184 TOPIC 8 BLOOM’S TAXONOMY AND ITS APPLICATION (c) Student Portfolio The descriptions of student portfolio are as follows: (i) Three basic questions you need to ask before you decide to use a student portfolio as an assessment method are: Ć What types of evidence must be in the portfolio? Ć Should the portfolio have classroom assignment tasks or must it contain work collected by the students? Ć How will I assess the portfolio? Your learning objectives and learning outcomes should be used to help you answer the above questions. (ii) The portfolio is useful for assessing complex performance outcomes (e.g. thinking skills) and affective outcomes (e.g. attitudes) because such changes take place over time and can be difficult to see. (iii) It can also be used together with rating scales and checklist. The three domains of learning are cognitive domain, affective domain and psychomotor domain. The cognitive domain involves the development of intellectual skills. There are six major categories within the cognitive domain, which are knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. Choose a topic (or a content area) that you teach in school, then: (a) Write your Table of Specification; and (b) Detail how you will use the student portfolio as an assessment method, and why. ACTIVITY 8.5 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 BLOOM’S TAXONOMY AND ITS APPLICATION 185 The affective domain deals with emotions such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasm, motivations and attitudes. There are five major categories, which are (from the simplest behaviour to the most complex): receiving, responding, valuing, organising and characterising. The psychomotor domain includes physical movement, coordination and use of the motor-skill areas. The categories, listed from the simplest behaviour to the most complex are: imitation, manipulation and precision. Most areas of teaching will include cognitively low-level thinking skills represented by knowledge, comprehension and application. Higher level thinking skills are commonly called critical thinking, creative thinking and problem solving. These are represented by thinking skills at the analysis, synthesis and evaluation levels of the cognitive domain. Learning outcomes in the affective domain are more difficult to write than the cognitive and psychomotor domains because it involves feelings which can be difficult to observe. Stating learning objectives and/or learning outcomes is one of the most important elements in the teacherÊs planning process. Learning objectives and learning outcomes help determine your teaching approach. Learning outcomes should be stated in terms of measurable and observable behaviours. Learning outcomes play a key role in the testing of student achievements by describing the types of student behaviour or performance to be measured. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
186 TOPIC 8 BLOOM’S TAXONOMY AND ITS APPLICATION Affective domain Analysis Application BloomÊs taxonomy Characterising Checklist Cognitive domain Comprehension Evaluation Imitation Knowledge Learning objectives Learning outcomes Manipulation Organising Precision Psychomotor domain Rating scale Receiving Responding Student portfolio Synthesis Table of specification Three learning domains Valuing Anderson , L. W., & Sosniak, L. A. (Eds.). (1994). BloomÊs taxonomy: A forty-year retrospective. Ninety-third yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Pt. 2. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (Eds.). (2001). A taxonomy for learning. Teaching and assessing: A revision of BloomÊs taxonomy of educational objectives. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Bloom, B., Englehart, M., Furst, E., Hill, W., & Krathwohl, D. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. New York, NY: McKay. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 BLOOM’S TAXONOMY AND ITS APPLICATION 187 Dave, R. H. (1970). Psychomotor levels. In R. J. Armstrong, (Ed.), Developing and writing behavioral objectives, pp. 20ă21. Tucson, Arizona: Educational Innovators Press. Gronlund, N. E. (2004). Writing instructional objectives for teaching and assessment (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. Harrow, A. J. (1972). A taxonomy of the psychomotor domain: A guide for developing behavioral objectives. New York, NY: McKay. Nitko, A. J. (2004). Educational assessment of students (4th ed.). Michigan, MI: Merill. Simpson, E. J. (1972). The classification of educational objectives in the psychomotor domain. Washington, DC: Gryphon House. Writing Objectives Using BloomÊs Taxonomy. (n.d.). Retrieved August 2, 2011, from http://teaching.uncc.edu/resources/best-practice-articles/goalsobjectives/objectives-using-bloom Wilson, L. O. (2016). A succint discussion of the revision to BloomÊs classic cognitive taxonomy by Lorin Anderson and David Krathwohl and how to use them effectively. Retrieved November 5, 2017, from https://thesecondprinciple.com/wpcontent/uploads/2014/01/Anderson-and-Krathwohl-revised-10-2016.pdf Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
INTRODUCTION In the 21st century, it is especially important for your students to have higher level thinking skills and to have their intellectual capacities developed to their highest potential. What we expect from our students is that they must not only be users of new knowledge but also to contribute to new knowledge. Therefore, we do not just ensure that our students master the 3Rs (reading, writing, and arithmetic skills) but we must also emphasise thinking and scientific skills. Applying thinking skills in teaching and learning is very important in keeping with our countyÊs aim to embrace the knowledge economy (or K-economy). Topic 9 Teaching and Learning of Thinking Skills LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Define thinking; 2. Explain the roles of thinking in learning; 3. Demonstrate essential thinking skills in your own instruction; 4. Identify characteristics of critical and creative thinking skills; and 5. Discuss the assessment of thinking. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 9 TEACHING AND LEARNING OF THINKING SKILLS 189 Thinking skills can be taught and learnt ă it is possible for our students to be taught to think at a much higher level. There is a difference between low-level thinking skills and high-level thinking skills. Low-level thinking is routine and mechanistic. It uses recall and memorisation. High-level thinking challenges studentsÊ thinking abilities. Students thinking at the higher level are able to interpret, analyse, and manipulate information. They are critical of the information, ideas and opinions. They make conclusions, inferences, and generalisations. They solve problems, evaluate ideas, give opinions, and make choices and decisions. They are also creative. Critical and creative thinking are two important components of high-level thinking. It occurs when students get new information, retain and remember, organise, and relate it to existing knowledge; extending it to achieve a goal or offer solutions for complex situations. You might be asking ă „So how do I teach them all these?!‰ This topic will show you some ways to go about building your studentsÊ critical and creative thinking skills. However, first, let us look at some definitions of „thinking‰, „critical thinking‰ and „creative thinking‰ to help you better understand their meanings before you start teaching high-level thinking. DEFINITIONS OF THINKING Enis (1985) defines „thinking‰ as a problem-solving process, while Edward de Bono (2001) defines „thinking‰ as generating ideas and different ways to solve a problem. Mayer (1998) also defines thinking as a process involving the management of certain mental operations that occur in the mind that aims to solve a problem. It can be summarised that „thinking‰ is the process of using the mind to find meaning and understanding of things, to explore the possibility of ideas or inventions, to make decisions and solve problems (Johnson, 2000). 9.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
