34 TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS 2.3.4 Implications of the Theory of Operant Conditioning on Learning The following are implications of the theory of operant conditioning on learning: (a) Behaviour can be modified or improved through the use of appropriate positive or negative reinforcements; (b) Using positive reinforcement allows students to focus on the positive aspects of the situation. Punishment, when applied immediately following the negative behaviour, can be effective. However, punishment can also create other negative responses such as anger; and (c) Plan and use SkinnerÊs reinforcement schedule to ensure that appropriate behaviour is strengthened. ROBERT M. GAGNE Robert M. Gagne (see Figure 2.8) was born in 1916. He died in 2002 at the age of 86. He received his doctorate (PhD) in Psychology from Brown University, the United States in 1940. Between 1949 and 1958, Gagne became the director of the Perceptual and Motor Skills Laboratory of the United States Air Force. It was during his time in the air force that he began to develop many of his theories of learning. 2.4 Go to www.bfskinner.org to learn more about SkinnerÊs work on human behaviour and how it is related to learning in classrooms today. In the myINSPIRE online forum, discuss the following question: How is SkinnerÊs theory of operant conditioning different from PavlovÊs classical conditioning? ACTIVITY 2.4 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS 35 Figure 2.8: Robert Gagne Source: Advanced educational psychology (photograph of Gagne) (2001) Gagne is well known for his: (a) Eight levels of learning which he called the hierarchy of learning. Each level will only be achieved if the student has mastered the level before it; (b) Five observable and measurable learning outcomes; and (c) Instructional model which he named the nine events of instruction. This has been GagneÊs most famous learning theory which he called the conditions of learning. Let us look at each of GagneÊs conditions of learning in greater detail. 2.4.1 Gagne’s Hierarchy of Learning GagneÊs hierarchy of learning is the transition from behaviourism to cognitivism. Cognitivism is the study of studentsÊ mental or intellectual processes. Unlike behaviourism, cognitivism focuses on mental processes that cannot be observed or seen that students use to learn and remember new information (Slavin, 2009). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
36 TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS Table 2.4 explains GagneÊs eight levels of situations in which students learn. The hierarchy of learning shows that students move from behaviourist learning to higher cognitive processes of learning. Table 2.4: GagneÊs Eight Levels of Situations GagneÊs Eight Levels of Situations Description Hierarchy of Learning 1. Signal Learning: Classical Conditioning ă Response to a signal When a teacher puts her finger to her lips, students will know that she wants them to keep quiet. Similarly, if a teacher enters the class, the students will stand up. Students have been conditioned to this behaviour. Behavioural 2. Stimulus-Response: Operant Conditioning ă Response to given stimulus Reinforcement is important to strengthen the relationship between the stimulus and response. Muthu shows his father his report card that shows as in all his subjects. MuthuÊs father praises him with „Very good, Muthu.‰ Muthu will repeat that behaviour again (excelling in studies) to receive praise from his father. Behavioural 3. Chaining: Linking two or more stimulus response connections to form a more complex skill It is the process where most complex skills (e.g. riding a bicycle or playing the piano) are learned. It is also used in the learning of skills such as games, sports, repairing electronic equipment, etc. Behavioural 4. Verbal Association: Linking two or more words or ideas To explain something, students will need the language skills to be able to relate facts and data. Students require the language skills they have learnt previously. Behavioural 5. Discrimination: Responding in different ways to different items Discrimination learning is important so that students are able to filter out important information from unimportant information; which facilitates the process of remembering. Ahmad likes motorbikes and is able to discriminate (differentiate) one brand from another although they may look alike. Behavioural Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS 37 6. Concepts: Able to classify and categorise With conceptual learning, students are able to classify their surrounding world according to colours, shapes, numbers and so on. BehaviouralCognitive 7. Rules: Combining two or more concepts This learning involves a combination of two or more concepts that are related in a sequence or series. For example, 1 + 2 = 3; or that winds blow from high pressure to low-pressure areas. BehaviouralCognitive 8. Problem Solving: Combining known rules/principles into new situations to solve a problem Problem solving involves the use of principles, generalisations, concepts and rules to solve problems in new situations. There are steps in the process of solving problems such as knowing the problem, finding information, making hypotheses, choosing best solutions, testing hypotheses, and formulating. According to Gagne, this is the highest level of cognitive processes. Cognitive Source: Adapted from Slavin (2009) and Woolfolk (2007) 2.4.2 Gagne’s Five Learning Outcomes According to Gagne, studentsÊ learning outcomes that can be observed as a result of learning are the studentsÊ capabilities. There are five capabilities (or learning outcomes) as shown in Table 2.5. Table 2.5: Five Capabilities or Learning Outcomes Capability or Learning Outcome Description Intellectual skills Knowing „how‰ to organise and use verbal and mathematical symbols, concepts and rules to solve a problem Cognitive strategies Learning strategies needed to process information Information Knowing „what‰ ă knowledge and facts Motor skills Ability to coordinate movements Attitudes Feelings and emotions developed from positive and negative experiences Source: Adapted from Tate, Goad & Gralish (n.d.) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
38 TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS 2.4.3 Gagne’s Conditions of Learning – The Nine Events of Instruction and Their Application Let us look at GagneÊs conditions of learning and how they can be used in your classroom. There are nine events of instruction, as shown in Table 2.6. Table 2.6: GagneÊs Nine Events of Instruction Event of Instruction Description Gain attention The first step is to try to raise your studentsÊ interest and motivation to learn. Some of the ways are asking questions, telling a story, showing a video or presenting a case study. Inform learner of objectives It is important to inform the students the purpose of the lesson and also what is expected of them from the lesson. This will help reduce anxiety in students because they know what they should be studying. Stimulate recall of prior learning Relate current lesson/subject matter to concepts that students already know. In this way, students will be able to retain concepts and new information better. They can also make the connection to their personal experiences, and the learning will be more meaningful. Present stimulus material At this stage, you present the content that you want your students to learn. To help your students understand better, the content should be organised meaningfully. Because a classroom will have different levels of student abilities, it is important that you use different methods and strategies for teaching. You can help your students relate the new material to their own lives by using relevant examples and real-life situations as part of your teaching strategies. Provide learner guidance Some examples of student guidance come in the form of visual materials such as graphs, videos, case studies, mnemonics and analogies. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS 39 Elicit performance Once the content/subject matter is presented and hopefully understood, your students need an opportunity to practise what they have learnt. This can take in the form of exercises, group work, discussions, presentations, etc. It is important to remember that student practice must be: Ć Relevant to the objective; and Ć Provided frequently and immediately. Provide feedback Good feedback should: Ć Provide comments about studentsÊ performance; Ć Be immediate and frequent; and Ć Enable students to correct their own mistakes when possible. Assess performance At the end of a course, your studentsÊ performance is assessed in order to determine if learning has occurred. Enhance retention and transfer Try to help your students to apply what they have learnt by providing them with situations where they can use the new knowledge. Source: Adapted from Gagne & Medsker (1999) Form a small group with your coursemates. Do the following in the myINSPIRE online forum: (a) Expand on the information you have read by providing some examples how you can apply it in your own lives. (b) Describe what you think are the strengths and/or weaknesses of operant conditioning that can help you control student behaviour in your classroom. (c) Discuss some of the problems you may face when you use positive and negative reinforcements. Use examples from your own childhood or from your own teaching experiences. ACTIVITY 2.5 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
