The Psychology Book

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 299

See also: Roger W. Sperry 337–38 ■ Heinz Heckhausen 338–39 ■ Michael
Rutter 339

The male brain is The female brain is
predominantly hard-wired predominantly hard-wired

for understanding and for empathy.
building systems.

Autistic people are obsessed with Simon Baron-Cohen
understanding and working with systems,
Born in London, Simon
but do not have the “tools” for empathy. Baron-Cohen qualified as a
clinical psychologist at London
Autism is an extreme form University’s Institute of
of the male brain. Psychiatry, and took his PhD
at University College, London.
have a “systematizing brain,” while are centered on some form of system,
many people have a “balanced” such as an intense preoccupation In 1995, he became a fellow
brain of equal abilities. with light switches. They focus on in experimental psychology at
tiny details in the system, working Trinity College, Cambridge,
Theory of mind out the underlying rules that govern and is currently the university’s
Baron-Cohen believes that autistic it, or home in on a specific topic, Professor of Developmental
people lack a “theory of mind”—the learning everything about it with Psychopathology and director
ability to interpret others’ emotions great accuracy. This mix of little or of its Autism Research Centre,
and actions successfully—and so no empathy and an obsession with where his work involves
are unable to assess another’s state systems, along with the higher rate investigating ways of treating
of mind or intentions. Also, they of autism in males, led Baron-Cohen autism, as well as research
often have obsessive interests that to conclude that autistic people have into possible causes.
an extreme “male” brain.
His many accolades include
Autism is one of the most severe the President’s Award and
psychiatric disorders in children, Spearman Medal from the
and Baron-Cohen’s ideas have British Psychological Society,
helped to deepen understanding of plus the Boyd McCandless
the condition, raising awareness and Award from the American
making treatment more effective. ■ Psychological Association.

Autistic children sometimes show From 2009 to 2011, Baron-
remarkable aptitude in certain areas, Cohen served as vice-president
especially those that demand acute of the International Society of
observation of fine detail, such as Autism Research, and is also
mathematics, drawing, and painting. vice-president of the National
Autistic Society (UK).

Key works

1993 Autism: The Facts
1995 Mindblindness
1999 Teaching Children with
Autism to Mind-Read
2003 The Essential Difference

PSYCHOL
OF DIFFE

PERSONALITY AND
INTELLIGENCE

OGY
RENCE

302 INTRODUCTION

In The Descent of Man, Charles Spearman Floyd and Gordon Raymond Cattell
Charles Darwin proposes that intelligent Allport publish suggests that
behavior is generated by a
argues that variations single, unitary quality Personality Traits: their intelligence is made up
in intellectual abilities within the brain, which he Classification and of two factors: fluid
tend to be inherited. Measurement. and crystallized
calls “the general intelligence.
factor” or “g.”

1871 1904 1921 1941
1884 1905 1937 1942

Francis Galton is the first to Alfred Binet and Theodore Gordon Allport Katherine Briggs and
investigate individual Simon develop the first publishes his most Isabel Briggs Myers
intelligence test, which significant work, create the Briggs
differences scientifically, becomes known as the
through large-scale Binet-Simon scale. Personality: Myers Type
questionnaires. psychological Indicator—a widely
interpretation. used psychometric test.

T heoretical psychology has from research into more general refinement of Allport’s theories:
largely been concerned theories rather than a study of reducing the number of traits that
with identifying and personality itself. The first combined to form an individual
examining aspects of the mind psychologist to systematically personality. The prominent traits of
and behavior that are common approach the subject was Gordon introversion and extraversion were
to us all, yet philosophers, and later Allport, who felt that existing ideas common to most of these models,
scientists, have always recognized of personality were inadequate. As and the distinction between them
that there are differences in our one of the pioneers of what is now was felt to be a major factor in
psychological make-up that render called “trait theory,” he identified determining personality. They were
us individuals. Some of the early a number of different personality incorporated into Hans Eysenck’s
philosophers explained differences traits, which he suggested showed three-factor model, with its basic
in personality using the idea of the themselves in three different levels traits of extraversion–introversion,
four humors or temperaments, but it in a combination unique to each neuroticism, and psychoticism.
was not until the 20th century that person. The idea of traits became
there was any truly scientific study central to personality psychology One assumption that was
of personality. and, following Allport’s work, it questioned was whether personality
became a major new area of study. traits would result in consistent
Behaviorists, as one would behavior. Research conducted
expect, saw personality as a Personality traits by Walter Mischel showed that
product of conditioning, and New ways of analyzing traits, different situations produced
psychoanalytical theory described such as Raymond Cattell’s factor different behavior, and suggested
personality as the effect of past analytical method, which identified that personality traits should be
experience on the unconscious— 16 personality factors, led to considered in the context of an
but these explanations resulted individual’s perception of and

PSYCHOLOGY OF DIFFERENCE 303

Hans Eysenck Corbett H. Thigpen and Walter Mischel publishes Nico Frijda publishes
develops an Hervey M. Cleckley Personality and Assessment, The Emotions,
influential document a case of questioning the assumption describing them
that behavior is determined
three-factor model multiple personality as changes in an
of the theory of disorder in The Three by personality traits individual that prepare
personality. regardless of situation or him or her for action.
Faces of Eve.
context.

1947-70S 1954 1968 1986
1955 1973 1990S
1950

J.P. Guilford suggests that David Wechsler David Rosenhan Researchers agree on the
the Structure of Intellect develops the questions the validity of “big five” personality
(SI) has three dimensions:
Wechsler Adult psychiatric notions of traits—openness,
content, products, and Intelligence Scale normal or sane in his conscientiousness,
operations. extraversion, neuroticism,
(WAIS). pseudo-patient and agreeableness.
experiments.

reaction to various circumstances. was assumed to be an inherited up general intelligence. This notion
Not only was personality found to characteristic (and carried with it of a single measure of intelligence
be less consistent than had been connotations of racial stereotypes was challenged by J.P. Guilford, who
assumed, but in some cases there and eugenics) rather than one believed that intelligence consists of
was the possibility of an individual influenced by environment. The a number of different abilities, an
having more than one distinct issue of nature versus nurture in idea that led to Raymond Cattell’s
personality. In a case made famous determining intelligence became theory of fluid and crystallized
by a book and film, The Three Faces key, with psychologists including intelligence—two levels of
of Eve, psychiatrists Corbett H. Raymond Cattell and Hans Eysenck reasoning and critical thinking.
Thigpen and Hervey M. Cleckley defending a hereditary viewpoint,
described multiple personality and others arguing that not only is Research into other areas of
disorder, now called dissociative intelligence affected by environment, psychological difference has
identity disorder. but the way it is tested is culturally included emotions and facial
biased, giving distorted results. expressions, pioneered by Paul
The intelligence factor Ekman and Nico Frijda, and
Another factor that distinguishes In the early 20th century, British psychological disorders, but David
us as individuals is intelligence. psychologist Charles Spearman had Rosenhan’s experiment showed
This had been studied from the laid the foundations for a more that it is not easy to distinguish
earliest days of psychology, but objective, scientific study of the “normal” from the “abnormal.”
had proved difficult to define or intelligence by using statistical Individual differences appear to
measure. Studies are also frequently techniques to test and measure be points on a spectrum, rather
controversial; since the time of intelligence. He identified a single than easily labeled divisions—
Darwin and Galton, intelligence factor, the “g factor,” that correlated highlighting the complexity and
to all the mental abilities that make diversity of human psychology. ■

304

NAME AS MANY USES
AS YOU CAN THINK OF
FOR A TOOTHPICK

J.P. GUILFORD (1897–1987)

IN CONTEXT A lthough intelligence, and children who might benefit from
what makes up intelligence, educational assistance. Together
APPROACH had been discussed since with researcher Theodore Simon, he
Intelligence psychometrics the time of ancient Greece, the first created the “Binet–Simon Scale,”
systematic method of measuring which used memory, attention, and
BEFORE intelligence was not developed until problem-solving tasks to measure
19th century Wilhelm Wundt, 1905, when the French psychologist and produce a number, or “quotient,”
Gustav Fechner, and Francis Alfred Binet was asked to identify that summarizes intellectual ability.
Galton claim that individual
differences in people’s Questions of memory and Problems requiring
cognitive abilities can be simple problem-solving… creative solutions…
empirically measured.
…can be answered using …can be solved using
1904 British psychologist convergent thinking – divergent thinking –
Charles Spearman claims the ability to come up with exploring many possible
intelligence can be summed
up in a single number. one “correct” answer. avenues at once.

1938 British psychologist This can be tested This requires a new
L.L. Thurstone identifies seven using standardized form of testing that includes
independent factors that make intelligence (IQ) tests.
up a person’s “primary both problem-solving
abilities” or intelligence. and imagination.

AFTER
1969 Philip E. Vernon
estimates that intelligence
is 60 percent inborn.

1974 US psychologist Ellis
Paul Torrence produces his
own tests of creativity, which
are most widely used today.

PSYCHOLOGY OF DIFFERENCE 305

See also: Alfred Binet 50–53 ■ Raymond Cattell 314–15 ■ Hans J. Eysenck 316–21 ■ William Stern 334 ■
David Wechsler 336

Creative minds see even toothpicks it has fundamental flaws. Standard happen if all national and local laws
as potentially having hundreds of uses. intelligence tests, he says, ignore were suddenly abolished. Guilford
Guilford’s “Alternative Uses Test” scores creativity and assume that there is scored the answers on levels of four
people on their ability to think of many a “general intelligence” that can be key components: originality,
original and widely assorted alternatives. represented by an IQ score. fluency, flexibility, and elaboration.

The average intelligence quotient Measuring creativity Guilford claims that intelligence
(IQ) was set for convenience at 100, By definition, creativity means there is not made up of just one “general
allowing psychologists to categorize is more than one answer to any factor,” but of three different groups
people in relation to this score. In problem. It requires a different kind of activities. “Operations” are the
practice, around 95 percent of the of thinking, which Guilford calls intellectual processes we use; there
general population score between “divergent,” since it goes in different are six types of these, including
70 and 130, and the top 0.5 percent directions and produces multiple memory, cognition, and evaluation.
score over 145, the “genius” level. solutions to a problem. In contrast, “Content” is the type of information
traditional IQ tests require thinking or data involved—there are five of
Although the scale is still that ends up with a single answer: these, including visual and auditory
used for most IQ tests today, US “convergent” thinking. content. “Products” are the results of
psychologist J.P. Guilford believes applying operations to content, such
Guilford thought that creativity as classes or relations, and there
was measurable—it is indicated by are six of these. The many ways in
the number of directions in which a which we combine and use these
person’s thoughts travel. He devised different types means there may be
a number of tests to quantify anything up to 180 (6 × 5 × 6) types
divergent thinking, including his of intelligence—more than 100 of
1967 “Alternative Uses Test,” which these have already been verified.
asks participants to write as many
uses as they can think of for: (a) a The complexity of Guilford’s
toothpick, (b) a brick, and (c) a paper theory and problems with testing
clip. In his “Consequences Test,” mean that his tests are used less
subjects were asked to imagine all frequently than standard IQ tests,
the things that might possibly but his work has influenced research
into intelligence and creativity. ■

J.P. Guilford World War II—until his The person who is
retirement in 1967. Described as capable of producing
Joy Paul Guilford was born on a devoted family man of a large number of ideas
a farm in Nebraska. Always enormous integrity and per unit of time… has a
markedly intelligent, he was the generosity, his shyness earned greater chance of having
valedictorian of his high school him the nickname “gray ghost”
class. His bachelor’s degree in during his time in the army. An significant ideas.
psychology was interrupted by a influential and prolific J.P. Guilford
spell in the army as a private, researcher, Guilford produced
but he went on to earn a PhD more than 25 books, 30 tests,
from Cornell University. In 1928, and 300 articles.
he returned to Nebraska as an
associate professor, then took a Key works
position at the University of
Southern California (USC) in 1936 Psychometric Methods
1940, remaining there—apart 1967 The Nature of Human
from a short secondment during Intelligence

DID ROBINSON CRUSOE

LACK PERSONALITY TRAITS

BEFORE

THE ADVENT OF

FRIDAY?

GORDON ALLPORT (1897–1967)



308 GORDON ALLPORT G ordon Allport is sometimes People… are busy
referred to as one of the leading their lives into
IN CONTEXT founding fathers of
personality psychology, as he was the future, whereas
APPROACH the first psychologist of modern psychology, for the most
Trait theory times to embark on a dedicated
study of personality. Since the early part, is busy tracing
BEFORE work on the four temperaments by them into the past.
2nd century BCE Galen Hippocrates (c.400 BCE) and Galen Gordon Allport
classifies human temperament (c.150 CE), there seems to have been
according to the four humors. no attempt to classify personality in The American psychologist Gordon
any detail. In the 19th century, Allport had fundamental problems
1890 In Principles of personality was barely mentioned with both of these approaches. He
Psychology, William James in psychology, though there was thought that behaviorism was
makes an early attempt to much discussion of the self, or “ego.” wrong to discount the “person”
define the self as having both doing the learning, because each
an “I” (the knowing self) and a In the early 20th century, person is unique and their perception
“me” (the experiencing self). the two predominant schools of is part of the process. He also
psychology—psychoanalysis and considered psychoanalysis to be
AFTER behaviorism—were polar opposites inadequate for explaining personality
1946 Raymond Cattell in approach. Both were highly and behavior because it placed too
develops his 16PF (Personality developed and influential schools much importance on a person’s
Factors) questionnaire, based that remain powerful (as well as past, ignoring their current context
on Allport and Odbert’s enduringly controversial) to this and motivations. His view was
lexical hypothesis. day. Behaviorism, being interested
only in how we acquire (or learn) our
1970s Hans J. Eysenck creates behavior, had nothing to say about
the PEN (Psychoticism, personality; while psychoanalysis
Extraversion, Neurotisicm) offered an in-depth approach, arguing
personality questionnaire. for the existence of an unknowable
unconscious that controls personality
1993 American psychologist but reveals itself only fractionally
Dan P. McAdam demonstrates and accidentally by slips of the
the idiographic method in his tongue and in dream symbols.
book The Stories We Live By.

Personality is formed from…

…cardinal traits or …common traits, …secondary traits,
“ruling passions”, such such as honesty or such as being nervous when
as altruism. Not everyone aggression. In the meeting strangers or laughing
absence of cardinal at inappropriate moments.
has a cardinal trait, traits, personality is These traits are evoked by
and those that do shaped by these traits.
are often famous for it. specific situations.

