How Psychology Works - The Facts Visually Explained

198 199PSYCHOLOGY IN THE REAL WORLD
Forensic psychology

Understanding criminality MENTAL DISORDERS
Convicted offenders commonly suffer
The search for explanations behind criminal behavior from depression (pp.38−39), learning
lies at the heart of forensic psychology: is someone difficulties, personality disorders
inherently “bad,” is the behavior created or influenced (pp.102−107), or disorders such as
by circumstance, and are criminals different from schizophrenia (pp.70−71). Some have
noncriminals? Attempts to understand criminality focus psychotic episodes and hallucinate or
on its mental, psychological, social, and believe there is a secret force controlling
biological aspects. These can determine them. However, it is not always clear
how a suspect is assessed and treated whether criminal behavior is caused
as well as policies for crime reduction. by a disorder or factors such as lifestyle.
PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS
PSYCHOPATHIC BEHAVIOR Criminals generally do not have a
Many criminals are lucid and fully strong conscience, do not adhere to
understand the illegality of their social norms, and have not reached an
actions. Yet they lie, abuse people, are adult stage of moral reasoning. Their
unpredictably violent, and seem unable behavior reflects a lack of awareness of
to connect with others. This behavior the consequences of their actions, low
pattern indicates the personality self-worth, a belief that offending
disorder psychopathy (p.104). provides high reward for little effort, an
Psychopaths can be very charming and unwillingness to delay gratification, and
appear helpful, but they never develop an inability to control their desires.
empathy for others and can be vicious. SOCIAL CIRCUMSTANCE
Most crimes are not isolated acts,
PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS but the product of social interactions.
Many experts believe that there The roots of criminality may be found
is a neurological basis for criminal in how a criminal interacts with others
behavior, and that it is the result of a and the social networks to which
brain disorder or an injury (at birth they belong. Such people may learn
or from an accident) that affects criminality by example. Poor economic
personality. Others argue that criminals status can also be a factor, although
are genetically different—that something poverty itself is never the sole cause
in their hormonal balance or nervous of criminal behavior.
system prevents them from learning the
concepts of good and bad.

The cycle of violence TENSION
BUILDING
A violent crime is one in which an offender uses force Feelings of anger
against a victim. Often, aggression is the result of an or blame lead
inability to control emotions. This may be because a to arguments
person has grown up in a family or culture where violence
was not only accepted, but even encouraged. Sometimes DENIAL
an individual’s sole objective is to be violent, but in other
situations—such as robbery—it becomes a means to an HONEYMOON STAGE ACUTE EXPLOSION
end. There are individuals who, for example, use physical Aggressor requests Sudden exertion of
force as a tool to exert control over their partner, or simply physical force against
vent their anger, frustration, or jealousy by using force forgiveness, promising
against another person. Such individuals are often caught not to repeat behavior another
up in cycles of anger and remorse (right).

Psychology in
the courtroom

Forensic psychologists spend a great deal of time in the courtroom,
assessing defendants, assisting lawyers with lines of questioning,
delivering expert opinions, and advising on sentencing.

Areas of responsibility to evaluate the defendant, members of a jury are subject to
searching for evidence of mental individual biases that may affect
The role of the psychologist has disorder or physical illness. The their abilities as jurors and so
been established in the criminal psychologist will also consider influence the verdict. Some or
courts for some time, but it has external influences and mitigating all of the jury may have difficulty
recently broadened to include circumstances. They may testify understanding what is expected
advising in family and civil cases, in court to offer their interpretation of them, and they may even be
too. When someone is convicted of the person’s capabilities and more likely to assume that the
of a crime, or is due to attend civil how these may have contributed defendant is guilty simply because
court, their mental state and their to the outcome of the incident. of the complexity of the information
capacity and competence to stand being presented. Psychologists can
trial is often assessed, especially if The psychological makeup of a work with the courts to mitigate
they have entered a not-guilty plea. jury is also highly relevant to the the effects of these biases.
A psychologist will be appointed outcome of a case. Like anyone else,

Assessing a defendant’s mental state

If there is any doubt about a person’s mental state at the time of a crime,
or their ability to understand court proceedings, a lawyer or the police may
call on a psychologist to assess their mental capacity. Depending on the
results, the person may be considered unable to stand trial. Various
potential factors are looked for and assessed.

Insanity Incompetence Malingering

Any person found to be without A defendant may be deemed Some defendants may
knowledge of wrongdoing will mentally too damaged or exaggerate or feign symptoms
be acquitted on the grounds of underdeveloped to understand of short- or long-term physical
insanity. However, if an offender what is happening in court, and illness and/or psychological
knew that what they were doing so is excluded from prosecution. disorder to avoid prosecution.
was wrong, they are considered
to be legally sane. Low IQ False confession

Head injury Severely low intelligence People regularly make false
quotient (IQ) may affect confessions to protect
This can cause personality competency to stand trial, someone else, to avoid
changes, affect judgment, and is also considered interrogation or torture, or
and result in aggressive and when deciding the because they wrongly believe
impulsive behaviors. punishment if prosecuted. that they are guilty.

200 201PSYCHOLOGY IN THE REAL WORLD
Forensic psychology

Jury decisions 75%

Although the strength of the evidence of women entering
contributes most powerfully to the European prisons
outcome of a court case, small are estimated to
differences in jury traits and have a drug or
understanding can make a alcohol problem
crucial difference.

❯❯In the US, jury selection consultants can be called in to identify
juror biases. Questionnaires such as the Juror Bias Scale may be
used to measure personality traits to predict the likelihood of a
juror convicting a particular defendant regardless of the evidence.

❯❯Court language is often archaic, so psychologists look for clearer
ways to present information, using simpler language, forms, and
flowcharts to guide jurors and prevent any misunderstanding.

Role of the expert witnesses

Forensic psychologists can be brought into court to assist
in the decision-making process in civil, family, and criminal
proceedings. As with all witnesses, they must abide by
court procedures, but they can go beyond a statement of
fact and offer their interpretation of the situation. There
are constraints on who can serve as an expert witness.

❯❯Expert opinions must be limited to the psychologist’s specific area of competence.
They cannot be asked to state whether they think a person is guilty or not guilty.

❯❯Before a trial, expert psychologists can work with lawyers to prepare a case, shed
light on a defendant, or determine the best method of cross-examination.

Guidance for sentencing

If convicted, an offender will be sentenced to imprisonment, a fine,
a community penalty, or probation. In addition to its punitive and
reparative goals, the aim of a sentence is to deter similar future crimes,
either by the individual in question (the rehabilitative approach) or
by another member of the public. A judge may consult a psychologist
on the offender’s mental state before making the final decision.

❯❯The sentence should be proportionate to the severity of the offense and the degree of
responsibility shown by the defendant.

❯❯Aggravating factors, such as the vulnerability of the victim, whether the offender was
provoked, and whether they show any remorse, must be considered.

❯❯Studies show that criminals who are jailed for longer are less likely to reoffend after being
released than those who serve shorter sentences.

Psychology in prisons

A significant part of a forensic psychologist’s role involves working
with convicted offenders: assessing inmates; working through
preexisting problems; and developing rehabilitation programs.

Challenging environment PRISONS have their limitations. They are help each prisoner cope with their
unnatural, harsh places with alien routines, current issues and challenges—
A prison is designed to be a place where inmates must interact exclusively with including their response to being
where criminal tendencies can be the staff and other offenders. sentenced—and the risks they pose
treated and offending behavior to both themselves and others. A
corrected. However, the realities working with individual inmates, psychologist will also try to identify
of prison life make it a challenging they try to take a holistic view approaches that might reduce the
environment for both inmates and of the person. They look at the risk of future offending.
staff, as psychologist Philip problems, such as mental illness
Zimbardo demonstrated in his or drug addiction, that may have Violent offenders often attend
iconic Stanford Prison Experiment contributed to the criminal group sessions in which they
of 1971 (p.151). Zimbardo selected behavior. They seek ways to engage in discussion and role-play
a group of ordinary university to explore the conditions that
students to live as inmates and contributed to their behavior. They
guards in a converted basement can also use this time to work on
“prison” so he could study the effects developing empathy for their
of prison life. It quickly became an victims. Therapeutic communities,
oppressive, hierarchical, and violent in which prisoners join together
environment that altered attitudes for discussion, can be beneficial.
and behavior, and the experiment Programs based around cognitive
had to be halted after only six days. behavioral therapies (pp.122–129)
can enable offenders to change
Treatment programs patterns of thought and behavior,
and ETS (enhanced thinking
Psychologists can offer guidance skills) can be used to help them
to penal institutions and their staff develop social skills such as
in the planning of treatment and listening and asking for help.
rehabilitation programs. When

PRISON BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS means of self-protection and self-preservation. This makes
it difficult for them to relate to others.
The prison regime can have a detrimental effect on
inmates as they try to cope with the challenges it presents. ❯❯The dehumanizing and depersonalizing atmosphere
This can result in changed behavior patterns that of a prison can erode a prisoner’s self-belief. Inmates
individuals need help to resolve. begin to lose a sense of their own personal significance,
uniqueness, and value.
❯❯Inmates become reliant on staff to make decisions for
them as they feel isolated and disempowered by the ❯❯The harsh and sometimes violent environment can
regimented environment. reactivate memories of traumatic childhood events.

❯❯Prison breeds suspicion and distrust among inmates, ❯❯Despair can lead to suicide, the rates of which are up
which sometimes results in a neurotic level of alertness. to 10 times higher in prisons than in the outside world.

❯❯Inmates develop a “mask” to hide their feelings as a

202 203PSYCHOLOGY IN THE REAL WORLD
Forensic psychology

Reducing the risk of reoffending

Reducing the risk of a prisoner reoffending after used to encourage prisoners not to reoffend, the
release is one of the major responsibilities of a focus being on engendering a sense of personal
forensic psychologist. Various approaches are responsibility and moral self-worth.

PERSONAL RESPONSIBILITY VICTIM EMPATHY HEALTHY SEX RELATIONS
Prisoners are taught to confront The devastating effects of their crimes Healthy sexuality is taught,
their own destructive thought are impressed upon offenders to help stressing the connection between
dysfunctional sex and offending.
patterns and offense cycles. foster empathy for their victims.

COGNITIVE RELAPSE PERSONAL PREVENTION PLAN
BEHAVIORAL THERAPIES PREVENTION Inmates are asked to identify
CBT uses imagery and relaxation
techniques that are designed to EMOTIONAL WELL-BEING situations and personal weaknesses
reduce violent impulses and Discussions help prisoners come that may cause them to relapse.
deviant sexual arousal, thereby to terms with any history of abuse ANGER MANAGEMENT
helping prisoners to learn to curb or trauma they may have. They
and ultimately prevent their also reveal the link between the Learning anger management helps
criminal behaviors. ETS (enhanced dysfunction in prisoners’ personal prisoners identify their own
thinking skills) addresses the many and family lives and their offending
problems associated with criminal emotional triggers, and teaches
activity and can enable improved behavior. Issues of addiction them how to relax when trigger
social skills, problem-solving, and codependency are situations arise. Discussions focus
critical reasoning, moral reasoning, also addressed. on the connection between anger
self-control, impulse management,
and criminal behavior, and
and self-efficacy. encourage offenders to be assertive

rather than aggressive.

