TOPIC 6 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING (PBL) 134 Curriculum Design for PBL. (2006). Temasek Polytechnic Learning Academy. Eggen, P. D., & Kauchak, D. P. (2001). Strategies for teachers: Teaching content and thinking skills. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Macdonald, R. (2005). Assessment strategies for enquiry and problem-based learning. In Barrett, T., Mac Labhrainn, I., & Fallon, H. (Eds.), Handbook of enquiry & problem based learning. Galway, Ireland: CELT. Released under Creative Commons licence. Attribution Non-Commercial 2.0. Some rights reserved. Slavin, R. E. (2009). Educational psychology: Theory and practice (9th ed.). New Jersey, NJ: Pearson Education. Tan, O. S. (2003). Problem-based learning innovation: Using problems to power learning in the 21st century. Singapore: Thomson Learning. Wiggins, G. (1997). Creating a thought-provoking curriculum. American Educator, 11, 10ă17. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
INTRODUCTION Governments and education systems around the world take the use of information and communications technology (ICT) in schools very seriously. Malaysia, like many other countries, is encouraging the use of ICT as tools for teaching to support learning (Education Ministry, 1997; Tengku Shahdan, 1994). As you can see in most schools, there will always be a special computer room with many standalone computers. As teachers, you must know how they can relate to your teaching and learning. You need to be concerned about the role computers can play to make learning happen. However, the computer is just one of the tools of ICT. Many other ICT tools can help make teaching and learning happen. Topic 7 Teaching and Learning with ICT LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. List the advantages of using ICT in teaching and learning; 2. Describe the varying roles of ICT in teaching and learning; 3. Explain the use of generic software for learning; and 4. Discuss recent developments in ICT-enhanced learning. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
136 TOPIC 7 TEACHING AND LEARNING WITH ICT Besides computers, some ICT tools that you may be familiar with for teaching and learning include: (a) Interactive whiteboards; (b) Drawing tablets (or smart tablets); (c) Web cameras; (d) Digital cameras; (e) Video cameras; (f) LCD projectors; (g) iPads; and (h) iPods. Nowadays, most schools in Malaysia have also experimented with networked ICT or SchoolNet. SchoolNet provides secure Internet access to schools in Malaysia. With SchoolNet, high-quality broadband services can be available in both city and rural schools. SchoolNet enables you to access to the World Wide Web (www) through several Internet and Intranet (the schoolÊs private website) applications. Teachers try to look for directions in which teaching and learning can change with the appropriate use of ICT. Teachers will need to build learning environments with the use of ICT and think of the ways students can learn in such an environment. This topic will look at the use of ICT tools in schools and how teachers can support the processes of learning and teaching. The topic describes how you can facilitate student use of ICT tools and how your students can progress. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 TEACHING AND LEARNING WITH ICT 137 THE USE OF ICT IN TEACHING AND LEARNING Gregoire, Bracewell and Lafarriere (1996) as taken from John (2002) gave the following reasons why ICT is beneficial to student learning as shown in Figure 7.1. Figure 7.1: Four reasons why ICT tools are beneficial to student learning However, John (2002) warns that the success of using ICT in schools for student learning also depends on the technological skills of the teacher and the teachersÊ attitude to using technology. Students also need learning that is efficient and enjoyable, in a supportive environment (Laurillard, 1993). The following are suggestions given by Laurillard: (a) ICT must be well-matched to learning objectives; (b) Active learning through ICT should be supported through feedback; (c) Appropriate balance must be achieved between ICT use and traditional teaching; and (d) Methods are matched to available resources (time, place, equipment). 7.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
138 TOPIC 7 TEACHING AND LEARNING WITH ICT It is important for you to know that the efficiency and enjoyment of your studentsÊ learning will be increased if: (a) ICT use fits the learning objectives; and (b) The choice of teaching methods for ICT use is well-matched to logistics such as time or place constraints, access to equipment, and so on (Laurillard, 1993). It would not be good teaching methodology, for example, to teach everything using ICT methods! The above is just some advice and direction you may need to consider if you want to succeed in the use of ICT. It is about building a learning environment and knowing the various roles and uses of ICT in teaching and learning. Some important questions to help you towards building a learning environment are shown in Figure 7.2. Figure 7.2: Important questions towards building a learning environment using ICT The following subtopics will try to answer the above questions in greater detail. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 TEACHING AND LEARNING WITH ICT 139 VARYING ROLES OF ICT IN TEACHING AND LEARNING Let us look at the roles of ICT in teaching and learning. 7.2.1 Planning Tool You can use ICT as a planning tool for teaching and learning. Planning tools would help you to do the following: (a) Prepare your teaching plans by using Microsoft Word, and you can make amendments whenever you like; (b) Prepare handouts for the classroom. Many software applications enable you to create and design interesting handouts and reproduce them when needed; (c) Store and categorise information and resources for future use. All resources can be saved in a hard-disc or USB memory stick. This can reduce storage space, and you can retrieve your resources quickly; and (d) Share your lesson plans with other teachers. By typing and installing the information in the computer, you can share this information by sending it via email. 7.2.2 Instructional Tool When you use ICT in a classroom, a constructivist learning environment can be created. A constructivist learning environment is a place in which you and your students together and support each other in the use of different ICT tools to get information. 7.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
140 TOPIC 7 TEACHING AND LEARNING WITH ICT Using ICT as a tool may create fun and enthusiasm in your students. Students may find that learning is not boring or frustrating. Using ICT in instruction can be: (a) Naturally linked to other areas of learning such as writing, language and reading; (b) Both an individual and a shared experience; (c) An interactive experience; and (d) Challenging and fun. What you need to do when using ICT in your teaching and learning are as follows: (a) Determine areas of the subject where ICT is applicable. Find software, websites and other ICT tools. Do some research on the usability of the ICT method that you have chosen. (b) Identify the computer software and any support materials that will match your studentsÊ needs and the curriculum you have chosen. Select CDs with interactive lessons and projects for students to solve problems. Find out if the ICT tool that you have selected has an added benefit such as websites offering online lessons that your students can use during their free time. (c) Install the relevant software and programs on your studentsÊ computers. Help your students get used to the software or program installed. Ensure that the software is matched to a specific role or task that your students will need to do. (d) Choose a specific skill that you would like your students to do. Match the skill with the software, and design a set of activities. (e) Use online games (if available) to expose your students to a wide series of topics. Display the online games on an interactive whiteboard and save website links to studentsÊ computers. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 TEACHING AND LEARNING WITH ICT 141 7.2.3 Enhance Communication and Promote Creativity Social media is an important ICT technology for communication, especially to students. It has the ability to attract students, encourage interaction and promote creativity. What is social media? It is basically a way for students to talk, participate, share and network online. So how can a teacher use social media in teaching and learning? Let us take a look at three popular social media and their uses in teaching and learning as shown in Figure 7.3. Figure 7.3: Three popular social media in teaching and learning The possibilities are very wide and your imagination has no limits when it comes to creating activities using ICT with your instructions! Can you suggest some activities using ICT for different subject areas? Share them with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 7.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