PSYCHOLOGY OF DIFFERENCE 309

See also: Galen 18–19 ■ William James 38–45 ■ Sigmund Freud 92–99 ■ Carl Rogers 130–37 ■ Abraham Maslow 138–39 ■
Martin Seligman 200–01 ■ Paul Salkovskis 212–13 ■ Raymond Cattell 314–15 ■ Hans J. Eysenck 316–21 ■ William Stern 334

affirmed when, as a young college Dilthey, but had first been put into work in general is not known for
graduate, he paid a visit to Sigmund practice by Allport’s university its focus on empirical research;
Freud in Vienna. On first meeting, tutor, William Stern. The first he was more of a theorist, almost
to make small talk, Allport told method, the nomothetic, aims to a philosopher. Yet his very first
Freud of a small boy he had met be as objective and scientific as paper, Personality Traits: Their
on the train on the way, who was possible, and it is exemplified in Classification and Measurement,
afraid of getting dirty and refused the study of human intelligence. cowritten with his brother Floyd,
to sit near anyone dirty, despite This involves obtaining test results was an excellent example of the
his mother’s encouragement. from large populations of people, nomothetic method. One of his
Perhaps, Allport suggested, the on personality traits such as last major pieces of work, the
child had learned this dirt phobia extraversion and introversion. analysis of Jenny Masterson,
from his mother, a neat and rather Results can be submitted to a was an extraordinarily detailed
domineering woman. Freud then sophisticated analysis, resulting example of the idiographic method.
asked, “And was that little boy in a number of general conclusions,
you?” Freud’s reduction of this such as the percentages of people The lexical hypothesis
small observation of Allport’s who are extravert or introvert, or In his first study, Allport and his
to some unconscious episode variations linked to age, gender, or brother reported their research
from his own childhood seemed, geography. However, this method on personality traits. They asked
to Allport, dismissive of all his does not aim to comment in any the participants to complete a
current motivations and intentions. way on traits at the individual level; personality questionnaire, and
Throughout his work, Allport it focuses on comparative comments to ask three people who knew
emphasizes the present over the and conclusions about a certain trait, them well to complete it too;
past, though later in his life he paid rather than any particular person. this reflected the Allport brothers’
more attention to psychoanalysis This was the method that the view that personality is forged
as a supplement to other methods. behaviorist B.F. Skinner used for in relationship to others. They
his observations of rat behavior. concluded from their results that
Allport argued for an approach there is a case for identifying traits,
to the study of human learning The second method, the and for attempting to measure
and personality that was reasoned, idiographic, stands in direct them. They also believed they
eclectic, and conceptually open- opposition to the nomothetic had proven the possibility of
minded. He took some of what he method; it studies one individual developing a complete and
believed from prevailing approaches, in breadth and depth, taking into sensitive instrument for the
but his central belief is that the account their biography, their measurement of personality. ❯❯
uniqueness of each individual and personality traits, and their
his or her personality is largely— relationships, as well as how Types exist not in people
but not exclusively—forged in they are seen and experienced or in nature, but rather in
human relationships. by others. This method is much the eye of the observer.
closer to the psychoanalytic
Theory of personality method with its focus on one Gordon Allport
Allport’s idea of personality is a person, one life.
complex amalgam of traits, human
relationships, current context, Allport said that while the
and motivation. He identified two nomothetic method was a way
distinctly different approaches of describing traits, it had little
to the study of personality—the explanatory power; whereas the
nomothetic and idiographic idiographic method, though unable
methods—both of which had been to draw any general conclusions,
devised by the German philosophers could explain one person in
Wilhelm Windelband and Wilhelm illuminating detail. He was to
use both methods, though his

310 GORDON ALLPORT

paranoid someone that it guides and unifies
awkward stubborn mischievous eager bossy their life in both conscious and
unconscious ways; virtually every
judgmental loyal envious acute tender vain devout patient act is traceable to its influence.

chineveerdfnuaftloirvirnctegoguiauvrrciiarohnomuyggbsainfhtratieooctnueafseurrbsltitticirsmebtasaiiegdcsrhgvfsresueodelsclfsia-acicbvcoeleneqnfitdupsreereionndsuttdiiwtmkiciievtnotnelyddtaplssmoahblroyicotoealddsytic In his later years, Allport
considered a person’s cardinal
shallow organized inconsiderate talkative traits as contributing to the
proprium: the essential drives, core
efficient trustful helpful needs, and desires of a person. This
imaginative concept goes beyond the idea of
temperament, and is more akin to a
Allport and Odbert’s lexical hypothesis guiding purpose that will always
rested on the idea that the most important press for expression. As an example
and relevant personality differences are of the proprium, Allport gave the
reflected by language; they identified 18,000 Norwegian polar explorer Roald
personality-describing words in English. Amundsen, who had one dominant
passion from the age of 15: he
In 1936, Allport and his colleague of the English language available wanted to be a polar explorer. The
H.S. Odbert proposed that individual at the time, to find 18,000 words obstacles to his ambition seemed
differences that are most salient that described personality. They insurmountable, and the temptation
and socially relevant in people’s narrowed this down to 4,500 to relinquish his dreams was great,
lives eventually become expressed adjectives that they considered but the “propriate” striving persisted,
through language; and the more to be observable and stable and though he welcomed each
important the difference, the more personality traits. success, it simply raised his level
likely it is to be expressed as a of aspiration. Having sailed the
single word. This idea is known as Cardinal traits Northwest Passage, Amundsen
the lexical hypothesis. The two Based on a further analysis of embarked upon the project that led
researchers went on to study the his lexical study, Allport defined to his success in reaching the South
most comprehensive dictionaries three distinct categories of traits: Pole. Then, after years of planning
cardinal, common, and secondary. and discouragement, he flew over
A man can be Cardinal traits are those that are the North Pole. His commitment
said to have a trait; fundamental to a person, governing never wavered, and he eventually
but he cannot be their entire approach to life. Not died attempting to save the life of a
said to have a type. everyone has a cardinal trait, less experienced explorer.
Gordon Allport according to Allport, but when they
do, they may even be famous for Less fundamental traits
them; in fact some people are so In contrast to cardinal traits,
famous for them that their name common traits are general
becomes a byword for that trait, characteristics, such as honesty,
giving us terms such as Byronic, that are found in most people.
Calvinistic, and Machiavellian. These are the building blocks that
On a less iconic scale, a person’s shape our behavior, but they are
cardinal trait might be something less fundamental than cardinal
like “a fear of communism,” where traits. Common traits, Allport said,
this is so central and important to develop largely in response to
parental influences, and are a result
of nurture. They are shared among
many people within a culture but in
varying degrees; aggressiveness,
for instance, is a common trait
that varies by degrees. According

PSYCHOLOGY OF DIFFERENCE 311

Any theory that quite another. This is because our very angry when tickled” or “she
regards personality motives today are not continuously gets nervous on flights.” These
as stable, fixed, or dependent on the past. We may traits express preferences or
invariable is wrong. start learning to draw, for instance, attitudes that are open to change.
Gordon Allport to compete in popularity with In the absence of another person,
another child in class, but secondary traits might be present
to Allport, most of us have ultimately become more interested but quite invisible. Added to
personalities made up of five in perfecting the craft for its own the common and cardinal traits,
to ten of these traits at a level sake. This means that how we they provide a complete picture
whereby they have become our think and act today is only of human complexity.
“outstanding characteristics.” indirectly affected by our past.
Functional autonomy is also Traits and behavior
Over time, common traits may thought to explain obsessive and Allport was interested in how traits
achieve “functional autonomy,” by compulsive acts and thoughts: they are forged in a person, and their
which Allport means that although may be manifestations of connection with behavior. He
we start doing something for one functionally autonomous traits, suggested that a combination of
reason, we may carry on doing it for where someone has no idea why internal and external forces
he is doing something, but can’t influence how we behave. Certain
stop himself from doing it. internal forces, which he called
“genotypes,” govern how we retain
Allport’s third category of traits, information and use it to interact
known as secondary traits, exert with the external world. At the
much less influence on us than same time, external forces, which
cardinal or common traits. They are he named “phenotypes,” determine
only seen in certain circumstances, the way individuals accept their
because they are determined by surroundings and how they allow
context or situation. For instance, others to influence their behavior. ❯❯
we might say of someone “he gets

Genotype traits are internal, Person in difficulty Kindness to others
but phenotype traits are
external—they require Self-sufficiency
stimuli from the outside
world to make them manifest.

Genotype traits Spider
Phenotype traits

Gluttony Personality Fear
Irritation Traits Creative thinking
Rude person

312 GORDON ALLPORT

Robinson Crusoe, Allport concluded,
must always have had many distinctive
personality traits, but some were only
uncovered by new circumstances after
he was shipwrecked and met Friday.

These two forces, he said, provide and persistence to teach him to whom she was friendly. Allport used
the groundwork for the creation of speak English, and the capability these letters for his analysis, asking
individual traits. to convert him to Christianity. 36 people to characterize Jenny’s
While Crusoe always had these personality traits from her letters.
Applying these ideas to the personality traits, they remained Eight trait “clusters” encompassing
story of Robinson Crusoe, Allport unexpressed on the island until he 198 individual traits were relatively
saw that, prior to his meeting with formed a relationship with Friday. easy to identify, with broad
Friday, Crusoe’s genotypes, or The idea is similar to a well-known agreement from all the people
inner resources, along with some philosophical puzzle: if a tree falls rating the documents. These traits
phenotype aspects, helped him to down in a forest, and there is were: quarrelsome–suspicious;
survive alone on a desert island. He nobody there, does it make a noise? self-centered; independent–
had the resilience to overcome his For Allport, traits make behavior autonomous; dramatic–intense;
initial despair, and fetched arms, consistent; they are always there, aesthetic–artistic; aggressive;
tools, and other supplies from the even if no one is around to evoke cynical–morbid; and sentimental.
ship before it sank. He built a them or witness them in action.
fenced-in compound around a cave, However, Allport concluded that
and kept a calendar. He hunted, An idiographic study this trait analysis of Jenny was
grew corn and rice, and learned to After the publication of Personality: somewhat inconclusive, and so he
make pottery and raise goats, and A Psychological Interpretation in went on to use a number of other
he also adopted a parrot. He read 1937, Allport turned his attention to frameworks, including Freudian
the Bible and became religious. the topics of religion, prejudice, and and Adlerian analysis. Assisted
These activities demonstrated the ethics. But in 1965 he returned to by his students Jeffrey Paige and
expression of Crusoe’s genotypical the subject of personality by Alfred Baldwin, he also applied
traits and resulting behaviors. undertaking an idiographic study “content analysis” to the material.
of the personality traits of Jenny This was a new form of computerized
However, it was only with the Masterson, who lived from 1868 to analysis, where the computer was
arrival of Friday that other aspects 1937. During the last 11 years of her programmed to count the number
of his phenotypic behaviors could life, Jenny wrote 300 personal of times words or phrases occur
find expression: he helped Friday letters to a married couple with that are related to a given topic or
to escape from his captors; he emotion. Allport was particularly
named him; he had the patience impressed by this new method

Personality is far too complex
a thing to be trussed up in a
conceptual straight jacket.

Gordon Allport

PSYCHOLOGY OF DIFFERENCE 313

because of its potential to analyze Allport urged psychologists Gordon Allport
idiographic data, confirming his to study personality traits
belief that the idiographic approach and leave character to the Gordon Willard Allport was
can identify subtleties of an born in Montezuma, Indiana
individual character that trait province of philosophy. in 1897. The youngest of four
questionnaires alone cannot reveal. Martin Seligman sons, Allport was shy and
studious as a child, but as a
In 1966, Allport published a to explore positive human experience teenager he became editor of
paper entitled Traits Revisited are based “largely upon the behavior his school newspaper and ran
suggesting that the aim of of sick and anxious people or upon his own printing business.
personality study should not be the the antics of captive and desperate
microanalysis of individual traits, rats.” He wondered why there were During World War I, Allport
but the study of the psychic no theories based on the study of performed military duties,
organization of the whole person. healthy human beings, and those before winning a scholarship
He stated that his early writings who strive to make life worth to Harvard University to study
about traits were written in an age living. He pointed out that most philosophy and economics.
of psychological innocence, although studies are of criminals, not of After graduating in 1919, he
he maintained his belief that traits law abiders; of fear, not courage; taught for a year in Turkey,
are a reasonable starting point for and focus on the blindness of then went back to Harvard,
the description of personality. humans, rather than their vision. where he gained his doctorate
The burgeoning school of positive in psychology in 1922. He also
Allport’s influence psychology, led by Martin studied with the Gestalt School
Allport’s work forms the basis of Seligman, has taken up this idea in Germany, and at Cambridge
many contemporary schools of and aims to develop a scientific University in England.
thought, though he is rarely credited psychology of positive experience.
directly. Much of modern personality In 1924, Allport again
testing derives from the work of By 1955, when Allport wrote returned to Harvard to teach
Raymond Cattell and Hans Eysenck, Becoming, his thinking had the first course in personality
and both of these psychologists developed further; he now saw studies in the US. Apart from
drew upon Allport’s lexical study. human striving toward a higher level four years at Darmouth College,
Cattell’s “16 Personality Factor of consciousness and realization as he remained at Harvard until
Questionnaire,” which is still used the true motive of personality. The his death from lung cancer,
by psychologists today, uses 16 idea that “becoming” is the ultimate aged 70, in 1967.
traits identified by Cattell through goal of human beings was also
computer analysis of Allport and developed by the psychologists Key works
Odbert’s original 4,500 adjectives. Carl Rogers and then Abraham
Maslow, who renamed it “self- 1937 Personality: A
Humanistic psychology, which actualization.” Although Allport’s Psychological Interpretation
forms the basis of most counseling work is cited less often than other 1954 The Nature of Prejudice
and therapeutic practices, also well-known figures, he had a 1955 Becoming
relies heavily upon Allport’s ideas, profound and lasting influence 1961 Pattern and Growth in
particularly his idiographic method on the field of psychology. ■ Personality
and insistence upon the uniqueness
of each and every person. Increased
focus on the practitioner–client
relationship as a vehicle for the
expression and development of
personality has its roots in Allport’s
assertion that personality is largely
a function of relationships.

Allport was also one of the
first to point out that even those
psychological theories that attempt

314

GENERAL INTELLIGENCE
CONSISTS OF BOTH
FLUID AND CRYSTALLIZED
INTELLIGENCE

RAYMOND CATTELL (1905–1998)

IN CONTEXT R aymond Cattell, considered made up “g”: fluid and crystallized
to be one of the dozen most intelligence. Fluid intelligence is
APPROACH eminent psychologists of a series of thinking or reasoning
Intelligence theory the 20th century, contributed hugely abilities that can be applied to
to the study of human intelligence, any issue or “content.” Sometimes
BEFORE motivation, and personality. His described as the intelligence we
1900s Alfred Binet claims interest in intelligence was sparked use when we don’t already know
intelligence can be measured, early in his career when he was a how to do something, it comes into
and introduces the term student of Charles Spearman, the play automatically in processes
“intelligence quotient” (IQ). British psychologist who defined such as problem-solving and
“g”—a single-factor, general pattern recognition, and it is
1904 Charles Spearman intelligence that serves as the thought to be closely related to
identifies “g” as an underlying foundation for all learning. working memory capacity.
property of intelligence.
In 1941, Cattell developed this Cattell suggests fluid intelligence
1931 In The Measurement of concept further, defining two is genetically inherited, which may
Intelligence, Edward Thorndike different types of intelligence that account for individual differences.
says that there are three or four
main types of intelligence. General underlying intelligence (g)
is made up of two parts.
AFTER
1950 J.P. Guilford claims that Fluid intelligence, which Crystallized intelligence,
there are around 150 different is the ability to think and which builds from past
types of intellectual ability. reason abstractly, and to experiences and learnt
perceive relationships facts, and amounts to
1989 US psychologist John between things without judgement skills that
B. Carroll proposes a three- accumulate as we age.
stratum psychometric model prior practice or instruction.
of intelligence, consisting
of narrow abilities, broad
abilities, and Charles
Spearman’s “g” factor.