190 TOPIC 9 TEACHING AND LEARNING OF THINKING SKILLS Thinking is a process that uses the mind to solve problems. This process involves arranging ideas or things, seeking new knowledge or skills that can be used to solve challenging problems. Thinking can be defined as the process of organising information, concepts or related ideas. It should be mentioned that this process involves the use of observation, imagination, symbols, reasoning and various stimuli (Enis, 1985; de Bono, 2001). There are two main levels of thinking. The lower level involves concrete thinking, while the higher level involves abstract thinking. Concrete thinking skills are associated with memory and understanding only, while, abstract thinking is associated with higher levels of critical and creative thinking. Critical thinking is derived from the Greek word „kritikos‰ meaning „to question‰, „to understand‰, and „to analyse‰. Critical thinking is the mental ability and capacity to assess the truth and the untruth of an idea as well as the strengths and weaknesses of an argument. This includes making logical judgements. Some uses for critical thinking skills are to: (a) Compare and discriminate; (b) Review; (c) Give explanations or reasons; (d) Make predictions; (e) Check and examine theories; and (f) Make inferences. Creative thinking is the ability to use the mind to explore various possibilities, to produce something new and original. Creativity is a process to search and explore various alternatives. Creativity involves the effort to explore something new and valuable that others have never thought of yet. Some uses for creative thinking skills are to: (a) Create metaphors (figures of speech); (b) Create analogies; (c) Create definitions; Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 9 TEACHING AND LEARNING OF THINKING SKILLS 191 (d) Make predictions; (e) Write hypotheses; and (f) Design and make. The Malaysia Education Blueprint 2013ă2025 (Ministry of Education, 2013) emphasises thinking skills as one of the StudentsÊ Aspirations. Every student needs to develop skills of inquiry and learn how to continue acquiring knowledge throughout their lives, to be able to connect different pieces of knowledge and to create new knowledge. These higher-order thinking skills and the ability to innovate are especially critical in a rapidly evolving technological world. Every student needs to master a range of important cognitive skills. The Ministry of Education listed three thinking skills that should be taught to students, which are: (a) Creative thinking and innovation ă the ability to innovate, to generate new possibilities, and to create new ideas and knowledge. (b) Critical thinking and reasoning ă the ability to analyse information, anticipate problems and approach issues critically, logically, inductively, and deductively in order to find solutions and ultimately make decision; and (c) Learning capacity ă the ability to independently drive oneÊs own learning, coupled with the appreciation of the value of lifelong learning. These are the skills that need to be developed by the students, and schools need to help every student to learn the thinking skills. Let us see in the next subtopic what roles thinking plays in our learning. Why do you think higher level thinking skills are important to nation building? Share your answer with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 9.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
192 TOPIC 9 TEACHING AND LEARNING OF THINKING SKILLS ROLES OF THINKING IN LEARNING The use of critical and creative thinking skills can help a student test the truth of a matter or issue in order not to form conclusions or decisions that are wrong. Let us look at some roles critical and creative thinking play in learning. 9.2.1 Critical Thinking Critical thinking plays multiple roles in learning. It is the ability to use something that is learnt (for example concepts, theories or principles) and apply it to reality. This skill needs to be present in learning to enable students to solve problems effectively. In some cases, critical thinking is quite simple. For example, when a student goes into the shop to buy stationery, the student will consider price, purpose and other factors such as colour or size of the item. If one file has a price tag of RM10 whereas another has a price tag of RM15, the student will use that evidence as one factor in making a decision about which one to buy. This is a form of critical thinking that is common when the student goes shopping. However, critical thinking can be more complex. Your students will need critical thinking skills and abilities in learning when they: (a) Want to solve problem; (b) Need to confirm something; (c) Want to communicate with other learners; (d) Want to read and summarise; (e) Want to make sure of ideas; and (f) Want to identify relevant and irrelevant information. Moreover, critical thinking: (a) Helps to provide clarity in studentsÊ written or oral communication; (b) Gives an „overview‰ă students are better able to see things from different aspects as a whole; 9.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 9 TEACHING AND LEARNING OF THINKING SKILLS 193 (c) Plays an integral part in determining social changes, for example, in a community or society, government, schools, businesses and so forth. It is the product or the result of a way of thinking; (d) Can help prevent students from becoming too influenced by the ideas or opinions of others and help students take actions against biases and prejudices; (e) Helps students analyse possible half-truths, falsehoods and lies; (f) Enables students to accept change and also be willing to change opinions; (g) Assists students identify and distinguish between facts with opinions; and (h) Assists students to ask critical questions, makes observations in detail, avoids assumptions, and adopts a rule-based logical thinking. Students who practise critical thinking usually show some of the following characteristics: (a) Ask meaningful and crucial questions; (b) Evaluate statements and arguments; (c) Admit lack of understanding; (d) Are interested in finding new solutions; (e) Are able to define a set of criteria or analysing ideas; (f) Consider facts and evidence; (g) Carefully listen to opinions of others and are able to respond; (h) See critical thinking as a lifelong process of self-assessment and selfreflection; (i) Do not make judgments until all the facts are considered; (j) Find evidence to support assumptions and beliefs; (k) Examine a problem carefully; and (l) May reject the information if it is incorrect or not true. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
194 TOPIC 9 TEACHING AND LEARNING OF THINKING SKILLS 9.2.2 Creative Thinking Creative thinking also has multiple roles to play in learning. It allows the students to: (a) Explore alternative goals and approaches; (b) Assess and understand the problems and solutions, and be ready to change the approach; (c) Change from the abstract to the concrete, general to specific ă and vice versa; (d) Creatively use an analogy; (e) Be able to accept uncertainty; (f) Accept the risk of failure as normal; and (g) Generate ideas and new alternative approaches to doing things. Students who practise creative thinking usually show the following characteristics: (a) Have an ability to synthesise and present problems and solutions in new ways; (b) Sometimes challenge a concept or a principle; (c) Are curious and want to know how something works; (d) Seem to have „future-oriented‰ ideas. They use past and present ideas to generate new solutions or ideas; (e) Can quickly see the link between ideas; and (f) Enjoy giving unique and innovative ideas. In the next subtopics, we will look at how you can help develop critical and creative thinking in your students. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 9 TEACHING AND LEARNING OF THINKING SKILLS 195 ESSENTIAL TEACHING SKILLS: TEACHING FOR THINKING Teaching is complex and demanding! As a teacher, you are expected to do many things at the same time ă maintain class order, engage inattentive students, help students to see ideas they do not understand, and to ensure high-level thinking happens. It is not easy. Nevertheless, we want our students to be active in their learning in order to acquire these thinking skills. Let us look at some essential teaching skills that are pre-requisites to being an effective teacher. 9.3.1 Essential Teaching Skills: What are They? Whether you are teaching for thinking or teaching for understanding, there are 13 basic skills that you must possess, as shown in Figure 9.1. Figure 9.1: Basic skills in teaching for thinking or understanding 9.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
