TOPIC 4 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: COOPERATIVE LEARNING 84 (c) Write down these steps on the board or have it written down on a chart. By having written steps, your students can look and read it constantly as they start to move into their groups or when they move around during cooperative activities. Table 4.7 shows an example of how you can carry out the steps (modified from Arends, 2009). Table 4.7: Managing the Learning Environment Steps Description Step 1 When I give the signal, tiptoe to the location where your teamÊs name has been posted on the wall. Step 2 Choose one team member to come up to my desk and take the learning materials. Step 3 Spend 10 minutes quietly reading the learning task. Step 4 When I say „start‰, begin your discussions and activities. Discussions must be done in a low voice so that you do not disturb other teams. Step 5 At my signal, you will stop your discussion and activities. (d) Identify and clearly mark the location for each study group. You will see that you need to construct very structured rules and directions. This is important if it is the first time the students are getting into their study groups for cooperative learning. For beginning teachers, highly structured rules and directions can make lessons run more smoothly and prevent disruptive behaviours, „lost‰ students and feelings of frustration if a cooperative class is not conducted smoothly. Once the students are used to cooperative learning, you can be more flexible and reduce your rules and directions. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: COOPERATIVE LEARNING 85 4.4.2 Preparing Students for Cooperative Learning You cannot assume that your students can immediately understand and know how to work together in a cooperative classroom. Students need to be prepared for some of the skills needed to work cooperatively. For most students, the move from a highly traditional and structured classroom to a cooperative learning environment is difficult. However, you can help your students with some of the skills required in cooperative learning. (a) Sample Activities to Help Students Learn Sharing Skills (i) Round Robin It requires students to take turns to respond when working in a group. The teacher asks a question that will require a few answers. The students are given time to think. Each member takes turns to share possible answers to the questions. (ii) Pair Checks Refer to Table 4.8 for steps in pair checks. Table 4.8: Pair Checks Steps Description Step 1 Get students into pairs. Step 2 Give each pair a worksheet with some problems to solve. Step 3 Student 1 does the first problem, while student 2 acts as a „teacher‰. When both agree on the answer, they then do the next problem. Step 4 Student 2 does the second problem, while student 1 acts as the „teacher‰. They both agree on the answer. Step 5 They then go to another pair of students and check the first two problems together. Now all four students work to agree on the answers to the problems. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: COOPERATIVE LEARNING 86 (b) Sample Activities to Help Students Learn Participation Skills Participation skills are important to avoid one student from taking control of the discussion or conversation. (i) Time token as shown in Table 4.9. Table 4.9: Time Token Steps Description Step 1 Each student in the group is given a „token‰ which can be in the form of a piece of cardboard cut into a round shape. On each piece of this „token‰ is written „20 seconds of talk time‰ or „30 seconds of talk time‰. Step 2 One member of the group monitors the time. Once the time on the token is over, the student must stop talking. Step 3 Repeat until every member has a chance to use the time token. Source: Arends (2009) (ii) High talker tap out as shown in Table 4.10. Table 4.10: High Talker Tap Out Steps Description Step 1 One member of the group is selected as the „monitor‰. Step 2 The monitor will make sure that every member of the group gets a chance to talk. The monitor will also encourage students who are shy to talk. Source: Arends (2009) (c) Sample Activities for Team Building It is important that in cooperative learning there is team identity and a sense of caring among the members of the group. A few simple activities that you can do is to make sure that every member knows each otherÊs name or let the group discuss and decide a name for their group. The following are two other activities that you can use to teach group skills and build a positive team identity. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: COOPERATIVE LEARNING 87 (i) Look, go, create, as shown in Table 4.11. Table 4.11: Look, Go, Create Steps Description Step 1 The teacher prepares pictures of different objects. The teacher must make sure there are enough materials or equipment to conduct this activity such as drawing papers, coloured pens and pencils, etc. Step 2 Place these pictures in a box; make enough for each group. Step 3 One member of each team will be called the „viewer‰. The „viewer‰ will pick up one picture and look at it. Step 4 The „viewer‰ will describe or tell another team member called the „communicator‰ what the picture is. Step 5 The „communicator‰ will then describe or tell what the picture is to the rest of the team. Team members may send questions back to the „viewer‰ through the „communicator‰. Step 6 The team members will construct or draw the picture. (ii) Blind obstacle course, as shown in Table 4.12. Table 4.12: Blind Obstacle Course Steps Description Step 1 The teacher clears the middle of the classroom and arranges small objects like toys or pillows in an obstacle course. Make an obstacle course for each team. Step 2 Blindfold one team member. Step 3 One other team member stands nearby and gives directions to the blindfolded member to get around the objects without touching them. If the blindfolded member does not succeed he/she must try again. Step 4 Repeat Steps 2 and 3 until all team members have gone through the obstacle course successfully. Source: Stover (2010) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: COOPERATIVE LEARNING 88 1. Analyse the following situations and decide whether they are most appropriate for STAD, Jigsaw or Group Investigation. (a) A Science teacher wants her students to know their Chemistry table of elements. (b) A Science teacher wants her students to study pollution. She assigns students to groups and asks each group to investigate air, water or waste pollution in certain geographic areas. (c) A teacher is comparing great Malay writers such as Shahnon Ahmad, Usman Awang, and A. Samad Said. The teacher wants his students to understand the similarities and differences between each of the writers. 2. Encik Johan, a Physics teacher, is preparing to group his students for STAD learning groups. The average scores for the studentsÊ past tests results are as follows: Jonas 97 Amir 81 Betty 94 Henry 80 Sheri 93 Lisa 79 Akeem 90 Devi 77 Kim 87 Mary 75 SweeLan 84 Rama 72 Peter 83 Mei 70 Siti 82 Ahmad 69 ACTIVITY 4.2 1. What do you think are some of the difficulties you will encounter when using cooperative learning? Do you think the benefits of using cooperative learning outweigh the difficulties? Why? 2. What are the ways that can help you manage and prepare your students for cooperative learning? SELF-CHECK 4.4 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: COOPERATIVE LEARNING 89 Cooperative learning is an approach that involves students working together in small groups. Ć The learning environment is cooperative rather than competitive or individualistic. Ć The three main characteristics of cooperative learning are group goals, individual accountability and equal opportunity for success as guiding principles. Ć Student Teams-Achievement Divisions (STAD) has teams of four or five working together to understand facts, concepts or skills. In STAD, students compete with their past performance to earn improvement points which contribute to team awards. Ć Jigsaw is designed to teach organised bodies of information and develops student experts who will teach their team members. Ć Group investigation is where team members work together on solving problems. Ć Other cooperative learning approaches include Think-Pair-Share and Numbered Heads Together. Ć It is important to manage the cooperative learning environment well by providing rules and directions to avoid frustration. (a) Encik Johan wants to use teams of four. How will he group the teams? (b) What other factors can Encik Johan use instead of past test scores? Share your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: COOPERATIVE LEARNING 90 Ć Students can be prepared for cooperative learning by developing sharing skills, participation skills, and team identity through activities such as round robin, pair checks, time tokens, high talker tap out, look-go-create, and the blind obstacle course. Blind obstacle course Cluster seating Cooperative learning Cooperative instructional strategies Equal chances for success Group goals Group Investigation High talker tap out Individual responsibility Jigsaw Look, go, create Numbered heads together Pair checks Participation skills Positive interdependence Promotive interaction Round robin Sharing skills Student Teams-Achievement Divisions (STAD) Swing seating Team building Think-Pair-Share Time token Arends, R. I. (2009). Learning to teach (8th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Aronson, E., & Patnoe, S. (1997). The jigsaw classroom. New York, NY: AddisonWesley Longman. Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, F. P. (2006). Joining together: Group theory and group skills (9th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: COOPERATIVE LEARNING 91 Kagan, S. (1986). Cooperative learning and sociocultural factors in schooling. In Beyond language: Social and cultural factors in schooling language minority students (pp. 231ă298). Los Angeles, CA: California State University Evaluation, Dissemination and Achievement Center. Moni, R. W., Depaz, I., & Lluka, L. J. (2008). Student perceptions of social learning space: Designing and implementing a Co-operative assessment task in pharmacology. Bioscience Education e-journal, 11. Retrieved July 28, 2011, from http://www.bioscience.heacademy.ac.uk/journal/vol11/beej-11-9.pdf Sharon, S., & Sharon, H. (1988). Language and learning in the cooperative classroom. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag. Slavin, R. (1995). Cooperative learning (2nd ed.). San Juan Capistrano, CA: Resources for Teachers. Slavin, R. E. (2009). Educational psychology: Theory and practice (9th ed.). New Jersey, NJ: Pearson Education. Stover, E. (2010). Indoor team building activities for elementary students. Retrieved July 28, 2011, from http://www.ehow.com/list_6112919_indoorbuilding-activities-elementary-students.html Thelen, H. (1960). Education and the human quest. New York, NY: Harper & Row. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
INTRODUCTION In Topic 3, you read about the work of Jerome Bruner, who said that knowledge and learning will be gained more effectively when students learned through „personal discovery‰ compared to being taught. Well, Bruner was the originator of discovery-based learning! Topic 5 Contemporary Instructional Strategies: Discoverybased Learning LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Identify the characteristics of discovery-based learning; 2. State the differences between discovery-based learning and the traditional way of learning; 3. Describe various approaches and strategies to learning via discovery; 4. Explain inquiry-based learning as a discovery-based learning strategy; and 5. Discuss assessment issues in discovery-based learning. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: DISCOVERY-BASED LEARNING 93 Discovery-based learning encourages students to be active participants. It promotes their motivation, responsibility and independence. „Learning by doing‰ is the motto of this approach to learning. Discovery-based learning is part of the constructivist learning theory. Learning is not static but is a problem-solving process where the students use their own existing knowledge to discover new facts and knowledge. It is one approach you can use to help your students to adapt to changes in the 21st century. When your students leave school, they will have to face a lot of uncertainties and challenges. Discovery-based learning is a teaching approach that meets the needs of todayÊs competitive environment. Let us discover what discovery-based learning is all about. WHAT IS DISCOVERY-BASED LEARNING? As a teaching approach, discovery-based learning is different from the traditional way of lectures, drills and practice. In its place, your students are active in their learning, or their learning activities require them to be hands-on a lot (BicknellHolmes & Hoffman, 2000). Your students are not passively sitting down taking in information from you, but they are seeking new information because they are interested to know more. They are motivated to discover new knowledge through their learning activities; and you, as the teacher, must provide opportunities for this to happen. Let us try to understand better what discovery-based learning is all about. We shall begin by looking at the characteristics of discovery-based learning, and then we shall see why it is different from the conventional way of learning. 5.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: DISCOVERY-BASED LEARNING 94 5.1.1 Characteristics of Discovery-based Learning Discovery-based learning is unique because of the following characteristics as shown in Table 5.1. Table 5.1: Characteristics of Discovery-based Learning Characteristics of Discoverybased Learning Description Students explore and solve problems to create knowledge When your students take an active role through exploring and problem solving, they are actively involved in their learning. They do not simply accept information through your teaching. As a teacher, you will encourage them to take risks, solve problems and question issues. Students determine how they want to carry out their learning With discovery-based learning, your students will learn at their own pace. You will allow flexibility as to how your students will achieve the learning objectives. Although you may plan how your activities are to be conducted, you should allow your students the opportunities to plan how they want to carry out the activities. In this way, your students will feel that they „own‰ and are responsible for their learning. Students use their existing knowledge to create new knowledge Discovery-based learning, as part of the constructivist approach to learning, is based on the principle of using your studentsÊ existing knowledge to build new knowledge. What this means is that your students will use something that they already know, extend on the knowledge that they have, and create new knowledge or ideas. Source: Bicknell-Holmes & Hoffman (2000) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: DISCOVERY-BASED LEARNING 95 5.1.2 Differences between Discovery-based Learning and Traditional-based Learning There are three main differences between discovery-based learning and the traditional way of learning as shown in Table 5.2. Table 5.2: Main Differences between Discovery-based Learning and Traditional-based Learning Source Discovery-based Learning Traditional-based Learning Arts (2008) Ć Students are responsible for finding the answers to real problems, and they are actively engaged in this pursuit. Ć What is more important is the process of learning rather than learning the content. Ć Requires students to absorb what the teacher is saying passively. Bonwell (1998) Ć Allows students to analyse and interpret data so that he/she can understand what is being learnt. Through analysing and interpreting, students can arrive at different correct answers. Ć Failure is acceptable in discoverybased learning. It does not expect the students to get the right answers all the time. For example, Thomas Edison (who discovered the light bulb) once said he was never discouraged with failures. Instead he said that he learnt about the thousands of materials that were not suitable for a light bulb! Ć Students are encouraged to work with their friends. They are encouraged to discuss their ideas to deepen their understanding. Ć Students give the correct answers ă most of the time through memorisation. Ć Usually expects students to learn in silence and in isolation. Papert (2001) Ć Students are naturally curious, and this is encouraged in discoverybased learning. Ć Students are generally passive, and therefore their natural curiosity is reduced. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: DISCOVERY-BASED LEARNING 96 VARIOUS APPROACHES TO LEARNING VIA DISCOVERY Although there are many approaches that can be used with discovery-based learning, this subtopic will look at four popular ones as shown in Figure 5.1. Figure 5.1: Four main approaches to learning via discovery Let us look at each one in greater detail. (a) Case-based Learning May Lee loves potted plants. She finds that potted plants add beauty to her house. May Lee also enjoys putting new plants into new pots. However, she is surprised because sometimes she sees strange mushrooms or fungus growing in her potted plants. These mushrooms normally grow in the pots with the new plants or in very old potted plants. May Lee is not sure what to do. So she asks her friend Tom. Tom asks her where she always puts her potted plants and how often she waters the plants. May Lee tells him that she likes to put her potted plants in the corner of the hall because her plants cannot take sunlight ă so she keeps her potted plants in cool but dark areas. She tells her friend that she waters her plants every day. When May Lee leaves her plants out in the sun, she realises that the mushrooms and fungus do not grow. Nevertheless, there are still a few of her potted plants that continue to have mushrooms and fungus growing even though she takes them out to sun every day. May Lee is quite at a loss what to do. She is now asking you. What do you think is happening and what would you advise her? 5.