PSYCHOLOGY OF DIFFERENCE 315

See also: Alfred Binet 50–53 ■ J.P. Guilford 304–05 ■ Hans Eysenck 316–21 ■ William Stern 334 ■ David Wechsler 336

It builds to a peak in young The culture-fair intelligence
adulthood, then steadily declines, test was developed by Cattell
perhaps because of age-related in the 1920s. It measures fluid
changes in the brain. Brain injury intelligence through pattern-
can affect fluid intelligence, which related problems that require
suggests it is largely physiological. reasoning ability but no prior
learning or knowledge to solve.
Crystallized intelligence
As we use fluid intelligence for AB CD
solving problems, we begin to E F GH
develop stores of knowledge and
working hypotheses about the of intelligence increases gradually Noting that standard IQ tests
world around us. This store of over a lifetime and stays relatively tend to assess a combination of
knowledge is our crystallized stable until we are around 65 years fluid and crystallized intelligence,
intelligence, described by Cattell old, when it begins to decline. Cattell developed tests to assess
as “the set of judgmental skills” fluid intelligence inisolation. His
gained from investing fluid Cattell sees fluid and crystallized culture-fair intelligence test, which
intelligence in cultural activities. intelligence as fairly independent uses nonverbal, multiple-choice
Vast differences in learning of each other, but reasons that questions based on shapes and
experiences occur because of having a higher fluid intelligence patterns, requires no prior learning
factors such as social class, age, might lead to the broader and from the participants and can be
nationality, and historical era. faster development of crystallized used to test children and adults
intelligence, depending on factors from any culture. ■
Crystallized intelligence relating to personality and interests.
includes skills such as verbal
comprehension and numerical
facility, because these abilities rely
on knowledge already gained—
such as the rules of grammar or
addition, subtraction, and other
mathematical concepts. This form

Raymond Cattell Born in Staffordshire, England, life there. In 1997, the American
Raymond Bernard Cattell achieved Psychological Association
a first-class degree in chemistry in honored him with a Lifetime
1924 before turning to psychology Achievement Award. However,
and receiving his doctorate in his idea that nations should
1929. After teaching in London safeguard high, inherited
and Exeter universities, he ran intelligence through eugenics
the Leicester Child Guidance made this a controversial award,
Clinic for five years before moving and led to critical attacks.
to the US in 1937. He lived and Cattell defended himself and
taught there until 1973, holding refused the award, but died of
posts at Clark and Harvard heart failure the following year.
universities, and the University
of Illinois. Cattell married three Key works
times and moved to Honolulu as
a professor at the University of 1971 Abilities
Hawaii, spending the rest of his 1987 Intelligence

THERE IS AN

ASSOCIATION BETWEEN

INSANITY

AND GENIUS

HANS J. EYSENCK (1916–1997)



318 HANS J. EYSENCK D iscussion about genius has There is a common
been dominated for most genetic basis for great
IN CONTEXT of its history by the nature- potential in creativity and
versus-nurture debate: is a genius for psychological deviation.
APPROACH born or made? Prior to the early
Personality 1900s, ideas about genius were Hans J. Eysenck
based largely on stories of people
BEFORE who were perceived as geniuses, than the detailed characteristics
1926 American psychologist such as Leonardo da Vinci and that make up a whole person. He
Catharine Cox tests the Beethoven. As early as Aristotle, was a biologist, and like others
intelligence and personalities creative genius and madness were before him, notably the ancient
of 300 geniuses and finds the seen as linked, and both assumed to Greek physicians Hippocrates and
average IQ to be 165+; key be largely genetic in nature. In 1904, Galen, he believed that physiological
characteristics are tremendous British psychologist Havelock Ellis’s factors account for temperament.
persistence and motivation. A Study of British Genius, reported Hippocrates had suggested that
controlled studies of both psychotic personality type arises from an
1956 J.P. Guilford develops the patients and creative people to excess or deficit of a particular type
concept of divergent thinking establish a link between the two. of bodily fluids, known as humors.
to discuss creativity. Seventy years later the German Galen expanded upon this idea to
psychologist Hans Eysenck reviewed suggest there are four types of
AFTER the early evidence and concluded temperament: sanguine, choleric,
2009 In Genius 101: Creators, that it is not psychosis (full blown phlegmatic, and melancholic.
Leaders, and Prodigies, insanity) that is related to genius,
American psychologist Dean but psychoticism, which he defined
Keith Simonton argues that as an underlying disposition to
geniuses are the result of good develop psychotic symptoms.
genes and good surroundings.
Temperament and biology
2009 Swedish psychologist Many psychologists have defined
Anders Ericsson attributes and measured personality traits,
expert performance to 10,000 but Eysenck’s interests focused
hours of practice. on human temperament rather

A capacity for …and combined with …this can lead
over-inclusive thinking an IQ of 165 or above… to genius.

can lead to original and …but combined with …this can lead
creative ideas… psychotic symptoms… to insanity.

PSYCHOLOGY OF DIFFERENCE 319

See also: Galen 18–19 ■ Francis Galton 28–29 ■ J.P. Guilford 304–05 ■ Gordon Allport 306–13 ■
Raymond Cattell 314–15 ■ Walter Mischel 326–27 ■ David Rosenhan 328–29

He claimed that sanguine people Eysenck’s model of personality provides an overarching
have an excess of blood, and are paradigm for defining temperament. Each of the superfactors
cheerful and optimistic. Those with (Extraversion and Neuroticism) is made up of lower-order
a choleric temperament, stemming habits, such as “lively.” The two superfactors divide habits
from an abundance of bile, are into four types that reflect Galen’s four temperaments.
quick and hot-tempered. Phlegmatic
individuals, with too much phlegm, neuroticism
are slow, lazy, and dull. Melancholics,
who suffer from black bile, are sad, holic moody touchy c
pessimistic, and depressed. anxious restless
melanc holeric
Galen’s biological approach rigid aggressive
appealed to Eysenck, who considered
temperament to be physiological sober excitable
and genetically determined.
He proposed a measure of two pessimistic changeable
dimensions, or overarching
“superfactors” of personality, that introversion reserved impulsive extraversion
encompass all the detailed traits:
Neuroticism and Extraversion– unsociable optimistic
Introversion, which he then mapped
against Galen’s four temperaments. quiet active

Eysenck’s scales apassive sociableguine
“Neuroticism” was Eysenck’s name phlegm careful outgoing
for a personality dimension that talkative
ranges from emotionally calm and thoughtful responsive
stable at one extreme, to nervous peaceful easy-going
and easily upset at the other. He controlled lively
claimed that neurotics (at the less reliable carefree san
stable end of the spectrum) have a tic even-tempered cheery
low activation threshold in terms of calm
triggering the sympathetic nervous
system, which is the part of the emotional stability
brain that activates the “fight or
flight” response. People with be more likely to develop a variety under-aroused and bored; so the
this more responsive system are of nervous disorders. Eysenck’s brain must either wake itself up
hyperactive in this regard, so they second dimension of temperament through seeking further excitement
respond to even minor threats as was “Extraversion–Introversion.” He with other people (extraverts) or
though they are seriously dangerous, used these terms very much as we calm itself down through seeking
experiencing an increase in blood use them to describe people around peace and solitude (introverts).
pressure and heart rate, sweating, us: extraverts are outgoing and
and so on. They are also more likely talkative, while introverts are shy Psychoticism
to suffer from the various neurotic and quiet. Eysenck claimed that Eysenck tested his ideas on large
disorders. However, Eysenck was variations in brain activity explain groups of people, but realized there
not suggesting that people who the difference: introverts are were some sections of society that
scored at the nervous end of this chronically over-aroused and jittery, he was missing; so he took his
dimension are necessarily neurotic while extraverts are chronically studies into mental institutions. ❯❯
in practice, merely that they would

320 HANS J. EYSENCK

Introverts are characterized said that, as with the neuroticism involves originality and novelty,
by higher levels of activity dimension, psychoticism ranges and is based on aspects of both
than extraverts and so are along a scale; his tests looked for intellectual ability and personality.
chronically more cortically the occurrence of personality traits In his paper, Creativity and
aroused than extraverts. commonly found among psychotics. Personality: Suggestions for
a Theory, Eysenck aimed to throw
Hans J. Eysenck Eysenck found that a number of some light on the nature of creativity
personality traits relate to each other and its relationship to intelligence,
Through this work, he identified to produce psychoticism; those who personality, and genius.
a third dimension of temperament, score highly on this scale are usually
which he labelled “psychoticism,” aggressive, egocentric, impersonal, Genius is held to be the highest
a term that has largely replaced the impulsive, antisocial, unempathic, form of creativity, and it rests upon
word “insanity” in general use. In creative, and tough-minded. A high very high intelligence: an IQ score
personality theory, this was quite score on the scale does not mean a of at least 165 is considered to be a
a departure: most personality person is psychotic, and it is not prerequisite. However, a high IQ is
theorists were attempting to define inevitable that they will become so; not enough on its own. Another
and measure the normal (sane) they simply share characteristics relevant component of intelligence
personality. However, Eysenck with psychotic patients. In controlled is the mental search process which
studies, such as those by Norwegian we use to find solutions, by
psychologist Dan Olweus and his bringing together different ideas
colleagues in 1980, the aggressive from memory to form new answers
element of psychoticism has been to problems. This mental scanning
related biologically to increased is guided by ideas of relevance:
testosterone levels. what past ideas and experiences
do I have that are relevant to this
Studying genius problem? Each of us performs this
A clear psychological definition of differently, and it is an ability that
creativity has proved slippery, but is independent of our IQ. The
there is broad agreement that it ability runs along a scale, ranging
from an expansive, over-inclusive
idea of what is relevant (seeing
too many things as potential
possibilities), to an overly narrow
one (seeing few possibilities); at the
center sits a more conventional
sense of what might apply to any
problem at hand.

Over-inclusive thinking can be
measured by word-association
tests, which analyze two features:
the number of responses to any
given word, and the originality of
responses. For example, when
presented with the word “foot,”
those with a narrow range of
responses are most likely to

Professor Frankenstein creates
a monster in Mary Shelley’s novel, and
exhibits classic psychotic symptoms:
recklessness, disregard for conventions,
and tough-mindedness.

PSYCHOLOGY OF DIFFERENCE 321

Creative geniuses, such as the artist psychoticism (in the absence of Hans J. Eysenck
Vincent van Gogh, exhibit traits from psychosis). The drive to translate the
Eysenck’s psychoticism dimension, trait of creativity into achievement, Hans Jurgen Eysenck was
particularly over-inclusive thinking, for example by creating works of born in Berlin, Germany, to
independence, and nonconformity. art, comes from aspects of artistic parents; his mother
the psychotic temperament, was a well-known film actress,
respond with the word “shoe;” a in particular the over-inclusive and his Catholic father, Eduard,
slightly wider range of inclusive thinking style. Eysenck was not was a stage performer. His
thinking might contain the words suggesting a causal link between parents separated soon after
“hand” or “toe,” while an over- genius and insanity; while the his birth, and he was raised
inclusive person might generate two things have something by his maternal grandmother.
words such as “soldier” or “sore.” in common—over-inclusive In 1934 he discovered that
This kind of test makes it possible thinking—this combines with he could only study at Berlin
to measure people’s creativity. other features of genius or insanity University if he joined the
to lead to very different results. Nazi party, so he traveled to
It is the element of over-inclusive England to study psychology
thinking that Eysenck demonstrated Research into creativity faces at University College London.
to be a common feature of both a number of difficult challenges:
psychoticism and creativity. When with some researchers claiming He married in 1938 and
over-inclusive thinking and high IQ that creativity can only be judged after narrowly escaping
are present together, creative on what it produces. Eysenck internment as a German
genius will result, because the felt unable to propose a fully citizen during World War II, he
combination generates creative and developed theory of creativity, completed a PhD, and took up
original ideas. This is the cognitive only a suggestion for one. As he work as a psychologist at an
characteristic that lies at the base said, “I am linking several fuzzy emergency hospital. He later
of creativity. When over-inclusive theories.” His work ranged over founded and then headed the
thinking and psychotic symptoms many areas, though he is best Institute of Psychiatry at the
are present together, psychosis, in known for his exploration into University of London. Eysenck
varying degrees, may result. personality and intelligence. His married again in 1950, and
PEN (Psychoticism, Extraversion, became a British citizen in
Creativity and personality Neuroticism) model was hugely 1955. He was diagnosed with a
Eysenck believed that creativity is influential, and acted as the brain tumor in 1996 and died
a personality trait that provides the basis for much of the later in a London hospice in 1997.
potential for creative achievement, research into personality traits. ■
but the realization of that potential Key works
lies in the character trait of Psychoticism in the absence
of psychosis… is the vital 1967 The Biological Basis of
element in translating the Personality
1976 Psychoticism as a
trait of creativity (originality) Dimension of Personality
from potential to actual 1983 The Roots of Creativity
achievement.
Hans J. Eysenck

322

THREE KEY
MOTIVATIONS
DRIVE PERFORMANCE

DAVID C. MCCLELLAND (1917–1998)

IN CONTEXT Motivation is a key component of job performance.

APPROACH But what people say about their motives
Need theory cannot be taken at face value...

BEFORE ...because motivations are largely unconscious.
1938 American psychologist
Henry Murray develops his Tests reveal that there are three key
theory of how personality is motivations that drive performance.
shaped by psychogenic needs.
Achievement: the drive to
1943 Abraham Maslow’s A excel and improve in all efforts.
Theory of Human Motivation
presents his hierarchy of needs. Power: the drive to Affiliation: the drive to
influence and manage form and maintain warm
1959 In Motivation to Work, US
psychologist Frederick Herzberg other people. relationships with
states that achievement, rather other people.
than money, motives people.

AFTER
1990 In Flow: The Psychology
of Optimal Experience, Mihály
Csíkszentmihályi discusses
motivation for achievement.

2002 Martin Seligman explores
motivation as the expression of
character strengths.

2004 In Leadership That Gets
Results, US psychologist Daniel
Goleman applies McClelland’s
ideas to leadership in business.

PSYCHOLOGY OF DIFFERENCE 323

See also: Abraham Maslow 138–39 ■ Mihály Csíkszentmihályi 198–99 ■
Martin Seligman 200–01

I n the 1960s and 70s, decisions the unconscious. We are not fully David C. McClelland
about whether to employ aware of our own motivations, he
someone or not were usually stated, so what we may say about David Clarence McClelland
based on educational achievement, our motives in job interviews or was born in Mount Vernon,
and the results of personality and IQ self-report questionnaires should New York. After graduating
tests. David C. McClelland, however, not be taken at face value. He from Wesleyan University,
suggested that peoples’ motivations advocated using the Thematic Connecticut, and gaining
were the best predictor of success Apperception Test (TAT), which an MA at the University of
in the workplace. Through extensive psychologists Henry Murray and Missouri, he moved to Yale,
research, he identified the three key Christiana Morgan devised in where he completed his PhD
motivations that he believed were the 1930s as a way of revealing in experimental psychology
responsible for job performance: the aspects of the unconscious. Rarely in 1941. He taught briefly at
need for power, for achievement, used in a business setting, the test several universities, before
and for affiliation. While everyone presents a series of pictures to the accepting a position at
has all three motivations, he subject, who is then asked to Harvard in 1956. McClelland
maintained that one would be develop a story based on them. stayed there for 30 years,
dominant, shaping a person’s The assumption is that the stories becoming Chairman of the
performance in the workplace. will be a projection of the subject’s Department of Social Relations.
underlying abilities and motivations.
Three key needs McClelland went on to devise an In 1963, McClelland set
McClelland saw the need for power, innovative way of analyzing TAT up a business management
or to have control over others, as responses to allow a comparison consultancy, applying his
the most important motivation for between the suitability of the theories to assist company
a good manager or leader. But this different people who took the test executives in the assessment
is only true as long as the need for to specific work-related roles. and training of staff. In 1987,
power is on behalf of a company Boston University made him
or an organization. Someone with McClelland’s ideas revolutionized a Distinguished Research
a strong drive for personal power business recruitment, and although Professor of Psychology, a
may make a poor team player. his intensive methods of assessing position he held up to his
job applicants have lost some of death at the age of 80.
High quality work, McClelland their popularity, the basic principles
thought, stems from the need for endure. Motivation is now seen as Key works
achievement, which is therefore critical to performance at work. ■
a far more accurate predictor of 1953 The Achievement Motive
job success than intelligence. The Thematic Apperception Test 1961 The Achieving Society
The drive to achieve, he believed, was promoted by McClelland as a way of 1973 Testing for Competence
is what gives people a competitive assessing job candidates. Telling a story Rather Than for Intelligence
edge, helping them to stretch for based on a series of images was thought 1987 Human Motivation
new goals and improve. to uncover people’s true motives. 1998 Identifying Competencies
with Behavioral-Event
Lastly, McClelland claimed that Interviews
the need for affiliation—to have
good relationships with others—
helps people to work well within a
team. He also noted that people with
a pronounced need for affiliation are
unlikely to be successful managers.