196 TOPIC 9 TEACHING AND LEARNING OF THINKING SKILLS Let us now discuss each skill in greater detail. (a) Teacher Efficacy Teacher efficacy means that the teacher believes he or she has an important effect on studentsÊ achievement (Woolfolk, 2007). A teacher with high teacher efficacy increases studentsÊ achievement by accepting the students and their ideas; uses praise; does not give up on lowachieving students and is student-centred in his teaching. A teacher with high efficacy is more flexible and uses new materials, techniques and strategies during teaching. (b) Enthusiasm If the teacher does not show excitement in the lesson or activities, then how can the teacher expect the students to be motivated to think about the problems or questions? How can a teacher expect students to be excited about learning if the teacher starts the lesson with statements such as (Woolfolk, 2007): „I think this topic is boring, but we have to learn so I will start with a question.‰ „I know you all hate mathematics.‰ „This is not my favourite topic.‰ (c) Modelling Students model (or imitate) the behaviours they observe in their teachers (Bandura, 1986). Therefore, a teacherÊs attitude and behaviour about the problem or topic is imitated by the students. The studentsÊ motivation and enthusiasm for the lesson will drop if he/she sees that the teacher himself/herself shows a lack of interest. (d) Caring Caring means that the teacher understands how the students feel. Caring teachers are committed to their studentsÊ growth and achievement (Noddings, 1995). (e) Teacher Expectations Research has shown that if the teacher believes that the students can and will learn, it will contribute towards high student achievement (Good & Brophy, 1997; Slavin, 2009). This is known as positive teacher expectations. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 9 TEACHING AND LEARNING OF THINKING SKILLS 197 Teachers must be careful not to treat high and low achieving students differently. Students „learn‰ that they have a lower ability if the teacher always asks them simple questions, leaves them out of discussions or does not interact with them as much as the high achieving students. (f) Communication The teacher must define ideas clearly and ensure that the lessons must be sequenced well, leading to a point. The teacher must also be able to communicate using transition signals, i.e. verbal statements that communicate to the students that the teacher wants to move to another idea or topic (Arends, 2009). Some examples of verbal transition signals are: „Based on what we know, let us move on to how ...,‰ „Now let us shift our thinking a little and focus on ....‰ (g) Organisation Some of the characteristics of effective organisation are: a teacher who starts on time; materials are prepared ahead; and routines that are established, for example, the students know how to collect their materials from the teacherÊs desk without being told (Arends, 2009). (h) Instructional Alignment Instructional alignment means that a teacher has objectives that match the learning activities (Cohen, 1987). For example, if a teacher wants his orher students to understand a particular concept and at the same time practise critical and creative thinking, then the instruction must achieve these objectives. The instructions, problems, questions, assignments, tests and homework must be directly related to the teacherÊs objectives. (i) Knowledge of Content A teacher must understand his or her teaching content very well and time must be spent on studying and preparing if the teacher is not familiar with the content (Shulman, 1991). (j) Review and Closure Review summarises what has been taught before and forms a link to what has been learnt and what is coming in the next lesson (Arends, 2009). Closure is a form of review at the end of the current lesson. The closure is important because it is the last thing that the students take away from the class, and if the concepts/ideas are not clear, then the students may have misconceptions that can be difficult to remove (Arends, 2009). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
198 TOPIC 9 TEACHING AND LEARNING OF THINKING SKILLS (k) Ability to Question Well A teacher who uses questioning helps students to see connections between the difficult ideas that they are studying, and consequently, helps relate them to real-world situations. Questioning also fosters interaction between teacher and students, and among students themselves (Eggen & Kauchak, 2001). (l) Provide a Climate for Thinking Teaching for thinking requires supporting elements. Some examples as to how a teacher can create a supporting and intellectual climate are (Eggen & Kauchak, 2001): (i) Provide students with information and begin the lesson with an openended type of question that will not shame the students or make them feel inadequate. (ii) Provide a climate of cooperation rather than competition. (iii) Avoid any comparisons of studentsÊ performances. (iv) Use words of praise to show improvement and not ability, for example: „Very good, everyone.‰ „You have shown good use of the information to support your idea...‰ „You have all improved a lot ...‰ (v) Point out that high achievement is not through high grades or scores only but through improvement and progress. (m) Increase StudentsÊ Motivation A teacher who increases the studentsÊ critical and creative thinking also increases the studentsÊ motivation and self esteem (Woolfolk, 2007). Why? The student feels independent, in control, competent and has higher achievement compared to students who are passive and who are taught passively (e.g. using lectures). Students feel motivated when they are able to say what they think rather than just giving memorised correct answers. Can you think of any other essential thinking skills that are important? Share and discuss with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 9.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 9 TEACHING AND LEARNING OF THINKING SKILLS 199 TEACHING OF CRITICAL AND CREATIVE THINKING We have looked at how important it is for teachers to possess essential skills for teaching thinking. Now we look at some strategies to help develop studentsÊ critical and creative thinking. 9.4.1 Strategies for Teaching Critical Thinking In teaching critical thinking, four elements are important. Therefore, it is important that before you begin to build your studentsÊ skills in critical thinking, you should bear in mind the following (summarised and adapted from Potts, 1994): (a) Students who learn in groups often help each other achieve more. Therefore, promoting interaction helps students learn more. (b) Asking questions with no „right‰ answer encourage students to think. They are encouraged to provide answers with no fear of giving the „wrong‰ answers. Therefore, teachers should prepare open-ended type of questions. Some examples of these types of questions are: (i) What are the similarities and differences between... and...? (ii) How can we categorise...? (iii) What are the main ideas in...? (iv) How do you know...? (v) Why did you choose...? (vi) What is the evidence to support your conclusions? (vii) What happens when⁄? (viii) What interpretation can we make about...? (c) Critical thinking requires students to have enough time to reflect on the questions asked or the problems given. Therefore, teachers should give them enough time to think before giving the answers. (d) Critical thinking is used in other areas besides school subjects. Therefore, the teacher should provide opportunities for the students to see how critical thinking skills can be used in other situations in real life. 9.4 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
200 TOPIC 9 TEACHING AND LEARNING OF THINKING SKILLS Basically, there are three strategies that you can use to build your studentsÊ skills in critical thinking, as shown in Figure 9.2. Figure 9.2: Strategies to build studentsÊ skills in critical thinking Source: Adapted from Potts (1996) Let us take a look at the strategies one by one. (a) Building Categories Strategy This strategy helps students categorise information by discovery rather than memorising facts. Such active learning results in better understanding of the concepts and related materials. For example: Distinguishing animals from plants. Students work in two groups (Animal Group and Plant Group). Worksheets are prepared in advance. The worksheets ask for information about lifespan, energy sources, mobility, anatomy, etc., of several different animals and plants. Once the information is collected, it is compiled into large wall charts (one for animals, one for plants). At this point, some questions are asked: What are the similarities of each group? What are the differences between the two groups? How could the following statement be completed: „An animal is different from a plant because...‰ The teacher provides appropriate feedback throughout, using open-ended questions to help students identify inadequate or inaccurate categories. Finally, the students are allowed to look at new information and to recategorise in appropriate categories. The strategy is described here in the context of a science problem but can be used in other discipline and with more abstract categories. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 9 TEACHING AND LEARNING OF THINKING SKILLS 201 (b) Finding Problems Strategy Sometimes the problems presented in the classroom (especially in Mathematics and Science) are different from the way problems exist in real life. In fact, one of the most important practical thinking skills a student can learn is knowing how to identify a problem. The finding problems strategy is a way of putting problems in such a way that students use skills to solve the problems they may face in real life. The problem should be clearly stated and solvable. Consider the following physics problem: Brian, all 72kg of him, bungee jumps from a 100m tower toward the river below. He falls 35m before the bungee cord starts to stretch. This cord can stretch 40 per cent of its length and has a breaking strength of 7,000N. Will this become a „free fall‰ for Brian, or will he bounce back? Teachers can help students learn to solve problems of this type by first providing them with a set of general questions, such as: How are the objects and situations in the problem similar to any objects or situations that have already been discussed? Which variables are already in physics terms and which can be converted to Physics terms? Are all of the pieces of information in the problem relevant to its solution? A few groups can do the same problem and then share their solutions with others. In this way, each student can learn different ways of solving the problem. (c) Enhancing the Environment The layout of the classroom can encourage studentsÊ use of critical thinking. First, the seating is arranged so that the students and teacher can see each other, and every student faces each other. Second, visual aids in the classroom can encourage ongoing attention to critical thought processes, e.g. posting signs that say, „Why do I think that?‰ „Is it fact or opinion?‰ „How are these two things alike?‰ „What would happen if...?‰ The suggestions that follow should question and remind students how they should go about answering them. Most importantly, as the students move through the curriculum in a given subject, their attention can be directed periodically to the appropriate signs. In this way, the signs emphasise the idea of transfer by showing that many of the same thinking strategies and skills apply to different topics and problems. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
