR Threat from stronger or Provokes unconscious response and rapid
Positive emotion works by reducing more dominant person emotion; “flight” response avoids threat,
activity in the amygdala and those or a show of appeasement indicates lack
cortical regions linked to anxiety. of challenge to dominant person

SADNESS Loss of loved one Conscious response dominates;
longer-term mood; backward-looking
CONSCIOUS state of mind and passivity avoid
INTERVENTION additional challenge

DISGUST Unwholesome object Provokes unconscious rapid response;
such as rotting food aversion prompts swift removal of self
from unhealthy environment

CONSCIOUS FACIAL EXPRESSIONS SURPRISE Novel or unexpected Provokes unconscious rapid response;
The motor cortex allows a person to event attention focuses on object of surprise to
control facial expression and so hide glean maximum information that guides
or express genuine emotion. further conscious actions

FEELING “Human
SIGNALS behavior
EXPRESSION flows from ...
desire, emotion,
REFLEX FACIAL EXPRESSIONS knowledge.”
The emotional reaction caused by
the amygdala sparks spontaneous, Plato, ancient Greek philosopher
uncontrolled facial expressions.
EVERY EMOTION sparks a slightly different
pattern of activity in the brain.

PSYCHOLOGICAL
DISORDERS

The distressing symptoms of a psychological disorder
often go hand in hand with circular thoughts, feelings,
and actions. When the symptoms form a recognizable
pattern, a doctor can diagnose and treat a person.



Diagnosing
disorders

The medical diagnosis of a mental health condition is a complex process of
matching an individual’s pattern of physical and psychological symptoms
to behaviors associated with a disorder, or disorders. Some conditions, such
as a learning disability or neuropsychological problems, are easily identified.
Functional disorders that affect personality and conduct are more difficult,
however, as they involve numerous biological, psychological, and social factors.

What are mental health disorders?

Mental health disorders are characterized by the presence of unusual or abnormal mood,
thinking, and behaviors that cause an individual significant distress or impairment, and
disrupt their ability to function. Impairment occurring as the result of common stressors
such as bereavement would not be considered a disorder. Diverse social and cultural factors
impacting behaviors might also rule out the presence of mental health problems.

CATEGORIES OF DISORDERS

❯❯Mood disorders (pp.38–45) ❯❯Addictive and impulse-control
disorders (pp.80–85)
❯❯Anxiety disorders (pp.46–55)
❯❯Dissociative disorders (pp.86–89)
❯❯Obsessive compulsive and related ❯❯Eating disorders (pp.90–95)
disorders (pp.56–61) ❯❯Communication disorders (pp.96–97)
❯❯Sleep disorders (pp.98–99)
❯❯Trauma- and stress-related disorders ❯❯Motor disorders (pp.100–101)
(pp.62–65) ❯❯Personality disorders (pp.102–107)
❯❯Others (pp.108–109)
❯❯Neurodevelopmental disorders (pp.66–69)

❯❯Psychotic disorders (pp.70–75)

❯❯Neurocognitive disorders (pp.76–79)

Disorders can be classified into diagnostic groups (above); the two main works
used to identify, categorize, and organize them are the World Health Organization’s
International Classification of Disease (ICD-10) and the American Psychiatric
Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5).

PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS 36 37
Diagnosing disorders

1in4 people will be affected by mental or
neurological disorders in their lifetime

Assessment of a mental health condition

Clinical diagnosis is made only after a careful assessment process that includes observation
and interpretation of a person’s behaviors and discussion with them and, if relevant, their
family, caregivers, and specialist professionals. Putting a name to a person’s distress can
help them—and their support systems—gain a deeper understanding of their difficulties
and how to manage them better, but it can also negatively shape a person’s outlook and
contribute to self-fulfilling prophecies.

Physical examination

A GP will first eliminate physical illness that could be causing symptoms.
Medical examination can also reveal intellectual disabilities or speech disorders
due to physical abnormalities. Imaging techniques may be used to test for brain injury
or dementia, and blood tests can reveal a genetic predisposition to certain disorders.