10−15% WHAT IS VICTIMOLOGY?

of people in prison have This is the study of the relationship between a victim
an ongoing long-term and the perpetrator. Research shows that factors
mental illness such as proximity to criminals and/or physical or
psychological vulnerability mean that some people
are more susceptible to victimization than others.
Psychologists explore why victims are targeted, and
use the patterns they discover to develop strategies for
prevention and risk reduction. However, the distinction
between victim and criminal is not always clear-cut, as
violent environments can turn victims into victimizers.

Psychology
in politics

Political psychology applies psychological approaches and models to the
world of politics, exploring the minds of citizens and those in power in an
attempt to explain their choices and behaviors. It also studies the dynamics
of mass political behavior and, at the extreme, seeks to understand why
people condone or commit acts of terrorism or genocide and how such
behavior could be prevented.

Key theories

People generally base important political decisions on just a few pieces of concrete
information, and fill in the rest with assumptions. Attribution and schema
theories describe how people arrive at their assumptions.

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204 205PSYCHOLOGY IN THE REAL WORLD
Psychology in politics

“What the human HOW DO VOTERS DECIDE?
being is best at doing
is interpreting all new The candidates people choose as their leaders have
information so that the power to affect their political, social, cultural, and
their prior conclusions personal lives. Psychologists have different theories
remain intact.” about how people make such momentous decisions:

Warren Buffett, American business magnate ❯❯Memory-based vs. online evaluation The memory-
based model says that people make political decisions
at the moment they must choose, shifting relevant
information from long-term to working memory and
making a judgment. Conversely, the online model says
that voters are constantly updating their views as they
receive new information about candidates in real time.

❯❯Counting likes and dislikes This theory states that
people make their decisions in the voting booth by
tallying how many things they like and dislike about
each candidate, subtracting dislikes from likes, and
comparing candidates’ net scores.

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❯❯Political decision-making
How do citizens interpret
political information and
make political decisions,
and what determines how
they vote?

❯❯Opinion and evaluation
What role do emotions,
identities, stereotypes, and
group dynamics play in
evaluating issues and
candidates?

❯❯Political violence Why do
discrimination, terrorism, war,
and genocide occur?

Voting behavior

People are driven by numerous factors when choosing who to vote
for. They have long-term attachments to particular parties, as well
as short-term attachments to candidates and issues.

The decision process voting behavior for the rest of their a particular party. Party affiliations
lives. The act of voting is often tend to be stable over time and
During the 1960s people realized habitual, instinctive, emotional, resistant to change, even when
that voter choice is not just a case and based solely on party affiliation. representatives of the chosen party
of social or economic status, but Voters may possess low levels of fail, disappoint, or diverge from
that identifying with a party’s information, pay sporadic attention party ideology. It generally takes
values can play a key role. Most to politics, and hold attitudes that a very extreme event such as war
voters establish a deep emotional are not consistent with any one or depression to change a voter’s
attachment to a political party party—and yet they may still party allegiance. Individuals who
during their early or teenage years, identify strongly as a supporter of identify strongly with a party tend
and this often determines their

Influences on LONG-TERM Psychological
voting behavior FACTORS
❯❯Psychological attachment to a political party is often
Many factors affect voting These factors, formed in childhood or adolescence and built up
behavior. Some of these are including voters’ over the years, influenced by parents or other adults
psychological in nature, and personal characteristics, and peer groups. This sort of attachment—the
are associated with the character are stable over time, tendency to vote out of habit—is unaffected by
traits of voters. Others are and do not change changing parties or policies, or by the mass of
sociological, and are influenced with each election cycle. information available during an election campaign.
by the various social groups to
which voters belong. Some SHORT-TERM
factors are stable over the FACTORS
long term, and others—such
as the candidates or issues in Variable and changing
question—are not. over time, short-term
factors are influenced
by each election cycle, as
new candidates and new
policies enter the spotlight.

VOTE CHOICE

206 207PSYCHOLOGY IN THE REAL WORLD
Psychology in politics

to be selective in their perceptions, THE ROLE OF EMOTIONS IN VOTING
exaggerating favorable traits
and policies while ignoring Politics are charged with both also activated by images of politicians.
unfavorable information or policy positive and negative emotions, Emotions are valuable and essential
positions. Approximately two- which are often strong. Happiness, to rational decision-making, but they
thirds of an electorate have stable sadness, anger, guilt, disgust, revenge, can also lead to highly irrational
party loyalties, while the remaining gratitude, insecurity, joy, anxiety, and outcomes and have a harmful effect
third are only weakly attached to fear can all influence political choices on politics—extreme nationalism and
a party, or have more short-term and actions. A voter’s preferences for racism, for instance, often stem from
loyalties. These are swing voters, political figures and events are rarely, powerful emotion. Furthermore,
who make their choices based on if ever, neutral; they are as much people’s changing moods can affect
the issues or candidates at the about feelings as about thoughts. how they make decisions in ways
time. Swing votes therefore often Neuroscientists have found that that have long-term consequences.
determine election results, but parts of the brain linked with strong Depression, for example, can lead to
can be difficult to predict. feelings like disgust or empathy are rigid and narrow decision-making.

Sociological THE MEDIA

❯❯Sociological factors have a strong influence on voting Newspapers, television,
behavior. Issues such as race, ethnicity, gender, sexual radio, and social media
orientation, income, occupation, education, age, religion,
region of residence, and family all impact voters’ choices. ❯❯Whereas newspapers tend to
People are naturally drawn to candidates who serve the take an openly political stance,
constituencies to which they belong, and who support reporting on television often
their groups’ causes. attempts to be neutral. However,
televised debates may affect a
Single issue Leader or candidate image viewer’s opinion of the candidates.
Politicians may also use online
❯❯People who are issue- ❯❯The personality of a leader or media to build a positive image
oriented (they feel strongly another political candidate and show it to a wider audience.
about a specific issue that can affect the election result,
they believe will be affected so building a positive Fake news
by an election) may disregard candidate image is an
a party’s other policies that important part of an election ❯❯Usually found on social media,
they do not agree with in campaign. Voters may develop articles containing false
order to support the issue preferences based on information can be used to trick
that they care about. Issues particularly appealing voters. Psychologists have found
might include the economy, personal traits, or withdraw that fake news may be believed as
health care, or civil rights their support if a candidate the brain overlooks the falsity of
issues like marriage equality. is not compelling. a claim if the information confirms
what the individual already
believes (confirmation bias). If this
bias is in play, fake news is more
likely to add to a voter’s internal
justifications of their choice rather
than sway their voting.

Obedience and
decision-making

The decisions that politicians and civilians make define the laws and
future of any state or country. However, decisions are susceptible to
the psychological forces of obedience and group dynamics.

The role of obedience them for obedience. Milgram genocide, the subject of many
famously set up an experiment in case studies (below and right).
Psychologist Stanley Milgram which participants administered
believed that humans naturally what they believed to be electric The individual also neglects to
incline toward obedience as shocks of increasing severity—up take responsibility for destructive
a result of interaction with to lethal levels—on other humans action in the dynamic named by
hierarchical social structures. when ordered to do so by an Irving Janis as Groupthink.
Family, school, university, business, authority figure. The results of his Individual decision makers behave
and the military are examples of experiment shed some light on more responsibly when they act
institutional hierarchies that define political obedience—why people so on their own compared to within a
people’s everyday lives and prime readily obey authority figures even group, when their desire to conform
when the demands conflict with can override realistic appraisal.
66% their own moral and ethical values. Groupthink has been the cause of
many political disasters, including
of participants Milgram found that when people the Bay of Pigs invasion (below left).
followed orders obey authority, they often stop
in Milgram’s feeling responsible for their actions. Bad-barrel theory
obedience study Without responsibility, they may
become capable of violent, even Psychologist Philip Zimbardo studied
evil, acts. Negating responsibility the atrocities that took place in Abu
makes it possible to dehumanize Ghraib prison in 2003 during the war
victims and so lose empathy, seen in Iraq. He tried to determine whether
at its most extreme in acts of evil had been carried out by a few evil
people (“bad apples”), whether the US
CASE STUDY: GROUPTHINK AT THE BAY OF PIGS soldiers involved were fundamentally
good people ruined by a bad situation
In 1973 psychologist Irving Janis used jumped to conclusions, and reacted (“bad barrel”), or whether the system
the 1961 Bay of Pigs disaster—in which inflexibly to new information. Their as a whole was toxic and corrupt (“bad
US-trained soldiers failed to overthrow intricate plan relied on every step barrel makers”). He concluded that if
Fidel Castro’s Cuban government after going right—a military impossibility. “good people” are put in “bad barrels,”
poor decisions made by President In fact, Castro’s forces quickly defeated they eventually become “bad apples.”
Kennedy and his strategists—to study the small US army (air support had
Groupthink. Kennedy’s subordinates been canceled), the hoped-for
knew he wanted to overthrow Castro, counterrevolution did not take
and they wanted to please their place, Kennedy looked weak,
president, which compromised group and the episode heightened
thinking. They planned less logically, tension with Russia.

Bad apples 208 209PSYCHOLOGY IN THE REAL WORLD
Psychology in politics
One notion for unethical behavior
is that it is carried out exclusively by SITUATION VS. DISPOSITION
unethical people, regardless of the
situation. These people are the “bad ❯❯Situationism Philip Zimbardo discovered in his 1971
apples” whose evil acts reflect a Stanford prison experiment (p.151) that if you put
fundamentally evil disposition. ordinary people in an extreme situation, the situation
can cause them to act against their good dispositions.
According to this theory, in alignment with the “bad
barrel” idea, everyone is capable of violating their own
values and beliefs to obey an authority figure, so evil
deeds are not necessarily the work of evil people.

❯❯Dispositionism From this perspective, a person’s
disposition is more powerful than any social situation.
If people behave badly, it is because they are basically
bad, what Zimbardo called “bad apples.” Fundamentally
good people are incapable of evil acts.

“Evil is knowing
better, but willingly
doing worse.”

Philip Zimbardo, American psychologist

Bad barrel Bad barrel makers

This idea holds that people in a bad barrel Another notion is that
are not inherently good or bad, but are evil is a systemic issue,
powerfully influenced by their situation. and that unethical
When ethical people are placed in a bad behavior is the result
of broad forces
situation, they become capable of creating the conditions
unethical behavior. for evil. These forces
may be cultural, legal,
political, or economic.

Nationalism

Nationalistic pride can draw people together, but it can also lead
to war or even genocide. Understanding how it works can help
political leaders to avoid its harmful extremes.

Us and them An additional factor in nationalistic extremism is
authoritarianism, which relies on people’s natural
Nationalism is a sense of identification among a group tendency to trust and obey a leader. Authoritarians
of people who share a common history, language, (such as Adolf Hitler) tend to be highly prejudiced
territory, or culture. In its mildest form, it can be a against and hostile toward out-groups, and offer
positive force that unites people and creates a sense of a narrative—however fictional—that inflames their
patriotism and solidarity. When taken to the extreme, followers’ sense of grievance.
however, it can lead to violence and ethnic conflict.
1. Preexisting fault lines Most societies are a mixture
Psychologically, people like to belong to a group, of people of different ethnicities and different religious
and social categorization and us-versus-them thinking and political beliefs. Periods of economic instability,
make it easy to exaggerate differences between war, or revolution (situational factors) can bring these
in-groups and out-groups. This way of thinking can differences to light. This can lead to an in-group/
make an in-group stronger, but it can also worsen out-group mentality among both leaders and civilians.
out-group discrimination. The in-group may see
the out-group as a threat, develop feelings of national
and ethnic superiority, and consequently demonize the
out-group. Economic and political inequalities often
contribute as the different groups struggle to gain or
hold onto land and material wealth, or to better their
living conditions. Sometimes these grievances may be
too strong to be resolved through political negotiation
and may escalate into war or even genocide.