202 TOPIC 9 TEACHING AND LEARNING OF THINKING SKILLS 9.4.2 Strategies for Teaching Creative Thinking Can creative thinking be taught? Yes! Although there are some strategies that you can use to help students learn to use creative thinking, you must also change some aspects of your pedagogical instruction, for example: (a) You need to be more flexible and less restrictive in your class; (b) You need to create more open-ended questions; (c) Do not always accept one answer to be correct ă have different student responses; and (d) Allow students the freedom to give their thoughts and ideas. Figure 9.3 explains three strategies that you can use to teach creative thinking. Figure 9.3: Strategies to teach creative thinking You are encouraged to research on the Internet to look at other good strategies to develop critical thinking. Share your findings with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 9.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 9 TEACHING AND LEARNING OF THINKING SKILLS 203 Let us discuss the strategies in greater detail now. (a) Brainstorming Brainstorming is often used to identify new ideas or alternatives. Brainstorming is a way to generate new ideas or to „move‰ alternatives around. New opinions or ideas are created in the form of fresh information that has not been screened or studied carefully. These opinions and ideas may be rejected or accepted. Brainstorming is a strategy to create and produce many ideas in a short period of time. It can work well if group members know each other and have trust among each other. One thing to remember about brainstorming is that it seeks to create new ideas, and not to judge an idea. Before a brainstorming session, make sure each team member understands the topics to be discussed. Do not give too much information. Limit the time for brainstorming. Giving a time limit will encourage the students to be more creative and spontaneous. Encourage students to give ideas and do not force those who are shy. The results and ideas from a brainstorming session will be used to make other decisions, and these decisions will be discussed again in other sessions. (b) Mind Mapping A mind map is a way to represent ideas graphically. It is a visual thinking tool to help students structure information. Mind mapping imitates the brain in how information is structured in the brain. As mind mapping is a graphical way of putting thoughts on paper, students will find greater enjoyment, and it can be fun! Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
204 TOPIC 9 TEACHING AND LEARNING OF THINKING SKILLS Research has shown that using mind mapping can trigger the studentsÊ creativity. Figure 9.4 shows an example of a mind map. Figure 9.4: An example of a mind map Source: http://litemind.com/what-is-mind-mapping It is very simple to draw a mind map. Here is how: (i) It is easier to use a landscape orientation page to give more space; (ii) Start in the middle of the page ă write or draw a picture of the issue/problem to be developed; (iii) Build related subtopics around the main issue/problem. Connect each of these related subtopics to the middle with a line; (iv) Continue to build more lower-level subtopics from this first level; Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 9 TEACHING AND LEARNING OF THINKING SKILLS 205 (v) Use as many colours or diagrams to represent your thoughts. Keep labels short, or use pictures. Play with different sizes of text, colour and alignment; and (vi) Encourage your students to have fun and let their creativity run free. You will be surprised at what your students can do with a mind map. (c) Use Questions (taken and adapted from Fisher, 2006) Some question cues can help students think creatively. Examples of question cues: (i) What might happen if ⁄ (if not)? (ii) Can you imagine⁄? (iii) Suggest an improvement on ⁄: (iv) How many kinds of ⁄ can you think of? (v) Think of five ways of/questions to ask about/reasons for ⁄ (vi) List ten things you could do with ⁄ (a shape, picture, object, photo, story etc.) (vii) What can we add ⁄ (e.g. to a word, phrase, sentence, story, picture, design) (viii) What can we change ⁄ (e.g. to make it different, more interesting) (ix) What is another way to ⁄ (e.g. solve problem, investigate a mystery) (x) What is interesting about ⁄ (xi) What shall we do next ⁄? Some question cues to use if you want your students to think of new ideas, unique solutions, and design original plans are: (i) Design a game for ⁄ (ii) Invent a way to ⁄ (iii) Think of a way to improve ⁄ (an object, game, story, plan etc.) „Creativity cannot be left to chance; it must be valued, encouraged and expected ă and seen as essential to all teaching and learning‰ (Fisher, 2006). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
206 TOPIC 9 TEACHING AND LEARNING OF THINKING SKILLS Many curriculum documents often refer to „critical‰ and „creative‰ thinking as if they were two different high-level thinking skills. You are often asked to build your studentsÊ critical and creative thinking as if these two high-level thinking skills are separate learning outcomes. This is not correct. Why? When we ask our students to consider something significant (for example ă to make predictions and recommendations, give evidence, and so on), we usually ask questions such as „What explanation can you give?‰ or „What solutions do you need to consider?‰ or „What else do you need to do?‰ Such questions require critical thinking and involve creative thinking at the same time! Therefore, these two high-level thinking skills should be viewed as a whole and not as separate thinking activities. 1. If you would like more suggestions to help enhance your studentsÊ creative thinking, look for resources on the Internet. 2. Reflect on your teaching where your students used both critical and creative thinking skills to learn. How did you feel? Share your findings in Question 1 and answer in Question 2 with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 9.4 1. Describe some of the essential teaching skills a teacher should have to enable effective teaching for thinking. 2. Explain the roles of thinking skills in your studentsÊ learning. How can it help your students? SELF-CHECK 9.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 9 TEACHING AND LEARNING OF THINKING SKILLS 207 ASSESSING THINKING It is not easy to assess critical and creative thinking. However, the use of criteria and indicators is one way to assess critical and creative skills. Table 9.1 shows some examples of criteria and indicators that can be used to assess critical thinking while Table 9.2 shows some examples of the criteria and indicators that can be used to assess creative thinking. As a teacher, you can add on to the indicators that are relevant to the subject that you are assessing. Table 9.1: Criteria and Indicators to Assess Critical Thinking Assessment Criteria (Critical Thinking) Possible Indicators Objectivity Objectivity is the ability to make judgements based on reality or actual facts and is not controlled or influenced by studentsÊ own feelings or prejudices Methods and/or procedures are selected according to the task Critical thinking skills are selected according to the task Arguments, reasoning, discussions are evidence based Accuracy Accuracy is the ability to make accurate assessments Methods and/or procedures are performed correctly Arguments and reasoning are supported by accurate facts based on data and information Sources of information or data have integrity Persistency Persistency is not only the ability to maintain the position or opinion but also the ability to consider the opinions of others to ensure the accuracy and validity. Confident of the methods and steps used to come to a conclusion Provide accurate evidence Provide evidence to support position or opinion Source: Adapted from Osman & Goh (2010) 9.5 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