Clinical interview

If no physical illness is identified, an individual may be referred to a mental
health specialist. They will ask the client about their life experiences, their
family history, and recent experiences that relate to their problem. The conversation
will also aim to uncover any predisposing factors, strengths, and vulnerabilities.

Psychological tests

Particular aspects of a person’s knowledge, skill, or personality will be
evaluated through a series of tests and/or tasks, usually in the form of checklists
or questionnaires standardized for use on very specific groups. For example, such tests
may measure adaptive behaviors, beliefs about the self, or traits of personality disorders.

Behavioral assessment

A person’s behavior will also be observed and measured, normally in the
situation where their difficulties occur, to gain an understanding of the factors
that precipitate and/or maintain their symptoms. The person might also be asked to
make their own observations by recording a mood diary or using a frequency counter.

Depression

This is a common condition that may be diagnosed when a person
has been feeling down and worried—and has lost pleasure in daily
activities—for more than two weeks.

What is it? A person with depression is a vicious circle which sees them
unmotivated and uninterested, spiraling further downward.
The symptoms of depression can finds it difficult to make decisions,
include continuous low mood or and takes no enjoyment from life. Depression can make it difficult
sadness, having low self-esteem, As a result, the individual may for a person to concentrate and
feeling hopeless and helpless, avoid the social events that they remember things. In extreme
being tearful, feeling guilt-ridden, usually enjoy, thus missing out on cases the sense of hopelessness
and being irritable and intolerant social interaction, which can cause may lead to thoughts of self-harm
of others. or even suicide.

EXTERNAL CAUSES

Internal and Relationship Money, or the lack Stress when a
external causes problems leading of it, and the stress person cannot cope
to depression in caused by financial with the demands
A wide range of biological, the longer term.
social, and environmental concerns and placed on them.
factors can cause worries about debt.
depression. External causes
predominantly encompass INTERNAL
life events that can have a CAUSES
negative impact on a person,
and often act in combination Pregnancy and Personality traits, such as Job/unemployment
with internal causes—those birth and the neuroticism and pessimism. impacting status and
within an individual—to overwhelming Childhood experiences, self-esteem, perception
trigger depression. prospect of especially if the person felt out of of a positive future, and
parenthood for control and helpless at the time.
“… depression new mothers. Family history, if a parent or ability to engage
Loneliness as a sibling has had depression. socially.
result of health or Long-term health problems,
disability, especially Bereavement
in the elderly. such as heart, lung, or following the death
kidney disease; diabetes; of a family member,

and asthma. friend, or pet.

is so insidious … Bullying Alcohol and
it’s impossible among children drugs due to the
to ever see and adults, whether physiological, social,
the end.” physical or verbal,
face to face or and economic
consequences of
online.
addiction.

Elizabeth Wurtzel,
American author

PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS 38 39
Depression

Many internal and external
factors (left), such as childhood
experiences and life events,
physical illness, or injury, can
cause depression. It can be mild,
moderate, or severe and is
extremely common—according
to the World Health Organization,
more than 350 million people suffer
from it globally.

How is it diagnosed?

A doctor can diagnose by asking
the person questions about their
particular symptoms. One objective
is to find out how long the symptoms
have been going on. The doctor
may also suggest blood tests to rule
out any other illness that may
cause the symptoms of depression.

Subsequent treatment depends
on the severity of the depression,
but the main option is to undergo
psychotherapy. Antidepressants
may be offered to help the person
cope with everyday life. For mild
to moderate depression, exercise
can be helpful. In severe cases,
hospital admission or medication
for psychotic symptoms (pp.70–75)
may be needed.

TREATMENT FEELINGS OF LONELINESS result from depression and cause a person to feel
completely alone, helpless, and isolated.
❯❯Cognitive and behavioral
therapies such as behavioral
activation, cognitive behavioral
therapy (p.125), compassion
focused, acceptance and
commitment (p.126), and
cognitive (p.124) therapies.

❯❯Psychodynamic psychotherapy
(pp.118–121) and counseling.

❯❯Antidepressants (pp.142–143) on
their own or alongside therapy.