142 TOPIC 7 TEACHING AND LEARNING WITH ICT Let us look at each one of them. (a) Facebook The social networking site that began in 2004 has now become a familiar website and is famous all over the world (see Figure 7.4). Figure 7.4: Facebook With Facebook, you can connect into a community to interact with others. Although one of the uses of Facebook is to connect with friends and send messages, it can also provide an attractive platform for teaching and learning as it has many interesting applications. Some of the applications are shown in Table 7.1. Table 7.1: Some of the Applications in Facebook Applications Description Facebook Share Ć With Facebook Share, students can share information in the form of short texts (or short notes), links, images, and videos with their friends. You can use Facebook Share to interact, discuss and share ideas on a topic, a picture or video with the students. Ć Students who are shy will feel more comfortable writing and sharing. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 TEACHING AND LEARNING WITH ICT 143 Facebook Quiz Ć You can create online quizzes and ask your students to answer the quiz questions. What is more interesting is that the results of the quiz will be published on every Facebook „timeline‰ and the students can receive their grades immediately. Facebook Note Ć This application provides a space for you and your students to discuss a particular topic. Facebook Note allows you to publish your discussion topics and you can „tag‰ all the students to enable direct interaction. Facebook Application Ć Facebook Application allows you to use virtual educational games. One example of a virtual game that is often played is „Geo Challenge‰. It is a game to test studentsÊ application of geographical knowledge. Students can also compare their scores with friends. This game also has a „grade‰ or level of achievement for a score. Ć As a teacher you can select any game that is appropriate for your students. Facebook Application also allows you to change its contents so that it is appropriate for your studentsÊ ages and abilities. (b) Blog One social media development that began implementing teaching and learning processes is the use of the blog as a means to move regular classroom activities to cyberspace (see Figure 7.5). Figure 7.5: An example of a blog site Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
144 TOPIC 7 TEACHING AND LEARNING WITH ICT The blog can be an interesting teaching technique in which students can write their learning activities and produce their work in journals. The following are some of the benefits of using blogs in teaching and learning (Wagner, 2003): (i) Blogs contribute to improvements in learning; (ii) Students can share their results with others; (iii) Students can focus on content; (iv) Students can learn about creatively creating web pages; (v) Blogs encourage critical thinking; (vi) Students write a blog and it encourages group work; and (vii) Teachers can monitor the discussions in the blogs. (c) E-forum E-forum involves an online dialogue between you and your students through the Internet. You will post some questions in the e-forum and your students will respond to the questions on the Internet. The following are some of the benefits of using e-forums in teaching and learning (Marra, Moore & Klimczak, 2004): (i) Encourages students to think; and (ii) Increases the level of social relationships between students. Several important objectives to consider when integrating social media (Facebook, blog and e-forum) in your teaching and learning are to: (i) Improve communication skills among students; (ii) Facilitate cooperative and collaborative learning among students; (iii) Develop and expand the community; (iv) Foster a sense of responsibility; and (v) Use new media technology that goes beyond their social functions. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 TEACHING AND LEARNING WITH ICT 145 7.2.4 Assessment Tool The use of ICT increases the efficiency with which data can be processed. An important use of ICT is for assessment purposes. Have you heard of an e-portfolio or digital portfolio? E-portfolio or digital portfolio is a collection of a studentÊs work stored electronically and managed by him/her. Teachers or students can install e-files, images, e-assignments for current or future use. Through the SchoolNet, information saved in the e-portfolio can be accessed anytime. As a teacher, you can limit degrees of access by having personal passwords and usernames. You can upload your assignment onto the studentsÊ e-portfolio and conduct the assessment anywhere you like. You avoid carrying studentÊs homework in the form of bulky books. By introducing the e-portfolio or digital portfolio, students can also continually update and reflect on what they have done. Through the digital portfolio, you can see your studentsÊ growth over time and also monitor their ability to evaluate their own learning. Another use of ICT for assessment purpose is to keep and track studentsÊ records and performances. You can use ICT to record and track studentsÊ progress, use it for online assessment, or have websites to assess studentsÊ performances. Besides that, you can store the information in handy devices such as a pen drive which can be carried easily. There are many free and open-source e-portfolios online. You can search for one that is most convenient and easiest for you and your students to use. How can you incorporate social media into teaching and learning? Suggest a few activities in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 7.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
146 TOPIC 7 TEACHING AND LEARNING WITH ICT THE USE OF GENERIC SOFTWARE FOR LEARNING Let us better understand some of the uses for the popular generic software you see today. 7.3.1 Generic Software You can immediately use ICT with some of the generic software available now. What is generic software? Generic software is general purpose software programs you can buy „off the shelf‰. Some of the generic software commonly used to support learning are shown in Figure 7.6. Figure 7.6: Examples of generic software commonly used to support learning 7.3 1. Name some uses of ICT in teaching and learning. 2. How can ICT be used in teaching and learning? 3. What are some of the more popular social media in use today? 4. What are the factors to consider when setting up ICT for assessment? 5. How does assessment using ICT differ from the conventional ways of assessing? SELF-CHECK 7.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 TEACHING AND LEARNING WITH ICT 147 Let us now discuss them in greater detail. (a) Word Processing Perhaps no other technology resource has had as great an impact on education as word processing. It offers many features in the process of teaching and learning. Word processing software allows: (i) You to create „what-you-see-is-what-you-get‰ documents with text and graphics; (ii) Your students to organise or order text information into appropriate sequences using the organise and sort facility; (iii) Your students to carry out writing activities where their work can be easily edited by the teacher to their peers; and (iv) You to create notes for yourself or your students that are linked to the Internet using the softwareÊs hyperlink facility. Perhaps the most popular generic word processing software is Microsoft Word. However, you can also use the free Google Docs to do word processing. Figure 7.7 is how a free Google Docs word document looks like. Figure 7.7: Google Docs document Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
148 TOPIC 7 TEACHING AND LEARNING WITH ICT (b) Presentation Presentation software can deliver text, graphics, videos and sound. Presentation software allows students to prepare their work in the form of presentation slides. This enables them to present their work to the teacher and their peers. Presentation software is also useful in creating handouts or materials for presentations, notes, reports, forms, flyers, or newsletters. Perhaps the most popular generic presentation software is Microsoft PowerPoint. However, you can also use the free Google Docs to do presentations. Figure 7.8 shows how a free Google Docs presentation looks like. Figure 7.8: Google Docs presentation (c) Spreadsheet Spreadsheets, also called worksheets, enable you to handle numerical data such as studentsÊ marks and transfer them to categorical grades. All the information in a spreadsheet is displayed in rows and columns. You can insert formulas or calculation commands for counting studentsÊ marks, and most of the calculating processes can be done in minutes. Each row-column position is called a cell. Words, numerical values or character data can be inserted in the spreadsheet. Figure 7.9 shows an example of using a spreadsheet for counting studentsÊ marks. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 TEACHING AND LEARNING WITH ICT 149 Figure 7.9: Sample spreadsheet of students marks Students can use the spreadsheet software to calculate formulae (for example, in mathematics and science subjects). It can also be used to write final laboratory experiments as an e-portfolio. The spreadsheet also has a powerful graphical demonstration of „what-if‰ analyses which can be used in accounting, economics and business subjects. Perhaps the most popular generic spreadsheet software is Microsoft Excel. However, you can also use the free Google Docs from Google to do spreadsheets. Figure 7.10 is how a free Google Docs spreadsheet looks like. Figure 7.10: Google Docs spreadsheet Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