208 TOPIC 9 TEACHING AND LEARNING OF THINKING SKILLS Table 9.2: Criteria and Indicators to Assess Creative Thinking Assessment Criteria (Critical Thinking) Possible Indicators Fluency Fluency is the ability to generate many ideas, opinions and views and present them through oral, written or graphic means Ideas generated are related to the task. The ideas may not be completely accurate, but they are logical. Ideas are presented in either a diagram representing a lot of ideas or a lot of diagrammes representing many ideas. Flexibility Flexibility is the ability to expand or diversify the ideas/opinions, in many ways. Ideas may be expanded Ideas can be modified Various explanations/rationale of the ideas associated with the task Various examples related to the task Clarity Clarity is the ability to describe the ideas, opinions, views and ideas in detail or systematically. The idea is described in detail The idea is structured well and easily understood Diagrams are labelled well Source: Adapted from Osman & Goh (2010) Other methods to assess critical and creative thinking are observation, oral presentation, and essays. The selection of methods used to assess depends on the learning objectives to be evaluated. By using a combination of different methods, assessment of the studentsÊ critical and creative achievement will be more accurate. 1. What is meant by high-level thinking skills. 2. Why is it important for students to develop their critical and creative thinking? SELF-CHECK 9.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 9 TEACHING AND LEARNING OF THINKING SKILLS 209 Thinking is a mental activity that involves the process of building knowledge and understanding. When a student is thinking, the brain will react to understand what is being received through the different senses. Thinking involves forming concepts and making interpretations based on the existing experiences in oneÊs memory. Critical thinking skills include the ability to interpret and evaluate data, ideas and information in order to find meaning or to solve problems. It covers skills such as comparing and contrasting, summarising, making decisions, analysing, making inferences and solving problems. Creative thinking skills include the ability to expand and develop oneÊs imagination, creativity and innovation with the aim of getting a new idea or an original creation. Creative thinking produces and generates innovative ideas or inventions, such as creating metaphors, analogies, or definitions. The teaching and learning approaches that use critical and creative thinking requires techniques and strategies that can help develop your studentsÊ thinking abilities. Ways to assess high-level thinking skills are to use criteria and indicators, student presentations, oral tests and essays. 1. Discuss with your coursemates some key challenges in implementing both critical and creative thinking skills in your lessons. Can you suggest how you can overcome these challenges? 2. Create a mind map of the various steps you will take to apply both critical and creative thinking skills. 3. When do you think teachers should begin focusing on critical and creative thinking in students? Should it begin in pre-school or later? Why? Share all your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 9.5 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
210 TOPIC 9 TEACHING AND LEARNING OF THINKING SKILLS Ability to question well Brainstorming Build categories strategy Caring Communication Creative thinking Critical thinking Enhancing the environment Enthusiasm Essential thinking skills Finding problems strategy High-level thinking skills Increase student motivation Instructional alignment Knowledge of content Low-level thinking skills Mind mapping Modelling Organisation Provide a climate for thinking Review and closure Teacher efficacy Teacher expectations Thinking Use questions Arends, R. I. (2009). Learning to teach (8th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Cohen, S. (1987). Instructional alignment: Searching for a magic bullet. Educational Researcher, 16(8), 16ă20. de Bono, E. (2001). Pemikiran praktikal: Membincangkan cara-cara praktikal bagi pemikiran yang betul. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Golden Books Centre Sdn. Bhd. Eggen, P. D., & Kauchak, D. P. (2001). Strategies for teachers: Teaching content and thinking skills. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 9 TEACHING AND LEARNING OF THINKING SKILLS 211 Ennis, R. H. (1985). A logical basis for measuring critical thinking skills. Educational Leadership, 43(2), 44ă88. Fisher, R. (in press). Expanding minds: Developing creativity in young learners. CATS: The IATEFL young learners SIG journal. Spring 2006. Retrieved July 28, 2011, from http://www.teachingthinking.net/thinking/ web%20resources/robert_fisher_expandingminds.htm Good, T., & Brophy, J. (1997). Looking in classrooms (7th ed.). New York, NY: Harper Collins. Johnson, A. P. (2000). Up and out: Using creative and critical thinking skills to enhance learning. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Mayer, R. (1998). Cognitive theory for education: What teachers need to know. In N. Lambert, & B. McCombs (Eds.), How students learn: Reforming schools through learner-centered education (pp. 353ă378). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Ministry of Education. (2013). Malaysia Education Blueprint 2013ă2025. Putrajaya, Malaysia: Ministry of Education. Noddings, N. (1995). Teaching the themes of care. Phi Delta Kappan, 76, 680ă685. Osman, R., & Goh, P. S. C. (2010). Pengajaran kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi (KBAT). Unpublished Module, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris. Potts, B. (1994). Strategies for teaching critical thinking. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 4(3). Retrieved July 28, 2011, from http://PAREonline.net/getvn.asp?v=4&n=3 Slavin, R. E. (2009). Educational psychology: Theory and practice (9th ed.). New Jersey, NJ: Pearson Education. Shulman, L. S. (1991). „Ways of seeing, ways of knowing: Ways of teaching, ways of learning about teaching.‰ Journal of Curriculum Studies 23(5), 393ă395. What is mind mapping? (and how to get started immediately). Retrieved July 28, 2011, from http://litemind.com/what-is-mind-mapping/ Woolfolk, A. (2007). Educational psychology (10th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
INTRODUCTION Students who are motivated are more dedicated and committed to their studies compared to the students who are not motivated. Students who are motivated are also those who take an interest in learning (Slavin, 2009). They will listen and give full attention to the lessons. They are active both inside and outside the classroom and are ready to receive instructions from their teachers. They may be self-reliant and prefer to give their views and opinions in the classroom. Such students have the drive within them to excel academically and in life overall. Topic 10 Motivation and Learning LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Identify theories related to motivation; 2. Explain general principles of motivation; 3. Describe the roles of motivation in teaching and learning; and 4. Use strategies to motivate learning. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 10 MOTIVATION AND LEARNING 213 On the other hand, some students are completely demotivated during the teaching process in classrooms and hence have no interest in schoolwork at all. These students become easily bored and are not attentive to the teacher. Sometimes it is an uphill task to get these students involved in learning and to maintain their interest in the matters being studied. No matter how difficult it may be to motivate your students, motivation is very important, and it is up to you to encourage and motivate your students so that their learning can be more effective and enjoyable. This topic will try to help you look at the application of motivational elements in planning and teaching. SOME THEORIES RELATED TO MOTIVATION The term motivation comes from the word „movers‰ which means „to move‰. Motivation drives a person to do something to achieve or to obtain success. It determines the direction and effectiveness of learning. In teaching and learning, motivation is regarded as a critical component that enables students to be actively involved, while making the learning process meaningful, beneficial and enjoyable. Let us take a look at some of the theories that have played a big role in understanding motivation. Table 10.1 describes some of the theories related to motivation. 10.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
