The Psychology Book

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 199

See also: Erich Fromm 124–29 ■ Carl Rogers 130–37 ■ Abraham Maslow 138–39 ■ Aaron Beck 174–77 ■
Martin Seligman 200–01 ■ Jon Kabat-Zinn 210

A good jazz musician will pass into Csíkszentmihályi found that all reality, totally separated from the
an almost trancelike state when he is these people described a similar cares and worries of ordinary life.
playing. Engulfed by the ecstatic feeling sensation when they were totally Flow, Csíkszentmihályi felt, is key
of “flow,” he becomes totally absorbed engaged in an activity they enjoyed to optimal enjoyment of any activity,
by his music and performance. and could do well. They all reported and consequently to a fulfilling life.
achieving a state of mind with no
Central to the new psychology was sense of self, in which things came But how can flow be achieved?
the concept of “flow,” devised by to them automatically—a feeling Csíkszentmihályi studied cases of
Mihály Csíkszentmihályi in the of “flow.” It starts, he said, with people who regularly reached this
1970s, and fully explained in his “a narrowing of attention on a “ecstatic” state, and realized that
book Flow: The Psychology of clearly defined goal. We feel it always occurred when the
Optimal Experience in 1990. The involved, concentrated, absorbed. challenge of an activity matched a
idea came to him from interviewing We know what must be done, and person’s skills; the task was doable,
people who appeared to get a lot we get immediate feedback as to but also extended their capabilities
out of life, either in their work or how well we are doing.” A musician and demanded total concentration.
their leisure activities—not only knows instantly if the notes he Only a reasonable balance of ability
creative professionals such as plays sound as they should; a and difficulty could lead to flow. If
artists and musicians, but people tennis player knows the ball he someone’s skills were not up to the
from all walks of life, including hits will reach its destination. task, this led to anxiety, and if the
surgeons and business leaders, and task was too easily done, it led to
those who found satisfaction in State of ecstasy boredom or apathy.
pursuits such as sports and games. People experiencing flow also
describe feelings of timelessness, Csíkszentmihályi’s concept of
clarity, and serenity, which led flow was eagerly picked up by other
Csíkszentmihályi to liken it to a advocates of positive psychology,
state of ecstasy (in its truest sense, and became an integral part of
from the Greek ekstasis, meaning this new, optimistic approach.
“being outside oneself”). A major Csíkszentmihályi himself saw flow
part of the enjoyment of flow is the as a vital element in activity of all
sense of being outside everyday kinds, and thought it especially
important in making work more
rewarding and meaningful. ■

Mihály Mihály Csíkszentmihályi was Csíkszentmihályi remained
Csíkszentmihályi born in Fiume, Italy (now Rijeka, at the University of Chicago,
Croatia), where his father was teaching and developing his
posted as a Hungarian diplomat. ideas on “flow,” from 1969 to
The family became exiles in Rome 2000, when he was appointed
when Hungary was taken over by Professor of Psychology and
the Communists in 1948. Management at Claremont
Graduate University, California.
As a teenager, Csíkszentmihályi
attended a talk given by Carl Jung Key works
in Switzerland, which inspired him
to study psychology. A scholarship 1975 Beyond Boredom and
brought him to the University of Anxiety
Chicago; he graduated in 1959, 1990 Flow: The Psychology
and received his PhD in 1965. of Optimal Experience
While still a student, he married 1994 The Evolving Self
the writer Isabella Selenga, and in 1996 Creativity
1968 became a US citizen.

200

HAPPY PEOPLE
ARE EXTREMELY
SOCIAL

MARTIN SELIGMAN (1942– )

IN CONTEXT There are three kinds of happy life.

APPROACH The Good The Meaningful The Pleasant
Positive psychology Life—pursuing Life—acting Life—socializing
personal growth and
BEFORE achieving “flow.” in the service of and seeking
1950s Carl Rogers develops something greater pleasure.
the concept and practice of
“client-centered” therapy. than yourself.

1954 Abraham Maslow uses These bring lasting Social relationships
the term “positive psychology” happiness, but this do not guarantee
for the first time, in his book happiness cannot be high happiness,
Motivation and Personality.
achieved without but it does not appear
1960s Aaron Beck exposes social relationships. to occur without them.
the weaknesses of traditional
psychoanalytical therapy, and W hile experimental cognitive therapies still focused
proposes cognitive therapy. psychology after World largely on alleviating unhappy
War II became deeply conditions rather than on creating
AFTER concerned with the cognitive and promoting happier ones.
1990 Mihály Csíkszentmihályi processes of the brain, clinical Martin Seligman, whose theory of
publishes Flow: The Psychology psychology continued to examine “learned helplessness” (the spiral of
of Optimal Experience, based ways to treat disorders such as acquiring pessimistic attitudes in
on his research into the links depression and anxiety. The new illnesses such as depression) had
between meaningful, engaging
activity and happiness.

1994 Jon Kabat-Zinn’s
Wherever You Go, There You
Are introduces the idea of
“mindfulness meditation” to
cope with stress, anxiety,
pain, and illness.

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 201

See also: Erich Fromm 124–29 ■ Carl Rogers 130–37 ■ Abraham Maslow 138–39 ■
Aaron Beck 174–77 ■ Mihály Csíkszentmihályi 198–99 ■ Jon Kabat-Zinn 210

Good social relationships much pleasure as possible, Martin Seligman
are, like food and appeared to bring happiness,
thermoregulation, though Seligman found this was Born in Albany, New York,
often short-lived. Less obviously, Martin Seligman took his
universally important the good life, or being successfully first degree in philosophy at
to human mood. engaged in relationships, work, Princeton University in 1964.
and play, gave a deeper, more He then turned his attention
Martin Seligman lasting happiness. Similarly, the to psychology, gaining a
meaningful life, or acting in the doctorate from the University
led to more successful treatments service of others or something of Pennsylvania in 1967. He
in the 1980s, believed that what bigger than oneself, led to great taught at Cornell University,
psychology offered was good, but satisfaction and fulfilment. New York, for three years,
it could offer more. He felt that before returning in 1970 to
therapy should be “as concerned Seligman also observed that Pennsylvania, where he has
with strength as with weakness; good and meaningful lifestyles been Professor of Psychology
as interested in building the best both involve activities that his since 1976.
things in life as repairing the colleague Mihály Csíkszentmihályi
worst.” Having studied philosophy, had described as generating “flow,” Seligman’s research into
he likened the task of his “positive or deep mental engagement. The depression during the 1970s
psychology” to that of Aristotle pleasant life clearly does not involve led to a theory of “learned
seeking eudaemonia—“the happy “flow,” but Seligman did find that all helplessness,” and a method
life.” Like his philosophical the “extremely happy people” he of countering the pervasive
forebears, Seligman found this was studied were also very sociable, pessimism associated with it.
not a matter of relieving or removing and in a relationship. He concluded But after an incident with his
things that make us unhappy, but that “social relationships do not daughter that highlighed his
of encouraging those things that guarantee high happiness, but it own innate negativity, he was
might make us happy—and first he does not appear to occur without persuaded that focusing on
had to discover what they were. them.” A good and meaningful life positive strengths, rather than
may bring eudaemonia, but having negative weaknesses, was key
a pleasant life as well will intensify to happiness. Regarded as one
whatever happiness you achieve. ■ of the founding fathers of
modern positive psychology,
“Happy” lives Enjoying social events and the Seligman instigated the
Seligman noticed that extremely company of others may not offer deep Positive Psychology Center at
happy, fulfilled people tend to get intellectual or emotional satisfaction, the University of Pennsylvania.
on with others, and enjoy company. but Seligman observed that it was an
They seemed to lead what he called essential part of being truly happy. Key works
“the pleasant life,” one of the three
distinct types of “happy” life that 1975 Helplessness
he identified, the others being “the 1991 Learned Optimism
good life” and “the meaningful life.” 2002 Authentic Happiness
The pleasant life, or seeking as

WHAT WE BELIEVE

WITH ALL OUR HEARTS

IS NOT NECESSARILY

THE TRUTH

ELIZABETH LOFTUS (1944– )



204 ELIZABETH LOFTUS T oward the end of the Human remembering
19th century, Sigmund does not work like
IN CONTEXT Freud claimed that the a videotape recorder
mind has a way of defending itself or a movie camera.
APPROACH against unacceptable or painful Elizabeth Loftus
Memory thoughts and impulses, by using an
unconscious mechanism that he particular was an attractive area
BEFORE called “repression” to keep them for research, and repressed and
1896 Sigmund Freud proposes hidden from awareness. Freud later recovered memory was about to
the notion of repressed memory. modified his thinking to a more become a hot topic, as a number
general theory of repressed desires of high-profile child abuse cases
1932 Frederic Bartlett claims and emotions. However, the idea reached the courts in the 1980s.
that memory is subject to that the memory of a traumatic
elaboration, omission, and event could be repressed and stored Suggestible memory
distortion in Remembering. beyond conscious recall became During the course of her research,
accepted by many psychologists. Loftus grew skeptical about the idea
1947 Gordon Allport and Leo of recovering repressed memories.
Postman conduct experiments The rise of various forms of Previous research by Frederic
that demonstrate various types psychotherapy in the 20th century Bartlett, Gordon Allport, and Leo
of nondeliberate misreporting. focused attention on repression, and Postman had already shown that
the possibility of retrieving repressed even in the normal working of the
AFTER memories became associated with human brain, our ability to retrieve
1988 The self-help book for psychoanalysis so strongly that even
sexual abuse survivors, The Hollywood dramas began to explore
Courage to Heal, by Ellen Bass the link. Memory in general was a
and Laura Davis, is influential popular subject among experimental
in popularizing recovered psychologists too, particularly as
memory therapy in the 1990s. behaviorism began to wane after
World War II, and the “cognitive
2001 In The Seven Sins of revolution” was suggesting new
Memory, Daniel Schacter models for how the brain processed
describes the seven different information into memory. By the
ways in which our memories time Elizabeth Loftus began her
can malfunction. studies, long-term memory in

Elizabeth Loftus Born Elizabeth Fishman in Los and adjunct professor of law. She
Angeles in 1944, Loftus received was appointed distinguished
her first degree at the University of professor at the University of
California with the intention of California in 2002, and was the
becoming a high school math highest-ranked woman in a
teacher. While at UCLA, however, scientifically quantified ranking
she started classes in psychology, of the 20th century’s most
and in 1970 received a PhD in important psychologists.
psychology at Stanford University.
It was here that she first became Key works
interested in the subject of long-
term memory, and met and married 1979 Eyewitness Testimony
fellow psychology student Geoffrey 1991 Witness for the Defense
Loftus, whom she later divorced. (with Katherine Ketcham)
She taught at the University of 1994 The Myth of Repressed
Washington, Seattle, for 29 years, Memory (with Katherine
becoming professor of psychology Ketcham)

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 205

See also: Sigmund Freud 92–99 ■ Bluma Zeigarnik 162 ■ George Armitage Miller 168–73 ■ Endel Tulving 186–91 ■
Gordon H. Bower 194–95 ■ Daniel Schacter 208–09 ■ Roger Brown 237 ■ Frederic Bartlett 335–36

information from memory can be seen. Loftus found that the phrasing later versions of the experiment,
unreliable; Loftus believed that this of questions had a significant participants were verbally given
must also be true of the recollection influence on how people reported false information about some
of events that are so traumatic events. For example, when asked details of the accident (such as
that they are repressed—perhaps to estimate the speed of the cars road signs around the scene), and
even more so, given the emotive involved, the answers varied these appeared as recollections in
nature of the events. widely, depending on whether many of the participants’ reports.
the questioner had used the
Loftus began her research into words “bumped,” “collided,” or Legal implications
the fallibility of recollection in the “smashed,” to describe the It became clear to Loftus that
early 1970s, with a series of simple collision. They were also asked if recollection can be distorted by
experiments designed to test the there was any broken glass after suggestions and leading questions,
veracity of eyewitness testimony. the accident, and the answers made after the event in question.
Participants were shown film clips again correlated to the wording Misinformation can be “planted”
of traffic accidents and then asked of the question of speed. In into the recollection of an observer. ❯❯
questions about what they had

We believe that our
recollection of a traumatic
event is accurate, but…

…it may have been …it may have been …it may have been …it may have been
shaped by a suggested to us by altered by subsequent altered by our
someone we trust.
leading question experiences. current emotions
or false information. or ideas.