150 TOPIC 7 TEACHING AND LEARNING WITH ICT (d) Database A database allows you to store, organise and manipulate information, including text and numerical data. Some of its uses are to keep the information up to date, manage projects, prepare online assessments or to get students to respond to prepared questions. Perhaps the most popular generic database software is Microsoft Access. Currently, Google Docs does not have a free database software. 7.3.2 Integrating the Generic Software Several ways in which the four popular generic software discussed in subtopic 7.3.1 can be used are shown in Table 7.2. Table 7.2: Some Ways to Use Popular Generic Software Ways to Use Popular Generic Software Description Using information Download information using the schoolÊs Internet resources, then use the spreadsheet or database software to analyse the information; or use the word-processing software to record and organise the information. Presenting information Use the database or spreadsheet software to create charts, then use the presentation software to create „shows‰ together with video and audio equipment to produce a lesson (in the case of a teacher) or a presentation project (in the case of a student); then use some form of social media to share information. Evaluation Use word-processing software to edit work, then use some forms of social media to discuss and share work. Source: Brown (2010) 7.3.3 Benefits of Generic Software Generic software has become very common in the day-to-day teaching and learning activities of teachers who are keen to create an interesting and engaging classroom environment. The software also has the potential to allow teachers and students to make more productive use of their time and also to shape and guide the kinds of activities they are able to undertake. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 TEACHING AND LEARNING WITH ICT 151 In general, these programs offer several benefits such as improved productivity, improved appearance, improved accuracy and greater interaction and collaboration (Robert, 2010). Let us look at the benefits in greater detail as shown in Table 7.3. Table 7.3: The Benefits of Generic Software Benefits Description Improved productivity Getting organised, producing teaching and learning materials, and accomplishing paperwork tasks all go much faster when software tools are used. Using computer-related software to do these tasks can free up valuable time that can be re-channelled towards working with students or designing learning activities. Improved appearance By having and using these tools in learning, students or teachers are able to produce much better and innovative activities which can make the classroom „alive‰ and more interesting. Students will also be more motivated when producing and having attractive-looking materials. Improved accuracy More accurate data and resources can be stored, and it is easier to keep correct, accurate records of events and student accomplishments. Greater interaction and collaboration The use of the generic software can encourage positive interaction and collaboration among students, thus creating cooperative group learning activities. 1. Besides the four generic software tools, what other software do you think are very useful for the subject(s) that you are teaching in school? 2. Why do you think it helps? Discuss with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 7.3 1. Name some uses of generic software. 2. What are the benefits of generic software? SELF-CHECK 7.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
152 TOPIC 7 TEACHING AND LEARNING WITH ICT RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN ICT-ENHANCED LEARNING The term ICT-enhanced learning has become part of everyday language and is used in schools just like television and radio that were once used as teaching and learning tools. The Internet, e-mail, social media, the smartphone, CD-ROM, DVD, and other hand-held personal devices are also used as part of teaching and learning. However, there are more recent developments and new inventions in the evergrowing ICT-enhanced learning environment to assist students to learn more effectively. It must be noted that ICT tools for learning are growing so fast that it is difficult for us to know all of them. However, let us look at some of the more recent developments in the ICT-enhanced learning field. 7.4.1 EDUWEBTV EduWebTV offers some unique features to enhance teaching and learning. The Malaysian Education Ministry introduced EduWebTV in 2008. EduWebTV is an interactive education portal using video in the teaching and learning process. EduWebTV was introduced to try to reduce the digital divide between city and rural schools. The slogan for EduWebTV is „Digital Education For All‰. EduWebTVÊs vision is in line with the development of the teaching and learning process which is based on creative information and communications technology, which is a main focus of the Education Ministry. How does it work? In EduWebTV, educational programs are broadcast live directly via SchoolNet with the help of ICT-related equipment. The concept in EduWebTV is that the programs are always renewed from time to time to ensure they are up to date with the latest information. All programs also come with sign language for students with hearing difficulties. In EduWebTV, students can replay the video as many times as they want. This will help increase the studentsÊ mastery of a certain topic or content. 7.4 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 TEACHING AND LEARNING WITH ICT 153 7.4.2 Interactive Whiteboard (IWB) The interactive whiteboard is the multi-touch, multi-user interactive learning board that allows groups of students to work at the same time on its surface. It is a board that is linked to a computer or laptop and allows images from the computer or laptop to be projected clearly on the board via a projector. The board is an interactive device, and you can touch and navigate it on the board like working with a computer and mouse. Figure 7.11 shows what an interactive whiteboard looks like. Figure 7.11: Interactive whiteboard If your school has an interactive whiteboard, it can be used to replace your whiteboard or blackboard. You can also connect the board to your schoolÊs audio-video systems such as DVD player and TV. It can also be connected to your schoolÊs Internet access and to project EduWebTV programs. Through the interactive board, you can do the following: (a) Respond to a broad range of learning styles to create different collaborative activities either for whole class learning, small group learning or individual learning Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
154 TOPIC 7 TEACHING AND LEARNING WITH ICT (b) Use the interactive board features when you are planning to differentiate your teaching process or to create different activities for students who are quicker to learn and those who are slower to understand; (c) Preview and respond to the activities on your computer at the same time as your students are doing those activities; and (d) Choose to project your studentsÊ work on the board for others to see. Students can share ideas in a visually creative way, which will encourage cooperative and collaborative communication. 