214 TOPIC 10 MOTIVATION AND LEARNING Table 10.1: Theories of Motivation and Their Descriptions Theories Related to Motivation Description Behaviourist theory (i) Behaviourist theory focuses on the positive and negative reinforcements used by teachers. Refer to Topic 2 for information about behaviourist theories. (ii) In summary, if a student receives positive reinforcement, he is most likely to repeat a behaviour in the future. This means that the student has been motivated after receiving positive reinforcement. Positive reinforcement is able to motivate students to provide good work. Teachers also need to be sincere in providing any positive reinforcement. (iii) Slavin (2009) believes that this theory cannot totally explain human behaviour because human motivation is complex and influenced by the personal nature of the situation and the individual. For example, if you are hungry and there is a bowl of rice in front of you, you can choose not to eat the rice because you prefer fried noodles. (iv) Motivation requires strong incentives and/or motives that will lead to changes in behaviour to achieve desired goals. Incentives are positive or negative stimuli that motivate behaviour. Incentive is an extrinsic stimulus that makes a person acts. Salary or wages provides a strong incentive for an employee to work hard. Students work hard because they are interested in the prize that will be awarded. Getting high marks is also another incentive for students to work hard. Motive, on the other hand, comes from a natural impulse or interest that is able to affect thoughts, emotions and behaviour. Motive drives certain actions. What does this mean? First, motive is something that causes a person to act in a certain way or do a certain thing. A studentÊs motive for studying hard would be to get good grades. Second, motive acts as a behaviour to select the activity that interests the student. For example, Hamid likes to visit the library to find new resources for his homework, but Chok Kan likes to visit the library because he gets to use the computers there to surf the Internet. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 10 MOTIVATION AND LEARNING 215 Cognitivist theory (i) From the cognitive theoristsÊ perspective, a student who shows excellence in academic performance is driven by internal factors ă such as to experience success or to feel useful. A studentÊs perception and opinion about an activity or event affects his behaviour. (ii) Students with high achievement motivation tend to be independent and are responsible for their own success and failure in learning ă they take moderate risks, plan for the future and do not like wasting time. Students with high achievement motivation tend to approach goals and have a tendency to avoid failure. (iii) Atkinson (1964) suggests that teachers design tasks based on student achievement motivation. A variety of tasks is necessary to conform to the level of achievement motivation: Students with high achievement motivation and a low level of fear of failure, prefer to try difficult tasks ă the appropriate response of the teacher is to give them activities/tasks that are challenging. Students with low achievement motivation, prefer easier tasks ă the response of the teacher is break down the task into smaller manageable levels. (v) WeinerÊs attribution theory (1992) explains that motivation has a goal of understanding why things happen. The theory is the beliefs about the factors that lead to success or failure. People usually attribute the factors of success or failure to their ability, effort, luck and hard work. Some people link the success they have to their abilities. Some consider their failure due to the lack of effort. Some are successful because they believe in good luck while others believe that they failed because their abilities are lacking. Students who believe that their success is due to their ability, and their failure is due to the lack of effort, usually have high achievement motivation. Students who depend on their luck and believe that their failure is caused by the weakness of their capabilities are those who have low achievement motivation. Weiner (1992) showed that students are most likely to feel satisfied when they reach goals they have set themselves, rather than when they reach goals set by others. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
216 TOPIC 10 MOTIVATION AND LEARNING Cognitivist theory (contÊd) Weiner believes that teachers who know how to place studentsÊ attribution of success or failures are able to assist the studentsÊ performance. For example, Devi believes that she passed her physics examination because she studied very hard for it. On the other hand, Kassim believes he failed because his teacher was unfair in the marking. Therefore, teachers can help change perceptions of students towards success. Teachers can help students recognise the relationship between effort and ability as ability develops before effort. Humanistic theory (i) Basically, this theory holds the belief that students are born with the desire to strive and to fulfil the potential that lies within themselves. (ii) The concept of „self-efficacy‰ by Bandura (1994) is that an individual believes that he or she is in control of a situation and is able to produce something positive. This basic theory can help teachers shape their studentsÊ perception of their own abilities. According to Bandura, each individual can be encouraged towards self-confidence and a high perception of his ability through „verbal persuasion‰ ă that is, a teacher can use verbal persuasion to encourage students. According to Bandura also, if an individual has succeeded in the same task in the past, he is more likely to believe he will succeed in the tasks in the present and the future, and vice versa. People seek others with whom to compare their abilities, opinions, and emotions. This is called affiliation (or a „connection with‰). Affiliation can also result in reducing anxiety because people feel that others accept them. However, these motivators can also lead to conformity, competition, and other behaviours that may seem as negative. Therefore, teachers need to encourage studentsÊ sense of competence, self-esteem, autonomy and self-fulfilment. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 10 MOTIVATION AND LEARNING 217 Humanistic theory (contÊd) (iii) Maslow (1968) describes his theory of motivation through the hierarchy of needs. Figure 10.1 shows the hierarchy of needs. It shows the different priority needs to be fulfilled to achieve a balanced state of homeostasis (state of equilibrium) or for a person to be comfortable or to feel safe. Figure 10.1: MaslowÊs hierarchy of needs Love/belonging includes being loved by parents or accepted by studentsÊ peers in the group. Esteem includes being praised when successful in the examinations, given gifts during birthdays, or praised if dressed well. Self-actualisation means someone wants to meet his/her maximum potential in life. What are the theories of motivation? SELF-CHECK 10.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
218 TOPIC 10 MOTIVATION AND LEARNING GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF MOTIVATION Basic principles of motivation apply to learning in any situation. Much has been written about the basic principles of motivation. However, the summary by Weller (2005) has been found to be the most complete and concise. Therefore the following principles of motivation have been taken and adapted from Weller (2005). It is important to remember that general principle of motivation are interrelated. A single teaching action can make use of many of them together. (a) Create a Conducive Environment Teachers need to create a warm and accepting learning environment to encourage effort and good attitudes towards learning. Interesting visual aids, such as booklets, posters, or practice equipment are able to motivate students by capturing their attention and curiosity. (b) Incentives Motivate Learning Incentives include privileges and receiving praise from the teacher. The teacher decides what kinds of incentive that is likely to motivate a student at a particular time. In a general learning situation, self-motivation without rewards will not succeed. Students must find satisfaction in learning because they know that learning will give them an understanding of a particular material or concept. In addition, they must also obtain enjoyment when exploring new things. Figure 10.2 describes seven factors in incentives to motivate learning. 10.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 10 MOTIVATION AND LEARNING 219 Figure 10.2: Factors to motivate learning Let us discuss the factors in detail. (i) Self-motivation is longer lasting than external motivation, which must be continuously reinforced by praise or physical rewards Some students need to be guided and reinforced by praise because they lack self-motivation. Although the use of incentives is based on the principle that learning occurs more effectively when the student experiences feelings of satisfaction, caution should be exercised in using physical rewards when they are not absolutely necessary. Their use may be followed by a decline in self-motivation. (ii) Learning is most effective when the student is ready to learn Sometimes studentsÊ readiness to learn comes with time, and a teacher must be there to encourage them. (iii) Motivation is enhanced when the teacher is well-prepared and lessons well-conducted Teaching materials need to be meaningful to the students. One instructional method is to relate new tasks to those that the students already know. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