40 TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS 2.4.4 Implications of Gagne’s Learning Theories Implications of GagneÊs learning theories for learning are: (a) Gagne emphasised that students must be supported to move from simple to more complicated learning levels ă from behaviourism to cognitivism. Teachers must ensure students have mastered the basic skills necessary to help them in more complicated skills. 1. How many conditions of learning did Gagne theorise? A. 5 B. 9 C. 2 D. 7 2. Which of these is not a condition of learning? A. Gain attention B. Elicit performance C. Cooperative learning D. Enhance retention and transfer 3. Which of the following is not one of GagneÊs learning outcomes? A. Intellectual skills B. Mathematical skills C. Cognitive strategies D. Motor skills SELF-CHECK 2.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS 41 (b) To use the hierarchy of learning, a teacher can start by working backwards from the final learning objectives, that is, teachers can ask „What are the intellectual skills my students would need to have mastered before they can learn the new objectives?‰ Teachers can use the hierarchy of learning to identify these prerequisites in order for learning to take place at each level. (c) The nine events of instruction can be arranged by the teacher to support learning processes. Behaviourist theories operate on the principle of „stimulus-response.‰ All behaviour is caused by external stimuli (operant conditioning) and can be explained without the need to consider internal mental states or consciousness. The primary means of investigating learning is by observation. Learning involves behavioural change. Some behaviourists proposed that if no observable change happens, then no learning has occurred. Some principles of behaviourist theories are: ă Positive or negative reinforcement increases or strengthens a behaviour. ă Extinction is the gradual elimination of behaviour when reinforcement is taken away. ă Positive or negative punishment weakens a behaviour. It must not be mistaken for negative reinforcement! ă Schedules of reinforcement can be used to increase the number of desired behaviours. Originators and important contributors of behaviourist theories are Pavlov, Thorndike, Skinner, and Gagne (who moved towards cognitivism too): ă Pavlov developed the theory known now as classical conditioning through the study of dogs. According to Pavlov, learning begins with a stimulus-response connection. In this theory, a certain stimulus leads to a particular response. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
42 TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS ă Thorndike emphasised that experiences are able to strengthen or weaken the stimulus-response connections. He suggested that rewards can promote learning. ă Skinner proposed the theory of operant conditioning. Skinner used the term reinforcer or reinforcement instead of rewards. Operant conditioning is a method of learning that occurs through reinforcers and punishments for behaviour. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behaviour and an outcome of that behaviour. ă Gagne was well-known for his sophisticated stimulus-response theory of eight kinds of learning which differs in the quality and quantity of stimuli-responses involved; his hierarchy of learning; and the nine events of instruction. Behavioural learning theories Classical conditioning Conditioned response Conditioned stimulus Connectivism Discrimination Extinction Five learning outcomes Fixed-interval schedule Fixed-ratio schedule Generalisation Hierarchy of learning Law of Effect Law of Exercise Law of Readiness Negative reinforcement Nine events of instruction Operant conditioning Positive reinforcement Punishment Schedules of reinforcement Unconditioned response Unconditioned stimulus Variable-interval schedule Variable-ratio schedule Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS 43 (Untitled photograph of B. F. Skinner). Retrieved July 25, 2011, from http://www.harvardsquarelibrary.org/stafford/rs_skinner.htm (Untitled photograph of Edward Thorndike). Retrieved July 25, 2011, from: http://www.psicoterapiaintegrativa.com/therapists/htms/Edward_Thorn dike.htm Advanced educational psychology (photograph of Gagne) (2001). Retrieved July 25, 2011, from http://faculty.weber.edu/pstewart/6030/6030.html Brophy, J. (1981). Teacher praise: A functional analysis. Review of Educational Research, 51, 5ă32. Chance, P., & Delaware, L. (1999). ThorndikeÊs puzzle boxes and the origins of the experimental analysis of behavior. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 72(3), 433ă440. Retrieved July 25, 2011, from http://seab.envmed.rochester.edu/jeab/articles/1999/jeab-72-03-0433.pdf Gagne, R. M., & Medsker, K. L. (1999). The conditions of learning: Training applications. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing. Nobelprize.org. (2008). Ivan Pavlov biography. Retrieved July 25, 2011, from http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1904/pavlovbio.html Skinner psychology: Operant conditioning. (n.d). Retrieved July 25, 2011, from http://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html Slavin, R. E. (2009). Educational psychology: Theory and practice (9th ed.). New Jersey, NJ: Pearson Education. Tate, A. C., Goad, T., & Gralish, M. (n.d). Psychological foundations of curriculum. Retrieved July 25, 2011, from tech.jerrygalloway.com/ UTA/stds/PsychFoundationsofCurr_1.ppt Woolfolk, A. (2007). Educational psychology (10th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
INTRODUCTION As discussed in Topic 2, behavioural learning focuses very much on studentsÊ behaviour that we can see. Behaviourist theory does not explain much about how students form concepts, learn from textbooks, solve problems and how they think. Behaviourists believe that teachers are the main source of information in studentsÊ lives. Topic 3 Constructivist Theories and Their Applications LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Identify Jean PiagetÊs theory of child development; 2. Explain VygostkyÊs theory of social cognitive development; 3. Explain Jerome BrunerÊs theory of cognitivism; and 4. Describe Howard GardnerÊs theory of multiple intelligences. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 3 CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS 45 However, current principles of education posit that teachers are not mere feeders of studentsÊ knowledge! Instead, students must construct (build) their own knowledge in their minds (Slavin, 2009). You, as a teacher, only act as a facilitator in the process of your studentsÊ learning. You must make information meaningful and relevant to students. Students must be provided with the opportunity to discover or apply ideas from the information by themselves. Through studentsÊ own discovery, they are able to use their own strategies for learning. In other words, you give your students the ladders that lead to higher understanding, but it is the students themselves who have to climb these ladders (Slavin, 2009). Such principles of learning are called the constructivist theories of learning or constructivism. Constructivism emphasises students as active learners; they play an active role in their own learning. Constructivism sees students as always building new information from previous learning experiences and re-learning new information when the old information no longer works. Sometimes you will hear and read the term student-centred teaching; this means that in a student-centred classroom, the teacher is not the sage on the stage but only serves as a guide by the side. In other words, it is the students who play the active role in the teaching process. According to Kanuka and Anderson (1998), constructivism has existed since the time of ancient Greek philosopher Socrates! Socrates claimed that learning occurred through the cognition (thoughts) of the students. However, it was only in the early 20th century that the „constructivist movement‰ took hold, and became properly studied and later applied in classrooms. Although many psychologists contributed towards the „constructivist movement‰, much of the constructivist theory came about from the early works of Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky and Jerome Bruner. Howard Gardner who once worked with Bruner later expanded the theoretical framework of the constructivist theory. Let us look at the works of Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, Jerome Bruner and Howard Gardner. Let us also understand how their work has implications for student learning now. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