7.4.3 Web-based Software Tools There are software tools that are now available through the Internet, and many are free of charge. As mentioned, Google Docs provides users access to online programs for word processing, presentation and spreadsheets. The site offers easy storage and sorting of documents online and allows for sharing of documents among many users. A website that provides freely available tools for teachers is OpenOffice.org. It provides you with free access to software that you can download and use on the local computer. There are many templates that can help you create interactive and creative lessons for your students. You do not need to spend time to design it. You only need to change the contents of the lesson. Interactive buttons are ready for you to use. 1. Do you think teaching with ICT-related equipment or tools could have a positive impact on childrenÊs engagement, retention, interest and motivation in learning? How? 2. Would you encourage your colleagues to be involved in integrating IWBs in teaching and learning for young learners? How? 3. Do you have any extra knowledge and experiences that could be guidelines for novice teachers in teaching and learning with ICT? Explain. Share all your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 7.4 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 TEACHING AND LEARNING WITH ICT 155 Integrating ICT in classroom teaching for all levels has become more important and crucial nowadays. Ć The use of ICT in teaching and learning creates an interesting and creative classroom environment. Ć Using ICT as a tool may create fun and enthusiasm in your students. Ć Generic software if used appropriately can enhance and motivate students in their learning. Ć The use of ICT in teaching and learning is more likely to occur when teachers are able to appreciate that interactivity requires new ways of integrating ICT. Ć EduWebTv and IWBs are more recent developments in the ever-growing ICT-enhanced learning environment to assist students to learn more effectively. Ć Using ICT-related tools for teaching and learning offers several benefits such as improved productivity, improved appearance, improved accuracy and greater interaction and collaboration. Ć It is important for teachers to know that efficiency in the teaching process and enjoyment of student learning will be enhanced if ICT use fits the learning objectives and learning outcomes. Database Digital presentation Educational technology EduWebTv Engagement Generic software Information computer technology Intellectual skills Interactive whiteboard Learning objectives Pedagogical Social media Spreadsheet Teaching and learning Video cameras Word processing Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
156 TOPIC 7 TEACHING AND LEARNING WITH ICT John, P. (2002, 12ă14 September). Teaching and learning with ICT: New technology, new pedagogy? Paper presented at the BERA Conference, University of Exeter, UK. Laurillard, D. M. (1993). Rethinking university teaching: A Framework for the effective use of educational technology. London, England: Routledge. Ministry of Education. (1997). Smart school flagship application: The Malaysian smart school ă A conceptual blueprint. Putrajaya, Malaysia: Government of Malaysia. Marra, R. M., Moore, J. L., & Klimczak, A. K. (2004). Content analysis of online discussion forums: A comparative analysis of protocols. Educational Technology Research and Development, 52(2), 23ă40. Robert, M. D. (2010). Integrating educational technology into teaching (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Tengku Shahdan. (1994). The implementation of a national computer education project in secondary schools in Malaysia: TeachersÊ perceptions. Athens, GA: University of Georgia. Wagner, C. (2003). Put another blog on the wire: Publishing learning logs as blogs. Journal of Information Systems Education, 14(2), 131ă132. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
INTRODUCTION As teachers, we are constantly faced with basic questions such as „How do I improve my studentsÊ thinking and learning?‰ and „When do I know when thinking and learning have occurred?‰ These questions are not new. Benjamin S. Bloom had the same questions six decades ago. Topic 8 BloomÊs Taxonomy and Its Application LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. State the three learning domains in BloomÊs Taxonomy; 2. State the six levels of cognition in BloomÊs Taxonomy; 3. Explain the levels of affective and psychomotor domain in BloomÊs Taxonomy; 4. Describe the application of BloomÊs Taxonomy in writing learning outcomes; and 5. Describe the application of BloomÊs Taxonomy in assessment of learning. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
158 TOPIC 8 BLOOM’S TAXONOMY AND ITS APPLICATION Bloom started his distinguished career at the University of Chicago in the United States in the early 1940s. During his time at the university, he extensively studied the nature of thinking. He wanted to improve student learning to encompass learning that is planned and measured properly. He wanted students to develop „mastery‰ in their learning and not through memorisation of facts for mindless recall. With these aims in mind, he and his colleagues set out to develop a system to classify thinking behaviours which can be used to help the learning processes and also in the assessment of learning. This was known as the domains of learning. Bloom and his colleagues named their domains of learning as the taxonomy of learning (taxonomy is defined as a hierarchical mechanism to classify and show relationships among things). BloomÊs taxonomy of learning is collectively made up of the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains. According to Anderson and Sosniak (1994), BloomÊs Taxonomy: „⁄ has been transformed into a basic reference for all educators worldwide. Unexpectedly, it has been used by curriculum planners, administrators, researchers, and classroom teachers at all levels of education‰ (p. 1). BloomÊs Taxonomy has also been translated into 22 languages and is one of the most applied, used and cited references in education. It also serves as a template for evaluation (Anderson & Sosniak, 1994). You have just read terms like „taxonomy,‰ „domain,‰ „cognitive domain,‰ „affective domain,‰ and „psychomotor domain‰. If you are a little confused, do not worry! The following subtopics will provide more detailed descriptions of all these terms and the three learning domains in BloomÊs Taxonomy followed by the application of BloomÊs Taxonomy in the classrooms. What is a Taxonomy? Taxonomy classifies and shows relationships between information in a multilevel hierarchy. For example, a food pyramid is an example of a food taxonomy designed to help people make healthy food choices. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 BLOOM’S TAXONOMY AND ITS APPLICATION 159 THREE LEARNING DOMAINS IN BLOOM’S TAXONOMY Although we have different ways to help our students learn, todayÊs teachers also need to have knowledge of how BloomÊs Taxonomy of learning can further help students develop and expand their learning. Bloom divided his learning domains into the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains. The three learning domains provide you with a structure for planning, assessing, and evaluating your studentsÊ learning effectiveness. Also, the three learning domains can also be used as a sort of checklist to ensure that your teaching is planned to deliver all the necessary development for your students. Your checklist can also be used to ensure that you cover your entire curriculum well. Now, let us look at one of the most easily understood and probably the most widely applied and used taxonomy in education. 8.1.1 Descriptions of the Three Learning Domains The three domains of learning can be categorised as cognitive domain, affective domain and psychomotor domain, as shown in Figure 8.1. Figure 8.1: Three domains of learning Let us look at each of these domains in greater detail. (a) Cognitive Domain The cognitive domain involves studentsÊ ability to think or process what they have learnt. It is about studentsÊ intellectual abilities. It is mainly concerned with the subject matter and the content that students are expected to learn. 8.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
160 TOPIC 8 BLOOM’S TAXONOMY AND ITS APPLICATION The studentsÊ ability to think or process can range from simple memorisation of information or data to complex production and creation of new ideas. The learning behaviours are characterised by observable skills such as understanding information, organising ideas or evaluating information and actions. It is mind based. (b) Affective Domain What students learn are not always mind-based or intellectual skills. The affective domain focuses on the development of studentsÊ attitudes, beliefs, values, interests and motivation. It is about how students gain new perceptions such as self-confidence, responsibility, respect and personal relations. Remember that as teachers, you must be concerned about the total development of your students and not just the development of their cognitive ability (intellectual ability). Therefore, you must also consider your studentsÊ attitudes, feelings and emotions when you plan your teaching. The affective domain can help you do this planning. (c) Psychomotor Domain The psychomotor domain focuses on building the physical skills which involve activities that require action, muscle movement or manipulative skills. The areas that use a lot of the psychomotor domain are physical education (sports, games), dancing, reading and writing, conducting experiments, training, playing musical instruments, and art and crafts. Abilities such as engine repairing, cooking, choreographing a dance movement, kicking a football ă all require action, muscle movement and manipulative skills. You will realise that most learning in the classroom will contain elements of all three learning domains. However, since students spend most of their time learning in the cognitive domain, the next subtopic will look into this in greater detail. Name and describe the domains of learning in BloomÊs Taxonomy. SELF-CHECK 8.