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: DISCOVERY-BASED LEARNING 97 Cases or case studies are a specific kind of learning that present students with a small sample of an actual situation or issue (Duffy & Cunningham, 1996). The stories in case studies contain information that you want the students to learn or solve. In solving the sample cases, your students are encouraged to apply knowledge from personal experiences, theory and research to make some decisions. When your students are doing the cases, they are trying to think like grown-ups; they are practising some problem-solving behaviours that they encounter every day. In using case-based learning, three things are important. They are: (i) Planning Your case needs to provide enough details so that your students can identify with and work with the problem. The case must present a specific issue that the students need to solve. (ii) Implementing You should encourage your students to identify what the issue is. For example, in the potted plant example, May Lee has a problem with mushrooms and fungus growing in her potted plants. As your students try to identify the issue, the causes, the treatments, and the prevention, they will use other resources such as books, the Internet or asking other adults. (iii) Presenting Your students will present their solutions to their friends. (b) Incidental Learning Incidental learning is unique because it is generally not planned, but learning happens as a „by-product‰ of their other activities. Through the studentsÊ other activities, incidental learning happens through their observation, repetition work, their interaction and problem solving (Kerka, 2000). For a teacher, the challenge is for you to construct an activity that will enable your students to find out or be in contact with the facts in a „natural‰ way. The objective is to allow exploration so that incidental learning can take place, rather than in a rigid classroom environment („The opportunity of incidental learning‰, n.d.). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: DISCOVERY-BASED LEARNING 98 Take a look at an example of an incidental learning activity (adapted from Teaching Geography Using Incidental Learning, n.d.). Let us suppose that you want your students to know the state capitals in Malaysia. Let us further suppose that some of your students have a real interest in football. Would not it be possible for those students to achieve some football goals, and learn some geography at the same time? If you wanted a student to know where Kedah is, and he is a fan of the HijauKuning and the Kenari (names of football teams in Kedah), who happened to be playing in Kuala Lumpur, and you gave that student tickets to the game, plus a car and a map, donÊt you think that he would learn sufficient geography to get himself to Kuala Lumpur? Since this approach is too expensive to achieve, you then develop the road trip programme, which does the next best thing. It teaches Malaysian geography to secondary school students by allowing them to take simulated car trips (read the next section for an explanation of simulation learning) around Malaysia. When the student arrives at a destination, he can watch exciting video clips that are particular to where he is and match his interests. So when a student „reaches‰ Kedah, you show him/her a video clip of a football match where Hijau-Kuning is competing! Although road trips have turned out to have a strong appeal to a surprisingly broad range of students, the original intention was to target the least motivated students. Students who do not like learning become bored when they are required to study. Road Trip enables the students to both enjoy football and learn something meaningful in a fun way. (c) Simulation-based Learning Simulation-based learning is very similar to role-playing. In simulationbased learning, you create an environment where your students can practise a difficult skill or watch you apply some skills (Bicknell-Holmes & Hoffman, 2000). Sometimes it is difficult to bring the students to a real-life situation; therefore, you try to create the natural environment to guide their discovery. With the recent interest in the Angkasawan programme which resulted in Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor being the first Malaysian in space, you can ask students to plan a space mission. Since an actual space mission is not possible, you can ask your students to plan the mission through simulation. Computers have made simulation much more interesting. There are many kinds of software that are able to provide realistic scenarios for your students to try out. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: DISCOVERY-BASED LEARNING 99 (d) Exploration-based Learning Exploration-based learning is similar to the Socratic method. In Socratic teaching, the focus is giving students questions, not answers. There is questioning, answering and more questioning. In exploratory-based learning, students solve a problem or an issue through asking questions. INQUIRY-BASED LEARNING AS A DISCOVERY-BASED LEARNING STRATEGY Inquiry is both a teaching strategy and a way of discovering how things work. We use inquiry every day without noticing it. Many scientific breakthroughs are the results of inquiry processes. Scientists first ask „why is one group of people more susceptible to heart attacks than others?‰ Many teaching theories and models came about because educators wanted answers to questions such as „Why do students in one classroom learn more than another?‰ When you involve your students in inquiry-based learning, you are encouraging their higher-order thinking skills and developing self-directed learning. Take a look at an example of how Puan Jamilah used inquiry-based learning in one of her „Living Skills‰ lessons. Puan Jamilah, a secondary school teacher of Living Skills, had just started a unit on baking bread. She began the discussion with general baking procedures, specifically how important it is to knead the dough. As Puan Jamilah was explaining the procedure, Marie put up her hand and asked, „Why are you kneading the dough so long?‰ „That is a good question, Marie. Why do you think so? ⁄. Anyone?‰ „Maybe it is to mix the dough ingredients well,‰ answered Azlina. Amy added, „Maybe if the dough is not well kneaded, it will not rise because the yeast is not mixed in well.‰ Puan Jamilah immediately expanded on her learning objectives and started to write her studentsÊ ideas on the whiteboard. Then she said, „What Azlina and Amy have said are some answers to MarieÊs question. Azlina and AmyÊs solutions are called hypotheses. So now, we need to check to see if these ideas are correct.‰ 5.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: DISCOVERY-BASED LEARNING 100 After thinking for a while, Devi put up her hand and suggested, „We could take a batch of dough and separate it into ⁄ about⁄. maybe⁄ three parts⁄ and then knead them for different amounts of time.‰ „Excellent thinking, Devi,‰ Puan Jamilah smiled, „What do you say, everyone? Shall we try it?‰ Many of the other students responded with, „Sure‰, „Okay‰, „Why not?‰ Puan Jamilah continued, „How long should we knead each? Our book recommends about 10 minutes.‰ „How about five minutes for one, 10 for the second one, and 15 for the third,‰ Zara suggested. „Then we will bake them all the same way,‰ suggested Jega. „To be sure that we are getting a good test of AmyÊs hypothesis, what else do we need to consider?‰ Puan Jamilah asked. „Well, we have to use the same dough, and we have to have the same amount of dough, wouldnÊt we?‰ offered Swee Lin. „And we have to knead the same way for all three pieces; if the person kneading was different, it could affect the mixing, and that is what we are trying to test, isnÊt it?‰ asked Normah. „Very good thinking, Normah,‰ Puan Jamilah said. „Anything else, anyone?‰ „I think there is one more thing⁄ you said that the ovens in here are different. We would need to bake them all in the same oven, wonÊt we?‰ Man Ting asked. „That is great thinking, everyone⁄ Now, let us think back for a minute. We talked about having the same dough, kneading them all the same way, and baking them all in the same oven⁄ Why do we want to do that?‰ „Well if we have the different pieces of dough, and they came out different, we would not know if it was the amount of time or if it was the dough,‰ Talita suggested. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: DISCOVERY-BASED LEARNING 101 „Excellent thinking, Talita. What we are doing is keeping each of these constant, and the only thing we are changing is the amount of time we knead each piece of dough. When we keep them the same, we say that we have controlled those variables. Okay, let us write down the variables we are controlling.‰ „Type of dough,‰ someone said. „Good ⁄. What else?‰ „The way we do the kneading.‰ „Excellent ⁄ what else?‰ „The oven.‰ „Good everyone. That is excellent thinking.‰ The students then followed the suggestions, separating a piece of dough into three equal parts, carefully kneading each piece in the same way, and baking them in the same oven: one part for five minutes, the second for 10 minutes and the third for 15. Then they checked to see if there were differences in the way the pieces looked. They discussed their results and related them to the hypotheses. Puan Jamilah asked, „Before we end this lesson, I would like us to think what we did and why and how did we got started on this problem. Who remembers?‰ Mei Lan answered, „Marie asked why we had to knead the bread so long.‰ „Good memory, Mei Lan. That is correct. Our inquiry started with a question. Then we had some ideas or guesses. Who remembers what we call these ideas and guesses?‰ „Hypotheses?‰ answers Shanie. „Good, Shanie,‰ answers Puan Jamilah. „Hypotheses are our best guesses about how the world works⁄.‰ The bell rang, and Puan Jamilah dismissed the class by saying, „Good work, class. See you tomorrow.