46 TOPIC 3 CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS JEAN PIAGET Jean Piaget (see Figure 3.1) was born in Switzerland in 1896. He died in Geneva in 1980 at the age of 84. He was the eldest child of Arthur Piaget and Rebecca Johnson. PiagetÊs father was a professor of medieval literature at a university. Piaget obtained his doctorate in biology from the University of Neuchâtel. In 1923, Piaget married Valentine Chatenay and had three children ă Jacqueline, Lucienne and Laurent ă whose intellectual development from infancy to language was studied by Piaget. Figure 3.1: Jean Piaget Source: www.archivesjeanpiaget.ch When Piaget was 11 years old, he wrote a short article titled Sparrow Albina which looked at the unusual behaviour of albino sparrows. This was considered the beginning of PiagetÊs start as a brilliant researcher, scientist and psychologist. During his lifetime, he wrote over 60 books and hundreds of articles. Jean Piaget remains one of the most influential researchers in the area of developmental psychology of the 20th century. 3.1.1 Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development Piaget was very interested in how children learned. He would ask the children questions that he created himself. From the questions, he would follow how the children would answer or make comments. Piaget believed that the childrenÊs unstructured answers provided him with an understanding of how they thought. He was not interested in right or wrong answers, but he wanted to understand how children used logic and reasoning. 3.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 3 CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS 47 He discovered that children think and reason differently at different times in their lives. He also discovered that every normal child passes through four stages of cognitive (intellectual) development in their lives. The four stages of cognitive development are shown in Figure 3.2. Figure 3.2: The four stages of cognitive development Let us discuss the stages one by one. (a) Sensorimotor (Birth to 2 Years) At this stage, infants build an understanding of themselves and how things work through interactions with the environment. The infant is able to differentiate himself and other objects. (b) Preoperational (2 to 7 Years) Objects are classified in simple ways, especially by important features. For example, a dog can be replaced with a cat because both animals have four legs. (c) Concrete (7 to 11 Years) The child is able to sort and classify objects. They are able to conceptualise. For example, children learn mastery of numbers and how to give explanations. (d) Formal Operation (Abstract Thinking) (11 Years and Above) By this stage, the child is capable of complex ways of thinking (logic and reasoning). The child has the thinking ability of an adult. Keep in mind that children will move through all the four stages, but they do not always move from one stage to the other at the same time. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
48 TOPIC 3 CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS 3.1.2 How Children Learn The important concept in PiagetÊs four stages of cognitive development theory is that learning and thinking involve the active participation of the learner. He believed that learning and thinking occur when the learner has gained experience from the interaction with another person, matter or things in his environment. However, the learnerÊs ability to learn is always related to cognitive (intellectual) development. Cognitive development must go through the following processes. They are shown in Table 3.1. Table 3.1: Three Cognitive Development Processes Three Cognitive Development Process Description Assimilation Assimilation means the assimilation (fitting in) of new information or enriching existing cognitive understanding. For example, when Aisha sees a rabbit, she is told that it is a rabbit. So when Aisha next sees a cat, she calls it a rabbit. Aisha uses her existing knowledge and has assimilated (fitted in) the information given to her, but without any modification. Accommodation Accommodation means modifying existing knowledge to understand new information. In the example of Aisha ă if AishaÊs mother heard her say „rabbit‰ on seeing a cat, AishaÊs mother will correct her. AishaÊs mother will tell her that what she saw was a cat because it meows and does not hop. Aisha now knows that a cat meows and does not hop (new information). Schema What happens is that this assimilation-accommodation process enables Aisha to form schema (representation). When Aisha calls the cat „rabbit‰, her mother corrects her by explaining that a cat meows. This causes the schema (representation) of a rabbit to be in disequilibrium (not in equilibrium or unbalanced). The equilibrium (balance) will be available again when Aisha makes changes to assimilate the new information and then makes an accommodation that a cat meows and accepts the new knowledge. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 3 CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS 49 According to Piaget, the equilibrium between assimilation and accommodation processes will be different with each childÊs stages of development and the problems to be solved. Through these processes, the child will construct new knowledge from their experiences. PiagetÊs theory of cognitive development is also known as cognitive constructivism. 3.1.3 Implications for Learning In using PiagetÊs cognitive constructivism, teachers should: (a) Focus on providing students with activities or situations that engage them and require assimilation and accommodation; (b) Be aware that learning materials and activities should be appropriate for the physical and mental ability of the students. Do not ask students to do something that they are not cognitively (intellectually) ready for; How can Jean PiagetÊs theory of development be used by a teacher? Can you think of some applications? To help you, visit the following websites to read some creative activities for teaching and learning using Jean PiagetÊs theory. The websites are: (a) http://www.lessonplanet.com/search?keywords=jean+piaget+ac tivities&media=lesson (b) http://piaget.weebly.com/educational-implications-- activities.html Do not be limited to the above websites, find as many as you can and incorporate them into your lesson plan. Share your findings with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 3.1 What theory did Jean Piaget contribute to child development studies? Describe it. SELF-CHECK 3.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
50 TOPIC 3 CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS (c) Plan for teaching methods and strategies that can actively involve students (to explore, to manipulate, to experiment, to question, and to search out answers for themselves) and present challenges; (d) Focus on studentsÊ existing experience to help them build new experiences; and (e) Assess students based on their abilities (their strengths and weaknesses) and avoid comparing one studentÊs ability with another. LEV VYGOTSKY Lev Semenovich Vygotsky, or simply Vygotsky (see Figure 3.3), was a Russian psychologist. He was born in 1896 and passed away at the young age of 38 in 1934. Figure 3.3: Lev Vygotsky As a teenager, Vygotsky was interested in literature and enjoyed poetry and art. He obtained his law degree from Moscow State University in 1917. While in university, Vygotsky studied various areas such as linguistics, psychology and philosophy. His interest in psychology started when he attended the Institute of Psychology in Moscow. It was there that he wrote The Psychology of Art. 3.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 3 CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS 51 Vygotsky wrote and published six books on psychology in his short lifetime. His topics were in child development and education. Two of his major psychological theories were: (a) Zone of proximal development; and (b) Sociocultural theory. Let us look at two of these theories in greater detail and how they are used today in learning. 3.2.1 Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) According to Vygotsky, the zone of proximal development is the distance (gap) between the actual developmental level of a child as determined by his/her own problem-solving ability and the developmental potential (what he or she can achieve) through the guidance of an adult or more skilled peers. Figure 3.4 is a diagram to show VygotskyÊs ZPD. Figure 3.4: Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