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 BLOOM’S TAXONOMY AND ITS APPLICATION 161 SIX LEVELS OF COGNITION IN BLOOM’S TAXONOMY The cognitive domain consists of six main levels as shown in Figure 8.2. Each subsequent level shows a higher level of intellectual process. The first level must be mastered before the next one can take place. Figure 8.2: The six levels of cognition Let us now discuss the levels in greater detail. (a) Level 1: Knowledge Knowledge involves the recall of data or information that your students have memorised. It is your studentsÊ ability to state the facts, words, terms, designs, methods and theories that have been studied. Knowledge is the lowest level of the intellectual processes. Your students know things through the use of their senses: to see, hear, smell, touch and taste something that is around them. They get information from various sources: listening to you explaining things, watching something, reading books, watching TV, tasting food, and doing work. Many of them know. 8.2 Think of some experiences during your own learning. What did your teachers do to really make you believe in what they were teaching? How did they try to change your attitudes and beliefs about a topic? Keep those experiences in mind as you continue through this topic. ACTIVITY 8.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
162 TOPIC 8 BLOOM’S TAXONOMY AND ITS APPLICATION To help the review and explanation of „what‰ your students know, knowledge can be divided into several categories. Brief descriptions of the categories can be found in Table 8.1. Table 8.1: Knowledge and Its Categories Knowledge Category Factual knowledge Ć Know the name of the person, the name of the place, date, size etc. Knowledge of terminology Ć Know the meaning of a term or a word. Knowledge of ways and means of dealing with specifics Ć Know the way or method to do something; know how to manage things. Knowledge of conventions Ć Know the norms or „acceptable‰ ways to do things such as how to speak and give opinions that are considered appropriate in a situation (event, place, time, etc.). To work in an office, for example, workers need to know how to speak politely, dress appropriately, and be punctual. Knowledge of trends and sequences Ć Know the process, direction, and change of something over time. Knowledge of classifications and categories Ć Know the class, division, set, the composition of which is considered important in any field of knowledge, problem-solving activities, to achieve a goal, etc. Knowledge of criteria Ć Know the criteria how the facts, principles, opinions, attitudes, etc., are tested and evaluated. Knowledge of methodology Ć Know the research methods, techniques and procedures used to review a matter. For example, knowledge of scientific methods in the investigation of a studentÊs learning problems. Knowledge of the theory and structure of knowledge Ć Know the theory and structure of knowledge in specific areas, such as the important theories in physics, psychology, economics, etc. Source: Adapted from Bloom, Englehart, Furst, Hill & Krathwohl (1956) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 BLOOM’S TAXONOMY AND ITS APPLICATION 163 (b) Level 2: Comprehension Comprehension involves the process of interpreting or translating „what is known‰ in your own words. There are various types of processes of comprehending something. Brief descriptions of the processes can be found in Table 8.2. Table 8.2: Comprehension and Its Meaning Comprehension Meaning Translate The ability to express or summarise what is known in other appropriate forms. For example, you are able to express mathematical symbols in words; you can describe the contents of an essay in the form of diagrammes; you can draw a concept map based on the contents contained in a passage; or you are able to create metaphors and analogies between two things. Infer The ability to understand an idea in its entirety. For example, you are able to explain procedures for making things; you can interpret a variety of data types ă such as data and information about people, products, education, etc.; or you are able to describe a theory or a principle. Source: Adapted from Bloom et al. (1956) (c) Level 3: Application Application is the ability to carry out or use a procedure learned in the classroom in a new or given situation. For example, using a theory, you have learnt to design teaching materials or to teach in a new way. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
164 TOPIC 8 BLOOM’S TAXONOMY AND ITS APPLICATION (d) Level 4: Analysis Analysis is the ability to break down an idea, principle, rule or information into smaller parts so that it can be better understood. It is also the ability to distinguish between facts and inferences. Brief descriptions of the processes can be found in Table 8.3. Table 8.3: Analysis and Its Meaning Analysis Meaning Analysis of elements Ć Being able to identify the fundamentals/basics found in ideas, principles, methods or information. Ć It is the ability to see or recognise the assumption/ hypothesis that is implicit/hidden. Ć It is also the ability to distinguish between fact and hypothesis; the examples and principles. Analysis of relationships Ć The ability to see and distinguish the relationships between variables or parts in an idea; or the relationship between an idea with another idea. Analysis of organisational principles Being able to distinguish parts of a structure, a composition or a system within an idea, theory, or an argument. For example, the ability to recognise or distinguish the form and the pattern of a novel, poetry or a painting. Source: Adapted from Bloom et al. (1956) (e) Level 5: Synthesis Synthesis is the ability to combine or build parts of a pattern, or structure into something new that did not exist before. The ability to synthesise is a creative process ă the process of creating or building to form an idea, plan or a new system. It is a high cognitive process. Other examples include painting, writing an essay, writing a novel, constructing a building, creating a new recipe, and many more. Brief descriptions of the processes can be found in Table 8.4. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 BLOOM’S TAXONOMY AND ITS APPLICATION 165 Table 8.4: Synthesis and Its Meaning Synthesis Meaning Production of a unique communication Ć Construction of communication in which the writer or speaker tries to carry an idea, feeling or experience to others. Ć For example, the ability to write essays, short stories and poetry with an arrangement of exciting styles to communicate ideas and information to readers. Ć Ability to organise and deliver a speech in a clear and interesting manner to the listener. Production of a plan, or proposed set of operations Ć Build an action plan or a plan of operations for a particular purpose. Ć For example, students can make plans to complete a project within a specified period. Ć To make recommendations to test a hypothesis, teachers plan lessons that are appropriate for a group of students according to their needs. Develop a set of abstract relations Ć The ability to build or develop a set of abstract relations, such as a theory or hypothesis which is suitable for describing a phenomenon, or to make a classification of facts. Ć The ability to make deductions or propositions on the given data. Ć For example, students can make a hypothesis or a theory of data or the factors given the economic subjects, or improve the theory of history based on new facts. Ć Ability to create new generalisations in mathematical symbols. Source: Adapted from Bloom et al. (1956) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