McClelland pointed out that
motivation stems from personality
traits that are deeply embedded in

324

EMOTION IS AN
ESSENTIALLY
UNCONSCIOUS
PROCESS

NICO FRIJDA (1927– )

IN CONTEXT O ur emotions and feelings situation has changed, as scientific
are idiosyncratic; they seem findings regarding the “site” of
APPROACH to be purely subjective, and emotions have led to renewed
Psychology of emotion the mysticism surrounding them interest. Evolutionary psychologists
may explain why the psychology of have also posed questions. What is
BEFORE emotion has advanced so slowly. the purpose of emotions? How have
1872 Biologist Charles Darwin But during the last 30 years, this they helped us survive and thrive?
publishes the first scientific
study of human emotions Emotion is an essentially unconscious process.
in The Expression of the
Emotions in Man and Animals. Emotions are motivating Feelings are how we interpret
forces, preparing us for action. the emotions we experience.
Late 1800s William James
and Danish physiologist They are spontaneous We are consciously aware of
Carl Lange propose the biological processes that our feelings and can make
James–Lange theory of decisions based on them.
emotion: that emotions are are out of our control.
the result of bodily changes,
and not the cause of them. They can be understood by As we have control of our
others through spontaneous feelings, others cannot
1929 Physiologists Walter
Cannon and Philip Bard say physical expression, guess at our feelings
we experience physiological such as laughter. through our behavior.
arousal and emotion at the
same time, in the Bard–
Cannon theory.

AFTER
1991 In Emotion and
Adaptation, psychologist
Richard Lazarus says a thought
must precede any emotion or
physiological arousal.

PSYCHOLOGY OF DIFFERENCE 325

See also: William James 38–45 ■ Albert Ellis 142–45 ■ Gordon H. Bower 194–95 ■ Charlotte Bühler 336 ■
René Diatkine 338 ■ Stanley Schachter 338

Nico Frijda’s groundbreaking book, about it. We are not suddenly Emotions, such as fear, Frijda says,
The Laws of Emotion, explores hijacked by our feelings as we are are always “about something.” They are
the substance and rules of by our emotions. spontaneous responses to changing
emotions. He sees them as lying circumstances, and reveal much about
at the crossroads of biological and Action and thought our relationship with our environment.
cognitive processes: some, such Frijda points out that emotions and
as fear, are biologically inherent feelings are also displayed differently. In defining and describing a very
or innate, and these basic emotions Emotions prepare us for action; in specific set of laws by which
are the ones we share with other situations that induce fear, they are emotions operate, Frijda shows that
animals. Others arise in us in motivating forces that prepare the they emerge, wax, and wane in a
response to thoughts, so are clearly body to flee or stand and fight. Other predictable way. Reason interprets
cognition-based. They may even— people are able to understand, or at them like a barometer, to ensure our
as in the case of indignation or least guess at, our emotions from our mental well-being. “Our emotional
humiliation—be shaped by culture. behavior. Feelings, however, may or selves and reasonable selves are not
may not be consistent with compartmentalized,“ Frijda says,
Frijda makes clear distinctions behavior, because we can choose “on the contrary, they are connected
between emotions and feelings. to behave in a way that hides them. much more than they seem”. ■
Emotions are beyond our control;
they spontaneously arise and alert Frijda sees the basic emotions
us to their presence by physical as an opportunity for greater self-
sensations, such as a tightening awareness. They accompany a
in the gut when we feel fear. For biological arousal that makes us
this reason he says that “emotion notice them and become more
is an essentially unconscious aware of our feelings. This allows us
process.” Feelings, on the other to factor them into choices we make,
hand, are our interpretations of and with honest reflection, to deepen
whatever emotions we are self-awareness. But Frijda confines
experiencing, and have a more basic emotions to anger, joy, shame,
conscious element to them. When sadness, and fear. Others, such as
we feel something, we are able to jealousy and guilt, do not have the
have thoughts and make decisions same biological imperative.

Nico Frijda Nico Henri Frijda was born in teaching. For the next 10 years
Amsterdam to an academic Jewish he was assistant professor at
family, and lived in hiding as a the University of Amsterdam,
child to avoid the persecution of then professor in experimental
the Jews during World War II. He and theoretical psychology.
studied psychology at Gemeente
Universiteit, Amsterdam, where he Frijda has held visiting posts
was awarded a PhD in 1956 for in universities across Europe,
his thesis Understanding Facial including Paris, Italy, Germany,
Expressions. He attributes his and Spain. He lives with his
initial interest in emotions to second wife in Amsterdam.
being in love, as a student, with
“a very expressive girl.” Key works

From 1952 to 1955 Frijda 1986 The Emotions
worked as a clinical psychologist at 2006 The Laws of Emotion
the Dutch Army Neurosis Centre, 2011 Emotion Regulation and
before returning to research and Free Will

326

BEHAVIOR WITHOUT
ENVIRONMENTAL
CUES WOULD BE
ABSURDLY CHAOTIC

WALTER MISCHEL (1930– )

IN CONTEXT U ntil the late 1960s, Raymond Cattell identified 16
personality was most different personality traits; Hans J.
APPROACH often described as a series Eysenck suggested there were only
Personality theory of individual behavioral traits three or four. In 1961, Ernest Tupes
that were genetically inherited. and Raymond Christal proposed
BEFORE Psychologists worked to define that there are five major personality
c.400 BCE Ancient Greek and measure these traits, because traits (the “Big Five”): openness,
physician Hippocrates this was thought to be essential conscientiousness, extraversion,
suggests personality depends to understanding and reliably agreeableness, and neuroticism or
on the levels of the four predicting a person’s behavior. emotional stability. Then, in 1968,
humors in the body.
How can behavior
1946 Raymond Cattell begins be predicted?
developing his 16-factor model
of personality. Looking at …we also need
personality traits alone to consider external
1961 American psychologists gives us very few cues… factors and context.
Ernest Tupes and Raymond
Christal propose the first “Big The dynamic interaction
Five” personality-factor model. between a person and the situation

AFTER he finds himself in is the best
1975 Hans J. Eysenck’s predictor of behavior.
Personality Questionnaire
identifies two biologically
based, independent
dimensions of personality.

1980 US psychologists Robert
Hogan, Joyce Hogan, and
Rodney Warrenfeltz develop
comprehensive personality
tests based on the “Big Five”
model of personality.

PSYCHOLOGY OF DIFFERENCE 327

See also: Galen 18–19 ■ Gordon Allport 306–07 ■ Raymond Cattell 314–15 ■
Hans J. Eysenck 316–21

Walter Mischel shocked the world
of personality theory when he
proclaimed in Personality and
Assessment that the classic
personality test was almost
worthless. He had reviewed a
number of studies that tried to
predict behavior from personality
test scores, and found them to be
accurate only 9 percent of the time.

External factors Resisting temptation, rather than Walter Mischel
Mischel drew attention to the part succumbing to short-term gratification,
played by external factors, such as often indicates a capacity for greater Walter Mischel was born in
context, in determining behavior, achievement in life, as Mischel’s studies Austria, but emigrated with
believing that it was necessary to of behavior in young children revealed. his family to the US in 1938.
look at the dynamic interaction of He grew up in Brooklyn, New
people and the situation they find In his famous marshmallow York, receiving his PhD in
themselves in. Imagine how absurd experiments, aimed at testing clinical psychology from Ohio
it would be if people’s behavior willpower, four-year-old children State University in 1956.
appeared to be independent of were presented with a single He then went on to teach at
external factors. He proposed that marshmallow and told they could the Universities of Colorado,
an analysis of a person’s behavior, either eat it immediately, or wait 20 Harvard, and Stanford, moving
in different situations, observed on minutes and then have two. Some in 1983 to Columbia University
numerous occasions, would provide children were able to wait, others in New York City, where he is
clues to behavior patterns that were not. Mischel monitored each the Robert Johnston Niven
would reveal a distinctive signature child’s progress into adolescence, Professor of Humane Letters.
of personality, as opposed to a list and reported that those who had
of traits. Individual interpretation of resisted temptation were better Numerous honors have
a situation was also considered. adjusted psychologically and more been heaped on Mischel. These
dependable; they did better at school, include the Distinguished
Later, Mischel explored habits of were more socially competent, and Scientific Contribution Award
thinking, which might endure over had greater self-esteem. Ability to as well as the Distinguished
time and across different situations. delay gratification seemed to be a Scientist Award of the
better predictor of future success American Psychological
What is a personality than any previously measured trait. Association, and the
test really telling us prestigious Grawemeyer
Mischel’s work led to a shift in Award in psychology in
about a person? the study of personality—from how 2011. Mischel is also a
Walter Mischel personality predicts behavior to prolific and talented artist.
how behavior reveals personality. It
also changed the way personality Key works
profiling is used in assessing job
candidates. Tests that were once 1968 Personality and
considered an accurate basis for Assessment
staff recruitment are now seen as 1973 Is Information About
a guide, to be interpreted in the Individuals More Important
context of the situations that are Than Information About
likely to arise in doing a job. ■ Situations?
2003 Introduction to
Personality

328

WE CANNOT DISTINGUISH
THE SANE FROM THE INSANE
IN PSYCHIATRIC HOSPITALS

DAVID ROSENHAN (1932– )

IN CONTEXT Psychiatrists say that mental disorders can be
accurately diagnosed through symptoms
APPROACH
Anti-psychiatry that can be categorized into diseases.

BEFORE So they should be able to tell the difference
1960 In The Divided Self: between the sane and the insane.
An Existential Study in Sanity
and Madness, R.D. Laing A first experiment A second experiment
emphasizes the family as showed that sane people showed that people with
a source of mental illness. genuine mental health
can be judged insane. disorders can be judged
1961 Psychologists E. Zigler
and L. Phillips demonstrate to be faking them.
huge overlaps in the symptoms
of different categories of We cannot distinguish the sane from
psychiatric disorder. the insane in psychiatric hospitals.

1961 Hungarian-American
psychiatrist Thomas Szasz
publishes the controversial
The Myth of Mental Illness.

1967 British psychiatrist
David Cooper defines the
anti-psychiatry movement in
Psychiatry and Anti-Psychiatry.

AFTER
2008 Thomas Szasz publishes
Psychiatry: The Science of Lies.

Psychiatric diagnoses are not objective, but
exist only in the minds of the observers.

PSYCHOLOGY OF DIFFERENCE 329

See also: Emil Kraepelin 31 ■ R.D. Laing 150–51 ■ Leon Festinger 166–67 ■ Solomon Asch 224–27 ■
Erving Goffman 228–29 ■ Elliot Aronson 244–45 ■ Thigpen & Cleckley 330–31

D uring the 1960s, psychiatry an appointment. Later, at the and powerlessness. Their records
faced a vocal challenge to admissions office, they were to showed that the average daily time
its fundamental beliefs by complain of hearing an unfamiliar they spent with medical staff was
a number of experts known as voice in their heads, which was less than seven minutes. Although
the “anti-psychiatrists.” This unclear but used words such as they were undetected by the hospital
informal group of psychiatrists, “empty” and “thud.” This suggested staff, other patients challenged their
psychologists, and welfare workers existential feelings of pointlessness. sanity, sometimes quite vigorously:
claimed that psychiatry is a medical They were instructed to give false “You’re not crazy. You’re a journalist
model of mental health, yet there names and occupations, but checking up on the hospital.”
are no physical symptoms, and its otherwise true personal histories.
treatment regimes largely ignore Judging the insane sane
the patient’s needs and behaviors. As a result, all the pseudo- In the second part of Rosenhan’s
patients were admitted to hospital study, he falsely informed the staff
In 1973, David Rosenhan carried with a diagnosis of schizophrenia, at a teaching and research hospital
out a field study in the US that despite showing no symptoms of (who were aware of the first study)
explored the validity of psychiatric the disorder. Their hospital stays that during the next three months,
diagnosis and resulted in the lasted an average of 19 days, during one or more pseudo-patients would
dramatic conclusion that we which time they behaved completely try to be admitted to the hospital,
cannot distinguish the sane from normally. They maintained journals and they were asked to rate each
the insane in psychiatric hospitals. of their experiences, surreptitiously new patient on the likelihood of
at first but then openly, as it was them being a pseudo-patient. Of
In the first part of the study, never questioned. Demonstrating 193 genuine new admissions, 41
Rosenhan assembled a group how even normal behavior might were judged suspect by at least
of eight sane people (including be interpreted as evidence of a one member of staff, and 23 were
himself), made up of women and psychiatric condition, Rosenhan flagged as possible pseudo-patients
men of different occupations and found that a common comment in by at least one psychiatrist.
ages, and designated them as their medical notes was “patient
pseudo-patients. They were briefed engages in writing behavior.” Rosenhan’s work generated an
to make an attempt to be admitted explosion of controversy, and led
as patients to different mental The “patients” themselves many institutions to take steps to
hospitals in five US states, first by described their experience in improve their care of patients. ■
telephoning the hospital to ask for hospital as one of depersonalization

David Rosenhan David Rosenhan was born in He is a fellow of the American
the US in 1932. After gaining Association for the Advancement
a BA in psychology from Yeshiva of Science and was a visiting
College, New York City, he moved fellow at Oxford University.
to the city’s Columbia University He founded the Trial Analysis
to study for his MA and PhD. He Group and has long been a
specialized in clinical and social major advocate for the legal
psychology, and became an expert rights of mental health patients.
in legal trial tactics and decision-
making. From 1957 to 1970, he Key works
taught at Swarthmore College,
Princeton University, and 1968 Foundations of Abnormal
Haverford College, then moved Psychology (with Perry London)
to Stanford, where he taught for 1973 On Being Sane in Insane
nearly 30 years. He continues to Places
work at Stanford as professor 1997 Abnormality (with Martin
emeritus of psychology and law. Seligman and Lisa Butler)

330

THE THREE
FACES OF EVE

CORBETT H. THIGPEN (1919–1999)
HERVEY M. CLECKLEY (1903–1984)

IN CONTEXT M ultiple personality One of the most famous cases of
disorder (MPD, later multiple personality disorder is
APPROACH known as dissociative that of Eve White. Eve was referred
Mental disorders identity disorder) is a mental to Thigpen and Cleckley in 1952,
condition in which an individual’s suffering from severe headaches
BEFORE personality appears to present as and occasional blackouts. She was
1880s Pierre Janet describes two or more distinct identities. a neat, rather prim, young woman,
MPD as multiple states of MPD was first reported in 1791 by aged 25, married, with a four-year-
consciousness and coins the Eberhardt Gmelin; over the following old daughter. Eve would remain in
term “dissociation.” 150 years, a further 100 clinical cases treatment for 14 months.
were documented. It was believed
1887 French surgeon Eugene that the condition arose from Eve described to the doctors a
Azam documents the multiple childhood abuse, and could be cured disturbing episode: she had bought
personalities of Felida X. by integrating the sub-personalities some extravagant clothes she could
back into the main personality. not afford, yet had no memory of the
1906 US physician Mortin purchase. As she recounted this, her
Prince reports Christine
Beauchamp’s case in The Eve White Eve Black
Dissociation of Personality. Prim, reserved, timid, Wayward, harsh,
repressed, compulsive. No irresponsible, shallow,
AFTER awareness of the other hysterical. Aware of Eve
1970s US psychiatrist Cornelia White, but not of Jane.
Wilbur reports Sybil Isabel two personalities.
Dorsett’s case and links MPD
definitively with child abuse. Jane
Mature, boldly capable,
1980 The American Psychiatric interesting, compassionate.
Association publishes the third Aware of both Eves, but
edition of the Diagnostic and only from the point of
Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorder, legitimating MPD. her awakening.