Bipolar disorder

This condition is characterized by extreme swings—highs (mania)
and lows (depression)—in a person’s energy and activity levels,
which is why it was originally called manic depression.

What is it? extreme personality changes, which puts social and
personal relationships under severe strain.
There are four types of bipolar disorder: bipolar 1
is severe mania lasting for more than a week (the The main cause of bipolar is commonly believed to
person may need hospitalization); bipolar 2 causes be an imbalance of the chemicals involved in brain
swings between a less severe mania and low mood; function. Known as neurotransmitters, these chemicals
cyclothymia features longer-term hypomanic and include norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine, and
depressive episodes lasting for up to two years; and relay signals between nerve cells (pp.28–29). Genetics
unspecified bipolar disorder is a mixture of the three also play a role: bipolar disorder runs in families, and it
types. During a mood swing an individual can undergo can develop at any age. It is thought that 2 in every 100

Patterns of depression and mania

There are distinct phases to the mood swings of bipolar disorder. The extent
and timescale of fluctuations and the way moods manifest themselves and
affect personality can vary widely.

10

9 MANIA

8 HYPOMANIA
HYPOMANIA
In this form of mania, lasting a

7 few days, an individual can be
highly productive and function
well. It can precede full mania.

6

5 BALANCED/
NORMAL
BALANCED/NORMAL MOODMOOD
This is a state between episodes in
4 which the person copes with regularMILDDEPRESSION
daily routines and can plan and predict
the consequences of day-to-day actions.
3

2 DEPRESSION
DEPRESSION
The person cannot experience pleasure;

1 has difficulty sleeping; has no appetite;
may be delusional; or has hallucinations
and disturbed, even suicidal, thoughts.

PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS 40 41
Bipolar disorder

people have an episode at some stage; some have only TREATMENT
a couple in their lifetime, whereas others have many.
Episodes may be triggered by stress; illness; or ❯❯Cognitive behavioral therapy (p.125).
hardships in everyday life, such as relationship
difficulties or problems with money or work. ❯❯Lifestyle management including regular exercise;
better diet; sleep routines, which may improve mood
How is it diagnosed? regulation; and use of diaries and daily awareness
methods, which may help the individual to recognize
The affected person is assessed by a psychiatrist or signs of mood changes.
clinical psychologist, who asks about the symptoms
and when they first occurred. Signals leading up to ❯❯Mood stabilizers (pp.142–143) taken long term to
an episode are explored, too. The doctor also looks minimize likelihood of mood swings; dosage often
to eliminate other conditions that can cause mood adjusted during episodes of hypomania, mania, or
swings. The individual is usually treated with depression.
medication and lifestyle management techniques.

$
¥ “[Bipolar] is a challenge, but it can set
you up to be able to do almost anything.”€

Carrie Fisher, American actor

£

MANIA
This severe form may last a week or more.
Symptoms include hyperactivity; rapid,
uninterruptable, and loud speech; risk-
taking; lack of sleep; and inflated self-image.

MILD DEPRESSION MIXED STATE
This is characterized by sadness, low The person suffers from
energy, and an inability to concentrate. mania at the same time as
A person may lack motivation and lose depression. The individual
interest in everyday activities. may, for example, be
hyperactive and have
depressive symptoms
at the same time.

Perinatal mental
illness

Occurring at any time during pregnancy and up to a year after giving
birth, perinatal mental illnesses include PPD (postpartum depression),
sometimes called postnatal depression, and postpartum psychosis.