220 TOPIC 10 MOTIVATION AND LEARNING Normally, students will choose activities of moderate difficulty rather than those that are difficult (less chance of success) or very easy (high chance of success). If the studentÊs goal is to achieve high standards, then the student will not choose difficult tasks. So teachers need to help students define and better understand those goals in order to reach them. However, students sometimes have unrealistic ideas about what they can accomplish. Sometimes students do not understand the necessary skills that are needed to carry out a learning activity. To identify realistic goals, teachers must be skilled in assessing a studentÊs progress and readiness for reaching those goals. (iv) Because learning requires changes in beliefs and behaviour, it normally produces a mild level of anxiety (or stress) This is useful in motivating a student. However, severe anxiety is not good. Teachers must be able to identify anxiety and understand its effect on learning. They also have a responsibility to avoid causing severe anxiety in students when they set unclear or unrealistically high goals for them. (v) It is important to help each student set goals and to provide informative feedback regarding progress towards their goals Setting a goal demonstrates an intention to achieve and activates learning from one day to the next. It also directs the studentÊs activities towards the goal and offers an opportunity to experience success. (vi) Affiliation is a strong motivator Students seek peers with whom to compare their abilities, opinions, and emotions. Affiliation can also result in less anxiety because of social acceptance. However, these motivators can also lead to conformity, competition and other behaviours that may seem as negative. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 10 MOTIVATION AND LEARNING 221 (vii) Many behaviours result from a combination of motives Motivation is necessary for learning. Therefore, strategies should be planned to allow continuous motivational factors into teaching and learning. The following are some suggestions for the design of teaching that are found in motivational write-ups and be used together with the general principles of motivation (Pintrich, 2003): (a) Provide clear and accurate feedback regarding competence and selfefficacy, focusing on the development of competence, expertise, and skills; (b) Design tasks that offer opportunities to be successful but also challenge students; (c) Provide feedback that stresses the natural processes of learning, including the importance of effort, strategies, and potential self-control of learning; (d) Provide opportunities to exercise some choice and control; (e) Build supportive and caring personal relationships in the community of learners in the classroom; (f) Provide stimulating and interesting tasks, activities, and materials, including some novelty and variety in tasks and activities; (g) Provide content materials and tasks that are personally meaningful and interesting to students; (h) Display and model interest and involvement in the content and activities; (i) Provide tasks, materials, and activities that are relevant and useful to students, allowing for some personal identification with school; (j) Classroom discourse should focus on the importance and utility of content and activities; (k) Use organisational and management structures that encourage personal and social responsibility, and provide a safe, comfortable, and predictable environment; Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
222 TOPIC 10 MOTIVATION AND LEARNING (l) Use cooperative and collaborative groups that allow for opportunities to attain both social and academic goals; (m) Classroom discourse should focus on the mastery, learning, and understanding of the course and lesson content; and (n) Use tasks, rewards, and evaluation structures that promote mastery, learning, effort, progress, and self-improvement standards and less reliance on social comparison or norm-referenced standards. ROLES OF MOTIVATION IN TEACHING AND LEARNING Some important roles of motivation in teaching and learning are shown in Figure 10.3. Figure 10.3: Three important roles of motivation in teaching and learning Let us now take a look at the roles one by one. (a) The Fundamental Aspect of Motivation is to Help the Students to Start The first step to success is simply to start. Unfortunately, the first step is the hardest to take. The students might be just lazy, or they will feel like there are many obstacles that they need to overcome. Whatever it is, students need the teacher as a catalyst (facilitator) and need to be motivated. They will start at their own will when they are highly motivated. 10.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 10 MOTIVATION AND LEARNING 223 (b) The Progressive Section of Motivation is to Help the Students Move on in Difficult Times Once the student starts, their journey begins. They will face problems and difficulties along the way. For some students, facing the failures along the way may discourage them. They may even stop trying. Therefore, it becomes important for teachers to continuously motivate them when they face difficult time and to encourage them in their learning. (c) The Interesting Part of Motivation is to Help the Students Finish Their Job Accordingly Some students face a situation whereby they are trying to achieve something important, but suddenly they feel like stopping. Many factors can cause students to feel this way. Some of the reasons may be: (i) They are afraid because they do not know the outcome of their success or failure; and (ii) They are afraid of the amount of work needed. The amount of work that increases with their success could discourage them. Therefore, teachers can greatly encourage and motivate them. Students who are motivated do not fear work or will not become easily discouraged. STRATEGIES TO MOTIVATE LEARNING Some strategies to motivate learning (adapted from Davies, 1999) are shown in Figure 10.4. Figure 10.4: Strategies to motivate learning 10.4 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
224 TOPIC 10 MOTIVATION AND LEARNING The following (also refer to Tables 10.2, 10.3, 10.4, and 10.5) describe the strategies to motivate learning in detail. (a) Integrating Teaching and Learning Activities to Motivate Students Table 10.2 explains the teaching and learning activities to motivate the students. Table 10.2: Teaching and Learning Activities to Motivate Students Teaching and Learning Activity Description Maintain a high but realistic standard Research has shown that studentsÊ expectations can be affected by the teachersÊ behaviour. Students are more likely to be involved eagerly in classroom activities if the teacher behaves as though he wants them to succeed. Therefore, have realistic hopes for students when you are preparing your lessons and activities and when grading them. In this context, the definition of „realistic‰ is to be able to push students with a reasonable expectation so that they can enjoy doing their best rather than being frustrated in doing the task. You need to give early chances for success so that your students are encouraged to achieve more. Guide students to build their own achievable targets The student will feel like giving up when they do not succeed in reaching an unrealistic goal. Have your students pay attention to their selfimprovement and not to „score‰ on a classroom test. Encourage your students to check their tasks to keep them on track of their own improvement. For example, consider having students to submit selfevaluation forms with one or two assignments. Inform students what is expected of them Students need to know what is expected of them or else they will be aimless. If they do not understand something, they should ask. Reinforce students to self-motivate Avoid instructions that encourage extrinsic rewards. Instead of saying, „I require,‰ „You must,‰ or „You should,‰ say „I think you will find⁄‰ or „I will be interested in your reaction‰, etc. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 10 MOTIVATION AND LEARNING 225 Avoid creating too much competition among students Competition produces stress, which can disturb student learning. Try to reduce studentsÊ tendency to compare themselves to one another in any assignments given by the teacher. Students are more attentive, display better comprehension, and produce more work when they work cooperatively in groups rather than compete with one another. Teachers must not criticise studentsÊ performance in front of their friends. Be excited about your subject If you become bored with the subject, your students will be bored too. Challenge yourself to design the most exciting way to present the subject material. (b) Teachers Need to Create Lessons that Motivate Students Table 10.3 lists some strategies to create lessons that motivate students. Table 10.3: Strategies to Create Lessons that Motivate Students Strategies Description Prepare to interest students The teacher should find out how they feel about the subject matter, and what they expect from their students. Then try to devise examples, case studies, or homework or assignments that relate the contents to studentsÊ interests and experiences. When possible, let students have some say in choosing what they will be studying Sometimes, let students decide their own learning. For example, let them select which topics to explore in greater depth. Increase the difficulty of the material as you go along Teachers should give students opportunities to succeed at the beginning of the school term. Once students feel they can succeed, the teacher can slowly increase the difficulty level. Vary your teaching methods You can break your teaching routine by using a variety of teaching activities such as role-playing, debates, brainstorming, discussion, demonstrations, case studies, audiovisual presentations, guest speakers or small group work. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