‰ (Adapted from Eggen & Kauchak, 2001) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: DISCOVERY-BASED LEARNING 102 Using the previous lesson, we can see how to implement inquiry-based learning. You have seen that in Puan JamilahÊs class, the lesson began with a question, followed by tentative answers or hypotheses. Then the information is provided to determine the hypotheses, and the hypotheses are then tested. Finally, some generalisations are made, and students are asked to reflect on the inquiry process. Let us see how Puan Jamilah implemented inquiry-based learning. There are seven steps to implementing inquiry-based learning (adapted from Eggen & Kauchak, 2001), as shown in Figure 5.2. Figure 5.2: Seven steps in implementing inquiry-based learning Let us now discuss the steps in greater detail. (a) Step 1: Beginning with a Question The investigation begins when a question is asked. In Puan JamilahÊs class, she was explaining the importance of kneading dough when Marie asked a question. Puan Jamilah cleverly used the question as a queue-in to her lesson. If no one asks a question in your class, you can instead guide your students into identifying a question. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: DISCOVERY-BASED LEARNING 103 Puan Jamilah wrote MarieÊs question on the whiteboard to make sure that everyone understood the question. Other things you can do to ensure that students are clear about the question are to ask your students to repeat the question or ask them to explain the question in their own words. (b) Step 2: Forming Hypotheses Once the question is clear, the next step is to get the students to attempt to answer the question. Puan Jamilah asked her students to present as many possible answers. She accepted all the possible answers given by Amy, Azlina and Devi. What Puan Jamilah was doing is called the process of hypothesising. After Puan JamilahÊs students had developed a few hypotheses, the hypotheses needed to be verified through data gathering. Puan KamilahÊs students need to be clear about which hypothesis they are investigating so that they know which variables they must control. Can you identify the variables involved in Puan JamilahÊs class? (c) Step 3: Data Gathering The hypotheses are used to guide the data gathering process. For example, in Puan JamilahÊs class, the students separated a piece of dough into three equal parts, carefully kneaded each piece in the same way, and baked them in the same oven ă one part for five minutes, the second for 10 minutes and the third for 15 minutes. Then they checked to see if there were differences in the way the different pieces looked. While it could take time to investigate hypotheses, the students learnt what information was important and what was not. A hypothesis is a tentative answer to a question or problem that needs to be tested or verified with data. Sometimes, a hypothesis can also be called „an educated guess‰ or a „hunch‰. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: DISCOVERY-BASED LEARNING 104 (d) Step 4: Data Reporting Students must organise and present the data they have gathered. A variety of displays such as tables, figures, matrices or graphs can be used. (e) Step 5: Data Analysis In data analysis, the students assess their hypotheses from the data they have gathered. For example, in Puan JamilahÊs class, her students discussed and analysed that the dough pieces kneaded for both 10 and 15 minutes are the same height but taller than the dough kneaded for only five minutes. In this phase, students gain valuable skills in discussing the data and analysing the data. (f) Step 6: Generalising The lesson ends when students try to generalise about the result based on the data they have. For example, Puan JamilahÊs students tentatively concluded that the bread (from the dough) must be kneaded for an adequate amount of time, but kneading more than that amount of time does not matter. Generalising will lead to other questions and therefore new inquiry problems. For instance, Puan JamilahÊs students might ask whether different types of flour (for example, wholemeal flour vs wheat flour) to make the dough also affects how much time is needed to knead the dough for it to rise. Such a process of inquiry happens all the time in our studentsÊ lives. Soon the students will realise that the world is complex and there are no simple structured answers! (g) Step 7: Analysing the Inquiry-based Learning Process In Puan JamilahÊs class, before the bell rang, she asked her students to reflect on how they identified the inquiry and how the hypotheses guided the inquiry process. By talking about the inquiry processes, Puan Jamilah made ideas real and she helped her students see how inquiry plays out in real life. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: DISCOVERY-BASED LEARNING 105 Read the following story and answer the questions below. Two teachers, Puan Lim and Encik Jamal, were in the teachersÊ room one day discussing something that happened between two students. „I was surprised that Mariam got so angry in class,‰ Puan Lim said to Encik Jamal. „Why do you suppose Mariam got so angry with her best friend June?‰ „I donÊt know for sure,‰ Encik Jamal said. „But I think Mariam is having some trouble at home. I notice that she is very quiet when she comes into the classroom. Also, she said some rude words to June yesterday afternoon.‰ „Yes, I was told that, but I thought Mariam was saying it for fun. Mariam looked happy last week, and she told me her studies were going well. I donÊt think her home life would cause her to be angry with June.‰ Encik Muthu was also in the teachersÊ room and overheard the conversation between Puan Lim and Encik Jamal. „I think,‰ he said, „that she is simply tired. Mariam has to take care of her younger sister and brother, and now that the examination is near, she is feeling the stress.‰ „Yes, that could be correct.‰ Puan Lim agreed. „Mariam told me that because she wanted to do well in the examination; she only slept five hours.‰ „Also, Mariam has to do some of the cooking at home,‰ said Encik Jamal. „And that is a lot for a young girl to do.‰ (a) Identify the inquiry question in the above story. (b) Identify two hypotheses that were in the question. (c) Identify at least four comments in the story that could be called items of data. (d) For each item of data, identify to which hypothesis it belongs to, and whether it supports the hypothesis (or not). ACTIVITY 5.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: DISCOVERY-BASED LEARNING 106 ASSESSMENT ISSUES IN DISCOVERYBASED LEARNING For many teachers, discovery-based learning can be quite challenging because the teacher needs to guide the students towards questions or to create a good problem. However, if it is well planned and using the teacherÊs own creativity, discoverybased learning can be very beneficial to the students to develop their interests, motivation, independence and higher-order thinking skills. Yet another issue with discovery-based learning is assessing the students. Sometimes, the traditional way of assessment using multiple-choice questions, true-false questions, and fill in the blanks tests may not be suitable to evaluate students after conducting lessons using the discovery-based learning approach. There are a few strategic questions that you may ask yourself before you decide on the best way to assess your students after discovery-based learning. These will be discussed in the next subtopic. 5.4.1 Strategically Thinking about Assessing Discovery-based Learning Basically, there are seven questions you want to ask yourself, as shown in Figure 5.3. Figure 5.3: Seven questions to ask when assessing discovery-based learning 5.4 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: DISCOVERY-BASED LEARNING 107 Let us look into the questions, one by one. (a) Why Do I Need to Assess My Students? Normally, you would answer that you want to be able to measure your studentsÊ learning against what is stated in the learning outcomes. That is correct! You would also probably want to assess your students because there is a need to provide some form of marks and grades to assure standards and quality. These two reasons are also correct. However, more importantly, you want to assess your studentsÊ learning because you want to support their learning by engaging them in activities and providing feedback. Therefore, your focus on assessment should be driven by how you can promote your studentsÊ effective learning. (b) What am I Assessing? Besides assessing how much your students know in terms of knowledge or content, attitudes and values are also important for your studentsÊ future lives. In discovery-based learning, what is important is equipping them with the skills and abilities they would need. Learning is holistic and not merely about memorising. (c) When Do I Start Assessing? From your experience, you know that if you tell your students that there will be an assessment at the end of the unit or lesson, your students will be working hard towards „spotting‰ clues of what they will be tested on. They will continuously ask you about the assessment. This will disturb the flow of discovery-based learning where you want your students to take control of their learning and acquire new knowledge. Therefore, it would be better to conduct a series of continuous assessment rather than one „bang‰ at the end. (d) Who Will Do the Assessing? In discovery-based learning, your students explore and solve problems to create knowledge; they also determine how they want to carry out their learning and use their existing knowledge to create new knowledge. Your students take responsibility for their learning. In the same way, they should also take responsibility to judge whether they have achieved the learning outcomes. Because your students will be working with their team members and other groups, their peers can also do the assessing. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: DISCOVERY-BASED LEARNING 108 (e) How am I Going to Assess? There are many ways you can assess discovery-based learning. In the next topic, you will find some approaches that can be used for both discoverybased learning and problem-based learning (Topic 6). You might want to consider how to modify or adapt those approaches or other approaches. What is important is that you ensure balance and variety in the types of assessment. (f) Where Will the Assessment Take Place? You want to show your students that learning can happen anywhere and not just in schools. In the same way, assessment can take place wherever the students are learning ă at home, online (if there is good Internet access) and in the classroom. (g) What Feedback Should I Give My Students? Feedback is important to help your students improve their learning in the future or to make improvements as they are learning. Therefore, feedback has to be timely and often to help them learn. The above questions and ideas are taken and adapted from MacDonald (2005). The real challenge is to make assessment a rewarding, challenging and even fun part of a similarly rewarding, challenging and fun learning experience! It has to be taken seriously but that does not mean it has to be serious all the time. (MacDonald, 2005) Ć Discovery-based learning involves the following: ă Exploration and problem solving; ă Students creating, integrating, and generalising knowledge; ă Interest-based activities; and ă Activities to encourage integration of new knowledge into the learnerÊs existing knowledge base. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: DISCOVERY-BASED LEARNING 109 Ć Differences between discovery-based learning and traditional learning are: ă Learning is active rather than passive; ă Learning is process based rather than fact based; ă Failure is important; ă Feedback is necessary; and ă Understanding is deeper. Ć Learning approaches through discovery-based learning are: ă Case-based learning; ă Incidental learning; ă Simulation-based learning; and ă Exploration-based learning. Ć Inquiry-based learning is a process of systematically answering questions based on some form of evidence. Inquiry-based learning begins with a question about some cause-effect relationship. Possible solutions or answers (called hypotheses) to the questions are given, then data is collected and then some generalisations are made about the conclusions. Finally, reflection is done to understand the cognitive processes during inquiry better. Case-based learning Data analysis Data gathering Data reporting Discovery-based learning Exploration-based learning Generalising Hypotheses Incidental learning Inquiry-based learning Problem-solving Simulation-based learning Student explore Variables Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: DISCOVERY-BASED LEARNING 110 Arts, R. W. (2008). Traditional versus guided inquiry instruction in the undergraduate physics laboratory. Retrieved July 25, 2011, from http://campus.pc.edu/~rarts/physics.pdf Bicknell-Holmes, T., & Hoffman, P. S. (2000). Elicit, engage, experience, explore: Discovery learning in library instruction. Reference Services Review, 28(4), 313-322. Bonwell, C. C. (1998). Active learning: Energizing the classroom. Green Mountain Falls, CO: Active Learning Workshops. Castillo, K. S. (n.d.). Discovery learning vs traditional instruction in the secondary science classroom: The role of guided inquiry. Retrieved July 25, 2011, from http://www.csun.edu/~ksc63842/Posistion_paper.pdf Castronova, J. A. (2002) Discovery learning for 21st century: What is it and how does it compare to traditional learning in effectiveness in the 21st century. Retrieved July 25, 2011, from http://teach.valdosta.edu/are/Litreviews/ vol1no1/castronova_litr.pdf Duffy, T., & Cunningham, D. (1996). Constructivism: Implications for the design and delivery of instruction. In D. Jonasse (Ed.), Handbook of research for educational communications and technology (pp. 170ă195). New York, NY: Macmillan. Eggen, P. D., & Kauchak, D. P. (2001). Strategies for teachers: Teaching content and thinking skills. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Kerka, S. (2000). Incidental learning. Retrieved July 25, 2011, from http://www.calpro-online.org/eric/docs/tia00086.pdf Macdonald, R. (2005). Assessment strategies for enquiry and problem-based learning. In Barrett, T., Mac Labhrainn, I., Fallon, H. (Eds.), Handbook of enquiry & problem based learning. Galway: CELT. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: DISCOVERY-BASED LEARNING 111 Papert, S. (2001). Jean Piaget. Time [Online]. Retrieved July 25, 2011, from http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/piaget.html Teaching geography using incidental learning. (n.d.). Retrieved July 25, 2011, from http://www.engines4ed.org/hyperbook/nodes/NODE-152-pg.html The opportunity of incidental learning. (n.d.). Retrieved July 25, 2011, from http://www.engines4ed.org/hyperbook/nodes/NODE-331-pg.html Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
INTRODUCTION Take a look at the following lessons. Lesson One Puan Ong, a Living Skills subject teacher in Form two, is beginning a unit on plants used in landscaping. Topic 6 Contemporary Instructional Strategies: Problem-based Learning (PBL) LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Define problem-based learning (PBL); 2. Identify the characteristics of problem-based learning; 3. Design problem-solving lessons that include the processes of problem-based learning; 4. Explain how to manage the PBL environment successfully; and 5. Use assessments that measure students' understanding of the problem-based process. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING (PBL) 113 As Puan Ong gives an overview of the unit, she holds up a few packets of seeds explaining how the students would plant these to study plant growth. One of Puan OngÊs student raises her hand and asks, „Puan Ong, why donÊt seeds grow in the packets?‰ „Good question‰ replies Puan Ong, „That is one of the first things we are going to find out.‰ She divides her students into groups to investigate factors that can cause seeds to grow. Each group is given packets of different kinds of seeds together with pots, soil, fertiliser and water. Each group is responsible for designing an experiment to answer how plants grow, carrying out the experiment and reporting to the whole class. Lesson Two A Form Four class has been studying areas and perimeters in Mathematics. One day, Encik Johan announces that the mathematics laboratory is getting new tiles and Encik Johan asks the studentsÊ help to find out how many tiles they will need. The mathematics laboratory is not square or rectangle in shape. After the students measure the laboratory, Encik Johan breaks the students into groups and asks each group to find a strategy for finding the number of tiles they will need. Based on the above lessons, can you answer these questions? (a) What characteristics do Lesson One and Lesson Two share? (b) How do the ways the lessons are conducted contribute to learning? (c) What roles do the students and teachers play in the lessons? This topic will try to answer the above questions. We are going to look at how giving students real problems to solve can help in their learning. WHAT IS PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING (PBL)? Problem-based learning (PBL) means that we give our students problems to solve that are real and meaningful. It is a teaching and learning approach that helps develop studentsÊ skills such as problem solving, self-directed learning, teamwork and interpersonal communication skills. Let us look at PBLÊs characteristics and aims. This subtopic will also compare PBL with didactic teaching (where the teacher does all the talking). 6.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING (PBL) 114 6.1.1 Characteristics of PBL PBL has five of the following characteristics (Arends, 2009; Slavin, 2009; Tan, 2003; Eggen & Kauchak, 2001): (a) The Lesson Begins with a Problem or a Question The problems or questions are both socially and personally meaningful to the students. The problems or questions are the starting point for students to begin an investigation. In Puan OngÊs class, she began with her studentÊs question, „Why donÊt seeds grow in the packets?‰ Encik Johan used the tile problem to start his studentsÊ investigation. Learning began when Puan Ong and Encik Johan gave their students a problem or a question. If Puan Ong and Encik Johan feel that their students may have difficulty in doing the complex problem(s), an „overview‰ may be given to the students before the start of their work. (b) To Solve the Problem or the Question, Students Require Knowledge in Other Subjects Too For example, in Puan OngÊs Living Skills class, the experiment would involve students using their knowledge in other subjects too. The seed problem in Puan OngÊs class would require students to know about science, biology and environmental studies. (c) The Students are Responsible to Learn by Doing The students in Puan Ong and Encik JohanÊs class are responsible for investigating the problems and making inquiries. Students work in cooperative groups (refer to Topic 4). Together as a group, they must analyse, define the problem (or question), develop hypotheses, make predictions (forecast), collect, analyse information, conduct experiments (if needed) and draw conclusions. Puan Ong and Encik Johan must make sure that the problem (or question) given to their students is not too easy that their existing knowledge is enough to solve the problem. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING (PBL) 115 (d) Students in a PBL environment produce products at the end of their experiment or investigation. The products can be in the form of a report, a computer simulation, a video, a website, or a physical model. In the case of Puan OngÊs class, her students will grow the seeds. In Encik JohanÊs class, the product is the measurement for their mathematics laboratory. (e) In problem-based learning, Puan Ong and Encik Johan are facilitators. They help the students indirectly by giving problems or asking helpful questions. In summary, when using PBL (Barrows, 1988): (a) The student is presented with a problem situation before he/she acquires any content knowledge of the subject; (b) Instead of getting knowledge in a vacuum without knowing how this knowledge can be applied, the problem provides an authentic (real) context for learning and engages the student because of its challenges, missing details and complexities; and (c) It is an education process that requires the student to go through the same activities that are relevant and important in the real world. 6.1.2 Aims of PBL PBL aims to develop studentsÊ effectiveness in different skills that will be important for them in their future professional life. The following are some of these aims. (a) PBL aims to make students independent and helps in the development of self-directed learning. Self-directed learning develops when students know of and take control of their learning process. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING (PBL) 116 (b) PBL develops studentsÊ understanding and ability to investigate a problem or a question systematically. Students participate in structured problembased activities, and by doing so, they learn how to solve similar problems systematically. (c) PBL helps students develop higher-order thinking skills and problemsolving skills. Higher-order thinking skills are challenging to teach in conventional teaching so to acquire higher-order thinking skills, teachers use problem-based learning approaches. (d) PBL helps students perform real-life situations and learn important adult roles. Problem-based learning helps students participate in practical activities that happen outside of school learning. In PBL, students do most, if not all the thinking in order to arrive at the desired outcome. They generate their own strategies to obtain the knowledge required by the problem. They have their own strategies for problem definition, gathering information, analysis of data, hypothesising and testing, comparing their strategies and learning with and from each other. Working in a group and meeting regularly to discuss and think through issues help to reinforce learning in a community of learners as they benefit from the collective intellect of the group. (Summarised from Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980) 1. What are the characteristics of PBL? 2. What does PBL aim to do in student learning? SELF-CHECK 6.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING (PBL) 117 6.1.3 Comparing PBL with Didactic Teaching In PBL, the teacher is no longer the content expert and „giver‰ of knowledge. He or she does not use didactic teaching (lecture mode). Instead, he is now a facilitator and a coach. He will ask questions, keep students involved in the learning process, monitor the groups and keep the learning process moving in the right direction. The student, on the other hand, plays an active role in the learning. The student is the problem solver and cooperates with other students in this learning process. The students in PBL take control of their own learning; they are no longer passive listeners. Table 6.1 shows the key differences between PBL and traditional didactic teaching. Table 6.1: Key Differences between PBL and Traditional Didactic Teaching Problem-based Learning Didactic Teaching The teacher act as a facilitator and coach. The teacher will ask students about their thinking and monitor their learning. The teacher is the content expert and knows all knowledge. The mode of learning is driven by a problem or a question. The teacher speaks, students listen. Students take responsibility for learning and conduct self-directed learning with the guidance of a facilitator (the teacher). The teacher directs, and students passively receive information. Students cooperate through interactions, discussions and peer teaching. The students learn alone. The outcomes of learning are the application of content and development of skills such as problem-solving, teamwork, emotional intelligence, time management, research and creative/ critical thinking. The students understand the content. Students are assessed through various means such as writing diaries, writing journals, creating portfolios, presentations, tests etc. The students are assessed mainly through written tests and examinations. Source: Adapted from Curriculum design for PBL, Temasek Polytechnic (2006) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING (PBL) 118 ELEMENTS OF PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING When you want to adopt PBL, it is important that you know the key elements for the design of PBL in your classroom. Figure 6.1 explains some key elements to help guide you when you implement PBL in your classroom (summarised from Arends, 2009; Barell, 2006; Curriculum design for PBL, 2006). Figure 6.1: Key elements for the design of PBL in your classroom Let us now discuss the key elements one by one. (a) New Roles of Students The following is the further description of new roles of students. (i) Responsibility of Students Students take the responsibility for determining what needs to be learnt in order to solve a problem. Teachers give very little help to students to solve the problem. Because they must work together to solve the problem, through PBL, they learn to trust and take control of their own study and research. Students in PBL must understand that they must help each member in the group for the learning and the application of knowledge and skills to solve a problem. 6.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING (PBL) 119 (ii) Students Work Cooperatively Because the problem or issue to solve is quite complex, it is not possible for one student to work alone ă therefore, students will need to work cooperatively in order to solve the problem or issue. What is important to remember is that in PBL, we want the students to gain new knowledge while they are trying to solve the problem. Therefore, the problem or issue must not be too easy that the students can solve using their existing prior knowledge. We want the students to discuss, share and learn from each other. (iii) Students Do Reflection Although students work as a group, there must also be opportunities for each student to do individual research and learning. Each student must be allowed to develop, manage information and evaluate the data they have found. Students should practise reflection as a group and also do individual self-review of their learning amid the problemsolving process. (iv) Creating a Product PBL requires students to construct products that explain or represent their solutions to the problem. The product can be in the form of a presentation, report, mind map, physical model, video, computer program, or constructed website. These products are to show to the other groups what was learnt. (b) A Problem or a Question Begins the StudentsÊ Learning When the teacher presents the problem of the question, the students will decide for themselves what needs to be learnt or researched in order to solve or explain the problem. Again, teachers give very little help to students. It is up to the students to manage their own learning and arrive at a solution to the problem. However, if the problem or question is really difficult or complex, then the teacher can give an overview of the issues before they start their group work. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING (PBL) 120 (c) Teachers Act as Facilitators The teacher does not give answers or information unless he finds that the students have great difficulty in understanding the problem or are unsure how to begin. In PBL, the teacher guides and facilitates studentsÊ learning by asking questions. If the students ask, the teacher can provide information or the teacher can use questioning to guide the students. The teacher ensures that all students are involved in the group process. The teacher needs to monitor to see that no one student dominates the group functioning. The teacher also acts as a „housekeeper‰ ă to give out reminders to the students about dates, manages logistics matters such as resource use, laboratory time, computer time, library time and so on. (d) Interdisciplinary Focus Although a PBL problem may come from a particular subject, the actual problem to be solved is chosen because its solution requires students to use knowledge of many subjects. (e) Resources to Support Learning PBL changes the way resources are used. Besides notes and textbooks, students will also need to find information from the library, online resources, and interviews with people in the community. They will also need learning resources such as audio-visual materials and videos. Laboratory access may be required if necessary. Other classroom arrangements where tables and chairs can be easily moved around to help group discussion may be necessary too. Equipment like flip charts, whiteboards, and other stationery items need to be made available to the students. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING (PBL) 121 PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING PROCESSES In problem-based learning, there are a few processes that you will need to know and do, as shown in Figure 6.2. Figure 6.2: Seven processes in problem-based learning Source: Adapted from Barrows (1988) and Barrows (1994) Let us look at each of these processes in greater detail. (a) Group Setting The descriptions of group setting are as follows: (i) Group members introduce themselves to each other; (ii) Students set the ground rules to make sure that the group can work well together. Some of the ground rules are responsibility, taking turns to talk, everyone must contribute etc.; and (iii) Identify the roles of students and teachers. Issues such as how much a teacher can help the group are discussed. 6.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING (PBL) 122 (b) Problem Identification The descriptions of problem identification are as follows: (i) The teacher presents the problem (issue/question) to the students. (ii) As a group, students identify and clarify issues by: Ć Listing facts; Ć Asking questions; and Ć Summarising the problem in their own words in order to establish the groupÊs understanding of the problem. (c) Idea Generation The descriptions of idea generation are as follows: (i) Students generate ideas (brainstorming) that can help them understand or solve the problem; (ii) Existing ideas and knowledge that are related to the problem are written out; (iii) Ideas might include hypotheses, proposals, suggestions, explanations etc.; and (iv) The ideas that have been created by the students can be divided into two areas: learning issues and action plan. (d) Learning Issues The descriptions of learning issues are as follows: (i) Students discuss what they need to find out in order to solve the problem (learning issues) and develop an action plan. Students distinguish what they know and what they do not know; (ii) Learning issues are topics/areas which the students need to search and study in order to solve the problem; (iii) Action plans are steps the students want to take in order to get information about the problem ă they arrange the steps in order of importance; and (iv) Tasks are divided among members. Together with the teacher, the group discusses the type of resources that they will need and where to find them. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING (PBL) 123 (e) Self-directed Learning The descriptions of self-directed learning are as follows: (i) Students go to suitable sources to research information from different places (e.g. the school library, the Internet, books, interviews with teachers and people); and (ii) Students summarise the important information to be used later in their discussion. (f) Synthesis and Application Students will come together as a group to solve the problem. At this stage, the students: (i) Share information with their members; (ii) Create new knowledge and relate it to existing knowledge; (iii) Assess the credibility and validity of the information gathered; (iv) Discuss and justify the solutions to the problem; and (v) Develop possible solutions, explanations or what kinds of products they want to produce from the problem. (g) Reflection and Feedback The descriptions of reflection and feedback are as follows: (i) Students evaluate how they performed the task; (ii) Students reflect on their own individual problem-solving process; and (iii) Students reflect on their solution and explanation of the problem. Remember that processes (b) to (f) are done again and again. Students go back and forth the processes in order to get to the solution. You, as a teacher, must ensure that all these steps are conducted by your students in the PBL process. You will realise that PBL is very different from what your students are used to. Many students are used to the teacher-centred type of teaching. In PBL, the learning environment is such that they must „⁄ reason, analyse, develop learning issues, dig out information on their own, and get used to not having the teacher tell them what is to be learned and whether they are right or wrong in their thinking ⁄‰ (Barrows, 1994). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING (PBL) 124 It is, therefore, important that your students be prepared for PBL by getting them ready with the skills such as self-directed learning, cooperative learning, teamwork and problem-solving skills before you start a PBL project. You need to show them and prepare them with these skills, or else they will feel lost when they adopt their new roles when learning using PBL. MANAGING THE PBL ENVIRONMENT It is important for you to have a clear set of rules and routines to keep the lessons moving smoothly and also to deal with studentsÊ behaviour issues. Guidelines on how to manage group work needs to be applied in problem-based learning instructions. Some of the more unique management issues for teachers using PBL are summarised in Figure 6.3 (adapted from Arends, 2009; Barell, 2006; Curriculum design for PBL, 2006). Figure 6.3: Unique management issues for teachers using PBL 6.4 1. What are the seven processes that a teacher should know before starting a PBL lesson? 2. Explain each of the processes. SELF-CHECK 6.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING (PBL) 125 Let us now discuss the issues in greater detail. (a) Different Groups Doing Different Tasks In PBL, different groups are doing different activities. Some groups might be discussing while some are in the library and others are working in pairs. You should have clear rules to tell the students about deadlines with each step. You should have clear instructions about how to begin and end the studentsÊ activities each day or period of the PBL project. You must also monitor the progress made by each group and each student. (b) Different Rates of Completion Some groups may finish faster than others. You must be ready with activities for those groups that have finished early to keep them occupied. Most problems with PBL are the late finishers. You need to decide what to do with groups who finish late ă do they get extra time, are they allowed to do so after school hours, are the problems due to members not working together? (c) Monitoring StudentÊs Work, Materials and Equipment PBL will generate different assignments, solutions and products and also at different rates and times. Therefore, you need to: (i) Ensure that the students understand what is required of them; (ii) Monitor the studentsÊ work and provide feedback periodically; and (iii) Maintain records of each group and student. The PBL environment will use materials and equipment, and managing these are important. You need to develop procedures for organising, storing and distributing materials and equipment. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING (PBL) 126 ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING IN PBL The most common assessments used in traditional assessments such as multiplechoice tests are not able to properly assess student performance in PBL. Instead, the use of authentic assessments is growing in importance. The term authentic assessment is used to describe „assessment that directly measures student performance through real-life tasks‰ (Wiggins, 1997). Examples include assessing studentsÊ abilities to: (a) Solve a problem; (b) Conduct an inquiry investigation; and (c) Work cooperatively in a group to solve a problem-based case. Let us look at some common authentic assessments (adapted from Eggen & Kauchak, 2001; Curriculum design for PBL, 2006; Macdonald, 2005) (a) Performance Assessments Performance assessments are tasks in which students are required to demonstrate their level of competence or knowledge by creating a product or a response. Performance assessment started from science subjects where students are required to show a skill in a hands-on situation instead of giving correct answers in a test. For example, Puan Hamidah, a secondary school teacher, finds that her students are not able to apply scientific information to everyday events. In her attempt to improve her studentsÊ application of scientific information, she focuses on everyday happenings/problems (for example: why does an ice-cube float in one cup of clear liquid and but sink in another liquid?) that her students must solve in groups and discuss as a class. 6.5 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING (PBL) 127 Then on another day, she presents another problem (for example: why do two clear liquids of the same volume, do not have the same weight?), and the students again solve it in groups and discuss as a class. How does Puan Hamidah assess her students when they are working? Puan Hamidah will walk among her students, taking notes that she will use for assessment and feedback. Performance assessments allow Puan Hamidah to assess her studentsÊ work while they are engaged in realistic problem-solving situations. (b) Systematic Observation Using Criteria Systematic observation requires teachers to specify the criteria they are assessing. By using systematic observation, the teachers are able to assess studentsÊ strengths and weaknesses and provide feedback while the students are doing authentic learning activities. Two examples are shown as follows. Example 1: Puan Hamidah wants to know if her students are using scientific problem solving. She may write the following criteria: Students are able to: (i) State problems or questions; (ii) State hypotheses; (iii) Describe the way data will be collected; (iv) Categorise and display data; and (v) Evaluate hypotheses based on the data. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING (PBL) 128 Example 2: Mr Wong, an English teacher, created the following criteria to assess his studentsÊ communication skills, as shown in Table 6.2: Table 6.2: Criteria to Assess StudentsÊ Communication Skills Criteria Good Average Poor Communication language use Language is plain and short forms are avoided. Language is unnecessarily complex. Some short forms are used. Incorrect use of terms. Clarity Language is clear. Language is clear in some parts. Language is almost always not clear. Facts and Opinion Fact and opinion are clearly given. Fact and opinion are not clearly given. Only opinion is given. (c) Checklists and Rating Scales Checklists are written descriptions of dimensions that must be present in an acceptable performance. When checklists are used, the performances are „ticked off‰ and not described as words. Rating scales are written descriptions of dimensions and contain scales of values on which each dimension is rated. Examples of a checklist and rating scales are shown in Table 6.3 and Table 6.4. Table 6.3: Example of a Checklist DIRECTIONS: Place a check in the underlined space for each step performed 1. Writes problems at the top of the report 2. Writes in a clear and easily understood language 3. Data is well collected and relevant to the problem 4. Presents data in a chart 5. Titles are written in the chart 6. Conclusion is consistent with the data in the chart Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING (PBL) 129 Table 6.4: Example of a Rating Scale and the Meaning of Each Numerical Score DIRECTIONS: Rate each of the following items by circling 4 for an excellent performance; 3 for a good performance; 2 for fair; 1 for poor and 0 for no performance 4 3 2 1 0 1. Writes problems at the top of the report 4 3 2 1 0 2. Writes in a clear and easily understood language 4 3 2 1 0 3. Data is well collected and relevant to the problem 4 3 2 1 0 4. Presents data in a chart 4 3 2 1 0 5. Titles are written in the charts 4 3 2 1 0 6. Conclusion is consistent with the data in the chart (d) Assessing Group Effort Topic 4 on cooperative learning described assessment procedures used to assess and reward students for both individual and group work. These methods can also be used for problem-based learning. (e) Other methods of assessing learning in PBL are shown in Table 6.5 (taken from Macdonald, 2005). Table 6.5: Methods of Assessing Learning in PBL Methods Description Individual presentations Students are asked to present the components of work they have researched for their contribution to the overall solution or management of the problem. Tripartite assessment Firstly, the group submits a report for which they receive a mark. Secondly, the individual submits the piece of work they researched. Finally, the individual writes an account of the group process that is linked to the work of the group. These three components are added together to form the overall individual mark. The advantage of this is that it does not privilege some students who do less work while an individual student will be responsible for gaining two-thirds of the marks. Most students perceive this kind of grading as fair. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING (PBL) 130 Case-based individual essay The student is presented with a case scenario that they respond to in the form of an essay or report. Case-based care plan based on clinical practice/client-led project Students are presented with a real-life scenario to solve or manage for a client (or a fictitious client). Portfolios Students should also be required to draw out conclusions and synthesise the materials contained in the portfolio. Triple jump Individual students are presented with a problem and expected to discuss the problem and their learning needs with an oral examiner. Students then locate research materials and later discuss their findings with the examiner. They are rated on problem-solving skills, self-directed learning skills and knowledge of the problem area. Self-assessment Self-assessment allows students to think more carefully about what they know and do not know, and what they additionally need to know to accomplish certain tasks. Peer assessment and feedback This kind of assessment emphasises the cooperative nature of the enquiry and PBL environment. Reflective journals Students hand them in or post them online each week and receive a mark at the end of each term. Reports Written communication is an important skill for students to acquire. Requiring written reports allows students to practise this form of communication and can promote critical thinking. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING (PBL) 131 1. The previous assessment methods for PBL are not exhaustive! You may already be using PBL assessment methods but are unaware of it. Can you suggest other types of assessment that are suitable for PBL? Explain. 2. Examine the following list of objectives and describe a problem that would allow the objectives to be met using PBL. (a) A music teacher wants students to understand the reasons that some sounds are considered music and other are considered noise. (b) A teacher of literature wants to study how traditions are related to literature. (c) A history teacher wants students to know the factors affecting the decision to drop the first atomic bomb on Hiroshima. (d) A history teacher wants students to understand the factors that resulted in the independence of Malaysia. (e) A science teacher wants students to understand that objects will float on a fluid if they are less dense than the fluid. (f) An art teacher wants students to understand the factors that will affect the price a painting. 3. Identify at least two areas in the subject you are teaching that can use PBL learning. Identify at least two areas in which you will find it difficult to implement PBL activities. Explain why. 4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using PBL? Share all your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 6.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING (PBL) 132 Ć Problem-based learning is designed to teach students how to pursue problems systematically; thus developing independent learners. Ć In PBL, teachers present problem situations to students and get them to investigate and find solutions on their own. Ć PBL helps students develop investigative and problem-solving skills. It also gives students an opportunity to experience „adult-type‰ roles, and it allows them to think and become self-directed learners. Ć Problem-based learning has seven sequential steps. In the first, students set up their groups. In the second step, students identify the problem. The third step is to generate ideas which would lead to discussions on the learning issues and then deciding on an action plan (step four). In the final three steps, students conduct research and apply it to the problem, evaluate the results, and analyse the process. Ć Students in PBL classrooms are actively involved in their learning, and the environment provides a measure of intellectual freedom. Ć Authentic assessments are especially useful in evaluating problem-based learning because they provide teachers with ways of assessing studentsÊ learning processes. Performance assessments, systematic observation using criteria, checklists and rating scales provide both the teachers with informative feedback about the learning progress. 1. What are some of the class management issues that may arise when conducting a PBL class? 2. What do you understand by „authentic assessment‰? 3. Why are some of common assessment methods used in traditional assessments (such as multiple-choice tests) not able to properly assess student performance in PBL? SELF-CHECK 6.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 6 CONTEMPORARY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING (PBL) 133 Ć Other methods of assessing learning in PBL includes individual presentations, tripartite assessments, case-based individual essays, casebased care plans based in clinical practice/client-led projects, portfolios, triple jumps, self-assessments, peer assessment and feedback, reflective journals and reports. Authentic assessments Didactic teaching Group setting Higher-order thinking skills Idea generation Learning issues Performance assessments Problem-based learning (PBL) Problem identification Rating scales Real-life situations Reflection and feedback Self-directed learning Synthesis and application Systematic observation checklist Arends, R. I. (2009). Learning to teach (8th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Barell, J. (2006). Problem-based learning: An inquiry approach (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Barrows, H. S. (1988). The tutorial process. Springfield, IL: Southern Illinois University of School of Medicine. Barrows, H. S. (1994). Practice-based learning: Problem-based learning applied to medical education. Springfield, IL: Southern Illinois, University School of Medicine. Barrows, H. S., & Tamblyn, R. (1980). Problem-based learning: An approach to medical education. New York, NY: Springer. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)