What is it? attacks, self-harm, and thoughts 85%
of suicide occur. However, most
Feeling tearful or irritable just after individuals make a full recovery. of new mothers
giving birth is so common it is Untreated, PPD may last for many experience the
dubbed the “baby blues,” but these months or longer. “baby blues”
feelings last for only a couple of
weeks. What sets PPD apart from PPD can develop suddenly or Depression Scale, which rates mood
baby blues is the length of time it slowly, and is usually caused by and activity levels over the previous
lasts. It is a longer-term moderate to hormone and lifestyle changes and seven days. Other assessment
severe depression that can develop fatigue. It is not clear why some scales are used to assess mental
in new mothers (and occasionally people develop PPD, but risk well-being and functioning.
fathers) at any time in the year after factors appear to include difficult
birth. Symptoms include constant childhood experiences, low Good clinical judgment is needed
low mood or mood swings, low self-esteem, a lack of support, when interpreting the results of
energy levels, difficulty bonding and stressful living conditions. these questionnaires as new
with the baby, and frightening parents are likely to be less active
thoughts. The individual may cry How is it diagnosed? simply as a result of their new
easily and profusely and feel responsibilities.
acutely fatigued yet have sleep To determine whether an individual
problems. Feelings of shame and has PPD, a doctor, midwife, or
inadequacy, worthlessness, and health professional assesses
fear of failure as a parent are symptoms using an efficient and
common. In severe cases, panic reliable screening questionnaire
such as the Edinburgh Postnatal

POSTPARTUM PSYCHOSIS TREATMENT

An extremely serious condition, also have obsessive thoughts about ❯❯Cognitive and behavioral
postpartum psychosis (also known the baby, and attempt to self-harm therapies (pp.122–129) in a
as puerperal psychosis) affects or harm the baby. Immediate group, one-on-one, or as guided
1–2 women per 1,000 births. It treatment is needed because of the self-help; one-on-one counseling.
usually occurs in the first few weeks potentially life-threatening thoughts
after delivery, but may begin up to and behaviors associated with the ❯❯Lifestyle management, such as
six months after birth. Symptoms disorder. Treatment comprises talking to partner, friends, and
often develop rapidly and include hospitalization (usually in a highly family; resting; regular exercise;
confusion, high mood, racing monitored mother-and-baby and eating healthily and regularly.
thoughts, disorientation, paranoia, treatment unit), medication
hallucinations, delusions, and sleep (antidepressants and antipsychotics), ❯❯Antidepressants (pp.142–143)
disturbance. The individual may and psychotherapy. alone or with psychotherapy.

PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS 42 43
Perinatal mental illness

Depression

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APATHY
Reduced interest in
activities that used
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Sense o

Range of symptoms

The symptoms of postpartum depression
are similar to those of anxiety and general
depression. Symptoms can make it difficult
to complete day-to-day activities and
routines, and can affect an individual’s
relationship with their baby, partner,
family, and friends.

DMDD (disruptive mood
dysregulation disorder)

DMDD is a childhood disorder characterized by almost
constant anger and irritability combined with regular
and severe temper tantrums.

What is it? Disruptive behavior attrhDhoriEuonSnwgTdssRartOohnoedYmm/Sor

DMDD is a recently identified Children with DMDD regularly have SapHtetOeeUrascT,hoSerArpsB,aUreSnEts
disorder that children with a severe temper tantrums, inconsistent
history of chronic irritability and with their developmental stage, thaelImtRiAmoRNsIetTGAaRlBlYoLfEAND
serious temper outbursts are now three or more times a week in at
recognized as having. The child is least two different settings. TREATMENT
sad, bad-tempered, and/or angry
almost every day. The outbursts ❯❯Psychotherapy (pp.118−141) for
are grossly out of proportion with both child and family to explore
the situation at hand, occur several emotions and develop mood
times every week, and happen in management techniques.
more than one place (at home, at
school, and/or with peers). Strained ❯❯Lifestyle management including
interactions that occur only positive behavior support to
between a child and their parents, establish better communication
or a child and their teacher, do and minimize outburst triggers.
not indicate DMDD.
❯❯Antidepressants or
How is it diagnosed? Children with DMDD were once antipsychotics (pp.142–143)
identified as having pediatric to support psychotherapy.
For a diagnosis of DMDD, the bipolar disorder, but they do not
symptoms must be evident present with the episodic mania
consistently for more than a year, or hypomania of that disorder.
and interfere with a child’s ability They are unlikely to develop
to function at home and at school. bipolar, but are at a higher risk
One cause can be that the child of depression and anxiety
misinterprets other people’s as adults.
expressions, in which case training
in facial-expression-recognition can
be offered. Diagnosed children are
generally under the age of 10, but
not younger than 6 or older than 18.
One to 3 percent of children under
the age of 10 have symptoms.