1994 MPD is renamed
Dissociative Identity Disorder.

PSYCHOLOGY OF DIFFERENCE 331

See also: Pierre Janet 54–55 ■ Timothy Leary 148 ■ Milton Erickson 336 Corbett H. Thigpen
& Hervey M. Cleckley

demeanor began to change. She Eve’s story was popularized in a book Corbett H. Thigpen was
looked confused, then the lines of and a film, The Three Faces of Eve, born in Macon, Georgia.
her face altered. Her eyes widened, which captured the public’s imagination His childhood interest
and she smiled provocatively. She and made Eve’s case the most famous in amateur magic endured
spoke in a bright, flirtatious tone, example of Multiple Personality Disorder. throughout his life, and he
requesting a cigarette, even though was inducted into the
Eve did not smoke. Eve’s condition was believed to Southeastern Association
result from childhood abuse, so of Magicians’ Hall of Fame.
This was “Eve Black,” a separate efforts were made to work back into Thigpen graduated from
personality so distinct that she her early childhood, using hypnosis Mercer University in 1942,
even suffered from a skin allergy to to provoke the emergence of Eve and from the Medical College
nylon that Eve White did not. Eve Black. Eventually, an attempt was of Georgia in 1945. He served
White was unaware of Eve Black, made to summon both personalities in the US Army during World
while the latter was wholly aware of at once; Eve fell into a trance. She War II, then in 1948 he began
the former, and was full of derision woke as a third personality: this was his distinguished career as a
for her: “She’s such a damn dope….” Jane, the third face of Eve—a more psychiatrist in a private
capable and interesting character practice with Hervey M.
Distinct personalities than Eve White. She seemed to Cleckley. For two decades,
Both personalities were submitted combine the assets of both Eves, the pair taught in the
to extensive psychological testing. without their weaknesses. While departments of psychiatry
Eve White had a marginally higher neither Eve was aware of Jane, she and neurology at the Medical
IQ than Eve Black; both fell in the was aware of them both. College of Georgia. Thigpen
“bright, normal” category. Personality was known as “the professor
dynamics were explored using the Jane appeared to be a balanced who received a standing
Rorschach test (in which subjects compromise between the two Eves, ovation after every lecture.”
report their perception of inkblots). and she was nurtured as the He retired in 1987.
There were dramatic differences: personality with the best grasp of
Eve Black showed a dominant the complex dynamics of the three Hervey M. Cleckley was
hysterical tendency, and the ability personalities: the two Eves were born in Augusta, Georgia. In
to conform. Eve White showed integrated into her character. 1924, he graduated from the
“constriction, anxiety, and obsessive University of Georgia, where
compulsive traits” and an inability Full-blown cases of MPD such he was also a keen
to deal with her hostility. as Eve’s are rare, but it is now sportsman. He won a Rhodes
thought that less pronounced cases scholarship to Oxford
‘When I go out and are more common. The careful University, graduating in
get drunk,’ Eve Black documentation of in-depth case 1926. He spent his entire
said, ‘she wakes up studies like Eve’s has resulted in career at Georgia Medical
with the hangover.’ diagnostic and treatment protocols School, in a variety of
Thigpen & Cleckley that make MPD highly treatable. ■ positions, including that of
founding chairman of the
Department of Psychiatry and
Health Behavior. In 1941, he
wrote The Mask of Sanity, a
seminal study of psychopaths.

Key works

1941 The Mask of Sanity
(Cleckley)
1957 The Three Faces of Eve
(Thigpen & Cleckley)

DIRECTO

RY

334

DIRECTORY

I nvestigation into the workings of the mind dates back to the earliest
civilizations, although it was largely philosophical in nature, rather
than scientific in the modern sense. It was only with major advances
in the biological sciences in the second half of the 19th century that a truly
scientific analysis of our mental processes became possible—giving rise to
psychology as a distinct area of study. The ideas and discoveries of some
of the key researchers in the field have been examined already in this
book, but many more have contributed to the growth of psychology as a
respected science in its own right. From structuralists to behaviorists, from
psychoanalysts to cognative therapists, the people discussed below have
all helped deepen our understanding of our uniqueness as human beings.

JOHN DEWEY methods of cross-cultural analysis See also: Wilhelm Wundt 32–37 ■
Rivers used on an expedition to the William James 38–45 ■ J.P. Guilford
1859–1952 Torres Straits Pacific islands laid 304–05 ■ Edwin Boring 335
the foundations for future field study.
American John Dewey greatly See also: Wilhelm Wundt 32–37 ■ WILLIAM STERN
influenced the development of the Hermann Ebbinghaus 48–49 ■
science and philosophy of human Sigmund Freud 92–99 1871–1938
thought in the first half of the 20th
century. Although primarily a EDWARD B. TITCHENER German-born William Stern was a
behaviorist psychologist, his leading figure in the establishment
application of the philosophy of 1867–1927 of developmental psychology. His
pragmatism on society had a major first book, Psychology of Early
impact on educational thinking Englishman Edward Bradford Childhood (1914), was based on
and practice in the US. Titchener studied experimental observations of his own three
See also: William James 38–45 ■ psychology, first at Oxford and then children over 18 years. His
G. Stanley Hall 46–47 in Germany under Wilhelm Wundt. method—“personalistic
He moved to the US in 1892, where psychology”—investigated the
W.H.R. RIVERS he became known as the founder of individual developmental path,
Structural Psychology, which breaks combining applied, differential,
1864–1922 down the experiences of humanity genetic, and general psychology. A
and arranges them into elemental pioneer in forensic psychology, he
William Halse Rivers Rivers was an structures. As Structural Psychology was the first to use the nomothetic-
English surgeon, neurologist, and is based on introspection, it was at idiographic approach. Stern is best
psychiatrist who specialized in the odds with behaviorism, which was remembered for his work on the
relationship between the mind and growing in popularity. By the 1920s, intelligence quotient (IQ) tests to
the body. He published several key Titchener was fairly isolated in his calculate a child’s intelligence. A
papers on neurological conditions, beliefs, though he was still widely single-number score is awarded
including hysteria. He is best known admired. He wrote several textbooks by dividing the “mental age” of the
for his work on “shell shock” (post- on psychology including: An Outline test-taker by his or her “chronological
traumatic stress disorder), and is of Psychology (1896), Experimental age” and multiplying by 100.
also considered one of the founders Psychology (1901–1905), and A See also: Alfred Binet 50–53 ■
of medical anthropology. The Textbook of Psychology (1910). Jean Piaget 262–69

DIRECTORY 335

CHARLES SAMUEL MYERS Experiments. Using disciplines Testing (1929) and Hypnosis and
drawn from psychology, physiology, Suggestibility (1933). Informed by
1873–1946 and anthropology, he examined over his objective behaviorist approach,
a five-year period the productivity Hull’s Mathematico-Deductive
At Cambridge University, Myers and morale of six female workers as Theory of Rote Learning (1940)
studied experimental psychology he made changes to their working measured all behavior (including
under W.H.R. Rivers, and in 1912 he conditions. The most surprising animal) by a single mathematical
set up the Cambridge Laboratory of outcome was the way the workers equation. He developed the theory
Experimental Psychology. During responded to the research itself. in Principles of Behavior (1943),
World War I, he treated soldiers for The Hawthorne Effect, as it is now which examined the effects of
“shell shock” (a term he invented). known, is an alteration in human reinforcement on the stimulus-
After the war, he was a key figure behavior that occurs when people response connection. His Global
in the development of occupational know they are being studied. This Theory of Behavior was
psychology. His books include discovery had a lasting impact on one of the standard systems of
Mind and Work (1920), Industrial industrial ethics and relations, and psychological research at the time.
Psychology in Great Britain (1926), research methods in social science. See also: Jean-Martin Charcot 30
and In the Realm of Mind (1937). See also: Sigmund Freud 92–99 ■ Alfred Binet 50-53 ■ Ivan Pavlov
See also: Kurt Lewin 218–23 ■ ■ Carl Jung 102–07 60–61 ■ Edward Thorndike 62–65
Solomon Asch 224–27 ■ Raymond
Cattell 314–15 ■ W.R.H. Rivers 334 HERMANN RORSCHACH EDWIN BORING

MAX WERTHEIMER 1884–1922 1886–1968

1880–1943 As a Swiss schoolboy, Rorschach One of the most important figures
was called Klek (Inkblot), because in experimental psychology, Boring
Together with Kurt Koffka and he was always drawing. He later specialized in human sensory and
Wolfgang Köhler, Czech psychologist devised the inkblot test, whereby perceptual systems. His
Max Wertheimer founded Gestalt responses to specific blots may interpretation of W.E. Hill’s reversible
psychology in the US in the 1930s. reveal emotional, character, and old woman/young maid drawing led
Gestalt built on existing theories of thought disorders. He died, aged 37, to it becoming known as the Boring
perceptual organization. Moving a year after his “form interpretation Figure. At Harvard in the 1920s,
away from Wundt’s molecularism, test” Psychodiagnostics (1921) was Boring moved the psychology
Wertheimer advocated the study of published. Others later developed department away from psychiatry,
the whole, famously saying “the the test, but this gave rise to four turning it into a rigorously scientific
whole is more than the sum of its different methods, each flawed. In school that unified structuralism and
parts.” He also devised Pragnanz, 1993, American John Exner united behaviorism. His first book, A
the idea that the mind processes them all in the Comprehensive History of Experimental Psychology
visual information into the simplest System—one of the most enduring (1929), was followed by Sensation
forms of symmetry and shape. psychoanalytical experiments. and Perception in the History of
See also: Abraham Maslow 138–39 See also: Alfred Binet 50–53 ■ Experimental Psychology (1942).
■ Solomon Asch 224–27 Sigmund Freud 92–99 ■ Carl Jung See also: Wilhelm Wundt 32–37 ■
102–07 Edward B. Titchener 334

ELTON MAYO CLARK L. HULL FREDERIC BARTLETT

1880–1949 1884–1952 1886–1969

In the 1930s, while Professor of American Clark Leonard Hull’s early Frederic Bartlett was Cambridge
Industrial Management at Harvard, studies included psychometrics and University’s first Professor of
Australian Elton Mayo carried out hypnosis. He published Aptitude Experimental Psychology (1931–51).
his groundbreaking Hawthorne

336 DIRECTORY

He is known for his memory Edward Thorndike and Charles induces a trance by confusing the
experiments where participants were Spearman, administering the Army mind with a moment of “behavioral
asked to read an unfamiliar, mythical Alpha Test for group intelligence. He void” as the flow of the handshake
story composed by Bartlett (such as later developed Binet’s tests, adding is interrupted. Considered the
The War of the Ghosts) before nonverbal reasoning. Wechsler founder of hypnotherapy treatment,
retelling it. Many added details that believed intelligence lies not only in Erickson was also a major influence
were not in the original story, or the ability to think rationally, but also on the growth of family therapy,
changed meanings to fit their own in the ability to act purposefully solution-focused therapy, systemic
specific culture. Bartlett concluded and to deal effectively with one’s therapy, and a number of brief-
that they were not remembering but environment. In 1939, the Wechsler- therapy treatments, including NLP
rather reconstructing the text. Bellevue Intelligence Scale was (neuro-linguistic programming).
See also: Endel Tulving 186–91 ■ published, followed a decade later by See also: B.F. Skinner 78–85 ■
Gordon H. Bower 194–95 ■ W.H.R. the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Stanley Milgram 246–53.
Rivers 334 Children (1949). The Wechsler Adult
Intelligence Scale (1955) is still the ALEXANDER LURIA
CHARLOTTE BUHLER most widely used intelligence test.
See also: Francis Galton 28–29 ■ 1902–1977
1893–1974 Alfred Binet 50–53 ■ David C.
McClelland 322–23 Born in Kazan, Russia, Luria studied
German-born Bühler founded the at Moscow’s Institute of Psychology.
Vienna Institute of Psychology in NANCY BAYLEY His work on reaction times and
1922 with her husband, Karl. Her thought processes resulted in his
studies of childhood personality and 1899–1994 “combined motor method” and the
cognitive development expanded first ever lie-detector machine. He
to include the course of human Nancy Bayley, an eminent American then went to medical school and
development throughout life. Rather child developmental psychologist, specialized in neurology. Balancing
than Jung’s three stages of life, she specialized in the measurement of the physical and the mental, he made
proposed four: birth–15; 16–25; motor and intellectual development. breakthroughs in brain damage,
26–45; and 46–65. Bühler found For her doctorate, she measured memory loss, perception, and
links between adult emotions and fear in children by analyzing the aphasia (language disorders). The
early childhood. Her World Test is a sympathetic nervous system via stories he told in books such as
therapeutic device that uses a set moisture levels in sweat glands. The Man with a Shattered World:
of numbered miniatures to reveal a Her Bayley Scales of Mental and The History of a Brain Wound (1972)
child’s inner emotional world. After Motor Development (1969) remains helped to popularize neurology.
publishing From Birth to Maturity the worldwide standard measure of See also: Sigmund Freud 92–99
(1935) and From Childhood to Old mental and physical development ■ B.F. Skinner 78–85 ■ Noam
Age (1938), she moved to the US. In in infants from one to 42 months. Chomsky 294–97
the 1960s, Bühler helped to develop See also: Edwin Guthrie 74 ■
humanistic psychology. Simon Baron-Cohen 298–99 DANIEL LAGACHE
See also: Carl Rogers 130–37 ■
Abraham Maslow 138–39 ■ Viktor MILTON ERICKSON 1903–1972
Frankl 140 ■ Gordon Allport 306–13
1901–1980 Frenchman Daniel Lagache was
DAVID WECHSLER inspired to study experimental
Nevada-born Erickson’s trial-and- psychology, psychopathology, and
1896–1981 error observations of hypnosis over phenomenology by the lectures of
many years led him to become a Georges Dumas. A forensics and
During World War I, Wechsler, a world authority on hypnosis and criminology expert, Lagache’s key
Romanian-born American, worked trance. He is well known for his books included Jealousy (1947) and
as an army psychologist alongside Ericksonian Handshake that Pathological Mourning (1956). After

DIRECTORY 337

being expelled from the International their own personalities through their Cerebral Cortex and the Internal
Psychoanalytical Association in 1953 cognitive appraisal of events. From Organs (1954), Miller set out to
for his criticism of Sacha Nacht’s this theory came the “role construct prove that internal organs and
medical authoritarianism, he set up repertory test,” which is used to their functions could also be
the breakaway French Society of research and diagnose the nature manipulated at will. His findings
Psychoanalysis with Jacques Lacan. of personality. Valued in cognitive led to the treatment technique of
A Freudian theorist, Lagache also psychology and counseling, it is also Biofeedback, which aims to
played an important role in used in organizational behavior and improve patients’ conditions by
promoting psychoanalysis among educational studies. training them to respond to signals
the general public, particularly by See also: Johann Friedrich from their own bodies.
linking it with clinical experience. Herbart 24–25 ■ Carl Rogers 130–37 See also: Anna Freud 111 ■
See also: Jacques Lacan 122–23 ■ Ulric Neisser 339 Albert Bandura 286–91