But because of its emotional
importance we appear to
“remember” it vividly.

What we believe with
all our hearts is not
necessarily the truth.

206 ELIZABETH LOFTUS

A false, and had evolved because
Eileen had witnessed her father
B commit other cruel actions, and
“one brutal image overlapped
C another.” Loftus successfully argued
in court that a combination of
In a 1974 experiment Loftus showed a group of people suggestion during hypnosis, existing
a film of cars colliding, then asked them how fast the cars frightening memories, and Eileen’s
“bumped,” “collided,” or “smashed” into each other. Her rage and grief had created a
choice of verb determined their estimate of car speeds. completely false “repressed memory.”

The title of her 1979 book describing totally false. Among the many The case of Paul Ingram (which
her experiments, Eyewitness cases in which she was involved, Loftus was not involved in) also
Testimony, shows that Loftus was that of George Franklin perfectly pointed toward the possibility of
well aware of the implications of illustrates the different aspects of implanting false memories. Arrested
this “misinformation effect,” not what came to be known as “false in 1988 for sexually abusing his
only for the psychological theory memory syndrome.” Franklin was daughters, Ingram initially denied
of memory, but also for the legal convicted in 1990 for the murder the charges, but after several
process. Anticipating the of a child who was best friends months of questioning confessed to
controversy that was to follow, with his daughter, Eileen. Her them along with a number of other
she wrote that “the unreliability of eyewitness testimony, 20 years cases of rape and even murder. A
eyewitness identification evidence after the murder, was crucial to the psychologist involved in the case,
poses one of the most serious conviction. Loftus found numerous Richard Ofshe, grew suspicious
problems in the administration of discrepancies in Eileen’s evidence, and suggested to Ingram he was
criminal justice and civil litigation.” and proved her memories to be guilty of another sexual offence—
incorrect and unreliable in several but this time, one that was provably
False memory syndrome respects, but the jury nonetheless fabricated. Ingram again initially
Loftus was soon to be increasingly found Franklin guilty. denied the allegation, but later
involved in forensic psychology, made a detailed confession.
as an expert witness in the spate In 1995, the conviction was
of child abuse cases of the 1980s. overturned because the court had Lost in the mall
What she realized then was that been deprived of “crucial evidence:” The evidence for the implantation of
memories could not only be the fact that Eileen had “recovered” false memories was still anecdotal,
distorted by subsequent suggestion the memory during hypnotherapy. however, and far from conclusive;
and incorrect details introduced by Loftus believed that Eileen’s memory Loftus suffered harsh criticism for
misinformation, but may even be of seeing her father commit the what were then considered to be
murder was sincerely believed, but controversial opinions. So she
decided to collect irrefutable
evidence through an experiment
that aimed to deliberately implant
false memories. This was her 1995
“Lost in the Mall” experiment.

Loftus presented each of the
participants with four stories from
their own childhood that had
apparently been remembered
and supplied by members of the
participant’s family. In fact, only
three of the four stories were true;
the fourth, about getting lost in a
shopping mall, was concocted for
the experiment. Plausible details,

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 207

such as a description of the mall, disturbing dream is more vividly In real life, as well as in
were worked out in collaboration recalled and even mistaken for experiments, people can
with the relatives. Interviewed reality. It was this idea that come to believe things that
about these stories one week later prompted her to say, “what we never really happened.
and then again two weeks later, the believe with all our hearts is not
participants were asked to rate how necessarily the truth.” Elizabeth Loftus
well they remembered the events in
the four stories. At both interviews, However, in 1986, psychologists used to recover memory, including
25% of the participants claimed to John Yuille and Judith Cutshall psychotherapeutic techniques such
have some memory of the mall did manage to conduct a study of as regression, dream work, and
incident. After the experiment, memory following a traumatic hypnosis. Consequently, it raised
participants were debriefed and situation. They found that witnesses the possibility that false memories
told that one of the stories was to an actual incident of gun shooting can be implanted during the
false—did they know which it was? had remarkably accurate memories, therapeutic process by suggestion,
Of the 24 participants, 19 correctly even six months after the event, and and in the 1990s several US
chose the mall as the false memory; resisted attempts by the researchers patients who claimed they were
but five participants had grown to to distort their memories though victims of “false memory syndrome”
sincerely believe in a false memory misleading questions. successfully sued their therapists.
of a mildly traumatic event. Unsurprisingly, this apparent attack
Questionable therapy on the very idea of repressed
Loftus had provided an insight Loftus points out that her findings memory earned an adverse reaction
into how false memories might form do not deny that crimes such as from some psychotherapists, and
in real, everyday settings. For ethical abuse may have taken place, nor can split opinion among psychologists
reasons Loftus could not devise an she prove that repressed memories working in the field of memory.
experiment to test whether a truly do not exist; she merely stresses the Reaction from the legal world was
traumatic false memory (such as unreliability of recovered memory, also divided, but after the hysteria
child abuse) would be even more and insists that courts must seek surrounding a series of child abuse
vividly recalled and sincerely evidence beyond this. Her work scandals in the 1990s had died
believed, but she suggested that it has also called into question the down, guidelines incorporating
would, in the same way that a more validity of the various methods Loftus’s theories on the reliability
of eyewitness testimony were
Despite the unreliability of adopted by many legal systems.
eyewitness testimony, Loftus found
that jurors tend to give more weight Today, Loftus is acknowledged
to it than any other form of evidence as an authority on the subject of
when reaching a verdict. false memory. Her theories have
become accepted by mainstream
Do you swear to tell psychology and have inspired
the truth, the whole truth, further research into the fallibility
of memory in general, notably
or whatever it is you by Steven Schacter in his book,
think you remember? The Seven Sins of Memory. ■
Elizabeth Loftus

208

THE SEVEN SINS
OF MEMORY

DANIEL SCHACTER (1952– )

IN CONTEXT F orgetting, Daniel Schacter The first three Schacter calls “sins
believes, is an essential of omission,” or forgetting, and the
APPROACH function of human memory, last four are “sins of commission,”
Memory studies allowing it to work efficiently. Some or remembering. Each sin can
of the experiences we go through lead to a particular type of error
BEFORE and the information we learn may in recollecting information.
1885 Hermann Ebbinghaus need to be remembered, but much
describes the “forgetting is irrelevant and would take up The first of the sins, transience,
curve” in Memory. valuable “storage space” in our involves the deterioration of memory,
memory, so is “deleted,” to use an especially of episodic memory (the
1932 Frederic Bartlett lists analogy with computers that is memory of events), over time. This
seven ways in which a story often made in cognitive psychology. is due to two factors: we can recall
may be misremembered in more of a recent event than one in
his book Remembering. Sometimes, however, the process the distant past; and each time we
of selection fails. What should have remember the event (retrieve the
1956 George Armitage Miller been tagged as useful information memory), it is reprocessed in the
publishes his paper The and stored for future use is removed brain, altering it slightly.
Magical Number Seven, from memory and therefore forgotten;
Plus or Minus Two. or—conversely—trivial or unwanted We don’t want a
information that should have been memory that is going
1972 Endel Tulving makes the removed is kept in our memory. to store every bit of every
distinction between semantic experience. We would
and episodic memory. Storage is not the only area of be overwhelmed with
memory functioning with potential clutter of useless trivia.
AFTER problems. The process of retrieval Daniel Schacter
1995 Elizabeth Loftus studies can cause confusion of information,
retroactive memory in The giving us distorted recollections.
Formation of False Memories. Schacter lists seven ways in which
memory can let us down: transience,
2005 US psychologist Susan absent-mindedness, blocking,
Clancy studies apparent misattribution, suggestibility, bias,
memories of alien abduction. and persistence. In a reference to
the Seven Deadly Sins, and with a
nod to George Armitage Miller’s
“magical number seven,” he calls
these the “seven sins of memory.”

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 209

See also: Hermann Ebbinghaus 48–49 ■ Bluma Zeigarnik 162 ■ George Armitage Miller 168–73 ■ Endel Tulving 186–91 ■
Gordon H. Bower 194–95 ■ Elizabeth Loftus 202–07 ■ Frederic Bartlett 335–36

Absent-mindedness, the sin that The Seven Sins of Memory
manifests itself in mislaid keys and
missed appointments, is not so Sometimes we forget …transience.
much an error of recollection but important things …absent-mindedness.
of selection for storage. Sometimes because of…
we do not pay enough attention at
the time we do things (such as …blocking.
when we put down keys), so the
information is treated by the brain And sometimes our …misattribution.
as trivial and not stored for later memories become ...suggestibility.
use. In contrast to this is the sin of confused through…
blocking, where a stored memory
cannot be retrieved, often because And sometimes we …bias.
another memory is getting in its remember things we want …persistence.
way. An example of this is the
“tip-of-the-tongue” syndrome, to forget through…
where we can nearly—but not
quite—grasp a word from memory Daniel Schacter whose work on episodic versus
that we know very well. semantic memory was causing
Daniel Schacter was born in lively debate at the time. In
Sins of commission New York in 1952. A high-school 1981, he established a unit for
The “sins of commission” are course sparked his interest in memory disorders at Toronto,
slightly more complex, but no less psychology, which he went on to with Tulving and Morris
common. In misattribution, the study at the University of North Moscovitch. Ten years later, he
information is recalled correctly, Carolina. After graduation, he became Professor of Psychology
but the source of that information worked for two years in at Harvard, where he set up the
is wrongly recalled. It is similar in the perception and memory Schacter Memory Laboratory.
its effect to suggestibility, where laboratory of Durham Veterans
recollections are influenced by the Hospital, observing and testing Key works
way in which they are recalled, for patients with organic memory
example, in response to a leading disorders. He then began 1982 Stranger Behind the
question. The sin of bias also postgraduate studies at Toronto Engram
involves the distortion of recollection: University, Canada, under the 1996 Searching for Memory
this is when a person’s opinions supervision of Endel Tulving, 2001 The Seven Sins of Memory
and feelings at the time of recalling
an event color its remembrance.