2013 the year DMDD
was recognized

SAD (seasonal 44 45

affective disorder)

SAD is a form of seasonal depression linked to changing levels
of light that typically starts in fall as the days shorten. It is
also known as “winter depression” or “hibernation state.”

What is it? worthlessness. People with SAD TREATMENT
lack energy, feel sleepy during the
The nature and severity of SAD day, sleep for longer than normal at ❯❯Psychotherapies, such as
vary from person to person, and for night, and find it hard to get up in cognitive behavioral therapy
some it can have a significant the morning. As many as one in (p.125) and counseling.
impact on their day-to-day life. three people are affected.
Typically the symptoms come and ❯❯Lifestyle management by
go with the seasons, and always SAD’s seasonal nature can make improving access to light—sitting
begin at the same time of year, diagnosis difficult. Psychological near windows when inside, using
often in the fall. Symptoms include assessment looks at a person’s a sunlight-simulating light bulb,
low mood, a loss of interest in mood, lifestyle, diet, seasonal and daily outdoor activity.
everyday activities, irritability, behavior, thought changes, and
despair, guilt, and feelings of family history.

Seasonal cause Spring Secretion of melatonin
and effect by the pineal gland is
triggered by darkness/
Sunlight level affects a part of the inhibited by light and
brain called the hypothalamus by controlled by the
altering the production of two hypothalamus.
chemicals: melatonin (which
controls sleep) and serotonin Winter Summer Summer pattern
(which changes mood).
Fall ❯❯Melatonin drops so person
Winter pattern has more energy.

❯❯Melatonin increases ❯❯Serotonin production
so person is tired and wants increases, improving mood
to sleep. and outlook.

❯❯Serotonin production drops, ❯❯Sleep is good, but not excessive,
causing person to feel low. so person has more energy.

❯❯Desire to stay in bed and sleep can ❯❯Diet improves as cravings subside.
lead to reduced social contact.
❯❯Improved energy results in increased
❯❯Craving carbohydrates can cause activity and more social contact.
overeating and weight gain.

❯❯Constant daytime fatigue affects
work and family life.

Panic disorder

Panic attacks are an exaggerated reaction to the body’s normal More fear
response to fear or excitement. With panic disorder, a person nxiety builds up
regularly experiences such attacks for no obvious reason.

What is it? but often they are triggered by Another attack
internal sensations that have
The normal reaction to fear or nothing to do with the outside A
excitement causes the body to world. As a result, everyday tasks
produce the hormone adrenaline can become difficult and social
to prepare for “fight or flight” from situations daunting. Those with
the source of fear. If a person has panic disorder may avoid certain
a panic attack, apparently normal places or activities, so the problem
thoughts or images trigger the persists because the person can
brain’s fight-or-flight center, never “disconfirm” their fear.
resulting in adrenaline racing
around the body causing symptoms What are the causes?
such as sweating, increased heart
rate, and hyperventilation. Attacks One in 10 people suffer from
last about 20 minutes and can be occasional panic attacks;
very uncomfortable. panic disorder is less common.
Traumatic life experiences, such
The individual may misinterpret as a bereavement, can trigger the
these symptoms, saying they feel disorder. Having a close family
as if they are having a heart attack member with panic disorder is
or even dying. The fear can further thought to increase the risk of
activate the brain’s threat center developing it. Environmental
so more adrenaline is produced, conditions such as high carbon
worsening symptoms. dioxide levels may also cause
attacks. Some illnesses, for example
Individuals who have recurring an overactive thyroid, can produce
panic attacks can fear the next one symptoms similar to panic disorder,
so much that they live in a constant and a doctor will rule out such
state of “fear of fear.” Attacks may, illnesses before making a diagnosis.
for example, be set off by fear of
being in a crowd or a small space,

TREATMENT 2%

❯❯Cognitive behavioral therapy of people are affected
(p.125) to identify triggers, prevent by panic disorder
avoidance behavior, and learn to
disprove feared outcomes.