ERNEST R. HILGARD MUZAFER SHERIF ERIC BERNE

1904–2001 1906–1988 1910–1970

In the 1950s, Ernest Ropiequet Raised in Turkey, Sherif gained his Berne, a Canadian psychiatrist and
“Jack” Hilgard collaborated on his PhD in the US at Columbia, with a psychoanalyst, developed the theory
pioneering hypnosis studies at dissertation on how social factors of transactional analysis, which put
Stanford University with his wife can influence perception. Published verbal communication at the center
Josephine and, in 1957, they as The Psychology of Social Norms of psychotherapy. The words of the
founded the Laboratory of Hypnosis (1936), it became known as “the first speaker, the Agent, were called
Research. There, with André Muller autokinetic effect” experiments. One a Transaction Stimulus; the reply of
Weitzenhoffer, he developed the of Sherif’s legacies was combining the Respondant was a Transaction
Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility successfully experimental methods Response. Every personality was
Scales (1959). His controversial in the laboratory and the field. He split into alter-egos: child, adult, and
neodissociation theory and the worked with his wife, Carolyn Wood parent; each stimulus and response
“hidden-observer effect” (1977)— Sherif, notably on the Robbers Cave was seen as playing one of these
which asserts that under hypnosis Experiment (1954). In this, a number “parts.” Exchanges were studied as
several subsystem states of of boy campers were divided into an “I do something to you, and you
consciousness are regulated by an two groups. Posing as a janitor, do something back” transactional
executive control system—have Sherif observed the origins of analysis. His Games People Play
stood the test of time. His textbooks prejudice, conflict, and stereotype in (1964) suggested that “games,” or
Conditioning and Learning (with social groups. His resulting Realistic behavior patterns, between
D.G. Marquis, 1940) and Introduction Conflict theory still underpins our individuals can indicate hidden
to Psychology (1953) are still studied. understanding of group behavior. feelings or emotions.
See also: Ivan Pavlov 60–61 ■ With Carl Havland, he also developed See also: Erik Erikson 272–73 ■
Leon Festinger 166–67 ■ Eleanor E. the Social Judgement theory (1961). David C. McClelland 322–23
Maccoby 284–85 See also: Soloman Asch 224–27 ■
Philip Zimbardo 254–55 ROGER W. SPERRY
GEORGE KELLY
NEAL MILLER 1913–1994
1905–1967
1909–2002 American neurobiologist Sperry’s
Kelly made an important contribution successful separation of the corpus
to the psychology of personality American psychologist Miller was callosum—the bundles of nerve
through The Psychology of Personal a research fellow in Vienna under fibers that transfer signals between
Constructs (1955). His humanistic Anna Freud and Heinz Hartman. left and right brain hemispheres—
idea suggests that individuals make After reading K.M. Bykov’s The led to a dramatic breakthrough in

338 DIRECTORY

the treatment of a certain kind of in opinions to prove that television HAROLD H. KELLEY
epilepsy. In 1981, with David Hubel could alter people’s values.
and Torsten Wiesel, he was awarded See also: Leon Festinger 166–67 ■ 1921–2003
the Nobel Prize for Physiology and Solomon Asch 224–27 ■ Albert
Medicine for his work on his split- Bandura 286–91 American social psychologist Kelley
brain theory, which showed that gained his PhD under Kurt Lewin
the left and right hemispheres had RENE DIATKINE at Massachusetts Institute of
separate specializations. Technology. His first major work,
See also: William James 38–45 ■ 1918–1997 Communication and Persuasion
Simon Baron-Cohen 298–99 (with Hovland & Janis, 1953), split
Diatkine, a French psychoanalyst a communication into three parts:
SERGE LEBOVICI and psychiatrist, was central to the “who;” “says what;” and “to whom.”
development of dynamic psychiatry. The idea was widely adopted, and
1915–2000 He emphasised emotions and their it changed the way people such as
underlying thought processes, rather politicians presented themselves. In
Lebovici was a French Freudian than observable behavior. Diatkine 1953, he began working with John
who specialized in adolescent, child, was also very active in developing Thibaut. Together they wrote The
and infant development, especially institutional mental health, helping Social Psychology of Groups (1959),
the bonding process between baby to set up The Association De Santé followed by Interpersonal Relations:
and mother. He is credited with Mentale in 1958. His book on primal A Theory of Interdependence (1978).
introducing child psychoanalysis fantasies, Precocious Psychoanalysis See also: Leon Festinger 166–67 ■
to France. His many books include (with Janine Simon, 1972), is one of Kurt Lewin 218–23 ■ Noam
Psychoanalysis in France (1980) his most enduring works. Chomsky 294–97
and International Annals of See also: Anna Freud 111 ■
Adolescent Psychiatry (1988). Jacques Lacan 122–23 STANLEY SCHACHTER
See also: Sigmund Freud 92–99 ■
Anna Freud 111 PAUL MEEHL 1922–1997

MILTON ROKEACH 1920–2003 New York-born Schachter is best
known for the two-factor theory of
1918–1988 The work of American Paul Meehl emotion (the Schachter-Singer
has had a lasting impact on mental Theory), developed with Jerome
Rokeach, a Polish-American social health and research methodology. In Singer. The pair showed that
psychologist, studied how religious Clinical Versus Statistical Prediction: physical sensations are linked to
belief affects values and attitudes. A Theoretical Analysis and a Review emotions—for example, the way in
He saw values as core motivations of the Evidence (1954), he argued which people experience increased
and mental transformations of basic that behavioral statistics were heartbeat and muscle tension
psychological needs. His theory of better examined using formulaic before feeling afraid—and that
dogmatism examined the cognitive mathematical methods rather than cognition is affected by an
characteristics of closed- and open- clinical analysis. In 1962, he found a individual’s physiological state.
mindedness (The Open and Closed genetic link to schizophrenia, which See also: William James 38–45 ■
Mind, 1960). Rokeach’s Dogmatism until then had been attributed to Leon Festinger 166–67
Scale, an ideology- and content-free poor parenting. His studies of
way to measure closed-mindedness, determinism and free will focusing HEINZ HECKHAUSEN
is still used, and the Rokeach Value on quantum indeterminacy were
Survey is viewed as one of the most published as The Determinism- 1926–1988
effective ways of measuring beliefs Freedom and Mind-Body Problems
and values in particular groups. In (with Herbert Feigl, 1974) German psychologist Heinz
The Great American Values Test, See also: B.F. Skinner 78–85 ■ Heckhausen was a world expert
Rokeach et al. measured changes David Rosenhan 328–29 on motivational psychology. He

DIRECTORY 339

completed a postdoctoral its development had neglected the (never having had something), and
dissertation on hopes and fears of role of perception. His specialism is linked antisocial behavior to family
success and failure, and his early memory, and in 1995 he chaired the discord rather than maternal
work on childhood motivational American Psychological Association deprivation.
development led to the Advanced task force “Intelligence, Knowns See also: John Bowlby 272–77 ■
Cognitive Model of Motivation and Unknowns,” which examined Simon Baron-Cohen 298–99
(Heckhausen & Rheinberg, 1980). theories of intelligence testing. His
His book Motivation and Action papers were published as the book FRIEDEMANN SCHULZ
(1980), coauthored with his The Rising Curve: Long-Term Gains VON THUN
psychologist daughter, Jutta, has in IQ and Related Measures (1998).
had a lasting influence. See also: George Armitage Miller 1944–
See also: Zing-Yang Kuo 75 ■ 168–73 ■ Donald Broadbent 178–85
Albert Bandura 286–91 ■ Simon German psychologist Friedemann
Baron-Cohen 298–99 JEROME KAGAN Schulz von Thun is famous for his
Communication Model, published
ANDRE GREEN 1929– in the three-volume To Talk With
Each Other (1981, 1989, 1998). Von
1927– Kagan, a leading American figure in Thun says there are four levels of
developmental psychology, believed communication in every part of a
André Green, an Egyptian-born that physiology had more influence conversation: speaking factually;
French psychoanalyst, developed an on psychological characteristics making a statement about
interest in communications theory than the environment. His work on ourselves; commenting on our
and cybernetics while an intern for the biological aspects of childhood relationship to the other person;
Jacques Lacan in the 1950s. He later development—apprehension and or asking the other person to do
became a harsh critic of Lacan who, fear-revealed effects on self- something. He says that when
he said, put too much emphasis on consciousness, morality, memory, people speak and listen on different
symbolic and structural form, which and symbolism—laid foundations levels, misunderstandings occur.
invalidated his Freudian claims. In for research on the physiology of See also: B.F. Skinner 78–85 ■
the late 1960s, Green returned to the temperament. His work influenced Kurt Lewin 218–223
Freudian roots of analysis with his studies of behavior in fields far
exploration of the negative. This beyond psychology, including crime, JOHN D. TEASDALE
was most elegantly expressed in his education, sociology, and politics.
paper, The Dead Mother (1980), in See also: Sigmund Freud 92–99 ■ 1944–
which the mother is psychologically Jean Piaget 262–69
dead to the child, but, as she is still British psychologist Teasdale
there, confuses and frightens him. MICHAEL RUTTER investigated cognitive approaches
See also: Sigmund Freud 92–99 ■ to depression. With Zindel Segal
Donald Winnicott 118–21 ■ Jacques 1933– and Mark Williams, he developed
Lacan 122–23 ■ Françoise Dolto 279 the technique called Mindfulness-
British psychiatrist Michael Rutter Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT).
ULRIC NEISSER has transformed our understanding This combines cognitive therapy
of child development issues and with mindfulness and Eastern
1928– behavior problems. In Maternal meditation techniques, asking
Deprivation Reassessed (1972), he patients with recurrent major
The best-known book by German- rejected John Bowlby’s selective depression to engage with negative
American Neisser is Cognitive attachment theory, showing that thoughts intentionally, rather than
Psychology (1967), which outlines a multiple attachments in childhood automatically, and to observe them
psychological approach focused on were normal. His later research from a more detached perspective.
mental processes. He later criticized revealed a split between deprivation See also: Gordon H. Bower 194–95
cognitive psychology, feeling that (a loss of something) and privation ■ Aaron Beck 174–77

340

GLOSSARY

Anecdotal method The use of Behavior modification The Collective unconscious In Carl
observational (often unscientific) use of proven behavior change Jung’s theory, the deepest level
reports as research data. techniques to control or modify the of the psyche, which contains
behavior of individuals or groups. inherited psychic dispositions
Archetypes In Carl Jung’s theory, through the archetypes.
the inherited patterns or frameworks Behaviorism A psychological
within the collective unconscious approach that insists that only Conditioned response (CR)
that act to organize our experiences. observable behavior should form A particular response elicited by
Archetypes often feature in myths the object of study, as this can an initially neutral stimulus that has
and narratives. be witnessed, described, and been paired with an unconditioned
measured in objective terms. stimulus, which naturally provokes
Association i) A philosophical that response.
explanation for the formation of Central traits In Gordon
knowledge, stating that it results Allport’s theory, the six or so Conditioned stimulus (CS) In
from the linking or association of main personality traits that are classical conditioning, a stimulus
simple ideas to form complex ideas. used to describe a person, such as that comes to elicit a particular
ii) A link between two psychological “shy” or “good natured.” These are (conditioned) response by virtue
processes, formed as a result of the “building blocks” of personality. of having been paired with an
their pairing in past experience. unconditional stimulus.
Classical conditioning A type
Associationism An approach of learning in which a neutral Contiguity The close occurrence of
that claims that inborn or acquired stimulus acquires the capacity two ideas or events. This is thought
neural links bind stimuli and to trigger a particular response to be necessary for association.
responses together, resulting in by becoming paired with an
distinct patterns of behavior. unconditional stimulus. Control group Participants in an
experiment who are not exposed to
Attachment An emotionally Cognitive To do with mental the manipulation of the researchers
important relationship in which one processes, such as perception, during an experiment.
individual seeks proximity to and memory, or thinking.
derives security from the presence Correlation A statistical term for
of another, particularly infants to Cognitive dissonance An the tendency of two data sets or
parental figures. inconsistency between beliefs variables to vary in a similar way in
or feelings, which leads to a a certain set of circumstances. It is
Attention A collective term for state of tension. often mistaken for causation.
the processes used in selective,
focused perception. Cognitive psychology A Crystallized intelligence The
psychological approach that collected skills, cognitive abilities,
Autism The informal term for focuses on the mental processes and strategies acquired through
autistic spectrum disorder involved in learning and knowing, the use of fluid intelligence. It is
(ASD)—a cluster of mental and how the mind actively said to increase with age.
dysfunctions that is characterized organizes experiences.
by extreme self-absorption and lack Defense mechanisms In
of empathy, repetitive motor Cognitive style The habitual psychoanalytic theory, mental
activities, and the impairment of way in which an individual reactions that occur to ward off
language and conceptual skills. processes information. anxiety by unconscious means.

GLOSSARY 341

Desensitize A process of Extinction i) The elimination of General intelligence (“g”) As
weakening a strong response to something, especially a species. defined by Charles Spearman, a
an event or thing by repeated ii) The weakening of a strength of general factor of intelligence or
exposure to that stimulus. response in conditioned learning, ability determined through the
due to a lack of reinforcement. correlation of scores on various
Depression A mood disorder mental tests; Spearman saw it as a
characterized by feelings of False memory A recovered measurement of mental energy, but
hopelessness and low self worth, memory or pseudomemory of an others view it as an individual’s
accompanied by apathy and loss event that did not take place. It is abstract reasoning ability.
of pleasure. In extreme cases, thought to arise through suggestion.
depression may impair normal Gestalt psychology A holistic
functioning and can lead to Family therapy A general term psychological approach that
thoughts of suicide. denoting therapies that treat a emphasizes the role of the
whole family, rather than one organized “whole,” as opposed
Determinism The doctrine that person, on the assumption that to its parts, in mental processes
all events, acts, and choices are problems lie in the interrelationships such as perception.
determined by past events or within the family system.
previously existing causes. Humanistic psychology A
Field theory Kurt Lewin’s model psychological approach that
Dichotic listening Listening of human behavior, which uses the emphasizes the importance of
to two different messages that concept of force fields to explain the free will and self-actualization in
are presented simultaneously, “life space” or field of social determining good mental health.
one to each ear. influences around an individual.
Hypnosis The induction of a
Ego A psychoanalytic term for Fluid intelligence The ability to temporary, trancelike state of
one of three elements of the deal with totally new problems. It heightened suggestibility.
human persona (see also id, is said to decrease with age.
superego); the ego is the rational Hypothesis A prediction or
aspect of personality that is in Free association A technique statement tested for verification or
touch with the outer world and its used in psychotherapy, in which refutation by experimentation.
requirements, and is responsible the patient says the first thing
for controlling the instincts. that comes to mind after any Id A psychoanalytic term for one of
given word. three elements of the human persona
Empiricism A philosophical (see also ego, superego); the id is
and psychological approach that Freudian slip An act or word that the source of psychic energy and is
assigns the attribution of all is close but different to the one allied with the instincts.
knowledge to experience. consciously intended, and reflects
unconscious motives or anxieties. Individual differences All the
Encoding The processing of psychological characteristics that
sensory information into memory. Functionalism A psychological are susceptible to variation
approach that is concerned with between individuals, such as
Ethology The scientific study investigating the adaptive personality or intelligence.
of animal behavior under functions of the mind in relation
natural conditions. to its environment. Inferiority complex A condition,
suggested by Adlerian (after founder
Extraversion A personality type Fundamental attribution error Alfred Adler) psychoanalysis that
that focuses energy primarily The tendency to explain other is said to develop when a person is
toward the external world people’s behavior by reference to unable to deal with real or imagined
and other people (see also personality traits rather than feelings of inferiority and becomes
introversion). external situational factors. either belligerent or withdrawn.