Finally, the sin of persistence is
an example of the memory working
too well. This is when disturbing or
upsetting information that has
been stored in memory becomes
intrusively and persistently recalled,
from minor embarrassments to
extremely distressing memories.

However, the sins aren’t flaws,
Schacter insists, but the costs we
pay for a complex system that works
exceptionally well most of the time. ■

210

ONE IS NOT
ONE’S THOUGHTS

JON KABAT-ZINN (1944– )

IN CONTEXT F ollowing World War II, there Based Stress Reduction (MBSR),
was an increased interest which integrates meditation into
APPROACH in Eastern philosophies the framework of cognitive therapy.
Mindfulness meditation throughout Europe and the US,
bringing ideas such as meditation Practicing mindfulness
BEFORE into mainstream culture. The Central to Kabat-Zinn’s approach
c.500 BCE Siddhartha medical benefits of meditation is “mindfulness.” In this form of
Gautama (the Buddha) attracted the interest of American meditation, the object is to observe
includes right mindfulness biologist and psychologist Jon Kabat- thoughts and mental processes (as
as the seventh step of the Zinn, who went on to pioneer an well as body or physical processes)
Eightfold Path to end suffering. approach known as Mindfulness- in a detached, decentered, and
nonjudgemental way; “to stay in the
1960s Vietnamese Buddhist Buddhist meditation has encouraged body, and to watch what’s going on
monk Thich Nhat Hanh the practice of mindfulness for more than in the mind, learning neither to reject
popularizes mindful 2,000 years, but its mental and physical things nor to pursue things, but
meditation in the US. health benefits were not clinically tested just to let them be and let them go.”
and proven until the early 1990s.
AFTER In mindfulness meditation, we
1990s Mindfulness-Based learn to observe thought processes
Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) calmly, without identifying with
is developed by Zindel Segal, them, and realize that our minds
Mark Williams, and John have a life of their own. A thought
Teasdale for the treatment of failure, for instance, is seen as
of depression, and is based simply an event in the mind, not as
on Kabat-Zinn’s MBSR. a springboard to the conclusion “I
am a failure.” With practice we can
1993 Dialectical Behavior learn to see mind and body as one
Therapy uses mindfulness thing: a “wholeness.” Each of us is
without meditation for people more than just a body, says Kabat-
too disturbed to achieve the Zinn, and more than the thoughts
necessary state of mind. that go through our minds. ■

See also: Joseph Wolpe 86–87 ■ Fritz Perls 112–17 ■ Erich Fromm 124–29 ■
Aaron Beck 174–77 ■ Neal Miller 337 ■ John D. Teasdale 339

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 211

THE FEAR IS THAT
BIOLOGY WILL
DEBUNK ALL THAT
WE HOLD SACRED

STEVEN PINKER (1954– )

IN CONTEXT T he debate over how much futile. The third fear is that if our
of our behavior is innate behavior is determined by genes,
APPROACH (inborn) and how much can we can abdicate responsibility for
Evolutionary psychology be attributed to our environment our misdemeanors, and blame them
dates back thousands of years. Some on our genetic make-up. The final
BEFORE cognitive psychologists have claimed fear, Pinker says, is the most
1859 Biologist Charles Darwin that not only do we inherit certain fundamental. This is the fear that
says that emotion, perception, psychological characteristics they if we accept that we are shaped by
and cognition are evolutionary are also subject to the same sort of evolutionary psychology, our “finer
adaptations. natural selection as our physical feelings”—our perceptions, motives,
characteristics. They point out that and emotions—will be reduced to
1960s Noam Chomsky claims the mind is a product of the brain, mere processes of our genetic
that the capacity for language and the brain is shaped by genetics. evolution, and so biology will
is an innate ability. “debunk all that we hold sacred.” ■
This new field of evolutionary
1969 John Bowlby argues that psychology has met with strong The Blank Slate…
the attachment of newborn opposition, but one of its champions promised to make racism,
babies to their mothers is is the Canadian psychologist Steven sexism, and class prejudice
genetically programmed. Pinker, who has identified four fears
that lie behind our reluctance to factually untenable.
1976 In The Selfish Gene, accept evolutionary psychology Steven Pinker
British biologist Richard despite the empirical evidence. The
Dawkins states that behavioral first fear is one of inequality: if the
tendencies evolve through mind is a “blank slate” when we
interaction with others over a are born, we are all born equal. But
long period of time. if we inherit mental traits, some
people have a natural advantage.
AFTER The second fear is that if certain
2000 In The Mating Mind, imperfections are innate, they are
American evolutionary not susceptible to change, so social
psychologist Geoffrey Miller reform to help the disadvantaged is
says that human intelligence
is shaped by sexual selection. See also: Francis Galton 28–29 ■ Konrad Lorenz 77 ■ Roger Brown 237 ■
John Bowlby 274–77 ■ Noam Chomsky 294–97

212

COMPULSIVE BEHAVIOR
RITUALS ARE ATTEMPTS
TO CONTROL INTRUSIVE
THOUGHTS

PAUL SALKOVSKIS (1950S– )

IN CONTEXT T he second half of the 20th trauma, Salkovskis explained
century saw a profound the problem in terms of cognitive
APPROACH change in clinical psychology, and offered a cognitive
Cognitive behavioral psychology. Psychoanalysis was and behavioral treatment.
therapy seen by many psychologists as less
than scientific, and by the 1960s it Obsessive thoughts
BEFORE was replaced as the treatment for Salkovskis suggests that obsessive-
1950s Joseph Wolpe applies some disorders by behaviorist compulsive disorder has its basis in
behaviorist ideas to clinical therapies, or the newer cognitive the sort of unwelcome and intrusive
psychology in techniques such therapy developed by Aaron Beck. thoughts that we all have from time
as systematic desensitization. Combinations of these approaches, to time—the idea that something
under the umbrella term cognitive terrible is about to happen, or that
1952 Behavior and personality behavioral therapy (CBT), evolved in we will suffer or cause some awful
theorist Hans J. Eysenck the 1980s, pioneered in Britain by misfortune. Most of the time, we
causes controversy with Paul Salkovskis. CBT, he found, was can put these thoughts out of our
claims that psychotherapy has especially successful in treating minds and carry on with life, but
no beneficial effect. obsessive-compulsive disorder sometimes they are more difficult
(OCD); where psychoanalysis had to shake off. At the extreme end of
1955 Albert Ellis offers an failed to find a root cause for the the scale, the thoughts become
alternative to traditional disorder in repression or past obsessive and bring with them a
psychotherapy with his feeling of dread and responsibility.
Rational Emotive Behavior People predisposed to these kinds
Therapy (REBT). of obsessive thoughts find it
difficult to make a rational
1960s Aaron Beck questions appraisal of their importance,
whether psychoanalytical and overestimate not only any
therapy is effective; he goes on risk of harm, but also the amount
to develop cognitive therapy. of control they have to prevent it.

AFTER Compulsive activities such as
2000s Cognitive behavioral repeated hand washing may be an
therapy becomes a standard attempt to control intrusive thoughts.
treatment for anxiety, panic Shakespeare’s Lady Macbeth is driven
attacks, and other disorders. by guilt to continually wash her hands.

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 213

See also: Joseph Wolpe 86–87 ■ Fritz Perls 112–17 ■ Albert Ellis 142–45 ■
Aaron Beck 174–77

We all have unwelcome intrusive thoughts.

But some people have trouble shaking them off, and the
thoughts become over-important and obsessional.

They overestimate the threat They feel responsible Paul Salkovskis
posed by these thoughts. for any harm implied by
these intrusive thoughts. A graduate of the Institute
of Psychiatry, London in 1979,
They therefore feel compelled to take action to counter Paul Salkovskis took up a post
the threats and control the thoughts. at the University of Oxford
in 1985 to research panic
Compulsive behavior rituals are disorders. His interest in the
attempts to control intrusive thoughts. application of cognitive theory
to anxiety disorders led to
Obsessive thoughts of catching and helped through cognitive therapy to his appointment as a Senior
passing on a deadly disease, for recognize the obsessional thoughts Fellow and later as Professor
example, may result in compulsive for what they are, making a more of Cognitive Psychology.
cleaning or hand washing. There is rational appraisal of the risk and,
also a feeling of a responsibility to crucially, of how much responsibility While at Oxford, the
act, even if the action is out of he or she has for taking preventative emphasis of his work moved
proportion to the risk. The resulting action. This cognitive approach to the treatment of obsessive-
compulsive actions can become helps reduce the distress. Alongside compulsive disorder using
ritual behavior patterns, carried out this, behavioral therapy techniques, cognitive behavioral therapy.
repeatedly in an attempt to gain such as desensitization (gradual In 2000, he became Professor
control over a perceived threat. exposure to the perceived threat) of Clinical Psychology and
help the patient to control his Applied Science at the
Cognitive behavioral therapy or her compulsive behavior. Institute of Psychiatry,
combines cognitive and behavioral Salkovskis uses CBT techniques and Clinical Director in the
techniques to address both the to successfully treat anxiety, Centre for Anxiety Disorders
cause and the symptoms of OCD panic attacks, and phobias. ■ and Trauma. Since 2010,
to great effect. First, the patient is Salkovskis has been based
at the University of Bath,
where he is establishing a
specialist CBT research and
treatment center.

Key works

1998 Panic Disorder
1999 Understanding and
Treating Obsessive-
Compulsive Disorder
2000 Causing Harm
and Allowing Harm
(with A. Wroe)

SOCIAL

PSYCHOL

BEING IN A WORLD
OF OTHERS

OGY

216 INTRODUCTION

John Dewey Kurt Lewin establishes Gordon Allport Serge Moscovici
publishes The his field theory, publishes On the introduces the
Need for Social Nature of Prejudice, concept of social
claiming that behavior which establishes the representations.
Psychology, is determined by the theoretical foundations
describing man as a life space (totality) of a for the study of
“social animal.”
person’s situation. prejudice.

1917 1940S 1954 1961
1935 1959 1963
1951

Muzafer Sherif carries Solomon Asch’s Erving Goffman publishes Stanley Milgram’s
out the “autokinetic conformity experiments The Presentation of Self in Behavioral Study of
effect” experiments, Obedience illustrates
demonstrating the suggest that people will Everyday Life, which that people will ignore
tendency for groups override their own claims that social their own moral values
to conform. judgement in order interaction is a to obey authority.
to conform. performance.