❯❯Support groups to meet others
with the disorder and get advice.

❯❯Selective serotonin reuptake
inhibitors (SSRIs) (pp.142–143).

PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS 46 47
Panic disorder

Anxiety SYMPTOMS OF
A PANIC ATTACK
The Panic attack
panic The symptoms result from the
cycle action of the autonomic nervous
system—the part not under
tack conscious control (pp.32−33).
another at
Fear of cycle of Increased heart rate
Constant
anxiety and fear Adrenaline causes the
heart to pump faster to
A person perceives a threat and starts to move blood containing oxygen to
panic. The physical symptoms develop, where it is needed. This can result
worsening the anxiety and therefore the in chest pains.
symptoms, which in turn increase the
likelihood of a repeat attack. Feeling faint

Breathing is faster and
shallower to increase
oxygen, causing hyperventilation
and lightheadedness.

Sweating and pallor

Sweating increases to
cool the body. The
person may also become pale as
blood is diverted to where it is
needed most.

Choking sensation

Faster breathing feels
like choking—oxygen
level rises but not enough carbon
dioxide is exhaled.

Dilated pupils

The pupil (black part
of the eye) becomes
dilated to let in more light, making
it easier to see to escape.

Slowed digestion

As digestion is not crucial
for “flight,” it slows. The
sphincters (valves) relax, which
makes the sufferer feel nauseous.

Dry mouth

The mouth can feel very
dry as body fluids are
concentrated in the parts of the
body where they are most needed.

Specific phobias

A phobia is a type of anxiety disorder. Specific phobias manifest
themselves when a person anticipates contact with, or is
exposed to, the object, situation, or event they fear.

What are they? factors can give rise to a phobia. SPECIFIC PHOBIAS are very treatable with
It can often be traced back to a gradual, guided exposure to the feared
Specific, simple phobias (as frightening event or stressful object or situation.
opposed to the complex ones, situation a person either witnessed
agoraphobia and claustrophobia, or was involved in during early 8.7%
pp.50–51) are the most common childhood. A child can also “learn”
psychological disorders in children a phobia through seeing other of adult
and adults. A phobia is much more family members demonstrate Americans are
than fear and arises when a person phobic behavior. affected by a
develops an exaggerated or specific phobia
unrealistic sense of danger about Specific phobias often develop
a situation or an object. The fear during childhood or adolescence
may not make any sense, but the and may become less severe with
individual feels powerless to stop age. They can also be associated
it. Anticipated or actual exposure with other psychological conditions
(even to an image) can cause such as depression (pp.38–39),
extreme anxiety or a panic attack. obsessive compulsive disorder
Symptoms include rapid heart rate, (pp.56–57), and post-traumatic
breathing difficulties, and a feeling stress disorder (p.62).
of being out of control.
How are they diagnosed?
A combination of genetics; brain
chemistry; and other biological, Many affected individuals are fully
psychological, and environmental aware of their phobia, so a formal
diagnosis is not necessary and they
TREATMENT do not need treatment—avoiding
the object of their fear is enough to
❯❯Cognitive behavioral therapy control the problem. However, in
(p.125) to overcome a phobia some people habitual avoidance of
using a system of graded steps a feared object can also maintain or
to work toward the goal of worsen the phobia, and seriously
confronting the feared object or impact aspects of their lives. A GP
situation without fear; anxiety can refer them to a specialist with
management techniques to expertise in behavioral therapy.
master each step.
Types of specific phobia
❯❯Mindfulness to raise tolerance of
anxiety and of thoughts or images There is a wide variety of objects or situations that can trigger a phobia.
associated with the distress. Specific, so-called “simple,” phobias fall into five groups: blood-injection-
injury, natural environment, situational, animal, and “other” types. With
❯❯Anti-anxiety medication or the exception of the first type, specific phobias are two to three times
antidepressants (pp.142–143) more common in females than males.
alongside therapy if the phobia
is impairing day-to-day living.