Nationalistic extremes

Extreme nationalism is the belief that a person’s own nation,
or ethnic group, is superior and should be advanced above
others. This way of thinking can be used as an excuse to
commit acts of ethnic displacement or genocide.

“There’s nothing quite so 4. Stereotyping the out-group Once a group has
psychologically satisfying been dehumanized, those people are no longer viewed
as the feeling of belonging. as complex individuals, but are instead defined by a few
Nationalism can be fixed and oversimplified attributes such as skin color,
remarkably unifying.” for example. They are turned into representatives of
everything that the in-group hates and fears.
Joshua Searle-White, American author

210 211PSYCHOLOGY IN THE REAL WORLD
Psychology in politics

THEORIES OF NATIONALISM

Realistic Group Conflict Theory Social Identity Theory Social Dominance Theory

Conflict develops between in-groups Conflict can develop even when the Because people try to maintain a
and out-groups when one group in-group has nothing to gain from group-based hierarchical structure,
has a realistic reason to compete or competing or fighting with the other. group oppression often becomes
fight with the other. These reasons Feeling that their own nation is superior the norm. In most societies, there
may include limited land, food, or to others serves people’s basic need for is a least one dominant and one
other resources that are critical—or self-esteem, so they show favoritism subordinate group, which creates
perceived to be critical—to the toward in-groups and hostility toward inequality with respect to race,
group’s survival. out-groups. gender, ethnicity, nationality, or class.

2. A divided society In-group/out-group divisions 3. The neighbor as “other” The in-group/out-group
can form along ethnic, religious, economic, or mentality causes different groups to view each other as the
political lines. As leaders embrace these distinctions, “other,” or as outsiders. This often occurs between people
the society can become dangerously divided. who live close to one another and are similar, such as the
Under such circumstances, resentment tends to Catholics and Protestants of Northern Ireland. This causes
worsen on both sides. distancing and the start of dehumanization of the “other.”

5. Blaming the out-group Because members 6. Eliminating the out-group When people have
of the out-group are viewed in stereotyped been marginalized, dehumanized, stereotyped, and
terms they become easy scapegoats for the scapegoated, they may finally become the victims of
in-group’s failings and problems. The more atrocities inflicted by the in-group. The Holocaust is
problems they are perceived to cause, the an example of how an in-group can seek to destroy
angrier the in-group becomes. and eliminate an out-group.

NATIONALISM

Discrimination and benefit them the most. They are also becoming more diverse,
social hierarchy may encourage stereotypes, which tends to increase people’s
prejudices, xenophobia, and tolerance of those who are different
Individuals and groups within ethnocentrism in order to enhance from them. Indeed, the more
societies may often discriminate their power and dominance. diverse a society is, the less easy
against each other on the basis of Xenophobia often strengthens it is to distinguish one group as
attributes such as race, ethnicity, in-group/out-group thinking, the “other,” and regiment in-group/
nationality, gender, age, sexual while ethnocentrism often lies out-group thinking against it. As
orientation, and class. These at the heart of authoritarian a result, discrimination is no longer
attitudes are learned from family, behavior and terrorist acts. broadly socially acceptable.
peers, and general social norms However, despite the many
and values, and they result in In recent years there has been advances that have taken place,
powerful social hierarchies. a great deal of social progress and many diverse societies still struggle
activism aimed at establishing with an established social hierarchy,
People in dominant groups equality and human rights for as well as discriminatory beliefs
are motivated to maintain the all people, regardless of race, and behaviors.
social hierarchy in order to ensure sex, or ethnicity. Societies
that social and political systems

Allport’s scale of prejudice Stage 2 Avoidance

Psychologist Gordon Allport studied the social, SOCIAL EXCLUSION
psychological, political, and economic processes The social rejection of
that lead a society from prejudice and individuals, making them feel
discriminatory behavior to violence, hate crimes, invisible and avoiding their
and even genocide. In his efforts to explain how businesses, homes, schools,
the Holocaust happened, Allport created a and places of worship.
five-stage scale to represent the level and
manifestation of prejudice in a society. age 3 Discriminatio
Progression up the scale shows that prejudice n
can begin with hateful words, turn into hateful n
behaviors, and end in violence.

tage 1 Antilocutio
S
St

HATEFUL SPEECH DENIED JOBS AND EDUCATION
Verbal abuse, spiteful Discrimination in employment,
gossip and rumor, using education, health care, housing,
and services. Laws may be
degrading names, passed to support the
stereotyping, and making discrimination.

disrespectful jokes.

212 213PSYCHOLOGY IN THE REAL WORLD
Psychology in politics

TERRORISM ❯❯Who is involved? Terrorist leaders ❯❯Causes Various situational factors
tend to be educated and from contribute to terrorism, including
Terrorism is the use of force or a privileged background, but weak or corrupt governments, social
threats to demoralize, intimidate, perpetrators are often poor, injustice, and extremist ideologies.
and control people—especially as a uneducated, and socially
political weapon. Terrorist acts are disenfranchised. They therefore ❯❯Effects Terrorists usually target
violent and dramatic, so as to attract may be susceptible to the rewards democracies because they are
publicity and cause alarm beyond offered by the terrorist group, easier to infiltrate. The public
the immediate crime scene. They such as a feeling of solidarity. response to an act of terrorism
typically involve an organized group, may, in turn, pose a threat to
target civilians, and are carried out ❯❯Justification Many terrorists feel democracy as policies and laws to
by individuals who are outside the that they have no choice but to prevent future attacks run counter
government of the target country. commit their crimes, and that they to its values. Terrorist attacks often
One aim of political psychologists are acting in self-defense against result in an increase in intolerance,
is to identify what motivates people a political or religious enemy. prejudice, and xenophobia.
who commit such terrible crimes.

age 4 Physical atta n “… people who
ck are aware of,
VIOLENCE and ashamed of,
Acts of violence against people their prejudices
are well on
or their property, including the road to
physical bullying, physical eliminating
them.”
assault, and even rape.
St Gordon Allport, American psychologist
Stage 5 Exterminatio

GENOCIDE
Violence that can escalate
from mass targeted attacks to
the mass murder of a group in

an attempt to destroy
it completely.

Psychology in
the community

The communities—and, more broadly, the societies and cultures—in which people
live have a profound impact on their psychological development. The people and
places that surround an individual form the context in which they think, believe,
and behave, and also construct the unspoken and spoken norms that govern their
daily lives. But just as individuals are influenced by their surroundings, so, too, do
individuals create and shape their cultures and communities.

Fields Community
of study
This forms the intersection between the individual, social,
The ways in which people cultural, environmental, economic, and political aspects of
both influence, and are people’s lives. Psychologists in this field can improve the
influenced by, the world health and quality of life of entire communities by working
around them is a vast to empower and solve the issues of marginalized individuals.
topic that can be broken
down into a number of Culture
fields of psychological
study. All of these fields The sum of a group of people’s attitudes, behavior, and
of study aim to improve customs passes from one generation to the next through
the quality of people’s language, religion, cuisine, social habits, and the arts.
lives, interactions, Cultural psychologists believe that different cultures
and institutions. engender different psychological responses in individuals.

Community center

214 215PSYCHOLOGY IN THE REAL WORLD
Psychology in the community

“Sense of community KELLY’S ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
is … a shared faith
that members’ needs Psychologist James Kelly likens ❯❯Cycling of resources
will be met through communities to an ecological Individual talents, shared
their commitment system built on four principles: values, and the tangible
to be together.” products resulting from
❯❯Adaptation Individuals these resources need to
Seymour B. Sarason, American principal leader continually adapt to the needs be identified, developed,
in community psychology and constraints of their and nurtured.
environment and vice versa.
❯❯Interdependence Changes
❯❯Succession The history of to one aspect of a setting, such
a community informs the as a school, affect the whole,
current attitudes, norms, since all systems are complex.
structures, and policies.

Environment CROSS-CULTURAL
PSYCHOLOGY
People’s surroundings—the
buildings in which they live This field studies how cultural
or work, local amenities, even factors influence human behavior
climate—can strongly influence and searches for universals across
their psychological development. populations. One aim of cross-
Issues such as urban decay or cultural research is to balance
overcrowding negatively impact out any Western bias, given that
daily life. Conversely, access to psychology emerged in the US
plenty of sunlight or good and Europe. Factors include:
housing, for example, can lift
health and well-being. ❯❯Attitudes The ways that people
evaluate objects, issues, events,
and each other.

❯❯Behaviors How people act or
conduct themselves.

❯❯Customs Accepted ways of
doing things that are specific
to a place or society.

❯❯Values Principles and standards
that govern behavior.

❯❯Norms The accepted modes of
expression and interaction.

How community
works

Communities are continually evolving ecosystems
of individuals who share something in common,
and both feed into and reflect the broader culture.

What is it? The individual INTERACTION EFFECT
The ways that individuals
Communities form around a variety of commonalities, This is the smallest interact form the basis of
such as living in close proximity, or shared interests, unit in the culture community.
values, occupations, religious practices, ethnic origin, cycle. How the
sexual orientation, or hobbies. Communities support individuals think and Interactions
individual identities while also giving everyone the behave collectively
opportunity to be a part of something larger and more shapes the wider Guided by implicit
integrated. This involvement contributes to a person’s culture in which behavioral norms,
psychological sense of community—feeling similar to they live. people's daily
others, acknowledging interdependence, belonging, interactions with
and being part of a stable structure. other people and
products continually
Community psychologists McMillan and Chavis reflect and reinforce
list and define the four elements that contribute to a the culture cycle.
psychological sense of community as membership,
influence, integration, and emotional connection. INSTITUTIONAL INFLUENCE
Membership gives a sense of safety, belonging, and Institutions create and uphold the
personal investment. Influence refers to the reciprocal
relationship between a group and each of its members. norms that govern interactions
Integration and fulfillment of a community member within the community.
occurs when they are rewarded for their participation
in the community. Shared emotional connection,
including a shared history, is arguably the most
defining element of a true sense of community.

“A community The culture cycle
is like a ship;
everyone In this reciprocal process, the
ought to be thoughts and behavior of
prepared to individuals shape the broader
take the helm.” culture, while culture
simultaneously molds
Henrik Ibsen, Norwegian playwright individuals’ thoughts and
behaviors—perpetuating
the culture. The cycle involves
four planes: individual selves,
interactions between people,
institutions, and ideas.