A s psychology became influenced by the psychology of individual and his environment,
established as a scientific their individual members. Social as well as the nature of that
discipline, its scope was psychologists, as they were called, environment. In his studies of small
at first limited to the examination also studied the relationships groups, he laid the foundations for
of the mind and its workings, before between individuals within these later examinations of group
broadening to include the study of groups and between different dynamics and how groups and
behavior. For much of the first half groups. This introduced a new their members bring about change.
of the 20th century, this meant set of topics to psychology,
the emphasis was very much on including group dynamics, Behaviorism fell out of favor
a study of the mind and behavior of attitudes, and prejudice, as well after World War II, and Lewin’s
individuals and their responses to as social conflict, conformity, ideas about the effect of the
their environment, though it obedience, and social change. social environment provided an
became increasing clear to alternative that was enthusiastically
some psychologists that “the Social environment taken up by the next generation.
environment” includes other people. Among the first to make a The concept of “attribution”—the
systematic study of the psychology way we see and interpret the
The field of social psychology of social groups was German– behavior of others—became an
emerged in the 1930s, when American Kurt Lewin, considered area of specific research, and from
psychologists began to explore the the “father of social psychology.” that came theories of conformity
interactions of individuals within Lewin took a fresh look at the and cultural norms such as
groups and society as a whole. dominant behaviorist approach, those of Solomon Asch. Erving
They examined the effect of social examining how behavior results Goffman’s best-known theory—
organizations on the individual, and from the interaction between the that we act out certain behaviors to
the way that social structures are suit the impression we want to give

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 217

William Glasser Elliot Aronson develops Janet Taylor Spence and Melvin Lerner suggests
publishes Reality the “jigsaw classroom” Robert Helmreich his just world theory,
Therapy, which forms which claims that many
the basis of his later technique to reduce devise the Attitudes
Choice Theory. ethnic rivalry and toward Women of us tend to believe
Scale (AWS). that people get what
encourage cooperation in
newly desegregated they deserve.
classrooms.

1965 1971 1972 1978
1968 1971 1977 1994

Robert Zajonc conducts Philip Zimbardo runs the Roger Brown and James Ignacio Martín-Baró
experiments on the Stanford Prison Kulik publish Flashbulb calls for “Liberation
Experiment. Psychology,” for poor
mere exposure effect. Memories, about our and war-torn countries.
special biological
memory mechanism.

to others—also came out of this processes such as memory and The 1960s saw the rise of the civil
new emphasis on the importance emotion were highlighted by Roger rights movement and feminism,
of social interaction. Brown and Robert Zajonc, and both of which challenged the status
these findings were exploited quo. Issues surrounding prejudice,
Research in the 1960s shed light widely by the mass media and cultural norms, and beliefs came
on the darker aspects of behavior; advertising, which began to play to the fore, and the work of social
Melvin Lerner showed how victims an increasingly important role in psychologists such as Janet Taylor
are sometimes blamed for what modern society. Mass media and Spence did much to alter attitudes
happens to them, and Elliot Aronson advertising in turn had a growing toward women, while others
explained that apparently aberrant effect on social structures, used Lewin’s process of social
behavior could be the result of prompting theories of social transformation to bring
circumstances rather than insanity. constructivism by psychologists about organizational changes.
More controversially, especially at a such as Serge Moscovici. Theories and models pioneered
time when the atrocities of World by social psychologists are now
War II were still fresh in people’s As a result, social psychology used by business, industry, and
minds, experiments by Stanley has rapidly become more all kinds of social organizations,
Milgram and Philip Zimbardo applicable to many different and more recently have been
showed just how far the need to obey situations. It has influenced other adopted as a means of achieving
and conform affects our behavior. areas of psychology—in particular social and political reform in
psychotherapy, through William societies suffering from
Applying psychology Glasser’s “reality therapy.” It has oppression, most notably in
The advent of cognitive psychology also impacted on other disciplines, the “Liberation Psychology”
brought a new influence on social including sociology, anthropology, espoused by Ignacio Martín-Baró. ■
psychology. The effects of cognitive and even politics and economics.

YOU CANNOT

UNDERSTAND

A SYSTEM UNTIL YOU TRY TO

CHANGE IT

KURT LEWIN (1890–1947)



220 KURT LEWIN T he behaviorists believed A person who has learned
that behavior is dictated by to see how much his own
IN CONTEXT the environment alone, but fate depends upon the fate
in the 1920s Kurt Lewin made the of his entire group will be
APPROACH claim that behavior is a result of eager to take over a fair share
Field theory both the individual and the of responsibility for its welfare.
environment. His revolutionary
BEFORE ideas developed and evolved into Kurt Lewin
Early 1900s Sigmund Freud the study of group dynamics that is
and other psychotherapists invaluable to organizations today. successfully, a person or organization
argue that human behavior leader must take into account the
is a result of past experience. In his investigation of human various influences at play both
behavior, Lewin developed field within the minds of individuals
1910s Wolfgang Köhler, theory, which explores the forces and within their environment.
among other Gestalt and factors that influence any given
psychologists, argues that situation. Lewin’s “field” refers to In explaining his change model,
people must be understood the psychological environment of Lewin emphasizes that the entire
holistically, according to all the individual or the collective situation, including all the relevant
of their elements and their group at a particular point in time, personal and environmental details,
interactions with the and he identified two opposing must be taken into account, as
surrounding environment. forces present in any given field: focusing on isolated facts can lead
helpful forces, which drive people to a skewed perception of the
AFTER toward achieving their goals, and circumstances. Not only must you
1958 In The Dynamics of hindering forces, which inhibit have a thorough and holistic
Planned Change, Ronald movement toward these goals.
Lippitt, Jeanne Watson, and
Bruce Westley create a seven- Lewin’s change model
step change theory that Field theory provided the basis for
focuses on the role of the Lewin’s model of change, which
change agent rather than on offers an invaluable guide for
the evolution of change itself. successful transformation, both
for individuals and organizations.
The model shows that in order
to carry out the process of change

In order for a change of behavior As a change occurs, more
to take place, details about both the key qualities and values
individual and the environment
of a system are revealed.
must be taken into account.

You cannot understand Therefore the change process
a system until you try itself offers important information

to change it. about a system.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 221

See also: Sigmund Freud 92–99 ■ Wolfgang Köhler 160–61 ■ Leon Festinger 166–67 ■ Max Wertheimer 335 ■
Elton Mayo 335

Successful organizational change
is engendered by making a unique
diagnosis of the people and situational
forces involved, and understanding
the interplay between them.

understanding of a situation in unlearning, difficult relearning, zone and undergo the challenge
order to change it, but that and the restructuring of thoughts, of learning new skills or accepting
understanding actually deepens feelings, attitudes, and perceptions. a new set of beliefs. This natural
throughout the change process, and resistance can be overcome if the
therefore “you cannot understand a Unfreezing beliefs individual is helped to accept that
system until you try to change it.” The unfreezing stage is perhaps the change is necessary, valid,
the most complex stage of the and will lead to the best outcome,
Lewin’s model describes a three- process, as people are naturally and if support is given to engender
step process for achieving personal inclined to resist changes to their a feeling of psychological safety.
or organizational transformation. established mindsets and routines.
The first stage—which he called It requires careful preparation; Lewin demonstrated the
“unfreezing”—involves recognizing many change efforts within positive effect of creating an
that change is necessary, and organizations fail simply because environment of psychological
dismantling old beliefs and employees are not adequately safety during the unfreezing stage
practices. Change occurs in the prepared, making them more (and of allowing active participation
second stage, and is often resistant to change and less likely in the change process) in his
accompanied by confusion and to function effectively under the efforts to convince American
distress as the old mindset or new system. Preparation might housewives to serve animal organs
system breaks down. The third and include creating an exciting vision as food at home during World
final stage, “freezing,” occurs when for change that employees can War II. Historically, offal had only
a new mindset is crystallized and rally around, communicating it been eaten by low-income families,
there is an accompanying sense of effectively, developing a sense of but the American government
comfort and stability within the urgency and necessity for change, wanted to ensure that nutritious
new framework. The process is providing employees with support, food was not going to waste during
difficult because it involves painful and allowing them to participate a time of food shortages, especially
actively in the process. as kidneys, livers, and hearts
We all need each are all high-protein foods. The US
other. This type of On an individual level, people Department of Agriculture called
interdependence is the may react to this stage defensively, upon Lewin to help convince
greatest challenge to not wanting to leave their comfort housewives to include these ❯❯
the maturity of individual
and group functioning.

Kurt Lewin

222 KURT LEWIN

Learning is more effective in the discussion group he had belief has been proven wrong or
when it is an active rather created an environment in which ineffective, we are naturally
women felt psychologically safe inclined to replace the old value
than a passive process. enough to express their concerns system with a new one, filling the
Kurt Lewin and opinions. Through exploring uncomfortable void left by the
their beliefs as well as the realities of unfreezing process. We do this in a
meats in their family meals. During the food shortages, he helped them combination of ways: relying on our
interviews with housewives, Lewin change their opinions about which instinctive feelings, studying role
realized that there were both helpful meats were edible and guided them models, and looking more generally
and hindering forces at play. The toward a new belief: that offal is to the vast array of information
helpful forces, or incentives, toward acceptable to buy and serve at home. available. We hope in this way to
changing the housewives’ view of expose ourselves to a new piece
organ meat was its high nutritional Making the change of information that will solve the
value. The hindering forces, or During Lewin’s second stage—the problem. Once this insight is
barriers, to change centered around actual change process—people are achieved, we have accepted and
the women’s view that the meat confronted with the daunting and established a new mindset.
was inappropriate for them and confusing task of implementing a
their families, and to a lesser degree, new system. They must give up In the case of the American
that it would not taste good. familiar routines and practices and housewives during World War II,
master new skills (which itself can Lewin provided the women with
Lewin set up a study using two arouse feelings of uncertainty or a new information by educating them
groups of housewives to explore the fear of failure). In an organization, about the good taste and nutritional
best ways of initiating change. The the new system will be defined by value of offal (thereby replacing their
first group was told repeatedly that the leadership, and often relates to old belief that it was an inferior
eating offal was beneficial for them, technology, structure, procedures, meat), and convincing them that
while the other group took part in a or culture. It is important at this given the reality of wartime food
small group discussion focusing on stage to provide sufficient support shortages, there was absolutely no
how the food shortage problem for employees and ensure the shame in serving it to their families
could be eased if women like elimination of obstacles. (thereby replacing their pre-wartime
themselves could be convinced to belief that they would be viewed as
take part in a program of using At the level of personal change, social inferiors for eating it).
secondary cuts of meat such as people cannot be given a new belief
livers, kidneys, and hearts. When system, but must find and accept The freezing stage
around one-third of the women who one for themselves. When an old After change has been implemented
had participated in the discussion within an organization, it must
group later served offal for dinner, become part of the company’s
Lewin concluded that increasing culture (or “frozen”) in order for it to
the level of people’s involvement be successful in the long term. The
also increases the likelihood of new thought processes, practices,
changing their attitudes and and behaviors adopted during the
behaviors. Lecturing to the first transition must become routine.
group had proved ineffective, but Management can help to ensure
changes become more firmly
established by publicizing the ways
in which change has benefited the
company, and by nurturing positive