52 TOPIC 3 CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS Vygotsky did not agree with the notion of measuring the intelligence of students through the use of standardised tests. Instead, he suggested that it is more helpful to compare their ability to solve problems on their own and their ability to solve problems with the help of someone more knowledgeable. In VygotskyÊs zone of proximal development, social interaction is the foundation for cognitive growth. The communication between students and more knowledgeable persons (e.g. teachers, parents, friends) helps the student in building knowledge. This „help‰ in building knowledge is also known as scaffolding. Scaffolding is essentially a steel frame and wooden supports of the building. Scaffolding in the context of learning is the help/guidance, instructions, procedures provided by a teacher or a more knowledgeable person in mastering a skill or knowledge. Assistance is given at the beginning of learning but becomes more and more reduced and finally none at all because the student is able to do it on his/her own. Inside a classroom, it is not always the teacher who is the most knowledgeable. Sometimes students working together in groups can learn from each other too. 3.2.2 Sociocultural Theory VygotskyÊs sociocultural theory states that students learn from dynamic interaction with their friends, teachers and society. It is through this interaction that students slowly and continuously learn and build knowledge. Vygotsky suggests that learning can be different in different cultures. The importance of VygotskyÊs theory is that students learn through interactions and these interactions not only impact the students but also the society in which they live. 1. What is VygotskyÊs learning theory about? 2. Explain what is meant by „scaffolding‰ in learning. SELF-CHECK 3.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 3 CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS 53 3.2.3 Implications for Learning Some implications for learning using VygotskyÊs theories are: (a) The need for students to be given opportunities to learn in groups. Within this group, those who have mastered a skill or knowledge are able to help weak students who have yet to master it. Instruction or assistance from more advanced friends in the group is effective as suggested in the zone of proximal development. (b) The use of scaffolding is part of the teaching method in which students gradually take responsibility for their own learning. JEROME BRUNER Jerome Bruner (see Figure 3.5) was born in 1915 and died in 2016. The influential American psychologist obtained his first degree from Duke University in 1937 and pursued and obtained a doctorate in psychology at Harvard University in 1941. Bruner played an important role in the Madison Project, a curriculum for modern mathematics. Figure 3.5: Jerome Bruner Source: www.animukerji.com/newfaculty201/bruner_bio.htm 3.3 How can VykotskyÊs theory be used by a teacher? Think of some applications. Visit some websites for some creative activities, and try to adapt them to your planning and teaching. In the myINSPIRE online forum, discuss with your colleagues whether these activities have been successful or not. ACTIVITY 3.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
54 TOPIC 3 CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS Bruner wrote and contributed in the fields of education and educational philosophy. His book The Process of Education (1960) has become an important reference for the formulation of modern mathematics curricula in many countries. He also produced many works on the development of human thought and its relationship to learning. His works emphasise the importance of providing students with meaningful teaching-learning experiences. Among his other well-known books are A Study of Thinking and Toward a Theory of Instruction (both written in 1966), Acts of Meaning (1991) and The Culture of Education (1996). 3.3.1 Bruner’s Discovery Learning and Representation Bruner continued to develop work by Vygotsky. He believed that knowledge and learning would be gained more effectively when students learnt through „personal discovery‰ compared to being taught. Like Vygotsky, Bruner also believed that teachers and other adults could support students by scaffolding their learning. He suggested that teachers and adults should help the students improve their current knowledge to new knowledge. According to Bruner, when teachers and other adults learn something new, they engage in three modes of cognitive representation, as shown in Table 3.2. Table 3.2: Three Modes of Cognitive Representation Mode Description Enactive When students understand things through doing, this is termed the enactive mode. In other words, understanding something is based on physical actions. Many young children learn by doing rather than by thinking. The enactive mode happens in many physical activities, such as learning to ride a bike. Iconic In the iconic mode, students are encouraged to record (or remember) experiences using photographs, pictures and the use of multimedia. Symbolic This is the studentsÊ ability to store information in the form of symbols. According to Bruner, words are powerful symbols and students can store a lot of information as verbal memory. Nevertheless, there are also other symbolic systems such as drawing and painting, dancing, playing and making models, and using numbers. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 3 CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS 55 3.3.2 Implications for Learning BrunerÊs theories have some implications for learning. In using BrunerÊs theories, teachers should: (a) Teach subjects through the enactive, iconic and symbolic modes; (b) Use the discovery learning that gives students opportunities to learn through „finding out‰. Teachers should provide opportunities for students to explore, hold, smell and feel to enable meaningful learning. Some of the ways are through project work, experiments, interviews, or observations; (c) Promote learning that results from the interaction of student and teachers, students with students, and students with learning materials; and (d) Use examples and analogies during the teaching and learning to help students form concepts. How can a teacher use BrunerÊs learning theory? Can you think of some applications? Visit some websites for some creative activities, and try to adapt them in your planning and teaching. In the myINSPIRE online forum, discuss with your colleagues whether each has been successful or not. ACTIVITY 3.3 What are the three learning experiences as suggested by Bruner? SELF-CHECK 3.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
56 TOPIC 3 CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS HOWARD GARDNER Howard Gardner (see Figure 3.6) was born in Scranton, Pennsylvania in 1943 and was a professor of Education and Cognition at the Harvard Graduate School of Education. GardnerÊs work posits that everyone possesses different potentials or intelligence. Figure 3.6: Howard Gardner Source: www.howardgardner.com/bio/bio.html Intelligence, according to Gardner, involves the ability of solving a problem or being involved in composing music, writing poetry or choreographing a dance, but in the context of his/her own cultures. As such, intelligence cannot be defined by tests such as IQ tests. According to Gardner, people use many different ways or several sets of cognitive processes to solve problems or to produce outcomes. Gardner is famous for his Theory of Multiple Intelligences in which he identified eight types of intelligences. Let us look at his eight types of intelligence in greater detail. 3.4 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 3 CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS 57 3.4.1 Multiple Intelligences There are eight types of intelligences. Figure 3.7 may help you remember the multiple intelligences. Figure 3.7: GardnerÊs multiple intelligences Let us look at each of the multiple intelligences. (a) Spatial Intelligence This intelligence deals with the ability to visualise with the mindÊs eye. Students with spatial capabilities enjoy viewing graphs, charts, or pictures when reading textbooks. To understand something, they visualise by making mind maps and patterns. Students with spatial intelligence: (i) Like puzzles, games or fixing Lego blocks; (ii) Like charts, diagrams and films; Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