216 217PSYCHOLOGY IN THE REAL WORLD
Psychology in the community

Institutions INDIVIDUAL EFFECT What do community psychologists do?
Individuals are the building
Everyday interactions blocks of interactions, Community psychologists seek to understand how
take place within institutions, and ideas. individuals function within groups, organizations, and
institutions that both institutions, and use this understanding to enhance
establish and uphold Ideas the quality of lives and communities. They study
cultural norms. They people within the various contexts and environments
may be economic, Cultures are held of their day-to-day lives, including their home, work,
legal, governmental, together by ideas. school, places of worship, and recreational centers.
scientific, or religious. They inform practices
and patterns, as well The aim of community psychologists is to help
as people’s sense of people take greater control of their environment.
self, their interaction They develop systems and programs that promote
with others, and individual growth, prevent social and mental health
societal institutions. problems, and help everyone to live dignified lives
as contributing members of their community. This
INFLUENCE involves teaching community members to identify
OF IDEAS and correct problems, and implementing effective
Ideas are the ways for marginalized or institutionalized people
foundation of to reenter mainstream society.
all individual and
collective behavior. IMPORTANCE OF DIVERSITY

Diversity, whether of race, gender, religion, sexual
orientation, socioeconomic background, culture, or
age, is an essential part of a healthy and progressive
community. Inclusive communities have been shown to
be more productive, because diversity spurs people
to question their assumptions and consider alternatives,
encouraging hard work and creativity. Diversity also
provides everyone in the community with a richer life
experience and a broader frame of reference, increasing
the psychological well-being of the group.

PEOPLE FROM DIFFERENT BACKGROUNDS offer varying
perspectives, generating a range of ideas that fuel ingenuity.

Empowerment

The active process that enables people to make positive social
changes and gain control over issues at both an individual and a
wider level is known as empowerment.

What is it? psychological health suffers,
increasing dependence on charity
One of the goals of community and social welfare programs.
psychology is to empower both Empowerment involves putting
individuals and communities, measures in place to give such
particularly those that have been individuals autonomy and self-
marginalized by mainstream sufficiency. Social justice, an action-
society. Empowerment helps oriented approach to research, and
people and groups pushed to the an effort to influence public policy
edges of society to access resources are its building blocks.
previously denied to them.
Community psychologists can
Marginalized people may help people to find employment,
include racial, ethnic, or religious encourage them to develop useful
minorities; the homeless; or people skills, and work with them to
who have deviated from societal eliminate their dependence on
norms—for example, as a result of charitable support. They carry out
substance use disorder (pp.80–81). their tasks with great respect and
One of the consequences of reflection about what is best for
marginalization is a downward individuals and their communities
spiral—an individual is unable to and how to deliver this positive
find a job; because they have no job, change. At its heart, empowerment
they are not self-supporting and celebrates all cultures, supports
lack a sense of professional pride community strengths, and reduces
and achievement; their self- oppression by honoring human
confidence suffers as a result; and rights and respecting diversity.
eventually their social and

ZIMMERMAN’S THEORY Three-tiered system

Community psychologist Marc consider the practical manifestation Empowerment theory can apply to
Zimmerman defines empowerment of empowerment—the actions taken three distinct but interrelated levels in
as “a psychological process in which to bring about positive social society: the individual, organizations,
individuals think positively about change—it also exists as a theoretical and the community. Each level links
their ability to make change, and gain model, giving it broader and more to the others as both a cause and a
mastery over issues at individual and long-term relevance. The theory of consequence of empowerment. The
social levels.” empowerment is a useful tool for degree of empowerment at each level
understanding the process of exerting directly affects empowerment across
Zimmerman has highlighted the influence over decisions across all the whole of society.
difference between empowerment levels of a society, from the individual
in practice and empowerment in to the community as a whole.
theory. Although people often

218 219PSYCHOLOGY IN THE REAL WORLD
Psychology in the community

Empowerment 80% How does it work?
of the community
of homeless Psychologists empower across two
Improves the quality people in the UK levels. First-order change tackles social
of people’s collective report mental issues at the microscopic level—
access to government health issues helping individual lives as a way of
fixing a larger problem (such as making
and community Mental Health Foundation it easier for people who have suffered
resources. discrimination to file a complaint).

Empowerment Second-order change deals on a
of organizations macroscopic level—addressing the
systems, structures, and power
Improves the health relationships that contribute to the
and functioning of problem (for example, instituting
organizations, which anti-bullying laws). This type of
is crucial to the health change takes longer to implement and
of communities and disrupts the status quo, often to
societies overall. wide-reaching positive effect.

Empowerment TAKING ACTION
of the individual FOR WELL-BEING

Supports individuals Community-based organizations can
in their interactions use four strength-oriented principles
with organizations (known as SPEC) to guide their actions
and their community. and decisions, and to promote
positive change in the community:

❯❯Strength Acknowledging the
strengths of individuals and of
communities helps people to thrive,
whereas focusing on weaknesses
strips them of dignity.

❯❯Prevention Preventing health-
related, social, and psychological
problems is more effective than
solving established problems.

❯❯Empowering Giving people power,
control, influence, and choices helps
them to achieve individual and
community well-being.

❯❯Community change Improving the
conditions that initially created the
problems brings about real change;
it is not enough to change each
individual problem.

Urban
communities

Environmental psychology looks at people’s behavior in relation
to their surroundings, including open spaces, public and private
buildings, and social settings.

Why place affects people physical environments that could For instance, children tend to
promote success and well-being. behave differently at home, at
Psychologist Harold Proshansky school, and on the playground,
was among the first to hypothesize Research in environmental adjusting their level of energy to
that people are fundamentally psychology has indeed shown that match the environment. Research
shaped by their environment. He environment plays a critical role in has also shown that people can
believed that understanding the a person’s psychology, that people concentrate better indoors when
direct and predictable effects of identify strongly with the notion they can see the world outdoors,
surroundings would allow people of place, and that their behavior and that they are more comfortable
to seek out, design, and build changes to match the setting.
70%
INTIMATE SPACE PERSONAL SPACE
1½ FT (0.45 M) 4 FT (1.2 M) of people in
Reserved for people’s Reserved for good friends the world will
closest relationships, such and family, this close space live in urban
tight proximity allows for must feel comfortable and communities
whispering and embracing. allows for quiet talking. by 2050

World Health Organization

SOCIAL SPACE Space
12 FT (3.6 M)
Used with acquaintances Cross-cultural anthropologist
and coworkers, this level Edward T. Hall developed the theory
of proximity allows for of “proxemics,” which describes how
interaction but no intimacy. people use space, and the effects of
population density on behavior,
PUBLIC SPACE communication, and social interaction.
25 FT (7.6 M) He identified four interpersonal zones,
The distance used for which may vary among individuals
public speaking, this space according to their culture and age—
allows for communication spaces that are intimate, personal,
but not interaction. social, and public.

220 221PSYCHOLOGY IN THE REAL WORLD
Psychology in the community

if they maintain some degree of Crowding and density an individual is looking forward
personal space (below, left). to a concert, say, the feeling
Environmental psychologists make of crowding enhances their
People’s mental, physical, and a distinction between the physical enjoyment of the performance.
social health can suffer when their measurement of density (how many But if they are dreading an event,
environment is blighted by issues people are in a particular space) crowding will make the person’s
such as crowding, noise, lack of and crowding (the psychological experience of it even worse.
natural light, decrepit housing, or feeling of not having enough space).
urban decay. This is why the design Usually, high density is needed for Put into a community setting,
of buildings and public spaces is the phenomenon of crowding, crowding may accentuate
so important to the overall health which makes people experience the dominant behavior—an
and well-being of individuals and sensory overload, a lack of control, aggressive group may turn violent
societies. Architects, city planners, and rising stress and anxiety. as density rises. Conversely,
geographers, landscape architects, creating positive social spaces such
sociologists, and product designers However, some psychologists see as parks and pedestrian areas in
all use environmental psychology crowding as neutral rather than high-density urban environments
to inform their vision of how people invariably negative, and believe may help to lift the general mood
can improve their lives. that people’s moods and behaviors and defuse tension.
intensify as density increases. So if

MODERN URBAN LIVING makes it difficult to maintain a comfortable level of personal space. High population densities lead to
overcrowding on the streets, on public transport, and in offices and other buildings. One solution is careful environmental design.

Safety in the
community

Communities have many systems in place to keep their members
physically and psychologically safe in the face of threats, both
in the real world and online.

Dealing with danger murders, and cybercrime) can have a long-term
psychological impact. People exposed to crime directly
In order for communities to flourish, individuals need or indirectly may experience stress, fear, anxiety, sleep
to have an overall sense of physical and psychological problems, a sense of vulnerability and helplessness, or
safety. As well as causing physical damage and extreme conditions like PTSD (p.62) and amnesia (p.89).
practical consequences, crime (such as burglaries,

Bystander effect Level of Ambiguity Environment
emergency
People witnessing a crime are In high-ambiguity When bystanders
less likely to help victims if A victim is less likely to situations, where are unfamiliar with
other witnesses are present. be offered help when people are unsure if a the environment
The more bystanders there bystanders interpret person requires help, where a crisis occurs,
are, the less likely it is that the situation as an they are slower to act they are less likely to
anyone will offer assistance. everyday matter rather than where the need offer help than if
This inaction stems from the than a serious one. for assistance is clear. they are familiar.
ways in which onlookers see
or interpret the situation.

How to
prevent it

The bystander effect
can be reversed by
cues that raise public
self-awareness and remind
people of their social
reputation. Placing security
cameras in public spaces
can create these cues.

222 223PSYCHOLOGY IN THE REAL WORLD
Psychology in the community

Communities implement many strategies to maintain measures, such as security cameras, metal detectors,
order and to keep people safe. In cities, these measures and security guards, may actually increase fear,
may involve a focus on first responders (emergency constantly reminding children of possible danger.
medical teams, police, and firefighters), streamlining
emergency communication and collaboration, clear There is a growing trend for video surveillance in
road signage, and adequate street and park lighting. public places in an attempt to reduce crime. Although
CCTV (closed-circuit television) cameras can help law
A high priority within communities is protecting enforcement officials to prevent crimes and quickly
children, so there is often an emphasis on school safety. solve criminal cases, questions have been raised about
A safe environment is essential for learning, because the ethics and effectiveness of these cameras. Some
prolonged stress impairs children’s cognitive ability. criminologists have argued that cameras do not
School safety can be increased by installing locking prevent most crimes and may provide a false sense
doors, adequate hallway lighting, and check-in of security, causing people to take fewer precautions,
systems for visitors and guests. However, extreme thereby increasing their risk of becoming a victim.

Social cues Diffusion of CASE STUDY: GENOVESE MURDER
responsibility
People look to each Shortly after 3:00 a.m. on March 13, 1964, 28-year-old Kitty
other for cues about When several people Genovese was murdered outside her apartment building in
how to behave in a witness a crime, they New York City. She was returning home from her bar shift
situation. Inaction are less likely to help when Winston Moseley attacked, stabbed, and raped her. The
by some bystanders the victim because they initial news reports stated that there were 38 witnesses to the
will most likely lead to expect someone else attack—neighbors who stood by and did nothing to help
inaction by others. will take responsibility. Genovese. In the light of those reports of witness inaction,
psychologists coined the term “Genovese syndrome” and
began to study this social-psychological phenomenon, which
has since become known as the “bystander effect” (left).

ONLINE COMMUNITIES

In the digital age, online communities and social
networks are primary places where people fulfill their
psychological needs for companionship, self-esteem,
acceptance, and belonging. However, virtual connection
can also present dangers. The sense of anonymity
and invisibility can encourage people to say and do
things online that they would not do in person. This is
known as the “disinhibition effect,” which can result in
hate speech, cyberbullying, trolling, and grooming.
Learning how to stay safe online is therefore essential,
especially for vulnerable populations such as children.

Consumer
psychology

The study of customers and how they behave—what they want, what they
need, and the factors that influence their buying habits and choices—is
called consumer psychology. From the essentials of food, shelter, and
clothing to common luxuries such as smartphones and cars,
people are constantly making decisions about what products
and services to buy and from whom.