Learning to use new technologies
in place of old ones is made easier by
an increase in driving forces—such as
the ability to contact friends and family
worldwide, instantly and inexpensively.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 223

feelings toward the change among During World War II, housewives chicken or steak, or if other women
employees, perhaps by delivering were encouraged to change many of are criticizing her choice of meat,
rewards for implementing the new their beliefs, from the types of food she may decide to abandon offal
skills or processes. For example, and clothing that were acceptable and look for other ways to feed her
in the 1990s, Continental Airlines to their capability to do “men’s jobs.” family, starting the unfreezing and
was forced to file for bankruptcy. change processes all over again.
In order to stay in business, the ensure compliance to the new
management implemented a major priorities) by offering them a $65 Lewin’s pioneering experimental
change: they shifted the company bonus if the US Department of work into social systems has led
focus from saving costs to putting Transportation rated the company him to be widely recognized as the
out a quality product that met high among the top five airlines. The use founder of social psychology. He
customer standards. They decided of Lewin’s change model marked was the first psychologist to study
to reward employees for adopting Continental’s evolution from being “group dynamics” and organizational
the new policies and practices (to the poorest-performing airline to development in a methodical way.
being named Airline of the Year. He applied rigorous social science
to effect useful social transformation,
At the individual level, the and his work has been influential
freezing stage marks a time when across the fields of experimental
new beliefs and practices are tested and social psychology. ■
through trial and error; this either
reinforces the changes or starts a There is nothing
new change cycle. For example, so practical as
after a week of serving offal to her a good theory.
family, a wartime housewife might Kurt Lewin
assess whether her family seems to
enjoy the meat, whether they seem
healthy, and whether other families
seem to be judging her positively or
negatively based on her meal choices.
If the answers to these questions
are positive, she will continue to
serve offal at dinnertime. If, however,
her children do not appear to be as
healthy as they were when eating

Kurt Lewin German-American psychologist resign and seek refuge in the
Kurt Lewin was born in 1890 into US. He began working at Cornell
a middle-class Jewish family in University, then moved to the
Mogilno, Poland (then Prussia). In University of Iowa where he
1905, his family moved to Berlin, became a professor. In 1944, he
where he studied medicine at became director of the Center
the University of Freiburg before for Group Dynamics at the
transferring to the University of Massachusetts Institute of
Munich to study biology. During Technology, but died of a heart
World War I, he served in the attack just three years later.
German army, but returned to
Berlin to complete his PhD after Key works
being injured. He worked at the
Psychological Institute, Berlin, 1935 A Dynamic Theory of
from 1921 to 1933, when Personality
restrictions on the Jewish 1948 Resolving Social Conflicts
population compelled him to 1951 Field Theory in Social

224 IN CONTEXT

HOW STRONG APPROACH
IS THE URGE Conformism
TOWARD
SOCIAL BEFORE
CONFORMITY? 1880s Hippolyte Bernheim,
a French physician, uses
SOLOMON ASCH (1907–1996) hypnosis to demonstrate the
concept of “suggestibility.”

1935 Muzafer Sherif’s
conformism experiment
leads Asch to develop the
Asch Paradigm.

AFTER
1963 Stanley Milgram’s
obedience experiments show
that people conform for an
authority figure despite
experiencing a moral conflict.

1976 Serge Moscovici argues
that a consistent minority can
be influential.

1979 Knud S. Larsen, a
Danish psychologist, shows
that conformity may be tied
to cultural climate.

S ocial psychologist Solomon
Asch challenged our idea of
ourselves as autonomous
beings when he devised an
experiment to demonstrate our urge
to conform. His famous experiment
showed that when people are
confronted with a majority opinion,
the tendency to conform may be
stronger than their commitment to
what they perceive to be true. He
detailed his findings in his 1955
paper Opinions and Social Pressure,
which also discusses the social
influences that shape a person’s
beliefs, judgments, and practices.
Asch wanted to investigate the
effects of group pressure on
individual decision-making, and

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 225

See also: Serge Moscovici 238–39 ■ Stanley Milgram 246–53 ■
Philip Zimbardo 254–55 ■ Max Wertheimer 335 ■ Muzafer Sherif 337

A group exerts profound A certain amount of
social effects on its conformity serves
members. important social functions.

People feel compelled to Solomon Asch
conform in order to fit in.
Solomon Elliott Asch was a
They will pretend or even pioneer in the field of social
convince themselves that they agree psychology. He was born into
a Jewish family in Warsaw
with the majority. (then part of the Russian
Empire) in 1907. At the age
Their tendency to conform of 13 he emigrated to the US
can be stronger than their values and studied psychology. He
received a PhD in 1932 from
or basic perceptions. Columbia University, where
he was influenced by Max
how and to what extent people’s demonstrated the principles of Wertheimer.
attitudes were influenced by social conformity, Asch contended
forces around them. that—because there was no right Asch became a professor
or wrong answer to the task—no at Swarthmore College in
Turkish psychologist Muzafer definitive conclusions could be 1947, and worked closely with
Sherif set out to answer similar drawn. Conformity, he believed, Wolfgang Köhler. He held
questions in 1935, using a visual could only be measured in terms visiting posts at Massachussets
illusion called the autokinetic effect, of an individual’s tendency to Institute of Technology (MIT)
whereby a stationary spot of light agree with group members who and Harvard, where he
seen in a dark room appears to unanimously give the wrong answer supervised Stanley Milgram’s
move. He told the subjects of his on a task that has an unambiguous Ph.D., before moving to the
study that he was going to move the solution. The simple perceptual task University of Pennsylvania.
light and asked them how far they that became known as the Asch His many awards include the
thought it had shifted. Tested in Paradigm was designed to offer this. Distinguished Scientific
groups, the participants’ estimates Contribution Award from the
converged into a group norm, The Asch Paradigm American Psychological
revealing that they used others’ The experiment was conducted Association. He died aged 88.
estimates as a frame of reference in with 123 male subjects, each of
an ambiguous situation. Although whom was put individually into a ❯❯ Key works
Sherif believed that he had
1951 Effects of Group Pressure
Upon the Modification and
Distortion of Judgment
1952 Social Psychology
1955 Opinions and Social
Pressure
1956 Studies of Independence
and Conformity

226 SOLOMON ASCH

group of five to seven “confederates” Initially, Asch thought that only a All the yielding subjects
(people who were aware of the real few of the subjects would comply underestimated the frequency
aims of the experiment but were with the confederates’ answers. with which they conformed.
introduced as fellow participants). After all, the task was simple and
The group was shown one card the answers obvious; during the Solomon Asch
with a line on it, followed by pilot study in which there was no
another card with three lines pressure to yield to an erroneous conformed on all critical trials,
labeled A, B, and C, and asked group, only three errors were made and 13 of the 50 participants
which one of those three lines out of 720 total trials. The results (26 percent) never conformed.
was the same length as the line of the actual study were surprising.
on the first card. When surrounded by a group of The results proved that the
people all giving the same subjects themselves were highly
The room was always organized incorrect answer, subjects gave consistent. Those who broke
so that the subject would give incorrect answers on almost a away from the group opinion and
either the last or the penultimate third (32 percent) of the questions; provided an independent answer
answer. Over the course of 18 75 percent of them provided an did not succumb to the majority
trials, confederates were instructed incorrect response for at least one even over many trials, while
to provide the correct answers question. One person complied those who chose to comply with
for the first six, but then to give with the group giving a wrong the majority seemed unable to
identical but incorrect answers answer on 11 out of 12 trials. break this pattern.
for another 12. This was to test Because the task was both simple
whether or not the subject would and unambiguous, these figures Explanations
answer correctly or whether he indicate a high degree of To get a deeper understanding
would match his response to that conformity by the subjects. of his results, Asch interviewed
of the confederates when all gave However, not a single participant his subjects to find out why they
the same—incorrect—answer. offered incorrect answers. Some
said they wanted to go along
In the Asch Paradigm experiment, participants were with what they believed to be
given a visual test. They had to decide which of the three the experimenter’s wishes and
lines on the second card was the same length as the one on avoid upsetting the overall
the first card. Each question was called a “trial” and there experiment. A few actually
were 18 trials in all. wondered if they were perhaps
suffering from eye strain or were
ABC seated at a misleading angle.
Some denied that they were
aware of having given incorrect
answers. Eventually, some
admitted to knowing their
answers were incorrect, adding
that they did not want to stand
out or appear different and foolish:
they wanted to fit in.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 227

Asch also spoke to the subjects Asch discovered that if he allowed A member of a
who had maintained correct and the participants to give their tribe of cannibals accepts
independent responses, and found answers privately, by writing cannibalism as altogether
that they had not been unresponsive them down on a piece of paper,
to the majority, but had been able conformity noticeably decreased, fitting and proper.
to recover from the doubt that they and this held true even if the Solomon Asch
felt in order to give an honest confederates were still giving
account of what they saw. their answers aloud. bring about change. Moscovici was
inspired to develop his own studies
Asch performed variations on Cultural norms to demonstrate how a consistent
the experiment to test what Some psychologists hypothesized minority can affect the thinking
difference the size of the majority that Asch’s findings reflected the of the majority.
group made to levels of conformity. cultural climate of 1950s America
He found that just one confederate during McCarthyism, when dissent Although Asch acknowledges
had virtually no influence on the was seen as anti-American and that social life requires some
subject’s conformity, two had only a people were imprisoned for their consensus, he also emphasizes
small influence, but three or more opinions. Later studies found that this is most productive when
encouraged a relatively stable variations in levels of conformity. each individual contributes his
tendency to conform. Unanimity in For instance, a study conducted independent insight and experience.
the confederates’ responses was a in the early 1970s (a time of liberal, Consensus should not come out of
more powerful factor; but even if progressive thinking in the US) fear or conformity; the fact that he
only one confederate offered an found far lower rates of conformity. found the tendency to conform was
alternative answer, the subjects However, a study in the late 1970s strong even among intelligent people
were much more likely to provide showed a return to higher rates. raised questions about societal
an independent (and correct) values and the quality of education.
response. This finding highlights Conformity rates for cultures
the power of even a very small worldwide also differ. Researchers Asch’s conclusions note the
dissenting minority. Furthermore, found that individualist cultures power (and danger) of social
such as the US, the UK, and other influence to shape a person’s
US Senator Joseph McCarthy Western European countries, beliefs and behavior. If something
launched a Communist witch hunt where personal choice and becomes normal for a group, social
during the 1950s, generating an individual achievements are pressure will ensure conformity.
environment of fear and high levels valued highly, show lower levels Inspired by Asch’s theory, Stanley
of political and social conformity. of conformity than collectivist Milgram’s experiment on obedience
cultures such as Japan, Fiji, and showed that ordinary people are
African countries, where group capable of cruelty when under
belonging is valued highly. pressure to conform.