166 TOPIC 8 BLOOM’S TAXONOMY AND ITS APPLICATION (f) Level 6: Evaluation Evaluation is the ability to make a judgement/decision/conclusion or to give value to ideas or methods ă for a particular purpose. For example, your student can evaluate and consider the extent to which a substance or method meets some criteria. Your student can present and defend opinions by making judgements about information, or the validity of an idea. Brief descriptions of the processes can be found in Table 8.5. Table 8.5: Evaluation and Its Meaning Evaluation Meaning Evaluation in terms of internal evidence Ć Evaluate and make judgements about a substance or method for a particular purpose. A method of assessing the extent to which they meet the criteria for a given house. Judgement in terms of external criteria Ć Make assessments and judgements based on criteria selected or remembered ă external criteria. Ć For example, comparing a theory or a generalisation of several cultures. Evaluate a work of art or performance based on external criteria that have been accepted as the best. Ć When assessing learning outcome, students are awarded for tasks completed. Source: Adapted from Bloom et al. (1956) Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) redefined BloomÊs original concepts with the help of expertise in the areas of cognitive psychology, curriculum and instruction, educational testing, measurement and assessment. The new adaptation also took into consideration many of BloomÊs own concerns and criticisms of his original taxonomy (Owen, 2016). The taxonomy are reworded from nouns to verbs and the definitions are as follows: (a) Remember This refers to recognising or recalling knowledge from memory. Remembering is when memory is used to produce or retrieve definitions, facts, lists, or to recite previously learned information. (b) Understand This refers to constructing meaning from different types of functions such as written or graphic messages or activities like interpreting, exemplifying, classifying, summarising, inferring, comparing and explaining. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 BLOOM’S TAXONOMY AND ITS APPLICATION 167 (c) Apply This means carrying out or using a procedure through executing or implementing. Applying relates to situations where the learned material is used through products like models, presentation, interviews or simulation. (d) Analyse This refers to breaking materials or concepts into parts, and determining how the parts relate to one another. Mental actions included in this function are differentiating, organising and attributing, as well as being able to distinguish between components or parts. (e) Evaluate When we evaluate, we are making judgements based on criteria and standards through checking and critiquing. Critiques, recommendations, and reports are some of the products that can be created to demonstrate the processes of evaluation. In this newer taxonomy, evaluating comes before creating as it is often a necessary percursor before one creates something. (f) Create This means putting elements together to form a coherent or functional whole; or reorganising elements into a new pattern or structure through generating, planning, or producing. Creating requires users to put parts together in a new way, or synthesise parts into something new and different creating a new form or product. This process is the most difficult mental function in the new taxonomy. The sequencing of the two levels have been rearranged and renamed; the synthesis level was renamed with the term create and it is placed at the top level. Table 8.6 shows the rearrangement (Nitko, 2004). Table 8.6: Original and Revised Version of BloomÊs Taxonomy Level Original Version Revised Version 6 Evaluation Create 5 Synthesis Evaluate 4 Analysis Analyse 3 Application Apply 2 Comprehension Understand 1 Knowledge Remember Source: Nitko (2004) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
168 TOPIC 8 BLOOM’S TAXONOMY AND ITS APPLICATION LEVELS OF AFFECTIVE AND PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAINS IN BLOOM’S TAXONOMY Let us look at the remaining two domains in BloomÊs Taxonomy: affective and psychomotor domains. 8.3.1 Affective Domain The affective domain includes the manner in which your students deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasm, motivations and attitudes. The five major levels are listed from the simplest behaviour to the most complex (Krathwohl, et al., 1964) as shown in Figure 8.3. Figure 8.3: Five levels of affective domain Brief descriptions of these levels are as follows: (a) Level 1: Receiving Students passively receive information from your teaching, from textbooks, from the television, etc. In this level, you are only concerned that all your students are paying attention and accepting the information you are giving. You expect your students to focus on what you are telling them. 8.3 Name the six levels of the cognitive domain and briefly explain each level. SELF-CHECK 8.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 BLOOM’S TAXONOMY AND ITS APPLICATION 169 (b) Level 2: Responding This level is higher than just „accepting‰ information or ideas. At this level, your students respond or take an active part in something. Your students not only listen to the information provided but give reactions to it. For example, your students will: (i) Complete their homework; (ii) Follow the rules of the classroom; (iii) Take part in discussions; (iv) Help a friend; or (v) Show interest in what they are learning (by doing more exercises than required or cutting out newspaper articles and pinning them to the classroomÊs soft board, etc.). (c) Level 3: Valuing This is the „value‰ given by your students to an object, information or behaviour. The students feel responsible and committed to something that is received or learnt. When your students have reached the „valuing‰ level, they are able to: (i) Demonstrate commitment that cooperation in the team is important; (ii) Commit to learn harder to increase their language efficiency; (iii) Recognise and appreciate the role of science in daily life; (iv) Be sensitive to the welfare of other students; and (v) Show commitment to solve a problem. (d) Level 4: Organising At this stage, your students will compare, connect, synthesise lifeÊs values and make new values as a way of life ă such as the value of justice, truth, love, freedom, respect for differences of opinion and so on. Your students are aware of their need for balancing between „freedom‰ and „responsibility‰. They adopt values and principles of a healthy and positive life and adopt a systematic plan to achieve a goal. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
170 TOPIC 8 BLOOM’S TAXONOMY AND ITS APPLICATION (e) Level 5: Characterising by a Value Your studentsÊ value systems drive the way he/she thinks, makes decisions and acts. For example, doing the work in an orderly manner, complying with time and respect for teachers. The affective domain inculcates good values among the students. It helps studentsÊ intellect, attitudes, emotions and behaviours towards others and the environment. Students will demonstrate attitudes and behaviours such as being responsible, reliable, able to work individually and in teams, and respectful of the opinions of others. 8.3.2 Psychomotor Domain The psychomotor domain in this topic is based on the domain established by R. H. Dave (1970). Dave was BloomÊs student in 1967. Although there are five levels in DaveÊs psychomotor domain, this topic will only include the three levels that are more easily applied in the learning environment. However, you should also explore the psychomotor domain that has been developed by E. J. Simpson (1972) and A. J. Harrow (1972). Table 8.7 explains the three levels of the psychomotor domain. Table 8.7: Three Levels of the Psychomotor Domain Level Psychomotor Domain Description 1 Imitation At this level, your student copies the action of another person (usually a teacher) or through multimedia. At this basic level, your studentsÊ action is performed without much skill or coordination. Generally, the student will follow basic instructions to make or do something. 2 Manipulation At this level, your students will be able to perform an action without your help. However, the action performed is not completely accurate. 3 Precision When your student achieves the precision level, the student is able to perform an action accurately, efficiently and independently. At this level, your student can perform the action without using a manual, model or instructions. The skills have been mastered so well that the student can perform the action without much effort. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 BLOOM’S TAXONOMY AND ITS APPLICATION 171 The next subtopic will look at how BloomÊs Taxonomy can be used in teaching and learning. APPLICATION OF BLOOM’S TAXONOMY IN WRITING LEARNING OUTCOMES As teachers, you want your students to know what is expected of them, and what they need to do or understand. In the same way, you want to be able to identify what your students will learn, and how it will be learnt. By using BloomÊs Taxonomy, you will plan lessons that have both learning objectives and learning outcomes for your students. Before we begin to apply BloomÊs Taxonomy in writing learning outcomes, it is important to know the differences between learning objectives and learning outcomes. 8.4.1 Learning Objectives and Learning Outcomes Learning objectives are generally stated in broad terms. Learning objectives are general statements of what you hope your students will learn at the end of your lesson. However, it does not tell you what your students can do to show you that they have achieved those expected learning objectives. The learning objectives need to be written as learning outcomes that provide focus for your teaching, learning and assessment. Statements of learning outcomes clearly tells you what your students can do to show you what they have learnt. 8.4 1. Name the levels of the affective and psychomotor domains and briefly explain each of the levels. 2. Suggest some ways in which your students have shown that they have achieved the levels of the affective and psychomotor domains. SELF-CHECK 8.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