What drives consumer behavior

There are numerous factors that influence consumer choice:
cost, brand, accessibility, shipping times, a product’s shelf life,
the shopper’s mood, packaging, and endorsement. Businesses strive
to understand their customers’ needs and motivations so that they
present their products and services in a way that appeals to them
directly. Manipulating even tiny details can sway attitudes and
persuade people to purchase a company’s products.

ADVERTISING POWER Personal Reviews
recommendations
Consumer psychology plays a large role in making Consumers read
advertising memorable as people today are bombarded People like to buy customer reviews
with advertisements both offline and online. products that their
friends and role models to help decide
❯❯Traditional approach Bright colors and catchy jingles what to buy.
are still effective and popular in TV advertising. are using.

❯❯Shared knowledge Drawing on shared
representations of society, such as referring to a
popular television show, involves the audience.

❯❯Graphic design In newspaper and magazine ads, the
layout, use of contrast, and style of lettering are critical.

❯❯Humor Making people laugh avoids viewer boredom
and helps to fix the name of a product in the mind,
making all the difference to which brand is chosen.

❯❯Consumer input Ironically, not mentioning the name
can be effective, as cognitive psychology shows that
people remember things better if they have to work
them out rather than passively absorbing.

224 225PSYCHOLOGY IN THE REAL WORLD
Consumer psychology

“Knowing who your customers are is great,
but knowing how they behave is even better.”

Jon Miller, American marketing entrepreneur

Brand Trust Promotions
information
Buyers need to Consumers are
Consumers want to be confident that attracted by
know what is in it for a company will
promotions, especially
them if they buy a deliver on its if they perceive
product. promises and greater value for
money.
keep their
personal data and Pricing
bank details safe.
Consumers buy
Past when prices are at
experience an affordable level
that gives value for
People are driven
by positive past money. Careful
experiences so pricing ultimately
familiarity with increases sales.

a brand goes
a long way.

Understanding
consumer behavior

Understanding how people make decisions about what they want,
need, and buy is essential to successful marketing because it helps
companies to predict how consumers will respond to new products.

Deciding what to buy present and future satisfaction is Emotional response
called consumer prediction. It has
Consumer behavior is affected two dimensions: the utility of a Emotions are a huge factor in
by psychological factors, such as a future event (how much pleasure or consumer behavior and decisions.
person’s perception of what they pain a person will get, for example, They affect what consumers focus
need, their attitude, and their from a trip to Paris rather than a on, what they remember, how they
ability to learn; personal break in New York, or whether they process information, and how they
characteristics—someone’s habits, would get more pleasure from predict they will feel after making
interests, opinions, and style of eating chocolate or celery) and how a decision. Feelings override reason
decision-making—and social likely that event is to occur. when evaluating advertisements,
considerations, including family, and produce faster and more
work colleagues or school friends,
and group affiliations. POSITIVE EMOTION The paradox of choice

Companies collect and analyze Consumers prefer to have choice, but not too
data on such behavior from focus much. In a study from the year 2000, when
groups and online sources such as shoppers had a choice of 24 kinds of jam, just
customer reviews, question-and- 3 percent of them bought any. But of those
answer websites, surveys, keyword faced with only 6 kinds of jam, 30 percent made
research, search engine analysis a purchase. The same applies whatever the
and trends, blog comments, social product, from legal services to paint.
media, and government statistics.

How people decide which options
will bring them the greatest

“Once you Negative emotion
understand When there is no choice,
customer consumers feel they have no
behavior, control or say in the matter
everything else and lose the motivation
falls into place.” to make a purchase.

Thomas G. Stemberg, American NEGATIVE EMOTION YELLOW No choice
philanthropist and businessman PAINT can be
bad.

NUMBER OF CHOICES

226 227PSYCHOLOGY IN THE REAL WORLD
Consumer psychology

consistent judgments. Companies CUSTOMER PROFILING
constantly try to glean emotional
reactions to their products from Marketers create detailed portraits frequency of purchases; typical
prospective consumers, as positive of their customers’ buying habits, expenditure; credit-card usage;
and negative emotions are present preferences, and lifestyles from their degree of loyalty to a brand
at every step of the buying process, own data and use external sources
from searching to evaluating to to help predict future consumer ❯❯Sociographic Use of social media;
choosing to consuming and, finally, behavior and promote effectively. level of activity in community;
to disposing of a product. They use a number of variables to political views; membership in
build up a detailed profile of their groups and clubs
Companies evaluate valence target market.
(how positive or negative the ❯❯Geographic Continent lived in;
emotion is) and arousal (how ❯❯Psychographic Personality; city or countryside; zip code;
worked up the consumer is) in as positive or negative attitude toward associated work and social
much detail as possible. Cognitive life; ethic—whether someone works opportunities; climate
appraisal analyzes what and how hard or gives to charity, for example
consumers think about their ❯❯Demographic Age group; partner
feelings. All contribute to how ❯❯Behavioral Preferred shopping status; number of children, if any;
ready a consumer is to take action. location, online and offline; nationality; ethnic background;
religion; occupation; salary

YELLOW Positive emotion YELLOW YELLOW YELLOW PAINT
PAINT Seeing the difference PAINT PAINT
between options gives
YELLOW consumers a sense of Too much choice YELLOW YELLOW YELLOW
PAINT freedom and power can be bad. PAINT PAINT PAINT
to make their own

informed decision.

Limited choice
may be best.

YELLOW YELLOW YELLOW Negative emotion
PAINT PAINT PAINT Excessive choice
YELLOW overwhelms
PAINT shoppers and leaves
them dissatisfied,
fearful that there is
a better option than
the one they have
selected.

YELLOW YELLOW YELLOW
PAINT PAINT PAINT

Changing consumer
behavior

A company’s success depends on how well it sells its products to
consumers, and that requires persuasion. At the heart of effective
persuasion is the ability to change people’s attitudes.

Attitudes and persuasion one product over another. How much consumers like
or dislike a product, brand, or company reflects their
In order to persuade the public to buy their products, attitudes—positive, neutral, or negative. The longer
companies need to influence attitudes—the an attitude has lasted and the stronger it is, the more
evaluations people form about ideas, objects, and
other people. Consumer psychologists are interested Commitment
in how attitudes can be shaped, and in how potential
customers respond to persuasion. People feel they are part
of a community when
Attitudes can be a core driver of consumer behavior. companies give them
They affect whether a consumer makes a purchase a say in the product or
now or later, spends more or less money, or chooses service—for example,
issuing a membership card
THE GOLDEN RULES OF MARKETING that offers discounts—and
are more likely to buy.
The Internet has marketing strategy all
revitalized marketing, rest on price. Even minor Authority
providing advertisers with tweaks affect returns.
a new and expanding Customers want to believe
reach. But the heart of ❯❯Promotion in leaders and salespeople.
good marketing remains Communicating relevant They look for credentials
the same: product, price, product information and experience, and prefer
promotion, and place. well to customers is to buy from someone
known to promote sales. who evidently knows their
❯❯Product Whether product, and can sell them
tangible goods or an ❯❯Place Finding the ideal the most suitable type.
intangible service, the selling place converts
product must fulfill a potential clients into real Liking
customer’s wants or clients. SEO (search
needs and benefit them. engine optimization) is a People are more inclined
way of improving search to buy from those who like,
❯❯Price Supply, demand, engine rankings and so compliment, or appreciate
profit margins, and helps online business. them. Expressing approval
(“That dress looks great
The power of persuasion on you!”) encourages a
potential buyer to spend
There are six principles of persuasive marketing money with that company.
that retailers and other businesses make full use of.
Even if people resist persuasion initially, their attitude
and behavior may be more open to change over time.

228 229PSYCHOLOGY IN THE REAL WORLD
Consumer psychology

resistant it is to change. The underlying base may be similarities with their audience. The message comes
a feeling (“This sofa looks beautiful”), a belief (“It is across as more positive if it contains two sides,
made of environmentally friendly materials”), or a covering the pros and cons of a product, rather than
behavior (“My family has always bought this brand”). a one-sided list. Messages are strongest when they
Persuasion that matches the consumer’s base works highlight consequences that are highly desirable,
best—an appeal about the look of the sofa will get highly likely, and important. They should give as much
the best response from a feelings-based attitude. detail as possible. The message can be repeated but
not to the point of overexposure. Those with high
Persuasion—who, what, and to whom intelligence are harder to persuade because they are
better at evaluating the message. It is easier to
Who (the persuader), what (the message), and to whom persuade people who are already feeling happy
(the recipient) all factor into persuasion. The persuader because they link their mood to the product.
needs to have credibility and it helps if they share

$100 $100 Consensus

Many people copy others,
so they are more likely to
change their behavior if
others have first done so.
Here, a longer queue for
one of two competing
products is seen to suggest
which is a better buy.

Scarcity

Products that seem rare are
attractive, so companies
find ways to make a
product feel like a special
commodity, for example,
by displaying something
on its own or on a shelf
that is hard to reach.

Reciprocity

It comes naturally to return
kind gestures or reciprocate
gift giving. If a company
offers something, such as a
free cookie, to prospective
customers, they are more
likely to feel compelled to
buy there.

Consumer
neuroscience

For companies, neuroscience—imaging Infographics
the brain—adds another layer to
understanding how consumers behave. Condensing data or information into
a chart or diagram helps it lodge in the
Neuromarketing consumer’s mind. It is said that a good
infographic is worth a thousand words.
Neuroscientists study the structure and function
of the brain and its impact on a person’s thought Fonts Dorsolateral
processes and behavior. Applying their methods prefrontal cortex
to company-specific market research is known as How appealing the
“neuromarketing.” Large companies such as Google letters look and how This is linked to
and Estée Lauder employ neuromarketing research easy they are to read memory and has a role
companies, and many advertising agencies have affect whether the
neuromarketing divisions or partnerships. consumer wants to in recalling cultural
read the message associations that
Rather than relying on what consumers tell them— they contain. modify consumer
and many individuals either cannot or choose not to
express their preferences—neuromarketers see how Videos behavior.
the brain activity of volunteers is stimulated by
emotions, the key to deciding whether to buy Moving images can tell a Ventromedial
something. The use of fMRI—functional magnetic story well and appeal to prefrontal cortex
resonance imaging, a technique for measuring brain consumers who are used Preferred brands
activity—answers questions such as how specific to getting their information activate this part of the
brain circuits contribute to decision-making, and which from television and video brain more than other
areas of the brain encode preferences for certain clips on the Internet and brands in the same
products over others or for product features like brand social media.
labels. Research has shown, for instance, that activity category of
increases in the mesolimbic (reward-linked) brain area goods.
when participants are shown cars they find attractive,
and that people’s decisions change when they are more REC
hungry, stressed, or tired than usual. 00:00:00

Price psychology Visual responses

Because fMRI scans produce a sequence of images, Most people are highly visual, so the images and
they show that people respond to a product before graphics used in marketing have a deep neurological
making a conscious or subconscious decision. So the impact. High-quality visuals draw consumers’
order in which potential consumers receive information attention and increase their engagement.
is important. Consumers respond differently depending
on whether they learn what the price is before or after
seeing the product. It shifts the focus of the decision
from “Do I like it?” to “Is it worth it?” The first
question is an emotional, intuitive feeling, whereas the
second is rational, and so different areas of the brain
are called into play.