Psychologists have criticized However, the majority of
Asch’s methods on the grounds participants in Asch’s study, even
that he focused on a stripped-down those who had conformed, stated
version of group behavior that does that they valued independence
not feature much interaction of mind, leaving him optimistic
between participants, or that about humanity. ■
he was more focused on the
individuals within a group than on
the group dynamic. Others wonder
if he overstated the power of the
majority to influence the minority.
Serge Moscovici, in particular,
disagreed with Asch’s analysis
and argued that an active minority
could influence the majority and

228

LIFE IS A
DRAMATICALLY
ENACTED THING

ERVING GOFFMAN (1922–1982)

IN CONTEXT Social interaction is comparable to a theatrical play.

APPROACH People, like actors, try There are “front There is an
Impression management to create a favorable stage” areas for audience for
the performance.
BEFORE impression of our public
1890 William James first themselves through personas, and
makes the distinction their choice of script, “backstage”
between the private self-as- setting, wardrobe, areas for our
subject (“I”) and the public private lives.
self-as-object (“me”). skills, and props.

1902 American sociologist Life is a dramatically enacted thing.
Charles Cooley posits the
looking-glass self theory, which D evised by Erving Goffman, with other people, we present a
states that the self is reflected impression management public image of ourselves. In some
in the reactions of other people. is a theory that relates instances, we may be trying to
to how we create, maintain, and influence a particular person
AFTER enhance our social identities. (such as a job interviewer); in other
1990 US psychologists Mark A fundamental aspect of social situations, we may simply be trying
Leary and Robin Kowalski interaction, Goffman says, is that to maintain a favorable image of
define three ways in which we try—either consciously or ourselves. In his 1959 book, The
impression management can subconsciously—to manipulate Presentation of Self in Everyday
increase well-being: belonging, and control the way that others Life, Goffman draws a parallel
self-enhancement, and self- perceive us. Whenever we interact between impression management
understanding.

1995 Psychologist Sarah
Hampson argues that our
behavior changes according to
who we are with, and different
people bring out various
aspects of our personality.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 229

See also: William James 38–45 ■ William Glasser 240–41 ■ Stanley Milgram 246–53 ■ David D. McClelland 322–23 ■
Walter Mischel 326–27

and theater, showing how the costumes to display to the if the food at the party turns out
ways we present ourselves in audience. The main goal of both to be nothing more special than
the real world are similar to the the social actor and the onstage pizza, or there are noncelebrities
performances of dramatic actors actor is to maintain a sense of also in attendance—there is a
on stage. Each social interaction is coherence through interactions tendency for people to pretend
driven as much toward having a with other actors. This can only that nothing has changed, thereby
particular effect on the audience as be achieved when everyone encouraging an artificial sense of
it is toward honest self-expression. agrees upon the "definition of the believability in order to keep the
situation," and on the characteristics, peace or to avoid embarrassment.
In fact, according to Goffman’s expectations, and limitations of
theory, personality is the sum of a particular performance or Goffman himself was said
the various roles that a person interaction, signaling to each other to enjoy testing the limits of the
plays in his or her life. This implies the appropriate ways of reacting rules that shaped encounters in
that the true self is not a private or and fitting into the social setting. restaurants, lecture theaters, and
internal phenomenon, but rather movie theater lines. ■
the dramatic effect of the ways in To be in proper accord, people
which a person presents himself must agree on their personal Hotel staff are "front stage" when
publicly. “Life is a dramatically identities, the social context, they are interacting with the public.
enacted thing,” Goffman says: and the collective expectations Their behavior may change, becoming
creating a successful impression of behavior within that context. less formal, when they are not on
requires the right setting, props, For example, celebrities attending duty "backstage".
wardrobe, skills, and a shared an elite party have all implicitly
understanding of what constitutes agreed to understand that they
being on stage (in the public are “celebrities at an elite party;”
sphere) versus backstage (in the each will accept their defined role
personal, private sphere). in that situation and encourage
other actors and observers (or
Performance skills audience members) alike to accept
Goffman believes that in real life, this definition. However, if the
everyone has the ability to choose particular definition of the situation
their own stage, props, and becomes discredited—for instance,

Erving Goffman Erving Goffman, a Canadian wrote about this experience
sociologist and writer, was in his 1969 paper, The Insanity
born in Mannville, Alberta. His of Place. In 1981, he married
ancestors were Ukrainian Jews again, and in 1982—despite
who had emigrated to Canada. being seen as something of a
Goffman gained a bachelor’s maverick—became president
degree in sociology and of the American Sociological
anthropology at the University of Association. He died of stomach
Toronto, then obtained a master's cancer just a few months later.
and PhD in sociology at the
University of Chicago. In 1962, Key works
he was made a full professor at
the University of California, and 1959 The Presentation of Self
by 1969 had published seven in Everyday Life
significant books. Tragedy struck 1961 Asylums
in 1964 when his first wife 1971 Relations in Public
committed suicide; Goffman 1974 Frame Analysis

THE MORE

YOU SEE IT

THE MORE YOU

LIKE IT

ROBERT ZAJONC (1923–2008)



232 ROBERT ZAJONC Repeated exposure to a stimulus
breeds familiarity with it.
IN CONTEXT
Familiarity brings about an attitude change
APPROACH toward the stimulus …
Familiarity
…taking the form of preference,
BEFORE or affection.
1876 German experimental
psychologist Gustav Fechner This preference is emotional and
suggests familiarity increases forms on a subconscious level before
positive feeling toward art
objects, but “supersaturation” a person is even aware of it.
leads to aversion.
The more you see it, the more you like it.
1910 Edward B. Titchener
documents the mere exposure
effect, describing it as a
“glow of warmth” that people
experience in the presence
of familiar things.

AFTER
1971 Psychologists T.T. Faw
and D. Pien find that adults
and children prefer unfamiliar
line drawings and patterns to
familiar ones.

1989 Robert Bornstein finds
that the mere exposure effect
is strongest when unfamiliar
stimuli are presented briefly.

U ntil the middle of the 20th this end, he performed a seminal 1910, described the “glow of
century, social scientists experiment in 1968 that led to his warmth” and feeling of intimacy
tended to base their discovery of the “mere exposure that a person experiences in the
explanations of human behavior effect,” which is arguably his best- presence of something familiar.
on environmental factors. However, known contribution to the field of However, Titchener’s hypothesis
the Polish-born psychologist Robert social psychology. was rejected at the time, and the
Zajonc believed that to develop a idea faded into relative obscurity.
more complete understanding, it Familiarity experiments
is necessary to take into account Mere exposure, Zajonc explained, Zajonc’s interest in the effect
the functions of the mind as well. simply refers to a condition in was aroused by a newspaper article
Zajonc’s main interest was in the which the given stimulus is that described a curious experiment
relationship between feeling and accessible to the subject’s that took place at Oregon State
thought—the intersection of perception, either consciously or University in 1967. The article
emotion and cognition—and he subconsciously. The effects of mere stated that a “mysterious student”
devoted much of his career toward exposure had been documented had been attending class for two
exploring which of these factors has previously by the psychologist months, enveloped in a black bag.
a stronger influence on behavior. To Edward B. Titchener who, in The professor, Charles Goetzinger,
knew the identity of the person

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 233

See also: Leon Festinger 166–67 ■ Edward B. Titchener 334 ■ Stanley Schachter 338

Zajonc’s 1968 experiment
tested the mere exposure
effect by showing people
slides of symbols with
uneven rates of repetition;
the more frequently someone
saw a symbol, the more
they claimed to like it.

inside, but none of the class had any This increases with exposure: the affectionate feeling is not based
idea who it might be. Goetzinger greater your number of exposures on reasoned judgement. This is
then observed the class to gauge to something, the more affection contrary to what most of us might
their reactions over time. Initially, you will feel toward it. To put it imagine to be the case.
the students treated the black bag simply, “the more you see it, the
with hostility, but this softened in more you like it.” In a paper called Feeling and
time and they were eventually Thinking, written in 1980, Zajonc
friendly and even protective toward Researchers into the mere argued that feelings and thoughts
the person in the bag. Goetzinger exposure phenomenon since Zajonc’s are actually very independent of
noted that the students’ attitude experiment have found that it is one another. Feelings not only
gradually “changed from hostility even possible to re-create this effect precede thoughts during a person’s
toward the black bag to curiosity using sound rather than images. In complex response to a stimulus,
and finally to friendship.” 1974, the social psychologist D.W. but are actually the most powerful
Rajecki used fertile chicken eggs determinants of a person’s attitudes
Zajonc’s groundbreaking paper, as test subjects, playing tones of and decisions. This paper was widely
Attitudinal Effects of Mere Exposure, different frequencies to different debated, and it helped to bring
was published in The Journal of groups of eggs before they hatched, the study of emotion back to the
Personality and Social Psychology and then playing these tones to forefront of Western psychology,
in 1968. Zajonc’s paper describes a both groups of chicks again after in part because the theory bears ❯❯
series of experiments in which he hatching. Without exception, the
showed participants a sequence of chicks preferred the tones that had Novelty is commonly
random images—geometric shapes, been played to them prenatally. associated with
Chinese symbols, paintings, and
pictures of faces—that were flashed Preferences are not rational uncertainty and conflict—
in front of them so rapidly that they Zajonc’s findings indicate that this states that are more
were unable to discern which were preference for familiar things is
shown repeatedly. When subjects based purely on the history of likely to produce negative
were later asked which images they exposure to it, and is not affected than positive affect.
preferred, they consistently chose by a person’s expressed personal Robert Zajonc
the ones to which they had been beliefs or attitudes. This holds true
most frequently exposed, although even when exposures take place
they were not consciously aware of only on the subliminal level, when
this fact. What Zajonc seemed to subjects are completely unaware
have discovered was that familiarity that they are being presented with
brings about an attitude change, a stimulus. This discovery led to
breeding affection or some form of Zajonc’s claim that “preferences
preference for the familiar stimulus. need no inferences,” meaning that

234 ROBERT ZAJONC

The advertising industry
has always attributed to

exposure formidable
advertising potential.