172 TOPIC 8 BLOOM’S TAXONOMY AND ITS APPLICATION You will see that learning outcomes always begin with a verb of specific and observable student performance ă it shows you what they can (or cannot) do. Table 8.8 shows the differences between a learning objective and a learning outcome. Table 8.8: Learning Objectives and Learning Outcomes Learning Objectives Learning Outcomes Comprehends the meaning of terms Ć Defines the term in their own words. Ć Identifies the meaning of the term when used in context. Ć Lists out the terms that are similar in meaning. Learns how to use a mind map Ć Tells the meaning of a mind map in his or her own work. Ć Describes the features of a mind map using relevant terms. Ć Interprets meanings at various points on a mind map. Knows cell biology Ć Identifies the common characteristics of cells in living organisms. Ć Draws a cell structure and labels its parts. Ć Describes the function of cells in plants and animals. Source: Gronlund (2004) It is important to note that if you teach using the national subject syllabus, there will be various types of learning objectives and learning outcomes as references for you. These are helpful as they show the different types of learning outcomes to consider. However, it is still necessary for you to know how learning objectives and learning outcomes are written. The next subtopic shows some examples of writing learning objectives and learning outcomes for the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains. 1. Can you identify the verb of specific and observable student performance that shows you what your student can (or cannot) do in Table 8.8? 2. What is the difference between learning objectives and learning outcomes? ACTIVITY 8.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 BLOOM’S TAXONOMY AND ITS APPLICATION 173 8.4.2 Writing Learning Objectives and Learning Outcomes for the Cognitive Domain Many areas of teaching and learning will have knowledge outcomes (remembering), comprehension outcomes (understanding the meaning of something), and application (using information in some way). These levels look at terms, facts, rules, procedures, concepts, principles or theories. The other three levels ă analysis, synthesis and evaluation outcomes are also known as higher level thinking skills. The analysis and evaluation levels emphasise critical thinking (e.g. identifying and analysing a problem and evaluating possible solutions). The synthesis level emphasises creative thinking (e.g. producing a plan for solving a problem). Learning outcomes at the higher level thinking skills will have problems or situations that are new to the students. Table 8.9 shows examples of how learning objectives and learning outcomes are written for the cognitive domain, while Table 8.10 shows you some of the verbs used. Table 8.9: Writing Learning Objectives and Learning Outcomes for the Cognitive Domain Learning Objectives Learning Outcomes Knows geometric shapes (knowledge) Ć Draws a given shape (e.g. circle, square) Ć Selects an object representing a given shape (e.g. ball, box) Ć Describes objects using the names of shapes Understands graphs (comprehension) Ć Identifies the value of a given position on a graph Ć Describes the trend indicated by the graph in own words Ć Distinguishes between statements that are supported and unsupported by a graph Writes an accurate paragraph (application) Ć Uses capitals and punctuation correctly Ć Relates sentences to the main idea Ć Arranges sentences in a meaningful sequence Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
174 TOPIC 8 BLOOM’S TAXONOMY AND ITS APPLICATION Demonstrates the ability to solve problems of bullying (analysis) Ć Identifies the main ideas in the problem Ć Analyses different materials to obtain answers to the problem Ć Distinguishes the cause-effect relationship of bullying Designs an experiment to prove that a plant grows better in some soils than in others (synthesis) Ć Predicts the type of soil in which plants grow best Ć Formulates the procedural steps and length of the experiment Ć Describes how the results will be presented Evaluates arguments for and against a proposal (evaluation) Ć Judge the accuracy of statements Ć Differentiate between relevant and irrelevant statements Ć Identifies the consistency of the facts supporting an argument Source: Gronlund (2004) Table 8.10: Verbs Used for Stating Learning Outcomes in the Cognitive Domain Examples of Verbs for Stating Learning Outcomes Knowledge Comprehension Application Analysis Synthesis Evaluation List Name Identify Show Define Recognise Recall State Visualise Summarise Explain Interpret Describe Compare Paraphrase Differentiate Demonstrate Classify Solve Illustrate Calculate Use Interpret Relate Manipulate Apply Modify Analyse Organise Deduce Contrast Compare Distinguish Discuss Plan Devise Design Hypothesise Support Schematise Write Report Justify Evaluate Choose Estimate Judge Defend Criticise Source: Writing Objectives Using BloomÊs Taxonomy (n.d.) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 BLOOM’S TAXONOMY AND ITS APPLICATION 175 8.4.3 Writing Learning Objectives and Learning Outcomes for the Affective Domain Writing learning outcomes for the affective domain is more difficult than the cognitive domain. Affective domain concerns feelings and emotions. These feelings and emotions are described by the studentsÊ willingness, preferences or enjoyments that are difficult to describe as student performance. Therefore, as teachers, the affective domain concerns trying to state the types of behaviour that best describe the presence of these feelings and emotions. Sometimes, the affective domain can also be described as attitudes, interests, appreciations and adjustments. It is also difficult to measure the affective domain because sometimes a student may show a certain behaviour but act completely different. Moreover, affective behaviour is sometimes also seen as cognitive behaviours. Table 8.11 are examples of how learning objectives and learning outcomes can be written for the affective domain, while Table 8.12 shows you some of the verbs used. Table 8.11: Writing Learning Objectives and Learning Outcomes for the Affective Domain Learning Objectives Learning Outcomes Participates in classroom activities (receiving and responding) Asks relevant questions Volunteers for special tasks Helps others when requested Shows concern for the welfare of others (valuing) Asks others if they need help Shares materials with others Obtains permission before using other studentsÊ things Formulates a rationale concerning the role of society in conserving natural resources (organising) Describes the possible effects on society if the environment is not protected Describes the possible effects if the environment is destroyed States personal position reflecting the balance between the needs of society and the need to protect the environment Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
176 TOPIC 8 BLOOM’S TAXONOMY AND ITS APPLICATION Respects the scientific process (characterising) Seeks objectivity when interpreting evidence in science Questions evidence from wrong evidence in science Shows judgement when scientific evidence is not supported Source: Gronlund (2004) Table 8.12: Verbs Used for Stating Learning Outcomes in the Affective Domain Examples of Verbs for Stating Learning Outcomes Receiving Responding Valuing Organisation Characterisation Asks Chooses Describes Follows Gives Holds Identifies Locates Names Points to Replies Selects Uses Answers Assists Complies Discusses Helps Performs Practises Presents Reads Reports Selects Tells Writes Completes Describes Explains Follows Forms Invites Joins Justifies Proposes Reads Reports Shares Alters Arranges combines Compares Defends Explains Identifies Integrates Modifies Relates Displays Listens Influences Modifies Performs Practises Proposes Qualifies Questions Revises Serves Solves Uses Verifies Source: Gronlund (2004) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 BLOOM’S TAXONOMY AND ITS APPLICATION 177 8.4.4 Writing Learning Objectives and Learning Outcomes for the Psychomotor Domain Table 8.13 shows some examples of how learning objectives and learning outcomes can be written for the psychomotor domain, while Table 8.14 shows you some of the verbs used. Table 8.13: Writing Learning Objectives and Learning Outcomes for the Psychomotor Domain Learning Objectives Learning Outcomes Follows proper procedures (imitation) Follows the steps listed in the project plan Selects correct materials Uses tools correctly for each task Writes an effective essay (manipulation) Writes well-structured, relevant paragraphs Uses parts of speech correctly Spells all words correctly Constructs a satisfactory product (precision) Overall appearance reflects care in construction Finish is even and of high quality Parts (of the product) fit properly and function well Source: Gronlund (2004) Table 8.14: Verbs Used for Stating Learning Outcomes in the Psychomotor Domain Imitation Manipulation Precision Dismantle Drill Change Clean Follow Use Connect Create Fasten Make Sketch Weigh Wrap Focus Align Adjust Calibrate Construct Manipulate Build Source: Gronlund (2004) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