230 231PSYCHOLOGY IN THE REAL WORLD
Consumer psychology

Shapes The psychology of color

Geometric shapes make a product look dependable Colors, above all, communicate mood and emotion and
and familiar, whereas organic forms suit a creative provoke a reaction. Designers and marketers choose
idea. Straight edges and corners seem more severe color to fuse the nonverbal mood with the message the
than curves and flowing lines. company or brand wants to get across.

Amygdala ❯❯Green Foliage and bright greens look restful and
The larger the suggest a product is natural, healthy, restorative,
neural network here, reassuring, a new beginning, environmentally aware,
the better decisions a and fresh. Darker, emerald green speaks of wealth.
person makes, as this
part of the brain plays ❯❯Red Bright red gets a fiery response: exciting, sexy,
a part in predicting passionate, urgent, dramatic, dynamic, stimulating,
adventurous, and motivating. In a dangerous context,
outcomes. it can give an aggressive, violent, or bloody impression.

❯❯Blue Sky blue seems cool, dependable, serene, and
suggestive of infinity, whereas bright blue crackles with
energy. Dark blue has authority and is associated with
professionals, uniforms, banks, and tradition.

❯❯Pink While light pink comes across as innocent,
delicate, romantic, and sweet—sometimes verging on
the sentimental—bright pink, like red, is a hot, sensual,
attention-seeking, energetic, and celebratory color.

❯❯Purple Linked to intuition and imagination, purple is a
contemplative, spiritual, and enigmatic color, especially
on the bluer side. Red-purples imply something more
thrilling—creative, witty, and exciting.

Symmetry and proportion

Symmetrical, well-proportioned images
convey a sense of harmony, while asymmetry
and distortion suggest dynamism or discord.

Memes A signature color
can increase brand
Wittily captioned photos, often recognition by
ridiculing human behavior, are
spread rapidly via social media. 80%
The combination of image and
humor lodges an idea or a cultural
symbol in the brain.

The power
of branding

A brand distinguishes a company, or its goods or services, from the
competition. Its values may be expressed in images, color, logo, slogan, and
jingle. The brand creates a bond between the supplier and the customer.

Identifying with a brand buy into them as they are to the Iconic brands allow consumers to
companies making money from live out desires about their identity.
Most people engage in identity- them, because consumers see their They deliver on the promise
signaling behavior, such as possessions as a part of themselves. of “what could be,” rather than
driving a sports car, posting Their buying behavior can be being limited by “what is.”
political articles on social media, motivated by a need to belong, a Consumers can be who they want
or reading a Shakespeare play on a need for self-expression, or a need just by changing what they buy,
train. In today’s market, brands are for self-enhancement. projecting their chosen self-image
as important to the consumers who

Brand personalities inidemDapageirEinnxndagtec,iinvtct,e,oeyoulo,mpus-ettphinofrt-iutldeatd,e,

Companies try to project a distinct character through the personality of
their brand. Most brands can be grouped into one of five broad personality
types. Merchandise reflects the brand personality and so do its users—you
are what you buy.

DEFINING BRAND IDENTITY

Professor of marketing strategy Jean-Noel Kapferer created the Brand Identity
Prism in 1996, with six aspects he considered important to build identity.

Physique The brand’s physical Personality The kind of
appearance, materials, and person it would be if it
qualities, including its were human.
packaging and color.

Relationship Culture The building
The bond that exists of a cult following,
between the brand closely allied to the
and the consumer, country of origin.
particularly important
for retailers and the REBEL
service sector.

Reflection The outward Self-image The inward
mirror: the type of person mirror: how the company
the consumer perceives perceives its own brand.
that the brand is aimed at.

232 233PSYCHOLOGY IN THE REAL WORLD
Consumer psychology

via the brands they select or loyalty. The aim is to lure potential NEED TO KNOW
identify with. Word of mouth
influences brand loyalty, customers to the company’s ❯❯Brand equity The power of a
particularly with the rise of social well-respected brand to generate
media. For example, 29 percent of website or outlet, and then work more sales than the competition.
Facebook users follow a brand and
58 percent are reported to have hard to keep them there. ❯❯Brandwidth The measure of
“liked” a brand. the effectiveness with which the
77% brand connects across a wide
Engagement marketing of consumers range of consumers.
make purchases
In traditional marketing, a brand is based on a ❯❯Brand architecture The
presented to the customer as fixed, brand name overarching plan to develop more
to be either accepted or rejected. brands and create a hierarchy.
Engagement marketing encourages
customer input as a brand is ❯❯Sticky customers Consumers
developed to help build long-term who are loyal to a company and
return to make more purchases.

w fhaolDmeilosSyowi-nonm-retci,eoec-nrtheieeatredt,yrfh,ulhonest,
ouTtoduoRgouhr,sgsy,tgreomdnasgn,ceulsisne
suicnctReelsellsiifCgauoelb,lnetcm,,ocphnoafeirrtddpeeowrnntoacrtkeei,ng,
s lmoooGolktiahS,nmfgo,eoprcmohhiiaunrsis,tnmigieconago,tdi-on

LEADER SEDUCER

CAREGIVER EXPLORER

The power PROS
of celebrity
Personality
Companies often use celebrities as spokespeople. transfer
Someone famous can strengthen the bond between
consumers and the brand. The positive attributes
of the celebrity rub
In the media spotlight or someone who relies on their off on the brand,
looks such as a model, actor, or pop raising its status
How human behavior interacts singer promoting a shampoo brand. in the public
with media and information The company also needs to look at consciousness.
technology comes under the the celebrity’s image, selecting
heading of media psychology. This someone known for their healthy Influences consumer
branch of psychology arose in the lifestyle to back a new brand of purchases
1950s with the advent of the organic fruit drink, for example.
television. Today, it is increasingly The ideal celebrity is already a Following the brand leads
relevant. The selling power of brand user. to buying the product that
celebrities is of great interest to the role model endorses.
media psychologists—and to Physical attractiveness is
companies that want a figurehead linked to positive attitude,
for their brand. so the better looking the
celebrity is, the more
People who are constantly in successful their endorsement
the public eye are seen as opinion will be. However, some media
formers, and can connect with psychologists think that a highly
potential and existing customers in attractive noncelebrity could be
a way that the brand alone cannot. just as effective a spokesperson,
Consumers, particularly in younger thus saving the company a
age groups, are increasingly large amount of money.
obsessed with celebrity status.
Celebrity
For celebrities to endorse a brand endorsements
effectively, they need to match both
it and the target audience. And if The advantages of a famous
there is a gap between brand and spokesperson outweigh the
consumer, the celebrity must bridge disadvantages, as long as the
it. The celebrity needs to have match is right. Success breeds
credibility, so they should share the success, and the arrangement is
values of the brand. This can mean usually of mutual advantage to
working in the same profession or a company and celebrity.
linked one, for instance, a football
player endorsing a make of football,

45% of Americans
believe celebrities
help promotion

234 235PSYCHOLOGY IN THE REAL WORLD
Consumer psychology

Instant brand awareness CELEBRITY STALKING

As more people link the celebrity Most stalkers of noncelebrities know their
to the brand, it becomes more victims personally. Stalkers of celebrities,
recognizable, widely known, however, do not generally know the person
and desirable. that they target—they just think they do.
Whether they are endorsing a brand or
Define New promoting themselves, the most successful
brand image consumers stars give the impression that they are speaking
personally to each member of their target
The celebrity makes The celebrity’s audience. A mentally unstable individual can
the brand clearer and followers start to take this at face value. Dr. Sheridan, a forensic
better defined, and follow the brand so psychologist, says: “One of the most typical
can even help refresh that they can be more types of celebrity stalker is someone who
and rebrand a tired genuinely believes that they have some kind
like their idol. of relationship with their target .… For them it’s
image. the real deal.”

CONS

Brand positioning ❯❯Loss of reputation If the celebrity’s image
changes for the worse, so will the brand’s
The positioning of the reputation.
brand strengthens it over
❯❯Loss of popularity If the celebrity’s star
competing products. wanes, the brand will lose the loyalty of its
followers as well.
Lasting publicity
❯❯Overexposure If celebrities have multiple
The association with endorsements, consumers may follow their
the celebrity lasts even other brands rather than this one.
after the endorsement
❯❯Overshadowing Consumers focus on the
deal ends. celebrity rather than making a connection
with the brand.

The psychology
of sports

While coaches mainly focus on physical technique, sports and exercise
psychologists are concerned with the behaviors, thought processes, and mental
well-being of athletes. Sports psychologists work with individuals, helping them
to manage the demands of their sport and improve their performance. Exercise
psychologists have a broader role, promoting a healthy lifestyle and advising
people on the psychological, social, and physical benefits of regular exercise.

Different aspects Self-talk I CAN
SAVE THIS!
Sports psychologists use various What the player says or thinks to themselves
techniques to help performance, affects how they feel and act. Changing negative
tailored to the individual’s sport as thoughts to positive ones improves performance.
well as their personality, motivation,
stress, anxiety, and arousal. In team Visualization
sports, the overall environment and
group dynamics can also have an Creating a picture of
impact on athletic success. successful play in the
mind is useful for mental
preparation, anxiety control,
attention, building self-
confidence, learning new
skills, and injury recovery.
Visualization works best
in a relaxed, quiet setting
where the athlete can
practice creating vivid
and controllable images.

Developing routines Goal setting

The sports psychologist can help a Setting goals helps
player plan mental pregame and motivation, focusing
preshot routines and improve attention on the aspects
practice efficiency. This partly of performance that
comes down to time management— are most in need of
using a planner, setting realistic improvement.
goals, and maximizing practice time.

236 237PSYCHOLOGY IN THE REAL WORLD
The psychology of sports

WHAT DO SPORTS AND EXERCISE PSYCHOLOGISTS DO?

The approaches that sports ❯❯Performance fears ❯❯Recovery from injury ❯❯Motivating the young
psychologists take can help Teach techniques to Psychological help Exercise psychologists go
athletes and team players improve focus under tolerating pain, getting into schools to help PE
before, during, and after stress and cope with used to being on the teachers and coaches
performance, on and off anger and anxiety. sidelines, and maintaining encourage children to
the playing field. Exercise a physical therapy regime take up sports and make
psychologists motivate ❯❯Mental skills to help players cope with it fun. Can also help
the general public. Help players improve the pressure of returning motivate older groups
confidence, composure, to their skill level of to lead more active
focus, trust in ability to pre-injury performance. lifestyles.
perform; communication
with teammates; and
motivation levels.

YOU CAN “Champions are made
DO THIS! from something … deep
inside them—a desire,
YOU CAN Team building a dream, a vision.”
DO THIS!
Particularly useful at the Muhammad Ali, world heavyweight champion boxer
start of a season, team YOU CAN
building helps a group DO THIS!
work cohesively and sets
out group objectives, Managing anxiety
trust, and respect. A free
and open environment, When arousal is too high or too low
active communication, for optimal performance, a sports
and assertiveness training psychologist can help an athlete to
all contribute to success. manage anxiety, stress, and anger
using techniques such as breathing
YOU CAN exercises and meditation.
DO THIS!

Improving skills

An understanding of the psychology behind learning skills helps
an athlete hone their technique during practice sessions so that
they perform at their highest level in competitive play.