342 GLOSSARY

Imprinting In ethology, an innate Law of Effect Proposed by Oedipus complex According
system of rapid learning that takes Edward Thorndike, this is the to psychoanalytic theory, a
place in animals immediately principle that, where several developmental state that arises
subsequent to birth; it commonly responses to an event are possible, around the age of five, during
involves developing an attachment those that lead to reward tend to which a boy experiences
to a specific individual or object. become more strongly associated unconscious desire for his
with the event, while those that mother and the wish to replace
Innate Inborn or present in an lead to punishment become more or destroy his father.
organism from birth; it may or may weakly associated.
not be genetically inherited. Operant conditioning A form of
Materialism The doctrine that conditioning in which the outcome
Instincts Natural drives or views only the physical realm as real, depends upon an animal operating
propensities. In psychoanalysis, and sees mental phenomena as upon its environment, such as
these are the dynamic forces that explicable through physical terms. pressing a lever to obtain food.
motivate personality and behavior.
Mental age The age at which Personality A person’s stable and
Instrumental conditioning A children of average ability can enduring mental and behavioral
form of conditioning in which the perform particular tasks, as traits and characteristics, which
animal is instrumental in the indicated by levels of performances incline him or her to behave in a
outcome of events; an example of in standardized tests. relatively consistent way over time.
this type of conditioning would be
an animal’s negotiation of a maze. Mind-body problem The problem Phenomenology An approach
of defining the interaction of mental to knowledge based on immediate
Intelligence quotient (IQ) An and physical events, first raised by experience as it occurs, without
index of intelligence that allows René Descartes. any attempt to categorize it
individuals to be allocated through preconceptions,
comparative levels of intelligence. Negative reinforcement In assumptions, or interpretations.
First suggested by William Stern, instrumental or operant
it is calculated by dividing an conditioning, the strengthening Phobia An anxiety disorder,
individual’s mental age by their of a response through the removal characterized by intense and
chronological age, and then of a negative stimulus. usually irrational fear.
multiplying by 100.
Neuron A type of nerve cell Positive reinforcement A key
Introspection The oldest involved in transmitting messages concept in behaviorism, this is
psychological method; it consists (as nerve impulses) between the process of increasing the
of self-observation: “looking different parts of the brain. probability of a response by
(spection) within (intro)” one’s immediately following the
own mind to examine and report Neuropsychology A subdiscipline required response with a
on one’s own inner state. of psychology and neurology that is reward or positive stimulus.
concerned with the structure and
Introversion A personality type function of the brain, and studies Pragmatism The doctrine that
that focuses energy primarily the effects of brain disorders on sees ideas as rules for action; the
toward its own internal behavior and cognition. idea’s validity is measured by its
thoughts and feelings (see also practical consequences.
extraversion). Nonsense syllables Syllables
of three letters that do not form Psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud’s
Just noticeable difference recognized words. They were first set of theories and therapeutic
The smallest difference that can be used experimentally by Hermann methods, which explore the
detected by an individual between Ebbinghaus in a study of learning unconscious processes that
two physical stimuli. and memory. influence human behavior.

GLOSSARY 343

Psychophysics The scientific Schizophrenia A group of severe Trait theory The view that
study of the relations between mental disorders (originally known individual differences depend
mental and physical processes. as dementia praecox) that cause largely on underlying character
impairment in multiple areas of attributes (traits) that remain
Psychosexual stages In functioning. It is characterized by essentially consistent across
psychoanalytic theory, the marked disturbance of thought, flat time and context.
developmental stages of childhood, or inappropriate emotions, and
centering on zones of the body distorted visions of reality. Transference In psychoanalysis,
through which pleasure is derived. the tendency for a patient to
Self-actualization The full transfer emotional reactions from
Psychotherapy A collective term development of one’s potentialities past relationships (particularly
for all therapeutic treatments that and realization of one’s potential. parental) onto the therapist.
use psychological rather than According to Abraham Maslow,
physical or physiological means. this is the most advanced Trial and error learning A
human need. theory of learning initially proposed
Purposive behaviorism Edward by Edward Thorndike that claims
Tolman’s theory, which says all Shaping In behaviorism, the learning occurs through the
behavior is directed toward some shaping of behavior is the performance of several responses,
ultimate goal. procedure of providing positive with the repetition of those that
reinforcement for successive produce desirable results.
Reality principle The set of rules, approximations of a desired
in psychoanalysis, which govern response or standard. Unconditional positive regard
the ego and take account of the In Carl Rogers’ client-centered
real world and its demands. Social learning A theory of therapy, the absolute acceptance
learning based on observing of someone purely because he or
Reflex An automatic reaction the behavior of others and the she is a human being.
to a stimulus. consequences of those behaviors.
Albert Bandura was the foremost Unconditioned response In
Reinforcement In classical proponent of this theory. classical conditioning, a
conditioning, the procedure reflexive (unconditioned, natural)
that increases the likelihood Stimulus Any object, event, response produced in response to a
of a response. situation, or factor in the particular stimulus (e.g. moving a
environment that an individual limb away from a painful stimulus).
Replication Repetitions of can detect and respond to.
research or an experiment in all Unconditioned stimulus In
details that lead to the same Stream of consciousness classical conditioning, a
results. Replication is essential William James’s description of stimulus that elicits a reflexive
to establish validity of findings. consciousness as a continuous (unconditioned, natural) response.
flowing process of thoughts.
Repression In psychoanalytic Unconscious In psychoanalysis,
theory, an ego-defense mechanism Structuralism A psychological the part of the psyche that cannot
that pushes unacceptable thoughts, approach that investigates the be accessed by the conscious mind.
memories, impulses, or desires structure of the mind.
beyond conscious awareness. Validity The extent to which
Anna Freud also called it Superego In psychoanalysis, a test measures what it is
“motivated forgetting.” the term for the portion of the supposed to measure.
psyche that is derived from
Retrieval Recovering information internalizing parental and Zeigarnik effect The tendency to
stored in the memory through a societal values and standards. recall incomplete or unfinished tasks
process of search and find. It is governed by moral restraints. more easily than completed ones.

344

INDEX

A Baldwin, Albert 312 brain 59, 163
Bandler, Richard 114 autism 298
A Guide to Rational Living, Albert Ellis 91 Bandura, Albert 74, 80, 164, 236, 260, 261, children 265
A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance, Leon cognitive psychology 158
286–291, 294 connectionism 64
Festinger 158 Bard–Cannon theory 324 damage 16
A Theory of Human Motivation, Abraham Bard, Philip 324 female/male 236
Baron-Cohen, Simon 236, 261, 284, 298–299 hemispheres 16
Maslow 198, 322 Baron, Robert A. 288 imaging 76, 150, 163, 191
Absent Fathers, Lost Sons, Guy Corneau 155 Barthes, Roland 123 information processing 182, 183, 185
Adler, Alfred 90, 100–101, 138, 139, 142, 146 Bartlett, Frederic 48, 158, 180, 188, 204, 208, intelligence 315
adolescence 46, 47 learning 58
Adorno, Theodor 248 234, 237, 335 memory 190, 191
Affect Theory of Emotions 196 Basic Forms and the Realization of Human mind/body dualism 20, 211
affectionless psychopathy 276 resilience 153
aggression, childhood 288, 289, 290 “Being-in-the-World,” Ludwig Binswanger 141 sex differences 284
Ainsworth, Mary 261, 277, 280–281 Bass, Ellen 204 speech area 76
Allport, Floyd 302, 310 Bateson, Gregory 150, 151
Allport, Gordon 165, 173, 204, 216, 302, 306–313 Bayley, Nancy 336 Breggin, Peter 240
analysis of consciousness 40–45 Beck, Aaron 72, 91, 142, 145, 159, 174–177, Breuer, Josef 23, 90, 94
analytical psychology 104–107 brief therapy 149
Animal Intelligence, Edward Thorndike 65 198, 200, 212 Briggs, Katherine 302
Animal Minds, Donald Griffin 34 Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI) 177 Broadbent, Donald 72, 158, 173, 178–185, 192
antipsychiatry 150–151, 328, 329 Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) 177 Broadbent Filter Model 183
anxiety 86, 87, 159, 177 Beck, Judith 175 Broca, Pierre Paul 16, 76
applied psychology 182 Beck Hopelessness Scale 177 Brown, Roger 194, 216, 217, 237
archetypes 94, 104, 105, 106, 107 Beck Scale for Suicidal Ideation (BSS) 177 Brüke, Ernst 96
Argyle, Michael 100 Becoming, Gordon Allport 313 Bruner, Jerome 158, 162, 164–165, 173, 188,
Aristotle 18, 20, 34, 41, 201, 240 behavior therapy 60, 80
Aronson, Elliot 166, 217, 236, 244–245, 282 behavioral epigenetics 75 261, 270
Asch Paradigm 224, 225 behavioral psychology 322–323 Bruno, Giordano 48
Asch, Solomon Elliott 216, 224–227, 248, 249 Behavioral Study of Obedience, Stanley Buddhism 116, 140, 210
Asperger, Hans 298 Bühler, Charlotte 336
attachment theory 261, 274–277, 278, 280–281 Milgram 248 Burns, David 142
Attitudes Toward Women Scale 236 behavioral therapy 59, 159 Burt, Cyril 50
attribution theory 242–243 behaviorism 11, 12, 59, 68–71, 72, 80, 90,
autism 261, 298 C
autokinetic effect 225 149, 158, 308
Avenzoar (Ibn Zuhr) 60 Behaviorism, John B. Watson 71 Cajal, Santiago Ramón y 76
Avicenna 22 behaviorist movement 44, 58, 76, 77 Campbell, Joseph 104
Axline, Virginia 118 behaviorist psychology 62, 63, 64, 160 Cannon, Walter 324
Azam, Eugene 330 Bellak, Leopold 149 Carroll, John B. 314
Bem, Daryl 166 Cattell, James 35, 50, 51
B Berkeley, George 20 Cattell, Raymond 302, 303, 308, 313,
Berkowitz, Leonard 288
babies, Berne, Eric 111, 337 314–315, 326
attachment theory 274, 275, 280, 281 Bernheim, Hippolyte 224 Chapman, Robin 297
hatred by mother 121 Bernoulli, Daniel 193 Charcot, Jean-Martin 17, 23, 30, 51, 54, 55,
innate concepts 265 Bettelheim, Bruno 261, 271
nature–nurture debate 29 Beyond Freedom and Dignity, B.F. Skinner 85 90, 94
Binet, Alfred 17, 30, 50–53, 265, 302, 304, 314 Cherry, Colin 158, 183, 184
Baddely, Alan 185 Binet–Simon Scale 52–53, 52, 304 child abuse 204, 206, 207
Binswanger, Ludwig 141 Childhood and Society, Erik Erikson 46, 260
bio-psychology 28–29 children,
Bleuler, Eugen 31, 150
Bly, Robert 155 adopted 119, 120
Boring, Edwin 335 aggression 288
Bornstein, Robert 232
Bower, Gordon H. 159, 188, 194–195, 196
Bowlby, John 77, 104, 152, 211, 260, 271,

274–277, 278, 280
Braid, James 22, 23

INDEX 345

attachment theory 276, 278, 280 Karl Lashley 76 Beck 159
autism 298, 299 language 294, 295 Descartes, René 16, 20–21, 34, 40, 41,
childcare systems 271 Zing-Yang Kuo 75
cognitive development 264–269 conformism 224–227, 248–253 180, 192
conditional love for 135 conformity 216, 254–255 desensitization 59
development 12, 13, 270 Conjoint Family Therapy, Virginia Satir 91 development, stages of 272–273
developmental psychology 260, 261 connectionism 62–63 developmental psychology 11, 12, 159,
education 270, 279 consciousness 16, 17, 44, 148
intelligence tests 52 analysis of 40–45 260–261, 269, 284–285
language learning 294, 296, 297 human and animal 37 Dewey, John 216, 334
moral development 292, 293 mind/body dualism 20 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
nature–nurture debate 28 psychoanalysis 94, 95, 96
negative reinforcement 82 stream of 40–41, 45 Disorder 330
psychic growth 101 structuralism 24, 25 Diatkine, René 338
psychoanalysis 118, 119 Cooley, Charles Horton 100, 228 difference, psychology of 11, 13, 302–303
race attitudes 282, 283 Cooper, David 328 Dilthey, Wilhelm 309
stimulus-response conditioning 71 Corneau, Guy 91, 155 Dimensions of Personality, Hans Eysenck 18
trauma 153, 257 Coué, Emile 22 Diseases of the Nervous System,
Children of the Kibbutz, Melford Spiro 271 Counseling and Psychotherapy, Carl Rogers
Choice Theory 217, 240–241 Jean-Martin Charcot 54
Chomsky, Noam 59, 72, 85, 173, 211, 260, 261, 91, 141, 146 dissociation 54, 330
294–297 Cowan, Nelson 173 Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) 303, 330
Christal, Raymond 326 Cox, Catharine 318 Divided Consciousness, Ernest R. Hilgard 54
Clancy, Susan 208 Craik, Fergus 185 Does Consciousness Exist, William James 20
Clark, Kenneth 260, 261, 282–283 Craik, Kenneth 180, 181 Dollard, John 288
Clark, Mamie Phipps 260, 261, 282 creativity 91, 304, 305, 318–321 Dolto, Françoise 261, 279
classical conditioning 58, 59, 60–61, 68, 69, Creativity and Personality: Suggestions for a dream analysis 98, 98
Drives Toward War, Edward Tolman 75
70, 81, 85 Theory, Hans J. Eysenck 318 Duncker, Karl 160
Ivan Pavlov 60–61, 62 Critical Psychology, Isaac Prilleltensky &
Cleckley, Hervey M. 303, 330–331 E
client-centered therapy 200 Dennis Fox 256
Client-Centered Therapy, Carl Rogers 26, 198 Csíkszentmihályi, Mihály 198–199, 200, 201, Eagly, Alice 236
cocktail party problem 183, 184 Ebbinghaus, Hermann 10, 11, 17, 48–49, 62,
cognition 59, 68, 73, 160 322
cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) 12, 59, Cultural Psychology, Wilhelm Wundt 37 158, 162, 170, 172, 188, 208
Culture-fair Intelligence Test 315, 315 education,
72, 85, 144, 145, 159, 212–213 Cutshall, Judith 207
cognitive behaviorism 72–73, 160 Cyrulnik, Boris 152–153 child-centered 264, 267, 268, 269
cognitive development 164–165, 264, 265, connectionism 62
D intelligence tests 52
266, 267, 269 nature-nurture debate 29
cognitive dissonance 166, 167, 244, 245 Damasio, Antonio 45 educational psychology 65
Cognitive Maps in Rats and Men, Edward Damon, William 198, 292 ego 96, 96, 97, 105, 106, 111
Darwin, Charles 16, 28, 34, 50, 58, 77, 83, 211, Eichmann, Adolf 248
Tolman 59 Eisenberg, Nancy 292
cognitive neuroscience 163 302, 324 Ekman, Paul 159, 196–197, 303
cognitive psychology 11, 12, 59, 72, 85, 91, Dasen, Pierre 269, 269 electric shock obedience experiment
Davis, Keith 242
158, 159, 166–167, 180, 181, 184, 185, Davis, Laura 204 248–252
208–209, 260–261 Dawkins, Richard 211 Ellis, Albert 91, 110, 142–145, 174, 177, 212
Cognitive Psychology, Ulric Neisser 159 de Faria, José Custódio (Abbé Faria) 23 Emerson, Peggy 277, 278
cognitive therapy 72, 91, 174–177, 198, 200 De Homine, René Descartes 20 Emotion and Adaptation, Richard Lazarus 324
collaborative psychology 193 death instinct 91, 108, 109 emotions 68, 69, 144, 159, 196, 197, 233, 303,
collective unconscious 90, 104, 105, 106, 107 deception 196, 197
Coming of Age in Samoa, Margaret Mead 46 Decision and Stress, Donald Broadbent 185 324–325
community psychology 256 defensive pessimism 108 awareness 116
Compendium of Psychology, Emil Kraepelin 17 Deisher, Robert 271 repression of 134
Completion, Arithmetic, Vocabulary, and Deleuze, J.P.F. 54 Emotions Revealed, Paul Ekman 197
Directions (CAVD) test 65 dementia 31 empathy 235, 235, 236
conditioning 11, 58, 59 depression 109, 140, 142, 154, 159, 176, 200, English Men of Science: Their Nature and
B.F. Skinner 80, 81, 82 Nurture, Francis Galton 29, 75
Edward Thorndike 63 201, 243 Envy and Gratitude, Melanie Klein 91
Edward Tolman 72, 73 Depression: Causes and Treatment, Aaron Epicetus 142
Edwin Guthrie 74 epigenetics, behavioral 75
Ivan Pavlov 60–61, 61, 62 episodic memory 189, 190, 191
John B. Watson 68, 69, 70, 71