58 TOPIC 3 CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS (iii) Interpret and understand maps, charts or diagrams easily; (iv) Like to draw; and (v) Use visual images when thinking about something or explaining something. The spatial capability is needed for those who are engineers in the construction industry, and surveying. Careers which suit those with this type of intelligence include artists, designers and architects. A spatial person is also good with puzzles. (b) Verbal-linguistic Intelligence This intelligence has to do with words, spoken or written. Students with more verbal-linguistic intelligence enjoy learning through reading, taking notes, listening to teachers, discussions and debates. They also learn foreign languages easily. They are able to manipulate syntax and structure of languages easily. Students with high verbal-linguistic intelligence are good with words and languages. They enjoy and are good at: (i) Reading; (ii) Writing; (iii) Telling stories; and (iv) Memorising words and dates. Careers that suit those with this intelligence include writer, lawyer, policeman, philosopher, journalist, politician, poet and teacher. (c) Logical-mathematical Intelligence Students with logical-mathematical intelligence are good at logic, reasoning and abstraction work. They are good at abstract patterns of recognition, scientific thinking and investigation, and performing complex calculations. Students with logical-mathematical intelligence enjoy mathematics and are good at chess games or computer programming. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 3 CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS 59 Students with logical-mathematical intelligence: (i) Are able to solve mathematical problems quickly; (ii) Like to use a computer; (iii) Enjoy playing chess, checkers and other games that require strategy; (iv) Can relate an event logically; and (v) Enjoy conducting experiments of things that are not easily understood. Careers that suit those with this intelligence include scientist, physicist, mathematician, logician, engineer, doctor, economist and philosopher. (d) Bodily-kinaesthetic Intelligence This intelligence involves the control of bodily motions and the capability to use objects skillfully. Students with bodily-kinaesthetic are good at physical activities such as sports or dance and might enjoy acting or performing. They can also be good at building and making things. Such students learn best by doing something physically. Students with bodily-kinesthetic intelligence normally: (i) Succeed in sports; (ii) Enjoy challenging activities; (iii) Demonstrate skills in handicraft such as wood carving or sewing; and (iv) Are involved in physical activities such as swimming, motor-racing, or cycling. Careers that suit those with this intelligence include athlete, dancer, musician, actor, surgeon, doctor, builder, police officer and soldier. (e) Musical Intelligence Students with musical intelligence show sensitivity to sounds, rhythms, tones, music and elements that involve feelings. They enjoy using songs or rhythms to learn. Students with musical intelligence have a strong auditory component and therefore learn best through lectures. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
60 TOPIC 3 CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS Students with musical intelligence can be identified if they have some of the following characteristics: (i) Can play a musical instrument; (ii) Remember melodies easily; (iii) Can identify any music note that is „off-key‰; and (iv) Need music playing in the background when studying. Careers that suit those with this intelligence include instrumentalist, singer, conductor, disc-jockey, orator, writer and composer. (f) Interpersonal Intelligence Students with high interpersonal intelligence have the ability to understand the intentions of others, be sensitive to other peopleÊs moods and feelings, and motivate others to work. Generally, this intelligence has to do with interaction. They communicate effectively and easily with others. They learn best by working with others and often enjoy discussion and debate. Students with interpersonal intelligence normally: (i) Have many friends; (ii) Can empathise and understand other peopleÊs feelings; (iii) Like playing in groups; (iv) Participate in after-school activities; and (v) Enjoy socialising. Careers that suit those with this intelligence include work in sales, politician, manager, teacher and social worker. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 3 CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS 61 (g) Intrapersonal Intelligence Students with intrapersonal intelligence have the capability to be selfreflective about their feelings, intentions, motivations and goals in life. They have an understanding of their strengths and weaknesses. This intelligence is difficult to be assessed. Students who have this intelligence normally: (i) Demonstrate the ability to work independently; (ii) Respond with thoughtful opinions on controversial topics; (iii) Have a high sense of self-confidence; and (iv) Enjoy being alone in the pursuit of goals, hobbies or projects. Careers that suit those with this intelligence include philosopher, psychologist, theologian, lawyer and writer. People with intrapersonal intelligence also prefer to work alone. (h) Naturalistic Intelligence Students with naturalistic intelligence enjoy nature, nurturing and the environment. Characteristics of students who have this intelligence are that they: (i) Can identify and name an animal quickly; (ii) Like to keep pets; and (iii) Like planting flowers, trees and making things out of natural materials like bamboo and rattan. Careers that suit those with this intelligence include naturalist, farmer and gardener. The above description of GardnerÊs eight multiple intelligences are adapted from GardnerÊs Multiple Intelligences (n.d.) and Multiple Intelligences (2009). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
62 TOPIC 3 CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS 3.4.2 Rationale for Implementing Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom The rationale for implementing multiple intelligences in the classroom include: (a) There are differences and similarities between students, and educators should recognise that each student is unique and learns in different ways; (b) We should support the diverse intelligence of students and help realise their untapped potential; (c) We should enhance creativity and motivation through exciting teaching and learning activities that support the diverse intelligence of students; (d) We need to diversify evaluation (instead of just pen and paper tests, evaluation can be carried out by having presentations, project work, performances, practical work etc.); and (e) We should support cooperative work. 3.4.3 Identifying Students’ Multiple Intelligences Some ways to identify studentsÊ multiple intelligences are through: (a) Observation of student behaviours during learning; (b) Observation of popular studentsÊ activities at leisure time; (c) Student achievement reports; and (d) Profiles of students. What are the possible difficulties in implementing the multiple intelligences theory in the classroom? Why? Discuss with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 3.4 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 3 CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS 63 3.4.4 Implications for Learning The following are some implications for learning using GardnerÊs multiple intelligences theory: (a) Gardner believes that each student has eight different types of intelligence. One of the intelligence is verbal-linguistic. Students who have this intelligence are capable of using language effectively, whether orally or in writing, including the ability to manipulate sentences, style and pronunciation. The implication is that language proficiency is essential to be developed as it is also used in other subjects. (b) In schools, focus is mainly given to test cognitive intelligence such as linguistic intelligence, logical-mathematical intelligence and spatial intelligence. Assessments and evaluation for non-cognitive intelligence such as music, kinesthetic, interpersonal and intrapersonal are seldom held. Musical, kinesthetic, interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence should also be developed in students. With the cooperation of teachers, students can identify how they should be assessed. (c) Schools can work towards a balanced curriculum that gives opportunities to students to develop their eight types of intelligence. (d) Talents and interests of individual students could be identified and developed. Students are given the opportunity to take part in the curriculum of their choice. (e) When selecting teaching and learning strategies, it must be appropriate and match the intelligence of students. You can: (i) Decide and choose one or two types of intelligence to be used in your teaching; (ii) Choose one intelligence to be used in multiple subjects; and (iii) Use some of the intelligences in an integrated manner across different subjects. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