Learning a new skill Called part learning, this technique This method, known as whole
is good for complex skills such as a learning, is good for skills such
All sports are based on skills and tennis serve that can be split into as a cartwheel that cannot easily
techniques that require training component parts. Once the athlete be separated into subparts.
and practice. There are different has worked on each element
ways of learning and developing individually, they can put the whole Learning plateau
skills, depending on their skill back together and practice
complexity. Some skills are best it all at once. Other skills are best Learning a new skill starts out
learned by breaking them down learned and practiced in their slowly because everything is
into individual components and entirety, from start to finish. unfamiliar. Learners then enter a
practicing each part separately. phase of steep acceleration as the

Continuum of skills CLOSED SKILLS
Serving in tennis is a closed
Open and closed skills exist along
a continuum, with most actions skill. It is carried out in a
falling between the two extremes. stable and predictable
Tennis players have to master environment, and the player
both open and closed skills, knows exactly what to do and
because they initiate some actions when to do it. The action of
but also have to respond to their serving the ball has a clear
opponent’s shots.
beginning and end.

Turning the parts into a whole 1. Grip the ball 2. Bounce the ball 3. Toss the ball up
loosely with your 2–4 times. in the air, slightly in
Serving a tennis ball involves a complex series of
six moves that the player can part learn on their fingertips. front of you.
own. Once the player has established the skill for
the first four components, they can practice
serving using the whole method, enabling them
to get a feel for the technique in its entirety.

238 239PSYCHOLOGY IN THE REAL WORLD
The psychology of sports

“The sky has no limits. Neither do I.” PHASES OF LEARNING

Usain Bolt, Olympic sprint champion Athletes pass through three stages
of learning when they are trying
physical movements become more shorten practice times to avoid to master a new skill.
familiar, rehearsed, and automatic. fatigue, or break down the skill
Finally, there is a plateau in the into parts. ❯❯Cognitive or understanding
learning curve, when the learner phase Performing the skill
stops progressing because they Some skills are totally within the requires all of the athlete’s
are bored or because the next learner’s control (closed) and others attention. It is a process of trial
stage seems too complex. To move require the player to react (open), and error, with a low success rate.
on and up from the plateau, the for instance, by returning a ball
learner or their coach needs to (below). Different types of practice ❯❯Associative or verbal motor
reset the goal, ensure physical are suited to each type of skill, but phase Performance is more
readiness for the next step, the more enjoyable the training is, consistent in this stage as motor
the faster the learner moves on. programs (ways in which the brain
controls movements) form.
OPEN SKILLS Simpler elements of the skill now
Receiving the ball in tennis look fluent, but more complex
is an open skill, so the player elements require attention. The
must cope with a changing and athlete is also more aware of what
unpredictable environment. is going wrong.

Weather, terrain, and ❯❯Autonomous or motor phase
opponents are all variables Performance is now consistent
to which an athlete might and fluid, motor programs are
stored in the long-term memory,
need to adapt. and the skill is automatic, requiring
little or no conscious effort. Spare
4. Bring the racket 5. Hit the ball at its 6. Follow through by attention can be focused on
head up behind highest point with bringing your racket opponents and tactics.
you and then drop the center of the
it behind your head, down near your FIXED OR VARIABLE
bending your elbow. racket head. opposite foot. PRACTICE

Sometimes known as drills, fixed
practice involves repeatedly
practicing a whole skill in order
to strengthen muscle memory,
making the skill more natural and
automatic. This type of practice
works best with closed skills.

Best used for open skills, variable
practice involves performing a skill
in varying situations. This helps
an athlete to build up a set of
responses for multiple scenarios
to use in competitive play.

Keeping motivated

Athletes have to keep motivated. Without the continuous desire
and drive to improve their performance, physical preparation and
psychological factors such as focus and confidence fall apart.

How it works rewards or praise or to avoid SMART goals
negative consequences are
Athletic training, conditioning, and extrinsically motivated. They focus However a player is motivated,
competition require self-discipline on the outcomes of competitions their goals are achievable only
and can be stressful. To set rather than the rewards of training if they are SMART—specific,
themselves realistic goals, athletes and preparation. Although extrinsic measurable, achievable, realistic,
must maintain high levels of motivation is less consistent than and time-bound. One such goal
motivation, particularly when intrinsic, it can be a powerful driver might be to run 3 miles (5 km) in
confronted with fatigue or failure. of competitive performance. 30 minutes after six weeks of
This motivation can be intrinsic timed practice runs.
(internal and personal) or extrinsic
(based on external rewards). Intrinsic motivation

When people participate in Intrinsically motivated athletes
sports or exercise for the love of take part in sports for personal
the activity or a sense of personal reasons, such as enjoyment, the
fulfillment, they are intrinsically challenge of competition, the
motivated. Since this motivation desire to perform well and
reflects deeply held attitudes, it succeed, and skill improvement.
tends to be consistent and leads In this case, the sheer thrill of
to better focus and enhanced diving is the motivation.
performance. Making mistakes is
less stressful for athletes who are Staying motivated REPUTATION POINTS
intrinsically motivated because PRIZES
they focus on improving their skills Motivation is crucial to make
rather than simply winning. athletes practice regularly, develop
their skills, and perform to the best
People who participate in sports of their ability. Both internal and
or exercise in order to gain tangible external factors drive motivation and
setting regular goals maintains it.
“… you need to
find something
to hold on to,
something to
motivate you …
to inspire you.”

Tony Dorsett, former running back

240 241PSYCHOLOGY IN THE REAL WORLD
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AROUSAL THEORY OF MOTIVATION

Arousal means the intensity of motivation, high PERFORMANCE optimal
from boredom to anxiety or excitement. PERFORMANCE arousal level
Outgoing people need high arousal to feel low HULL’S
excited about sports, while shyer athletes low DRIVE INVERTED
perform better at lower arousal levels. THEORY U LAW
AROUSAL
❯❯Hull’s Drive Theory Performance AROUSAL high
improves with arousal levels. Top athletes
perform better under pressure due to their
superior skills and ability to manage stress.

❯❯Inverted U Law Arousal improves
performance, but only up to a point.

PRIDE MASTERY ACHIEVEMENT TEAM MOTIVATION
AND SOCIAL LOAFING
PURPOSE INTEREST
Team performance does not
AUTONOMY CURIOSITY necessarily improve as team size
increases because of a concept
BELONGING called social loafing. Participants
tend to contribute less to the
PRAISE Extrinsic motivation group’s goal when there are many
AVOIDING PUNISHMENT people involved than they would
Executing a perfect dive brings external if they were doing the same task
MONEY rewards, such as medals, money, or on their own. This can create
recognition, and avoids unpleasant conflict and have a negative
consequences such as being told off, impact on the team dynamic.
penalized, or getting a low score.
Extrinsically motivated athletes focus For example, if motivated team
on the outcomes of competitions. members repeatedly feel others
are relying on them to do most
of the work, they may deliberately
reduce their workload or even
stop collaborating so less
productive members do not
exploit them.

To overcome this problem,
a coach may use performance
evaluation to define each player’s
role, strengths, and weaknesses,
and how they can individually
benefit the team. This helps to
ensure that everyone on the team
is working toward a common goal.

Getting in the zone

An optimal psychological state occurs when there is a balance
between the level of challenge posed by an activity and a
person’s ability to meet that challenge. It is called flow.

What is flow? not overwhelmed, and have a sense Prefrontal cortex
of being connected to something switches off
Hungarian psychologist Mihaly that is greater than themselves.
Csikszentmihalyi identified a state In a state of flow, performance Higher thought
“in which people are so involved in becomes consistent, automatic, processes such as
an activity that nothing else seems and exceptional. problem-solving and
to matter; the experience is so self-criticism are
enjoyable that people will continue Achieving flow
to do it even at great cost, for the temporarily
sheer sake of doing it.” He defined Whatever their level, athletes can deactivated.
this elusive state as “flow.” find flow. Coaches can create an
environment that is conducive to
Flow is one of the richest and flow by encouraging commitment
most performance-enhancing and achievement, setting teams
experiences for an athlete. and individuals clear goals,
Sometimes described as being “in presenting athletes with
the zone,” this state of mind occurs activities that challenge
when athletes feel fully engaged them but are within their
in their performance, lose their capacity to perform, and
perception of time, are able to offering consistent and
concentrate on the moment without nonjudgmental feedback.
any distraction, feel challenged but

Brain in flow

The brain experiences various changes in the flow state, enabling
a person to be completely absorbed in the task and perform
exceptionally well without conscious thought.

ACHIEVING FLOW

❯❯Choose an activity you love If you look forward to a task,
you will find it easier to lose yourself in it.

❯❯Make sure it is challenging, but not too hard The task
should be challenging enough to require your full
concentration, but it should not be beyond your capabilities.

❯❯Find your peak time You can enter flow more easily during
a time of peak energy.

❯❯Eliminate distractions Clearing away distractions allows you
to focus completely on the task.

242 243PSYCHOLOGY IN THE REAL WORLD
The psychology of sports

Neurochemicals are released TEAMWORK
AND FLOW
The brain releases a series of
performance-enhancing neurochemicals. Sometimes, strong group members
can help to bring about a flow state
EN D for the whole team. Flow is also
Relieves pain Helps the player critical in sports partnerships, such
and makes to see rewards as doubles tennis, where the two
the person must work as a unit, and even
and act to more so in figure skating, for
feel good. find them. example, where a mistake by one
OPAMINE partner could make the other fall.
DORPHIN
❯❯Unity and emotional connection
SE AN NO between teammates provides the
Responsible Associated Makes the player positive feedback that helps lift
for balancing with feelings them to high performance levels.
concentrate
mood. of bliss. and feel ❯❯Harmony between team
members means they
more alert. communicate more successfully
REPINEPHRINE than normal.
ANDAMIDE
ROTONIN ❯❯The successful interaction
between all members of a team
Calming down is essential in sports such as
rowing, in which if one teammate
Brain waves slow from is out of rhythm or failing to keep
the beta wave of normal up, the whole team suffers.
waking consciousness Regular group practice is key.
to the dream-inducing
borderline between
alpha and theta waves.

Brain waves GAMMA JOINT EFFORT in sports such as
31–100 Hz synchronized swimming, where the
Synchronized BETA parts form a greater visual whole, is
electrical pulses 16–30 Hz vital as team members rely utterly on
from neurons ALPHA each other to reach the zone where
communicating with 8–15 Hz perfection seems effortless.
each other produce THETA
brain waves. They 4–7 Hz
are divided into DELTA
speed bands (Hz). 0.1–3 Hz
The faster the speed,
the more alert the
person is.

Performance anxiety

Nerves afflict many athletes, causing them to tense up and perform
below their optimal level. There are psychological techniques to
help manage such anxiety.

What is it? anxiety can affect actors and Performance anxiety can be
musicians, too—physical symptoms triggered by self-consciousness and
A certain level of anxiety is normal include a racing heartbeat, dry overthinking the physical moves.
and healthy before a match or mouth, tight throat, trembling, and Many actions are best performed
contest, and actually improves nausea. This is the fight-or-flight outside conscious awareness—
performance. However, intense response—a flooding of adrenaline instead relying on muscle memory—
anxiety that continues during the that puts the body in a state of high such as running, swinging a bat, or
contest itself can cause the athlete arousal. Psychological symptoms playing the violin. To achieve
to underperform or even “freeze,” include a sudden, uncharacteristic optimal performance, parts of the
damaging self-esteem and reluctance to compete or loss of brain should be on automatic pilot
ultimately hindering a career. interest in the sport, fatigue, sleep rather than consciously monitoring
Sometimes called “choking” or disturbance, and even depression. the action.
“stage fright”—performance

The cycle of performance anxiety Stress zone

Anxiety can cause a vicious cycle, in which the Once caught in the cycle of
fear of making mistakes causes an athlete to tension, self-consciousness, and
freeze up. This only leads to the athlete negative self-talk, stress levels
making further errors, which then lead to making mistakes.
feeds their terror of
mistakes.