226 TOPIC 10 MOTIVATION AND LEARNING (c) Tests, Marks and Grades to Motivate Students Table 10.4 lists some factors in using tests, marks and grades to motivate the students. Table 10.4: Using Tests, Marks and Grades to Motivate the Students Factors Description Design tests that encourage the kind of learning you want students to achieve If you always test on memorising details, your students will focus on memorising facts. If your tests ask them to synthesise and evaluate the information they have acquired, students will practise those skills when they study. Avoid using grades as threats The fear of low grades may get some students to work hard, but other students may be worried about grades that they cheat and give excuses for late work. (d) Teachers Need to Give Feedback During Lessons to Motivate Students Table 10.5 explains some factors in giving feedback during lessons to motivate students. Table 10.5: Some Factors in Giving Lesson Feedback to Motivate the Students Factors Description Give students feedback as quickly as possible Teachers must return tests as soon as possible. The teacher must also give feedback about how well students have done or how to improve. Rewards can be as simple as saying „Good work‰ or mentioning the names of the students. Reward success Both positive and negative comments influence motivation, but students are more encouraged by positive feedback and success. Praise helps studentsÊ self-confidence, competence, and self-esteem. If a studentÊs performance is poor, let the student know that you believe he or she can improve and succeed over time. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 10 MOTIVATION AND LEARNING 227 Be specific when giving negative feedback If you identify a studentÊs mistake, make it clear that your comments are about the task or performance, not to the student as a person. Avoid discouraging comments. Assist students with their homework problems By working the problem with the students, they will experience a sense of achievement and confidence that will help increase their motivation to learn. (e) Educational Implications of Motivational Theories It is necessary to know that for any learning to happen, motivational strategies (like those stated above) should be included in your overall teaching and learning plan. However, specific motivational strategies may have to be included at the beginning of learning, during learning, and at the end of learning (Elliot, Kratochwill, Cook & Travers, 2000). There are two key motivational factors involved at the beginning of learning: attitudes and needs. Attitude is about studentsÊ feeling about themselves (confidence, esteem), their school, their teacher and their subject. Teachers need to identify what is exactly causing studentsÊ positive or negative attitudes. Teachers need to be concerned about studentsÊ needs such as hunger, feeling safe, reducing fears and anxiety. The key motivational factor during learning is stimulation. Teachers must ask themselves if their teaching and teaching materials contain elements that attract (or detract) students. Are the materials stimulating enough to motivate students towards achievement? The key motivational factors involved at the end of learning are competence and reinforcement. A teacher should help the students achieve competence by making sure that they have the skills necessary to achieve their learning goals. Remember to use reinforcement as soon as possible. Teachers can also reinforce while students are still learning. Reinforce with small amounts rather than large amounts. Reinforcers such as praise, rewards, points, etc. can be used, but be careful that reinforcers do not become meaningless to the students. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
228 TOPIC 10 MOTIVATION AND LEARNING Student motivation has to do with the studentsÊ need to be involved in his or her learning process. Motivation is the reason or goal that influences students towards their involvement or non-involvement in their academic activities. Although students may be motivated to do a task, how they are motivated can be different. 1. What role does motivation play in a multi-ability learning classroom? 2. How can assessment improve studentsÊ motivation? 3. What motivates you? How does your personal motivation compare with your classroom techniques? 4. Fill in as many motivational strategies for one of your lessons based on the learning period. Time Period Motivational Strategies Beginning: When students enter the classroom and start learning. During: When students are involved in the main content of the learning process. Ending: When students are completing the learning process. SELF-CHECK 10.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 10 MOTIVATION AND LEARNING 229 Behaviourist theory focuses on the positive and negative reinforcements given by teachers. Cognitivist theory focuses on the perspective that students who show excellence in academic performance are driven by internal factors ă such as to experience success or to feel useful. The humanistic theory holds the belief that students are born with the desire to strive and to fulfil the potential that lies within themselves. General principles of motivation are as follows: ă Create a conducive environment; ă Incentives motivate learning; ă Self-motivation is longer lasting than external motivation, which must be continuously reinforced by praise or physical rewards; ă Learning is most effective when the student is ready to learn; ă Motivation is enhanced when the teacher is well-prepared and lessons are well-conducted; ă Because learning requires changes in beliefs and behaviour, it normally produces a mild level of anxiety (or stress); ă It is important to help each student set goals and to provide informative feedback regarding progress towards their goals; ă Affiliation is a strong motivator; and ă Many behaviours result from a combination of motives. Motivation plays the following roles: ă To help students start their learning/work; ă To help students strive on when facing challenges; and ă To help students complete their task/work accordingly. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
230 TOPIC 10 MOTIVATION AND LEARNING Affiliation Attribution theory Behaviourist theory Cognitivist theory Hierarchy of needs Extrinsic stimulus High achievement motivation Incentive Interest Low achievement motivation Motivation Motive Natural impulse Self-efficacy Atkinson, J. W. (1964). An introduction to motivation. Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand. Bandura, A. (1994). Self-efficacy. In V. S. Ramachaudran (Ed.), Encyclopedia of human behavior, 4. New York, NY: Academic Press. Davies, B. G. (1999). Motivating students. Retrieved July 25, 2011, from http://honolulu.hawaii.edu/intranet/committees/FacDevCom/guidebk/t eachtip/motiv.htm Elliot, S. N., Kratochwill, T. R., Cook, J. L., & Travers, J. F. (2000). Educational psychology: Effective teaching and effective learning (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill. Maslow, A. (1968). Towards a psychology of being (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A motivational science perspective on the role of student motivation in learning and teaching contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667ă686. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 10 MOTIVATION AND LEARNING 231 Slavin, R. E. (2009). Educational psychology: Theory and practice (9th ed.). New Jersey, NJ: Pearson Education. Weller, M. (2005). General principles of motivation. Retrieved July 25, 2011, from http://honolulu.hawaii.edu/intranet/committees/FacDevCom/guidebk/ teachtip/motivate.htm Weiner, B. (1992). Human motivation: Metaphors, theories and research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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