64 TOPIC 3 CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS (f) Some questions to help you decide on each types of intelligence are: (i) Spatial intelligence ă how can I use teaching aids, colours, art and graphics? (ii) Verbal-linguistic intelligence ă how can I use oral language, reading and writing? (iii) Logical-mathematical intelligence ă how can I insert numbers, counting, classification in my teaching? (iv) Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence ă how can I involve students in whole body movement or „hands-on‰ activities? (v) Musical intelligence ă how can I use music, sounds or rhythmic and melodic elements in the lesson? (vi) Interpersonal intelligence ă how can I involve students in peer sharing, group collaboration or simulation? (vii) Intrapersonal intelligence ă how can I give students the option to stimulate their „sense of self‰? (viii) Naturalistic intelligence ă how can I bring nature into the classroom or bring students out into nature as part of the lesson? Constructivist theory is based on the fact that knowledge is built based on actual experiences. Important contributors of constructivist theories are Piaget, Vygotsky, Bruner and Gardner: ă According to Piaget, learning is a change of thinking or cognitive structures. The basic concepts of cognitive learning are the schema, disequilibrium, assimilation and accommodation. ă According to Vygotsky, the potential differences in a childÊs learning are in the range called the zone of proximal development (ZPD). ă Bruner proposed three modes of learning and understanding: the enactive mode, iconic mode and symbolic mode. ă Gardner was well-known for his Multiple Intelligences theory where he proposed that students should be helped to develop according to their intelligences. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 3 CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS 65 Accommodation Assimilation Bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence Cognitive constructivism Concrete Constructivism Constructivist theories Enactive mode Iconic mode Interpersonal intelligence Intrapersonal intelligence Logical-mathematical intelligence Multiple intelligences Musical intelligence Naturalistic intelligence Preoperational Scaffolding Schema Sensorimotor Sociocultural theory Spatial intelligence Student-centred learning Symbolic mode Verbal-linguistic intelligence Zone of proximal development (ZPD) Campbell, L., Campbell, B., & Dickinson, D. (1996). Teaching & learning through multiple intelligences. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. GardnerÊs Multiple Intelligences. (n.d.). Retrieved July 27, 2011, from http://www.cap.nsw.edu.au/files/Gardner%20MI.pdf Kanuka, H., & Anderson, T. (1998). Online social interchange, discord, and knowledge construction. Journal of Distance Education, 13, 57ă74. Multiple Intelligences. (2009). Retrieved July 27, 2011, from http://www.howardgardner.com/MI/mi.html Slavin, R. E. (2009). Educational psychology: Theory and practice (9th ed.). New Jersey, NJ: Pearson Education. Woolfolk, A. (2007). Educational psychology (10th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
INTRODUCTION Try to recall the learning experiences you had as a student that required you to work with others to complete a particular assignment. Your experience might have been quite short (maybe working with your friend sitting next to you on a mathematics or geography problem), or it may have required you to work on a long-term project with a group. You will realise that you had been using cooperative instructional strategies at the time, fully unaware that it was a teaching strategy! Topic 4 Contemporary Instructional Strategies: Cooperative Learning LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Identify the characteristics of cooperative learning; 2. Explain the benefits of cooperative learning; 3. Incorporate cooperative learning structures into lessons; and 4. Discuss how teaching and learning can be effective with cooperative learning activities. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: COOPERATIVE LEARNING 67 This topic will look at a model of instruction called cooperative learning. Cooperative learning is a strategy that can help your students gain academic achievement and skills, and at the same time, develop important social skills. It is a teaching strategy that provides structured roles for your students and at the same time promotes social interactions (Slavin, 2009). This topic will begin with the characteristics of cooperative learning, followed by the benefits of using this model of instruction. Subsequent subtopics will look at how you can plan, implement, access and manage some of the structures that are often used in cooperative learning environments. CHARACTERISTICS OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING Cooperative means working together. There are three important characteristics of cooperative learning that you should be aware of (Slavin, 2009; Arends, 2009) as shown in Figure 4.1. Figure 4.1: Three important characteristics of cooperative learning Let us look at what each of them means. (a) Group Goals This means that students work together to achieve common goals in small groups. Group goals are able to maximise an individual studentÊs own learning as well as each member of the group. Students are divided into small groups, and each group will be given their group goals. Lessons are structured in such a way that the goals can only be achieved if all team members can complete the tasks given. 4.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: COOPERATIVE LEARNING 68 According to Johnson and Johnson (2006), through group goals in a cooperative classroom, students: (i) Learn positive interdependence, that is, they must „sink or swim‰ together. Students know that their grades depend on the performance of the rest of the group. Each member knows that each personÊs efforts benefit not only himself or herself but all members of the group; (ii) Learn promotive interaction where they help each otherÊs learning like how to solve problems and discuss concepts. Students become not only committed to each other but also to their group goals; and (iii) Learn interpersonal and small group social skills, that is, students must know how to provide effective leadership, decision making, trust building and communication. In traditional classrooms, students are required to compete with each other for grades. In other words, if a student succeeds with high grades it would mean that his/her friends have failed or have obtained low grades. This is a competitive classroom. There is also another type of traditional classroom called the individualistic classroom. It means that each studentÊs hard work has no impact on another student because he/she works alone. Cooperative learning is different as one studentÊs hard work will contribute to his/her friendsÊ success. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: COOPERATIVE LEARNING 69 Read the following situation and recall what often occurs in the classroom: Puan Hasmah is in front of her class. She asks the students questions and for each question that her students get correct, Puan Hasmah will reward them with a chocolate bar. For each question, many hands go up. Some of her students eagerly stretch out their hands in the hopes of being called by Puan Hasmah. Others, of course, do not have their hands up and because they are worried they will be called, they look down at their desk or book. Puan Hasmah calls Ah Kow. Muthu who sits next to Ah Kow knows the answer. Ah Kow is not sure of the answer. Muthu becomes very happy and puts up and waves his hands even harder. Muthu knows that if Ah Kow cannot answer, Puan Hasmah will call him. In fact, the only way Muthu can get the chocolate is if Ah Kow cannot answer. In such a competitive classroom, students are happy if their friends fail to answer the questions. Their own reward is if their friends fail! (The above transcript has been adapted from the research by Kagan, 1986). Therefore, cooperative learning tries to avoid these problems by putting students in learning situations where group goals reward cooperation. (b) Individual Responsibility Although group goals are important, individual student learning is still necessary for cooperative learning. Individual responsibility means that each student in the group must also have mastery of the concepts and skills being taught. The teacher will test that all students understand the content of a particular subject by giving them individual quizzes and tests. Alternatively, students can produce individual reports. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: COOPERATIVE LEARNING 70 (c) Equal Chances for Success Group goals build group interactions; individual responsibility ensures that each student in the group learns the content well. Equal opportunity for success means that all students from different genders, abilities, backgrounds, interests, races, cultures and religions are recognised for their hard work. Higher-achieving students are expected to help the lower-achieving students. BENEFITS OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING Some of the benefits of using cooperative learning include: (a) Lower-achieving students can benefit from the help and tutoring of their high achieving friends in the same group. On the other hand, the highachieving students also benefit because by helping their friends, they are also thinking more deeply, which leads to a greater understanding of a particular material, idea or concept; (b) There will be better tolerance and acceptance of other students who come from different races, cultures or abilities; and (c) Students learn about cooperation and collaboration. Cooperative learning helps promote studentsÊ interpersonal skills, which is one of Howard GardnerÊs multiple intelligence skills we discussed in Topic 3. 4.2 1. What are the factors you should consider when setting up cooperative learning groups? 2. How do cooperative learning classrooms differ from traditional classrooms? SELF-CHECK 4.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: COOPERATIVE LEARNING 71 Figure 4.2 gives a summary of your studentsÊ learning outcomes when they use cooperative learning. Figure 4.2: Student outcomes for cooperative learning Source: Arends (2009, p. 351) VARIOUS COOPERATIVE LEARNING STRUCTURES Let us look at cooperative learning from the perspectives of the teachersÊ and studentsÊ roles. 4.3.1 Social Structure of Cooperative Learning The cooperative classroom is different from the traditional classroom that you are familiar with. In the traditional classroom, the teacher is the centre of activity, standing in front of the class to teach. The students are merely the „audience‰. In such a classroom, students are passive listeners, or passively writing notes. Research has shown that students who are passive learn less than those who are active (Slavin 1995, Slavin 2009). In the cooperative learning classroom, the social structure is different. The teacher and students take on different roles. 4.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: COOPERATIVE LEARNING 72 The following are some indications of a teacherÊs role and a studentÊs role in cooperative learning (summarised and adapted from Arends, 2009). (a) TeacherÊs Role There are five phases in a teacherÊs role as shown in Table 4.1. Table 4.1: TeacherÊs Role in Cooperative Learning TeacherÊs Role Description Phase 1 The teacher will introduce the goals to be achieved, and explain basic concepts and skills to the whole class. The teacher can use different ways to present information, such as text, pictures and charts. Phase 2 The teacher will organise the students into groups. The teacher explains how to form learning teams and helps each group to build teamwork and unity. Phase 3 The teacher assists each group as they do their work. The teacher also monitors the students to ensure that all students are learning. Phase 4 The teacher uses quizzes or tests to check on the studentsÊ knowledge. Sometimes, each group can present their work. This is also another way the teacher can know if learning has taken place. Phase 5 The teacher rewards both individual and group efforts and achievements. (b) StudentsÊ Roles Students are required to become active and responsible for their learning. Group goals are achieved because students act as teachers and learners in their own group. Students must learn to „teach‰, compromise, motivate and be tolerant as they work as group members. How is the role of a teacher in cooperative learning different from the teacherÊs role in a traditional classroom? SELF-CHECK 4.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: COOPERATIVE LEARNING 73 4.3.2 Seating Arrangements in Cooperative Classrooms There are two main types of seating arrangements that are commonly used in a cooperative learning classroom. They are: (a) Cluster Seating Arrangement Figure 4.3 shows the six-cluster seating arrangement while Figure 4.4 shows the four-cluster seating arrangement. Figure 4.3: Six-cluster seating Source: Arends (2009) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: COOPERATIVE LEARNING 74 Figure 4.4: Four-cluster seating Source: Arends (2009) (b) Swing Seating Arrangement Figure 4.5 shows the swing seating arrangement. Figure 4.5: Swing seating Source: Arends (2009) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: COOPERATIVE LEARNING 75 4.3.3 Cooperative Learning Approaches When choosing cooperative learning, there are a few learning approaches that a teacher should know and can use. This topic cannot cover all the different learning approaches. However, four approaches are more commonly used in a cooperative classroom as shown in Figure 4.6. Figure 4.6: Cooperative learning approaches Let us now look at Student Teams-Achievement Divisions (STAD), the first of the approaches we will discuss in this subtopic. (a) Student Teams-Achievement Divisions (STAD) STAD was developed by Robert Slavin (1995) and is one of the most popular cooperative learning structures. STAD is a form of cooperative learning strategy that uses the different abilities of students found in each group to teach concepts, skills and facts. According to STAD: (i) The teacher will first present new topical information to students each week or on a regular basis. This is done through verbal or text presentations. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: COOPERATIVE LEARNING 76 (ii) Students are divided into groups of four (or sometimes five) members. Each group must be heterogeneous (comprising students of different abilities, different genders and races). One way to start grouping is to rank the students into abilities based on test scores or test grades. Then divide them into quartiles, and place one student from each quartile into each group. Table 4.2 shows groups divided into quartiles with a sample of 25 students in class. Table 4.2: Grouping Students into Quartiles Based on Student Ability No Names Marks Quartile 1 Rose 98 1st 2 Asmah 95 3 Swee Lan 93 4 Akeem 90 5 Mei 89 2nd 6 Arshad 85 7 Bobby 84 8 Ah Seng 83 9 Cindy 82 10 Tong 81 3rd 11 Aminah 80 12 Ah Kow 78 13 Jason 76 14 Devi 75 4th 15 Ron 72 16 Velloo 70 17 Mary 68 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: COOPERATIVE LEARNING 77 Based on Table 4.2, take the highest achievers from the first two quartiles and pair them with the lowest achievers from the 3rd and 4th quartiles. Therefore, the first group would be Rose, Mei, Jason and Mary. The second group would be Asmah, Arshad, Ah Kow and Velloo. The third group would be Swee Lan, Bobby, Aminah and Ron. The sixth group (last group) would consist of five students: Ramasamy, Ah Seng, Tong, Cindy and Devi. After forming the groups, you should check to see that there is a balance of gender and race. For example, the first group has three girls and a boy. The second group has three boys and one girl. You can decide to move two of the students to balance the groups. (iii) Each group will be given learning materials or worksheets to do. Team members must help each other learn the materials through peer-tutoring (friend helps friend), questioning each other or through discussion. Note: The worksheets must contain questions that have answers that are clearly correct or incorrect! If your learning materials or worksheets do not have clearly correct or incorrect answers, STAD may not be the most useful structure to use. (iv) After a week or two, each student in each group will take a test or a quiz. They must do it individually without help from their group members. (v) A special scoring system is used for STAD. There is a „base score‰ and an „improvement point‰. What is a base score? A base score is each studentÊs average score from past tests and quizzes. The studentÊs average examination score from the previous term can also be used as base scores. What is an improvement point? An improvement point is a reward given to each student based on how well they perform on their current test or quiz compared to their base scores. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: COOPERATIVE LEARNING 78 Table 4.3 explains the scoring system for STAD. Table 4.3: Scoring System for STAD Steps in Scoring System for STAD Description Step 1 Each student is given a base score Step 2 Each student receives a score for the current test or quiz Step 3 Each student earns an improvement point based on how well they perform on their current test or quiz compared to the base score. The scale for calculating improvement point is as follows: More than 10 points below base score 0 points 1 to 10 points below base score 10 points Base score to 10 points above base score 20 points More than 10 points above base score 30 points Perfect paper 30 points Source: Slavin (1995) Table 4.4 shows an example of the base score, current score and improvement point. Table 4.4: Base Scores, Current Score and Improvement Point Used in STAD Students Date ă May 20 Quiz ă Subtraction Base Score Quiz Score Improvement Points Rose 90 100 30 Asmah 90 100 30 Swee Lan 90 82 10 Akeem 85 74 0 Mei 85 98 30 Arshad 80 67 0 Bobby 75 79 10 Cindy 60 62 20 Source: Adapted from Slavin (1995) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: COOPERATIVE LEARNING 79 (b) Jigsaw The jigsaw approach was developed and tested by Aronson and Patnoe (1997). Jigsaw requires that different students become „experts‰ on a particular topic or section of a learning task and then use their „expertise‰ to teach other students. According to the jigsaw approach: (i) Students are divided into groups of five (or sometimes six) members. Each group must be heterogeneous (students of different abilities, genders and races). These groups are called home-groups; (ii) Learning materials are given to each home-group in text format; (iii) Each student in each home group is responsible for learning a topic or section of the learning material; (iv) Members from all home groups with the same topic or section meet to study and help each other learn the topic or section. They are called the expert group; (v) Every member of the expert group returns to their home-group and teaches other members what he/she has learnt. Figure 4.7 shows the Jigsaw teams; and (vi) The scoring system for Jigsaw is the same as that of STAD. Figure 4.7: The Jigsaw teams Source: Adapted from Moni, Depaz & Lluka (2008) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: COOPERATIVE LEARNING 80 (c) Group Investigation Herbert Thelen originally designed group investigation in 1960. However, the version used today was refined by Sharon and Sharon in 1988. STAD and Jigsaw will help your students learn facts, concepts and skills. However, cooperative learning can also help your students learn how to solve problems and have higher order critical thinking skills. To achieve this, you can use group investigation approach. You use group investigation because you want: (i) Your students to investigate and analyse a topic; (ii) Your students to develop thinking skills; (iii) Your students to develop a deeper understanding of a particular content; and (iv) Your students to work together towards solving a problem. In group investigation: (i) Students are divided in groups of five (or sometimes six) members. Each group must be heterogeneous (students of different abilities, genders and races). Sometimes the groups are formed based on friendships where the students choose their own members or students with a similar interest in a particular topic. (ii) The steps taken are shown in Table 4.5. Table 4.5: Steps in Group Investigation Steps in Group Investigation Description Step 1 Students choose their own specific subtopics from a general topic area usually prepared by the teacher. Step 2 Students and the teacher plan on learning procedures and set group goals. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: COOPERATIVE LEARNING 81 Step 3 Students carry out the plan agreed in Step 2. Students are given the opportunity to use different activities and skills. They also use different kinds of sources found inside and outside the school. The teacher monitors and follows the progress of each group, and helps when needed. Step 4 Students analyse and evaluate the information collected from Step 3 and plan how to present this to their classmates. Sometimes it can also be written as a report. Step 5 Each group gives a presentation to their classmates. Each group must try to present it informatively, interestingly and clearly. This task is not found in traditional classrooms and will be useful for many of the students later in their lives. (iii) There is no special scoring system, but the studentsÊ written report and presentation are used for evaluation. A useful method is for the teacher to use a checklist to rate the studentsÊ presentation. (d) The Structural Approach There are two kinds of structural approaches that are commonly used. They are Think-Pair-Share and Numbered Heads Together. (i) In Think-Pair-Share: Ć The teacher asks a question related to the lesson and asks the students to think individually about the answer for about one minute; Ć Next, the teacher asks the students to pair up and discuss their answers with each other. The teacher allows about four to five minutes for the pair to discuss; and Ć In the final step, the teacher asks the pairs to tell the class what they have discussed. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: COOPERATIVE LEARNING 82 (ii) Numbered Heads Together is a four-step structure, as shown in Table 4.6. Table 4.6: Four-step Structure of Numbered Heads Together Four-step Structure Description Step 1 Numbering: Students are divided into groups of three to five members. Each group must be heterogeneous. The students in each group are given a number between 1 and 5. Step 2 Questioning: The teacher asks the students a question. Step 3 Heads together: Students put their „heads together‰ within each group, and each member must make sure everyone in the group can answer the question. Step 4 Answering: The teacher calls out any number between 1 and 5. The students from each group with that number stand up to provide the answers to the whole class. If an answer is wrong, the teacher can go on to another group. Source: Arends (2009) Plan a lesson using one of the cooperative learning approaches. Implement it in your own classroom. What were the benefits to your students when you used your planned cooperative learning approach? Did you have difficulties in implementing it? If yes, what are the difficulties and what are your suggestions to overcome those difficulties? Share your findings with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 4.1 1. How would you set up cooperative learning groups? 2. Describe the differences in how cooperative learning is conducted and assessed in STAD, Jigsaw, Group Investigation, Think-PairShare and Numbered Heads Together. SELF-CHECK 4.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: COOPERATIVE LEARNING 83 EFFECTIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING USING COOPERATIVE LEARNING Cooperative learning is a student-directed approach to teaching, and a cooperative learning environment requires a set of management tasks you must do before you can begin using cooperative learning (Slavin, 2009; Arends, 2009). If you are teaching in a traditional classroom, you will stand in front and instruct what you want the students to do. However, in cooperative learning, you will need to organise your students into study groups and get them ready to work cooperatively together. Therefore, it is important to have a few rules and directions to help make the cooperative learning environment run smoothly. At the same time, some rules are also necessary to make sure that you are able to control the study groups and any misbehaviour that occurs. The following subtopics will look at some rules to help you manage a cooperative learning classroom. It will then be followed by a few activities that you can use to help your students move from a traditional classroom environment to a cooperative learning environment. 4.4.1 Managing the Learning Environment It is sometimes quite difficult to get the students ready for cooperative learning and into their study groups. Getting them started on their work is also a difficult process. However, some simple but important strategies can be used to get your students ready. (a) Verbally explain to the whole class the steps you want your students to follow. (b) State your steps and directions clearly. Ask a few students to repeat your steps and directions. By asking the students to repeat, you will also know if the students have understood your steps and directions. 4.4 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)