PERFORMANCE (PHYSICAL AND MENTAL) HIGH-STRESS RUSH OF PHYSICAL TENSION INCREASED SELF-
PERFORMANCE ADRENALINE IMPEDES SKILLS CONSCIOUSNESS
Intense stress can Faced with a challenge,
motivate the athlete to the body produces a Tension locks up the The athlete feels
perform to the best of rush of adrenaline, muscles, impeding skills physically awkward and
their ability, but it can sending the athlete into and stopping the athlete starts to focus on skills
also lead to anxiety. fight-or-flight mode. from performing tasks
AROUSAL LEVEL and actions that are
as well as normal. usually automatic.

244 245PSYCHOLOGY IN THE REAL WORLD
The psychology of sports

Who can help? MANAGING PERFORMANCE ANXIETY

Working with a coach or sports While coaches and psychologists can help manage performance anxiety,
psychologist can help a player to there are also many techniques and practices that athletes can do on their
control the tendency to “choke” own to reduce anxiety.
when performing. One important
factor in overcoming the anxiety ❯❯Normalize the nervousness ❯❯Positive self-talk Challenge
is the person’s level of confidence Everyone feels some performance negative thoughts, and replace
in their skills and abilities. By anxiety—it is normal. them with positive ones.
highlighting successes and
celebrating efforts—and by ❯❯Prepare and rehearse Hone ❯❯Take care of yourself Exercise,
avoiding adding too much muscle memory and so build eat healthily, and allow time
performance pressure—a coach or up confidence. for plenty of sleep before
sports psychologist can help build performance day.
self-confidence and self-belief. ❯❯Visualize a successful
Over time this approach can help to performance Mentally walk ❯❯Remember you are there to
prevent, minimize, and counteract through every step and imagine have fun Shift the focus from
performance anxiety. an experience free of pain your performance to your pure
and anxiety. enjoyment of the sport.

“Never let the fear of striking
out get in your way.”

George Herman “Babe” Ruth, American baseball legend

FREEZING AND NEGATIVE INNER MORE ERRORS Arousal levels
INCREASED ERRORS MONOLOGUE The negative inner
As anxiety and tension monologue increases Up to a point, increased
Self-talk becomes more both anxiety and arousal can fuel good
mount, the athlete negative and critical, distraction from the task performance. However, if
freezes up and cannot focusing on mistakes at hand, causing even anxiety rises above that
carry out their activity, and perceived zone of optimal arousal,
leading to more errors. weaknesses. more errors. it causes self-doubt,
freezing up, and errors.

Psychometric tests

First developed for use in educational psychology at the start of the
20th century, psychometric tests are popular today with employers
who use them to analyze the suitability of new recruits.

What are they? difficulty from, for example, counting the number of
petals on a picture of a flower to drawing an image
French psychologist Alfred Binet devised the first from memory. The aim was for the child to pass as
modern intelligence test in 1905 in response to a law many tests within their age group as possible, and
that made it compulsory for children in France to reach a standard level of competence for their age.
attend school from the age of 6 to 14. Some children
with learning difficulties were struggling to cope with Psychologist Lewis Terman at Stanford University
the demands of the curriculum. The education system adapted the tests, publishing the Stanford-Binet
needed a way of measuring the extent of these Intelligence Scales in 1916. These measures formed
difficulties so they could determine which children the basis of IQ tests for much of the 20th century.
needed to receive special schooling. Binet set out to Psychometric tests today still owe much to the
formulate tests that assessed innate ability and not French–American work, although their scope has
scholastic achievement. He tested his methods broadened, and they are more widely used to aid
on his two daughters, as he was intrigued by the adult recruitment and career choice than to test
different ways in which they explored and responded children’s intelligence. Employers use psychometric
to the world. tests to screen out unsuitable candidates and to
match individuals to the most appropriate occupations.
Helped by his colleague Théodore Simon, Binet Therefore it is important that they have confidence in
developed 30 tests, some for each age group, to be the accuracy of the tests.
given under controlled conditions. They ranged in

MAKING THE TESTS FAIR Types of test

As psychometric test results can directly affect whether Most employers who use psychometric tests include
someone gets the job they want, they have to conform a personality questionnaire to assess a candidate’s
to rigorous standards. Tests should be: motivation, enthusiasm, and fitness for a particular working
environment. As more jobs are now customer focused and
❯❯Objective There must be no scope for the marker’s there are generally fewer tiers of management, “soft skills”
subjective views to affect the score. of communication and getting along with people, which
personality tests can reveal, are increasingly important.
❯❯Standardized Test conditions must be the same for all The employer may also use aptitude tests to measure
participants. There is a strict time limit for aptitude tests, specific intellectual abilities against a standard score.
usually a minute per question. However, personality
questionnaires may not have a time limit, as accuracy 80%
and honesty are more important than speed.
of the top companies in the
❯❯Reliable There should not be any factors that could UK and US use psychometric
skew the results of the tests. testing when recruiting staff

❯❯Predictive The tests must make an accurate prediction
of how the participant will perform in real life.

❯❯Nondiscriminatory The tests must not put any
participant at a disadvantage on the basis of, for
example, their gender or ethnicity.

246 247PSYCHOLOGY IN THE REAL WORLD
Psychometric tests

Aptitude tests “Psychometrics
provides something
The participant answers multiple-choice questions (often online) that we as humans
under exam conditions on a range of subjects or on an area specific are not very good
to the job they have applied for. Verbal, numeric, and abstract at—objective,
reasoning questions appear in most general aptitude tests to assess unbiased, reliable,
communication skills, numeracy, and ability to learn new skills, and valid measures
whereas other tests are more specialized. of people’s traits
and characteristics.”
Verbal ability Spelling; grammar; working by analogy; ability
to follow instructions and evaluate arguments—for most jobs. David Hughes, lecturer in organizational
psychology at Manchester Business School
Numeric ability Arithmetic; number sequences; basic
mathematics—for most jobs. Interpretation of charts, graphs, 4
data, or statistics—for managerial posts. 35

Abstract reasoning Identifying the logic of a pattern to complete 2 Yes/No 6
the sequence (the patterns are usually pictorial)—for most jobs. True/False

Spatial ability Manipulating 2-D shapes; visualizing 3-D shapes in 17
2-D images—for jobs requiring good spatial skills.

Mechanical reasoning Assessing understanding of physical and
mechanical principles—for jobs in the military, emergency services,
crafts, technical areas, and engineering.

Fault diagnosis Assessing logical ability to find faults and repair
them in electronic and mechanical systems—for technical jobs.

Data checking Assessing speed and accuracy of error detection—
for clerical and data-input jobs.

Work sample Real-world simulation exercise; participating in a
group meeting; giving a presentation—specific to the job.

Agree Disagree

Personality questionnaires

The participant responds to a series of
statements such as “I enjoy parties and
other social occasions” with Yes/No or
True/False, or on a five- or seven-point
scale of Agree/Disagree. There is not a
right or wrong answer and it is best to
reply genuinely. Someone who does
not enjoy parties but states that they
do may find themselves in a client-
facing role, for example, for which
they are wholly unsuited.

Index

Page numbers in bold refer to main entries. anthropometry 189 B
anti-anxiety drugs 142–143
12-step program 117 antidepressants 142–143 babies, attachment 156–157
antilocution 212 baby blues 42–43
A antipsychotics 142–143 Baddeley, Alan 31
antisocial PD 104, 105 Bandura, Albert 169, 172
absence, moments of 86 anxiety 46–47, 51, 56–57, 189 basal ganglia 101
Abu Ghraib prison 208 Bay of Pigs invasion 208
acceptance and commitment therapy see managing 237 BDD (body dysmorphic disorder) 59
performance 244–245 Beck, Aaron 13, 124
ACT anxiety disorders 46–55 behavior
accidents, prevention of 192–193 appearance, excessive concern about 59
acetylcholine 28 appraisals, workplace 176, 181 and brain activity 24–25
achievement-oriented leadership 184 aptitude tests 247 consumer 226–227
ACT (acceptance and commitment therapy) Aristotle 24 and cultural factors 215
arousal 82, 98, 227, 245 and emotions 32–33
126 theory of motivation 241 and irrational thoughts 122–123
actions, responsibility for 133 arts-based therapies 137 learned 16–17
active listening 164 AS see Asperger’s syndrome and unconscious mind 14
acute confusional state see delirium ASD (autism spectrum disorder) 66, 68–69, unethical 208–209
acute stress reaction see ASR behavior cycles 125
adaptation 215 96, 97 behavioral assessments 37
adaptations, psychological 22 Asperger’s syndrome (AS) 69 behavioral problems 175
addictions 36, 82, 117 ASR (acute stress reaction) 63, 64 behavioral psychology 13, 16–17, 150
ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity assault 63, 213 behavioral strategies 123
assertiveness training 123 behavioral therapy 122, 124, 125
disorder) 8, 66–67, 100 assessment centers 179 behaviorism 13, 16–17
adjustment disorder 64 athletes 236–245 behaviorist theory 150, 151
Adler, Alfred 15 attachment “being”/growth needs 153
adolescents see teenagers belonging, sense of 152–153, 210
adrenaline 29, 46, 62, 159, 244 psychology of 156–157 bereavement 38, 46, 62, 63, 64
advertising 224 science of love 158–159 beta blockers 63
age, and identity 147 styles 156 biases
aggression 70, 78, 80, 85, 102, 156, 199 theories of 65, 154 cognitive 21
agitation 73 attention juries 200, 201
agoraphobia 50 and engineering display 190, 191 performance ratings 18
agreeableness 151 and memory 30 Binet, Alfred 246
Ainsworth, Mary 154, 157 attention deficit hyperactivity disorder see binge-eating disorder 90, 94
airline safety 188, 189, 192–193 binge-purge cycle 92
alcohol abuse 38, 62, 75, 80–81, 115 ADHD biographical information 179
alerts, visual and audible 190 attitudes biological factors 16, 17, 18, 150
Allport, Gordon 13, 212–213 biological psychology 13, 22–23
alternative therapies 115 changing consumer 228–229 biopsychosocial model 114–115
alters 86 and culture 215 biotherapies 142–143
Alzheimer’s disease 76 attraction bipolar disorder 40–41, 72, 75, 142
amnesia, dissociative 89 body language 160 birth complications 70
Amok syndrome 108–109 chemical 159 birth order 139
amygdala 26, 32, 33, 62, 135, 231 attribution theory 204 birthweight, low 66
anandamide 243 authoritarianism 210, 212 blame, of out-group 211
anemia 60, 95 authority blood-injection-injury phobias 49
anger 33, 44, 62, 94, 105, 127, 133, 199, 207, and consumer behavior 228 body
obedience to 208, 210 disconnection from 88
237 autism spectrum disorder see ASD mind-body dualism 25
anger management 85, 137, 203 autonomy 218 somatic therapies 135
animal phobias 49 availability heuristic 204 and stress 115
animal-assisted therapy 137 aversion therapy 128
anorexia nervosa 90–91, 92 avoidant PD 106, 107