Robert Zajonc

Repeated exposure to a brand
can create a liking for it, even when
it is presented without any factual
information and requires no decision-
making from the person viewing it.

important implications for the study have already made, rather than effect,” the way we tend to form
of decision-making processes. It actually serving to inform the friendships or romantic relationships
suggests that, contrary to what we choice in the first place. with people we see regularly. One
may believe, it is not reason and explanation for this focuses on
logic that guide our decisions; in Zajonc concludes that “affect evolution: when animals are
fact, we make fast, instinctive, is always present as a companion exposed to something for the first
emotion-based decisions before we to thought, whereas the converse time, they often respond with fear
have even had a chance to consider is not true for cognition.” We can and aggression, but repeated
the choice cognitively—we make never think about something exposures—during which the
judgments without information. If without a feeling attached; as animal realizes the perceived threat
this is true, it follows that our Zajonc says, we do not just see does not materialize—lead to a
logical reasoning merely justifies “a house,” we see “a handsome reduction in negative responses.
and rationalizes the decisions we house” or “a pretentious house.” Zajonc explored this notion further
Every perception we have contains with human subjects, discovering
The form of experience some affect, or feeling. The primacy that people form very negative
that we came to call of affect over cognition is also attitudes toward an imaginary
“feeling” accompanies apparent in memory, he says, as group of unfamiliar people,
all cognitions. Frederick Bartlett noted in his book, attributing unpleasant qualities
Robert Zajonc Remembering: “When a subject is to them for no apparent reason
being asked to remember, very other than the fact that they are
often the first thing that emerges is complete strangers. However, as
something of the nature of attitude.” with shapes and symbols, repeated
exposure is shown to increase
Interpersonal attraction trust and affection.
The impact of the mere exposure
effect extends beyond the confines Another explanation for the
of the laboratory, and out into the propinquity effect focuses on
area of interpersonal attraction. In the many factors involved in
this context, the phenomenon is interpersonal attraction, which
referred to as the “propinquity include familiarity, similarity of

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 235

attitudes, physical attraction, and colleagues, he conducted a study Robert Zajonc
reciprocal affection. Frequent to find out whether the faces of
interactions between people may spouses appear more similar after Robert Zajonc was born in
not only increase the level of 25 years together. They compared Lodz, Poland. When he was
familiarity, but also provide an photographs of couples taken 16 his family fled to Warsaw
increasing impression of similarity, during their first year of marriage during the Nazi invasion of
thereby breeding positive feelings with those taken 25 years later, Poland. Two weeks later, their
and ultimately attraction. and found that couples looked more building was bombed and both
alike after many years of being of his parents were killed. He
Exposure and advertising together. After ruling out several spent six months recuperating
Advertising is another arena in other potential explanations, the in a hospital, after which he
which the mere exposure effect researchers decided that empathy was arrested by Nazi soldiers
plays a crucial role, although the was the most likely cause. Time and sent to a German labor
picture here is less clear. Research had increased the couple’s empathy camp. He escaped with two
seems to suggest that repeated for each other, and since human other prisoners and walked
exposure to a brand or corporate emotion is communicated through 200 miles (320km) to France
name would boost sales, but this facial expressions, they may have only to be recaptured and
assumption is evidently overly begun to mimic each others’ imprisoned again. He broke
simplistic, as it doesn’t take into expressions in the process of out for a final time and made
account other possible effects of empathizing, resulting in similar his way to the UK.
frequent exposure. wrinkle patterns over time.
After World War II, Zajonc
One study used banner ads to Known for the breadth of his moved to the US, where he
test the mere exposure effect on work on the basic processes of established himself as an
college-aged students. Subjects were social behavior, Zajonc helped eminent psychologist, gaining
presented with an article to read on to create the modern field of social psychology degrees to PhD
a computer screen while banner ads psychology. He used his work on level at the University of
flashed along the top of the screen. thought and feeling to explore Michigan. He worked there
The results indicated that those who issues such as racism, genocide, until his retirement in 1994,
had been exposed more frequently to and terrorism, hoping that research when he became an emeritus
the banner ads did indeed rate the could ultimately help to prevent professor at Stanford University.
ads more favorably than those who war and human suffering. ■ Zajonc died of pancreatic
had seen it less frequently or not at cancer at the age of 85.
all. However, another study found
that familiarity with a brand name Key works
can create an ambivalent attitude.
This may be because people have 1968 Attitudinal Effects of
both good and bad associations Mere Exposure
with familiar companies, and all of 1975 Birth Order and
these associations are brought to Intellectual Development
mind with frequent exposure, 1980 Feeling and Thinking
leading to greater ambivalence. As
a result, it is unclear whether mere
familiarity, created through repeated
advertising, is good for sales.

Familiar faces Couples grow to resemble each
Zajonc found that not only does other over time because they express
exposure influence how a person empathy through reflecting each
feels about someone, but it can other’s facial expressions; this leads
even change the way a person to the formation of similar facial lines.
looks over time. With a group of

236

WHO LIKES
COMPETENT
WOMEN?

JANET TAYLOR SPENCE (1923– )

IN CONTEXT U ntil the women’s liberation intellectual leadership, and social
movement took hold in the and economic freedom. The results
APPROACH 1970s, Janet Taylor Spence’s were surprising. Contrary to the
Gender studies research had focused primarily on researchers’ expectations, subjects
anxiety. However, after reading a not only preferred more competent
BEFORE study conducted by two of her to less competent women, but even
1961 Albert Bandura develops colleagues about how competence awarded the highest ratings to the
social learning theory, which in men correlated with likeability, women who were competent in
suggests that boys and girls the American psychologist turned stereotypically masculine ways.
behave differently because to issues relating to gender. Noticing
they are treated differently. that the study did not consider This landmark study was
the female gender, she decided to seminal in launching gender
1970 Robert Helmreich conduct a similar study that focused research as a subcategory within
and Elliot Aronson publish a entirely on women. The resulting the field of social psychology. ■
study showing that men find paper—Who likes competent
competent men more likeable women?—was published in 1972. Even our conservative
than incompetent ones. subjects… rated highest
Working with Robert Helmreich,
AFTER Taylor Spence set out to test the woman who was
1992 US psychologist Alice whether men and women preferred competent in stereotypically
Eagly finds that women are competent women to incompetent
evaluated more negatively ones. The two psychologists masculine areas.
when they display leadership in suspected that only people who Janet Taylor Spence
a traditionally masculine way. believed in sexual equality would
prefer competence. To test their
2003 Simon Baron-Cohen hypothesis, they designed the
suggests the female brain is Attitudes Toward Women Scale,
predominantly hardwired for which assesses attitudes toward
empathy, whereas the male the roles and rights of women by
brain is hardwired for asking questions about education,
understanding systems. marriage, professional life, habits,

See also: Sigmund Freud 92–99 ■ Guy Corneau 155 ■ Eleanor E. Maccoby
284–85 ■ Albert Bandura 286–91 ■ Simon Baron-Cohen 298–99

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 237

FLASHBULB
MEMORIES ARE FIRED
BY EVENTS OF HIGH
EMOTIONALITY

ROGER BROWN (1925–1997)

IN CONTEXT I n the late 1970s, Harvard The assassination of President
University professor Roger John F. Kennedy in 1963 was shocking
APPROACH Brown co-wrote a paper and culturally significant. Brown
Memory studies called Flashbulb Memories that claims these kinds of events cause
became the classic study on a the formation of “flashbulb” memories.
BEFORE memory phenomenon. Brown and
1890 William James makes a his colleague, James Kulik, coined However, researchers such as Ulric
distinction between short-term this term to refer to a special kind Neisser have contested the special
(primary) memory and long- of autobiographical memory in mechanism theory, suggesting that
term (secondary) memory. which people give a highly detailed, the memories’ durability stems from
vivid account of the exact moment the fact that they are thought about
1932 Frederic Bartlett’s that they learned about an event (or rehearsed) repeatedly after the
studies show that recollective with a high shock value. event, by the individual and the
memory is not simply a matter wider world, and so are continually
of retrieval; it is an active The paper argues that culturally reinforced within memory. ■
reconstruction of past events. and personally significant events,
such as the shooting of J.F. Kennedy
AFTER or Martin Luther King, trigger the
1982 US psychologist Ulric operation of a special biological
Neisser argues that flashbulb memory mechanism (“now print”)
memories do not use a special that creates a permanent record of
mechanism and can be the event and the circumstances in
inaccurate due to multiple which we first become aware of it.
“rehearsals” after the event. Almost like a flash photograph, we
can picture where we were, who we
1987 In Autobiographical were with, and what we were doing
Memory, American when we heard the shocking
psychologist David Rubin news—such as the destruction of
suggests that we remember the twin towers on 9/11. Brown and
landmark events that define Kulik claim these memories are
us as people. vivid, accurate, and enduring.

See also: William James 38–45 ■ Jerome Bruner 164–65 ■ Endel Tulving 186–91
■ Frederic Bartlett 335–36 ■ Ulric Neisser 339

238

THE GOAL IS
NOT TO ADVANCE
KNOWLEDGE, BUT
TO BE IN THE KNOW

SERGE MOSCOVICI (1925– )

IN CONTEXT We overhear something This merges with other
that arouses our things we know or
APPROACH curiosity. have experienced.
Social constructivism
Everyone is eager to We chatter about this
BEFORE transmit knowledge and with other people and
1807 German philosopher keep a place in the circle share our thoughts.
Georg Hegel says that our
ideas and values are fashioned of conversation. Attitudes become
by the zeitgeist, or spirit of the organized and values
age, which constantly changes The collective become established.
through the reconciliation of conversations continue,
opposing views. Society begins to
allowing everyone use new phrases and
1927 German physicist Werner to know more. visions to describe a
Heisenberg’s “Uncertainty collective common sense.
Principle” reveals that the The goal is not
observer affects the observed. to advance

1973 American psychologist knowledge, but
Kenneth Gergen writes Social to be “in the know.”
Psychology as History, which
marks the emergence of
social constructivism.

AFTER
1978 In his zone of proximal
development theory, Lev
Vygotsky puts forward the idea
that learning is fundamentally
a socially mediated activity.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 239

See also: Friedrich Herbart 24–25 ■ Kurt Lewin 218–23 ■ Solomon Asch 224–27 ■ Lev Vygotsky 270

I n the late 1960s, some social communicate within a community. because “the goal is not to advance
psychologists, known as the They are, in effect, a collective knowledge, but to be in the know;”
social constructivists, argued “common sense”—a shared version to be an active participant in the
that the voice of ordinary people of reality—that is built through the collective circuit. The process
was being lost from psychological mass media, science, religion, and allows the unfamiliar to become
research. The concern was that interaction between social groups. familiar, and paves the way for
individuals were wrongly being science to become common sense.
portrayed as merely perceiving To test his theory, Moscovici In this way, social representations
their social worlds rather than looked at how the concepts of provide a framework for groups of
actually constructing them. In psychoanalytic theory had been people to make sense of the world.
order to counteract these worrying absorbed within France since They also affect how people treat
trends, social psychologist Serge World War II. He studied mass- each other within societies.
Moscovici conducted a piece of market publications and conducted Whenever there is debate over a
research that became a classic interviews, searching for evidence controversial social issue—such
study of the way people absorb of the type of information that had as whether it should be legal for
ideas and understand their world. been floating around the collective homosexuals to adopt children—
consciousness. He discovered that the impact and importance of social
In his study, Psychoanalysis: psychoanalytic theory had trickled representations becomes apparent.
its image and its public, published down both in the form of “high
in France in 1961, Moscovici culture” and as popular common Moscovici insists that social
explored the belief that all thought sense: people thought about and representations are genuine forms
and understanding is based on the discussed complex psychoanalytic of knowledge in their own right,
workings of “social representations.” concepts in a way that seemed not diluted versions of higher-level
These are the many concepts, quite normal, but on the whole they information. In fact, he makes it
statements, and explanations were using simplified versions. clear that these everyday thoughts
that are created in the course (rather than the more abstract,
of everyday interactions and Molding common sense scientific versions) are significant,
communications between people. The translation of difficult concepts because “shared representations
They allow us to orientate ourselves into accessible and more easily are there to set up and build a
in our social and material worlds transmissible language is not common ‘reality,’ a common
and provide us with the means to problematic, Moscovici contends, sense which becomes ‘normal’.” ■