178 TOPIC 8 BLOOM’S TAXONOMY AND ITS APPLICATION APPLICATION OF BLOOM’S TAXONOMY IN ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING BloomÊs Taxonomy can help in the assessment of your studentsÊ achievement. How? The taxonomy can describe the types of performance your students should be able to show at the end of a teaching session. There are many ways you can use BloomÊs Taxonomy to assess your studentsÊ achievements. This subtopic will look at a few ways. First, we will look at how to use the taxonomy to assess achievement, and then, we will look at how to use the taxonomy to assess affective outcomes and performance skills. 8.5.1 Using Bloom’s Cognitive Domain to Assess Achievement There are a few steps to follow when you use BloomÊs cognitive domain to assess your studentsÊ achievements. The steps are as shown in Table 8.15. Table 8.15: Using BloomÊs Cognitive Domain to Assess StudentsÊ Achievement Steps Description 1 State the learning outcomes which must be in observable and measurable terms. 2 Outline the course content. 3 Prepare a table of specifications that describes how many test items must be used. 4 Construct the test items. 8.5 Choose a topic that you teach in school, then write the learning objectives and learning outcomes for: (a) The six levels of cognitive domain; (b) The first three levels of the affective domain; and (c) The three psychomotor skills related to that topic. Share your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 8.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 BLOOM’S TAXONOMY AND ITS APPLICATION 179 Let us look at each of the steps with examples. (a) Step 1 This step is to make sure that the learning outcomes have been defined using terms that can show observable and measurable student performance. Table 8.16 shows an example from an Economics syllabus. It is only for illustrative purposes. Table 8.16: Learning Outcomes for an Economics Lesson Learning Objectives Learning Outcomes 1. Knows basic terms (knowledge) Identifies terms used in economics Uses terms correctly 2. Comprehends economic concepts and principles (comprehension) Describes the differences in economic systems Identifies the differences in concepts and principles in own words 3. Applies economic understanding to new situation (application) Identifies the principles needed to solve a practical problem Describes how to solve practical economic problems regarding the principles involved 4. Interprets economic policies (evaluation) Differentiates between local and international policies Differentiates between facts and inferences Source: Adapted from Gronlund (2004) (b) Step 2 This step is to make sure that your assessment (test, examination, etc.) has a sample of the subject content. For this purpose, you can use the content outline found in the syllabus or textbooks. The following example is taken from an Economics syllabus. It is only for illustrative purposes. Content Outline for a Unit in Economics (System of Economy) A. System of Economy 1. Free market economy 2. Islamic economics Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
180 TOPIC 8 BLOOM’S TAXONOMY AND ITS APPLICATION B. Analysis of an Economy 1. Methodology used to analyse 2. Roles of government in managing the economy 3. Roles of government in managing an Islamic economy C. Definition and scope of a microeconomy 1. The objective of a microeconomic policy 2. The microeconomic policy D. Definition and scope of a macroeconomy 1. The objective of a macroeconomic policy 2. The macroeconomic policy (c) Step 3 This step is to prepare a table of specification. A table of specification is a two-dimensional table that relates the learning objectives or the learning outcomes to the course content. The table of specification will show how many test items are to be used for each cognitive domain. Table 8.17 is an example of a table of specification for a 50-item multiple-choice test in Economics (Systems of Economy). Table 8.17: Table of Specification Learning Objectives 1 2 3 4 Content areas Knows basic terms (knowledge) Comprehends economic concepts and principles (comprehension) Applies economic understanding to new situations (application) Interprets economic policy (evaluation) A. Systems of Economy 3 4 3 0 B. Analysis of an Economy 4 3 5 3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 BLOOM’S TAXONOMY AND ITS APPLICATION 181 C. Definition and scope of a micro-economy 4 6 3 2 D. Definition and scope of a macroeconomy 4 2 4 0 Total number of test items 15 15 15 5 Source: Adapted from Gronlund (2004) Based on Table 8.17: (i) The table only shows the learning objectives, but you can make it more explicit by including the learning outcomes. (ii) The „Total number of test items‰ shows the number of test items to be written in each area. For example, 15 items will measure the learning objective „Knows basic terms‰ ă including 3 items in the content area „Systems of Economy‰, 4 items will measure the content area „Analysis of an Economy‰, and so on. (iii) The total number of items in each column shows how much importance you give to each learning objective. (iv) The total number of items in each row shows the importance you give to each content area. (v) You can also change the „Total number of test items‰ into percentages (weights) to show how much attention you give to the content areas during your teaching. (vi) In the table, it is assumed that you give 5 test items to „Interprets economic policy‰, therefore, it is one-third of the teaching instructions given to each of the other learning objectives (15 items each). (vii) Based on the number of items in each row, it can also be assumed that content areas A and D received less teaching than areas B and C. (d) Step 4 This step is to construct your test items that are relevant to your objectives and learning outcomes. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
182 TOPIC 8 BLOOM’S TAXONOMY AND ITS APPLICATION 8.5.2 Using Bloom’s Affective and Psychomotor Domains in Assessment Unlike the cognitive domain, the affective and psychomotor domains are harder to assess. In assessment, the affective domain (e.g. attitudes, interests, values) and the psychomotor domain (e.g. skills) will need your judgement of what your students are doing and what they produce. When measuring the affective and psychomotor domains, a teacher usually uses rating scales, checklists or the studentsÊ portfolio. Let us look at each of them: (a) Rating Scales Rating scales offer ways to attach quality to various elements of the process or product. For example, it is not uncommon for someone to ask us to rate something „from 1 to 10‰, with 10 being the highest score. Graphic rating scales let you mark a point on a line or continuum to indicate your rating, as shown in the following example: Numeric rating scales are sometimes used to quantify results. We might ask the rater/observer/teacher to circle a number „1‰ to indicate that something never occurs, „2‰ if it seldom happens, „3‰ for sometimes, „4‰ for usually, and „5‰ for always. How Often Does the Student: Never Seldom Sometimes Usually Always (i) Volunteer to pin up articles on the soft board 1 2 3 4 5 (ii) Pay attention when problems are explained 1 2 3 4 5 (iii) Ask questions 1 2 3 4 5 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 BLOOM’S TAXONOMY AND ITS APPLICATION 183 (b) Checklist The following example indicates basic speech skills students might be expected to demonstrate in making a three-minute presentation to the class. Example 1 The student: ______ maintains eye contact with the audience ______ speaks loudly enough to be heard in all parts of the room ______ enunciates clearly ______ stands up straight (does not shift from foot to foot) ______ does not go over the allotted time ______ has notes ______ uses notes sparingly If students are assigned to construct a fire-prevention poster, the following checklist might be used: Example 2 In the poster, ______ Words are correctly spelled ______ Lettering is evenly spaced ______ No extraneous markings on the poster ______ Relevant drawings/figures/graphs illustrate the message ______ Colour is used Another example is shown as follows: Example 3 Directions: Circle YES or NO to Indicate Your Response YES NO 1. Examines equipment before use YES NO 2. Uses care in setting up the equipment YES NO 3. Follows safe procedures in using the equipment Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)