346 INDEX

epistemology, genetic 264 G Hamilton, Max 154
Erickson, Milton 149, 336 Hamilton, V.L. 248
Ericsson, Anders 318 “g factor” 302, 303, 314 Hampson, Sarah 228
Erikson, Erik 46, 90, 260, 272–273 Galen, Claudius (Galen of Pergamon) 18–19, Hanh, Thich Nhat 210
ethology 59, 77 Harlow, Harry 139, 261, 274, 277, 278, 280
eugenics 28, 29 20, 308, 319 Haslam, Alex 254
evolution 16, 58 Gallimore, Ronald 277 Hebb, Donald 48, 76, 158, 163
evolutionary psychology 13, 211 Galton, Charles 16 Hebbian learning 163
Existence, Rollo May 91 Galton, Francis 13, 28–29, 50, 51, 75, 270, Heckhausen, Heinz 338
existential philosophy 91 Hegel, Georg 122, 238
existential psychology 91 302, 304 Heidegger, Martin 141
existential psychotherapy 141 Gardner, Howard 198 Heider, Fritz 242
Existential Psychotherapy, Irvin Yalom 141 Gelman, Susan 269 Heinroth, Oskar 77
existentialism 16, 26–27 gender development 290, 291 Heisenberg, Werner 238
experimental psychology 17, 34–37, 48, gender differences 261, 284, 285 Helmreich, Robert 217, 236
gender studies 236, 261 Helplessness: On Depression, Development,
49, 148 genetic epistemology 264–267
Experimental Studies of the Perception of genetics 59, 83, 159 and Death, Martin Seligman 174
Genius 101: Creators, Leaders, and Prodigies, Herbart, Johann Friedrich 16, 24–25
Movement, Max Wertheimer 160 Hereditary Genius, Francis Galton 16, 29
extraversion 19, 319–321 Dean Keith Simonton 318 Herzberg, Frederick 322
Eyewitness Testimony, Elizabeth Loftus 159, genius, nature of 318–321 Hess, Eckhard 77
genotypes 311, 312 Hilgard, Ernest R. 54, 337
188, 206 Gergen, Kenneth 238 Hill, Heather 294
Eysenck, Hans J. 18, 19, 212, 302, 308, 313, Gestalt movement 44 Hippocrates 18, 30, 308, 319, 326
Gestalt psychology 12, 59, 72, 73, 158, 159, Hogan, Joyce 326
316–321, 326 Hogan, Robert 326
160–161, 167, 220 Horney, Karen 90, 110, 114, 126, 129, 142, 143
F Gestalt theory 91, 154 Hull, Clark L. 59, 240, 335
Gestalt therapy 114–117, 142, 174 human development 29, 46–47
facial expressions 196, 197, 235, 303 Gilbert, Dan 140 humanist psychoanalysis 126–129
Facial Expressions of Emotion, Paul Gillette, Douglas 155 humanistic psychology 12, 129, 136, 137,
Glasser, William 217, 240–241
Ekman 159 Gmelin, Eberhardt 330 138–139, 141, 198
facial recognition 36 Goddard, Henry H. 53 humanistic psychotherapy 91
false memory syndrome 206, 207 Goetzinger, Charles 233 Hume, David 49
familiarity 232–235 Goffman, Erving 216, 228–229 humorism 18–19, 308, 319
family therapy 146–147, 151 Goldstein, Kurt 138 hypnosis 16, 17, 22–23, 30, 30, 90, 94, 224, 331
Faria, Abbé (Dormez) 16, 22–23 Goleman, Daniel 322 hysteria 17, 30, 90, 94
Fausto-Sterling, Anne 284 Good Business: Leadership, Flow and the
fear 68, 69, 70, 71, 325 I
Fear of Freedom, Erich Fromm 90 Making of Meaning, William Damon &
Fechner, Gustav 232, 304 Howard Gardner 198 “I,” the 122–123
feminism 284 Good Work: When Excellence and Ethics Meet, Ibn Sina 22
feminist psychology 284 William Damon & Howard Gardner 198 Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) 60
Festinger, Leon 159, 166–167, 244 Goodman, Cecile 158 id 96, 111
flashbulb memories 190 Goodman, Paul 91, 174 identity crisis 46, 273
Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience, Gould, Judith 298 idiographic method 308, 309, 313
Green, André 339 impression management 228–229
Mihály Csíkszentmihályi 199, 200, 322 Griffin, Donald 34 imprinting 59, 77
fluid intelligence 314, 315 group dynamics 216, 220, 223 individual psychology 100–101
forgetting 48, 49, 208, 209 Guilford, Joy Paul 303, 304–305, 314, 318 individualism 117
Frankl, Viktor 91, 140 Guthrie, Edwin 58, 59, 74 inferiority complex 100, 101
freedom of attitude 140 inheritance 16, 28, 59, 104, 105
Freeman, Derek 46 H inkblot (Rorschach) test 331, 335
Freud, Anna 90, 111, 260, 273 innate (inborn),
Freud, Sigmund 11, 12, 17, 22, 24, 30, 46, 54, Haley, Jay 149
Hall, G. Stanley 17, 46–47 abilities 28
90, 92–99, 104, 108, 111, 118, 150, 152, Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HAM-D) behavior 75, 80
174, 195, 204, 220, 272, 274, 278, 292, 309 154 beliefs 104
Freudian slips 98 insanity, and genius 318, 320, 321
Frijda, Nico 303, 324–325
Frith, Uta 298
Fromm, Erich 90, 91, 124–129, 198

INDEX 347

insight-oriented therapy 149 Kraepelin, Emil 17, 31 Lewin, Kurt 12, 166, 167, 216, 218–223, 254
instinct 28, 58, 59, 75, 77, 104, 105, 161, Krech, David 45 liberation psychology 217, 256–257
Kubovy, Michal 192 Linas, Rodolfo 44
275, 297 Kuczaj, Stan 294 Lipitt, Ronald 220
intelligence 13, 17, 161, 304–305, 314–315 Kulik, James 237 Locke, John 28, 40, 41, 49, 264
Kuo, Zing-Yang 58, 75, 80 Loeb, Jacques 68
child development 264, 265, 266, 267 Loevinger, Jane 111
connectionism 63, 65 L Loftus, Elizabeth 91, 159, 188, 202–207, 208
“g factor” 62 logotherapy 140
inheritance 29 L’Automatism Psychologique, Pierre Janet 110 Loneliness, Creativity and Love, Clark
psychology of difference 303 Lacan, Jacques 90, 122–123, 155, 279
intelligence quotient (IQ) tests 50, 52, 53, 65, Lagache, Daniel 336 Moustakas 132
Laing, R.D. (Ronald David) 26, 27, 91, Lorenz, Konrad 34, 59, 75, 77, 274, 278
265, 302, 304, 305, 314, 315, 318, 320, 323 Lucretius 31
intelligence theory 50–53 150–151, 328 Luria, Alexander 336
introversion 90, 319, 321 Lange, Carl 43, 324
IQ see intelligence quotient (IQ) tests language 116, 260, 294, 295, 296, 297 M
Iron John: A Book About Men, Robert Bly 155 Language Acquisition Device (LAD) 296, 297
Language and Communication, George Maccoby, Eleanor E. 261, 284–285
J Machiavellian trait 310
Miller 171 MACOS program 164
Jacklin, Carol 284 Larsen, Knud S. 224 Main, Mary 280
James–Lange theory of emotion 43, 324 Lashley, Karl 58, 59, 76, 163, 165 Man: A Course of Study (MACOS)
James, William 11, 17, 20, 28, 38–45, 47, 59, Lasker, Bruno 282
latent learning 68, 73 program 164
65, 68, 80, 82, 100, 122, 148, 162, 163, 170, Laws of Organization in Perceptual Forms, Man’s Search for Meaning, Viktor Frankl 91,
172, 228, 237, 308, 324
Janet, Pierre 17, 54–55, 104, 330 Max Wertheimer 40 140
Johnston, Charles M. 271 Lazarus, Arnold A. 177 Marcia, James 272
Jones, Edward E. 242 Lazarus, Richard 324 Margaret Mead and Samoa, Derek Freeman 46
Jung, Carl Gustav 24, 90, 94, 102–107, 114, 122 Leadership That Gets Results, Daniel marshmallow tests 327
Jungian archetypes 155 Martín-Baró, Ignacio 217, 256–257
Just-World hypothesis 242, 243 Goleman 322 Marx, Karl 129
juvenile delinquency 276 learned abilities 28 masculine psychology 155
learned helplessness 200, 201 Maslow, Abraham 91, 100, 126, 132, 133,
K learning 12, 16, 17, 48, 49, 58, 59, 68, 159, 163,
137, 138–139, 148, 198, 200, 313, 322
Kabat-Zinn, Jon 200, 210 221, 222 Masterson, Jenny 310
Kagan, Jerome 339 brain function 76 Maternal Care and Mental Health, John
Kahneman, Daniel 159, 193 by association 76, 77
Kahun Papyrus 30 child-centered education 264, 268, 269 Bowlby 275
Kanner, Leo 298 childhood aggression 288 maternal deprivation 275, 276
Kant, Immanuel 40, 41, 114, 264 conditioning 61, 73 May, Rollo 26, 91, 126, 137, 141
Kelley, Harold H. 338 connectionism 62, 63, 64, 65 Mayo, Elton 335
Kelly, George 154, 337 developmental psychology 260, 262 MBCT 210
Kelman, Herbert 248 “g factor” 314 MBSR 210
Kierkegaard, Søren 16, 26–27, 141 imprinting 77 McAdam, Dan P. 308
King Solomon’s Ring, Konrad Lorenz 34 insight 160, 161 McClelland, David 322–323
Klein, Melanie 90, 91, 99, 108–109, 110, 111, jig-saw method 244, 282 McLuhan, Marshall 12
language 294, 295 Mead, Margaret 46, 196
118, 119, 121, 260 memory and 162, 194–195 medical psychiatry 31
Klineberg, Otto 282 nature–nurture debate 28 Meehl, Paul 338
Koffka, Kurt 160 learning difficulties 261 memory and memories 17, 48, 49, 49, 58, 158,
Kohlberg, Lawrence 260, 261, 292–293 learning theory 74, 166, 294
Köhler, Wilhelm 193 social 288–291 159, 180, 208, 234
Köhler, Wolfgang 158, 159, 160–161, 163, Leary, Mark 228 and learning 162
Leary, Timothy 91, 148 and neurons 163
20, 225 Lebowici, Serge 338 autobiographical 237
Kohut, Heinz 110 Lectures on the Diseases of the Nervous brain function 76
Kowalski, Mark 228 System, Jean-Martin Charcot 17 emotional states and 196
Leibniz, Gottfried 24, 25 “forgetting curve” 62
Lerner, Melvin 154, 217, 242–243 information processing 183, 184
Levi-Strauss, Claude 123 inherited 104, 105
intelligence 304, 314

348 INDEX

recall (retrieval) 159, 195, 204–207, 208, 209 neurohypnotism 22 parenting systems 271
repressed 90, 91, 95, 96, 97, 99 Neurolinguistic Therapy (NLP) 114 Passions of the Soul, René Descartes 16
storage and retrieval 188–191 neurological science 30, 54–55 Pavlov, Ivan 11, 58, 59, 60–61, 62, 68, 70, 72,
structuralism 25 neuropsychology 67, 163
Memory, A Contribution to Experimental neuroscience 59, 158, 159, 163 74, 76, 80, 81, 86, 87, 161, 174
Psychology, Hermann Ebbinghaus 17, 49, Neurosis and Human Growth, Karen PEN (Psychoticism, Extraversion,

170, 208 Horney 114 Neuroticism) 308, 321
mental disorders 17, 330–331 neuroticism 19, 319–321, 319 Peplau, Letitia 242
mental illness 31, 150, 151 Neurypnology, James Braid 22 perception 16, 17, 59, 114, 115, 158, 159,
Mersenne, Marin 21 New Passages, Gail Sheehy 272
Mesmer, Franz 22 Nietzche, Frederick 141 160, 161, 192
Metzler, Jacqueline 159 nomothetic method 309 Perception and Communication, Donald
Milgram, Stanley 166, 217, 224, 225, 227, Norem, Julie K. 108
nurture see nature–nurture debate Broadbent 72, 158, 184, 192
246–253, 254 Perceptual Control Theory (PCT) 240, 241
Miller, Alice 118 O Perls, Frederick “Fritz” Salomon 91, 112–117,
Miller, Geoffrey 211
Miller, George Armitage 159, 162, 163, 164, obedience 217, 224, 227, 248–251, 254 126, 132, 138, 174
Obedience to Authority, Stanley Milgram 252 Perls, Laura 91, 174
165, 168–173, 180, 194, 208 Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder (OCD) Persistent Vegetative State (PVS) 44
Miller, Neal 59, 337 person-centered therapy 132–135
mind/body dualism 20–21 212–213 personal construct theory 154
mind, theory of 298–299 Odbert, H.S. 308, 309, 310, 313 personality 13, 16, 17, 134, 318–321
Mindblindness, Simon Baron-Cohen 261 Oedipus complex 155
mindfulness 200, 210 Olweus, Dan 320 humorism 18, 19, 308, 309
Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy On Aggression, Konrad Lorenz 75 multiple personality disorder 331
On Becoming a Person, Carl Rogers 26, 136 nature–nurture debate 28
(MBCT) 210 On Memory, Hermann Ebbinghaus 62 Personality and Assessment, Walter
Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction On the Cause of Lucid Sleep, Abbé Faria 23
On the Diseases of Women, Hippocrates 30 Mischel 303, 327
(MBSR) 210 On the Fabric of the Human Body, Andreas Personality: Psychological Interpretation,
Minuchen, Salvador 146
Mischel, Walter 302, 303, 326–327 Vesalius 18 Gordon Allport 302, 312
Mitchell, Peter 298 On the Nature of Prejudice, Gordon personality psychology 302, 303, 308–313
mnemonics 48 personality tests 323
Montessori schools 264 Allport 216 personality theory 303, 318–321, 326–327
mood-congruent processing 195 On the Origin of Species, Charles Darwin 16, personality traits and types 107, 128, 129, 308,
mood-dependent retrieval 195
Moore, Robert L. 155 50, 77 309, 310, 320, 326–327
moral development 292–293 On the Qualities of Form, Christian von Personality Traits: Their Classification and
Morgan, Christiana 323
Moscovici, Serge 216, 217, 224, 227, 238–239 Ehrenfels 160 Measurement, Gordon and Floyd Allport
mother–infant bond 275, 280, 281 operant conditioning 58, 59, 72, 82, 83, 84, 302, 308
motivation 322–323 Phillips, L. 328
Motivation and Personality, Abraham Maslow 85, 288, 294, 295, 297 philosophy 10, 11, 16
Opinions and Social Pressure, Solomon Philosophy of the Unconscious, Eduard
91, 200 von Hartmann 24
Motivation to Work, Frederick Herzberg 322 Asch 224 phobias 87
Moustakas, Clark 132 optical illusions 192 Piaget, Jean 74, 164, 165, 260, 262–267, 270,
Multiple Personality Disorder (MPD) 303, 330 Origins of Intelligence in the Child, Jean 272, 292
Murray, Henry 138, 322, 323 Pien, D. 232
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) 107 Piaget 164 Pinker, Steven 159, 192, 294, 297
Myers, Charles Samuel 335 Ornstein, Robert E. 148 placebo effect 22
Myers, Isabel Briggs 302 Osmund, Humphrey 148 Plato 20, 34, 41
“other,” the 122–123 play therapy 109, 118
Pollack, Irwin 171, 172
N P positive psychology 152–153, 198–199,
200–201, 313
nativism 294–297 Pahnke, Walter 148 positive reinforcement 81, 83, 85
natural selection 77, 83 Paige, Jeffrey 312 Posner, Laura 116
nature–nurture debate 13, 16, 28, 29, 71, 75, Palazzoli, Mara Selvini 146 Postman, Leo 48, 165, 204
Paracelsus 94 Powers, William T. 240, 241
159, 261, 264, 270, 303 Prilleltensky, Isaac 256
negative reinforcement 82, 83 Prince, Morton 54, 330
Neisser, Ulric 159, 237, 339 Principles of Physiological Psychology,
Wilhelm Wundt 31, 34
Principles of Psychology, William James 17,
60, 80, 82, 308
problem solving 159, 160, 161
Prospect Theory 193
psyche 96, 105