Serge Moscovici Born Srul Hersh Moskovitch to a In 1949, he gained a degree in
Jewish family in Braila, Romania, psychology, then a PhD under
Serge Moscovici attended school the supervision of Daniel
in Bucharest, but was expelled Lagache, with the support of
due to anti-Semitic laws. After a refugee grant. He co-founded
surviving the violent pogrom the European Laboratory of
of 1941, in which hundreds of Social Psychology in 1965, and
Jewish people were tortured as a professor of psychology has
and murdered, he and his father taught in prestigious universities
moved constantly around the across the US and Europe.
country. He learned French during
World War II, and co-founded an Key works
art journal, Da, which was banned
due to censorship laws. In 1947, 1961 Psychoanalysis
he left Romania and traveled via 1976 Social Influence and Social
“displaced persons” camps until Change
he reached France a year later. 1981 The Age of the Crowd

240

WE ARE
BY NATURE
SOCIAL BEINGS

WILLIAM GLASSER (1925– )

CONTEXT W illiam Glasser openly achieving greater happiness and
rejected conventional fulfilment through personal choice,
APPROACH psychiatry and the use responsibility, and transformation.
Choice Theory of medication, claiming that most
of the mental and psychological In 1965, he developed Reality
BEFORE problems that people experience Therapy, a cognitive-behavioral,
c.350 BCE Greek philosopher are actually on a spectrum of problem-solving approach to
Aristotle says we are driven by healthy human experience, and treatment that encourages clients
three things: sensual appetite, can be improved through changes to seek what they really want in
anger, and boulesis, the rational in behavior. His ideas focus on the present moment, and to assess
desire for what is beneficial. whether or not the behaviors

1943 Clark L. Hull says that We are, by nature,
all human behavior comes social beings.
from four primary drives:
hunger, thirst, sex, and the When our close Love and belonging
avoidance of pain. interpersonal relationships are among our greatest

1973 US scientist William T. are troubled we non-survival needs.
Powers develops perceptual become unhappy.
control theory (PCT), which
suggests that our behavior is Extreme unhappiness We can treat psychological
how we control our perceptions can result in problems by repairing
in order to keep them close to interpersonal
internally fixed reference levels. symptoms that are
commonly associated relationships; psychiatric
AFTER with mental illness. drugs are unnecessary.
2000 US psychiatrist Peter
Breggin publishes Reclaiming
our Children, criticizing the
use of psychiatric drugs as
“cures” for troubled children.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 241

See also: Emil Kraepelin 31 ■ Sigmund Freud 92–99 ■ David Rosenhan 328–29 ■
Clark L. Hull 335

that they have chosen are bringing
them closer to or further away from
achieving their goals.

Choice Theory Interpersonal strife with those close William Glasser
Over decades of practicing Reality to us leads to rifts and resentments that
Therapy, Glasser realized that his produce symptoms of mental illness; William Glasser was born
entire approach was based on the these problems are, in fact, the logical in Cleveland, Ohio, in
idea of people actively identifying consequences of troubled relationships. 1925. Originally trained as
what they want to do in order to a chemical engineer, he
be fulfilled, and this led him to someone to listen to what we say; attended medical school in
develop Choice Theory. This theory to feel free, we must feel free from Cleveland and trained in
holds that we are all motivated to the control of others; and while it is psychiatry in Los Angeles.
act in ways that increase pleasure possible to have fun on our own, it He began practicing in 1957.
and decrease pain—we want to is much easier with other people. Through the writings on
think and behave in ways that will For these reasons, he argues, “we perceptual control theory
make us feel better. All pleasure are, by nature, social beings.” (PCT) by William T. Powers,
and pain, he says, derives from our Glasser was introduced to
efforts to satisfy five genetically Glasser emphasizes that lasting control theory systems. In
encoded needs: survival, love and psychological problems are usually 1967, Glasser founded the
belonging, power, freedom, and fun. caused by problems in our personal Institute for Reality Therapy
Any behavior that satisfies one of relationships (rather than signifying in California (later renamed
these is pleasurable, and any that a biochemical abnormality in the the William Glasser Institute),
fails to do so is a source of pain, brain), and distress can be which trains students in
and ultimately, he explains, it is remedied through repairing these Choice Theory. His approach
only through human relationships relationships without recourse is taught in more than 28
that we can satisfy these needs. to psychiatric drugs. He points countries, and he has written
When we are struggling to survive, toward the basic human need for on mental illness, counseling,
the help of another makes us feel power, which we try to satisfy by and how to improve schools.
good; in order to feel love and attempting to control other people. He is the recipient of many
belonging, we need at least one In fact, the only thing that we can awards, including the “A
good relationship; to sense even control is the way we behave and Legend in Counseling Award”
the least of our power, we need think; we cannot control others. and the Master Therapist
Trying to, he says, shows a lack of designation by the American
Improving our relationships respect for others and is the cause Psychiatric Association.
is improving our of unhappiness. Choice Theory is
mental health. a self-control psychology designed Key works
William Glasser to counteract this tendency and
to help us find happiness within 1965 Reality Therapy
our relationships. ■ 1969 Schools Without Failure
1998 Choice Theory
2003 Warning: Psychiatry
Can be Hazardous to your
Mental Health

242

WE BELIEVE PEOPLE
GET WHAT THEY
DESERVE

MELVIN LERNER (1929– )

IN CONTEXT People want …where “bad” things
to believe that they only happen to
APPROACH
Attribution theory live in a safe, “bad” people, and
stable, and only “good” things
BEFORE orderly world… happen to “good” people.
1958 Austrian psychologist
Fritz Heider investigates the People operate under People blame the victims
attribution process, or how the assumption that of misfortune
people judge the factors that “people get what they
influence a situation. deserve” and deserve in order to protect
themselves from
1965 American psychologists what they get. feeling vulnerable.
Edward E. Jones and Keith
Davis argue that the goal of P eople are most comfortable that places undue importance on
attribution is to discover how when they have a sense of the supposed character traits of
behavior and intention reveal a control over their lives. We the people involved rather than
person’s basic nature. need to believe that we live in a on the actual facts of a situation.
world where the good are rewarded If someone is suffering or being
AFTER and the bad are punished, and this punished, we find it easier to
1971 US sociologist William contributes significantly to our believe that that person must have
J. Ryan coins the phrase sense that it is possible to predict, done something to deserve such
“victim blaming,” exposing guide, and ultimately control treatment. The Just-World theory
how it is used to justify racism events. This “Just-World hypothesis” becomes a comforting rationalization
and social injustice. is a tendency to believe that of seemingly inexplicable events,
“people get what they deserve.” and stops the world from appearing
1975 American psychologists But, according to Melvin Lerner, chaotic or random. It also allows
Zick Rubin and Letitia Peplau this is a dangerous misconception people to believe that as long as
find that firm believers in a
“Just World” tend to be more
authoritarian, more religious,
and more admiring of existing
social and political institutions.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 243

See also: Dorothy Rowe 154 ■ Elizabeth Loftus 202–07

Homelessness, like may other social live in a just world; and so children the victim to those assessing them
problems, is much easier to tolerate grow into adults with this belief can affect whether or not people are
or be indifferent to, if you believe that firmly in place. held responsible for their misfortune.
people are ultimately responsible for
their own misfortunes. Victim-blaming Lerner’s hypothesis became the
In a 1965 study, Lerner found foundation of important research
they are “good,” only “good” things that students who were told that a into social justice. It also sparked
will happen to them, generating fellow student had won the lottery debate over the effects of a Just-
a false sense of safety and control. rationalized this event by believing World approach to life. Does it help
that the winner must have worked people stand up to difficulties? It
In his book, The Belief in a Just harder than his peers. It seems that may instead stimulate the feeling
World, Lerner argued that we ask belief in a Just World allows people that any wrongdoing, however
children to “be good” and promise to adjust the facts of a situation. minor or unintentional, leads to
them that in return for effectively This can be especially damaging disaster—a belief that Australian
putting their natural impulses and when applied to the way we might psychologist Dorothy Rowe has
desires to one side, they will be view victims of crime or abuse. In suggested can lead to an increased
rewarded in the future. For this rape cases, for example, it is often susceptibility to depression. ■
contract to be fulfilled, we must suggested that the female victim
was “asking for it” because she People need to believe they
wore a short skirt or was flirtatious, live in a Just World.
effectively absolving the perpetrator Melvin Lerner
of responsibility and placing it
in the hands of the victim. By
blaming the victim, outsiders also
protect their own sense of safety.

Lerner did emphasize, however,
that belief in a Just World does not
always lead to victim-blaming. The
seeming innocence, attractiveness,
status, and degree of similarity of

Melvin Lerner A pioneer of the psychological Lerner was editor of the journal
study of justice, Melvin Lerner Social Justice Research, and
studied social psychology at New in 2008 was given a Lifetime
York University, receiving his Achievement Award by the
doctorate in 1957. He then moved International Society for Justice
to Stanford University, California, Research. He is a visiting scholar
where he studied for his post- at Florida Atlantic University.
doctorate in clinical psychology.
Key works
From 1970 to 1994, Lerner
taught social psychology at the 1980 The Belief in a Just World:
University of Waterloo in Canada. A Fundamental Delusion
He has also lectured at a number 1981 The Justice Motive in
of universities in the US and Social Behavior: Adapting to
Europe, including the University of Times of Scarcity and Change
California, Washington University, 1996 Current Concerns about
and the universities of Utrecht and Social Justice
Leiden in the Netherlands.

244

PEOPLE WHO DO
CRAZY THINGS ARE NOT
NECESSARILY CRAZY

ELLIOT ARONSON (1932– )

IN CONTEXT I n his 1972 book, The Social psychological imbalance on the
Animal, Elliot Aronson puts part of the perpetrator. Aronson,
APPROACH forward “Aronson’s First Law:” however, argues that although
Attitude change people who do crazy things are not psychotic people certainly exist,
necessarily crazy. The “crazy things” even people who are generally
BEFORE he refers to include acts of violence, psychologically healthy can be
1956 Social psychologist Leon cruelty, or deep prejudice—acts so driven to such extremes of human
Festinger states his theory of extreme that they seem to reflect a behavior that they appear insane. It
cognitive dissonance, which
posits that having inconsistent In some situations, sane people do crazy things.
beliefs causes uncomfortable
psychological tension. If we are unaware of the social circumstances
that prompted their actions…
1968 The My Lai Massacre
of civilians in Vietnam takes …we are tempted to conclude that they
place, possibly because US are caused by a deficiency in character
soldiers dehumanized victims
to reduce cognitive dissonance. or insanity.

AFTER We must remember that people who do
1978 Elliot Aronson devises crazy things are not necessarily crazy.
the Jigsaw method of learning,
involving highly interdependent
small-group learning, to reduce
prejudice and violence at school.

1980s Psychologists argue that
dissonance experiments may
not reflect real attitude changes,
but a desire to seem consistent
and hence socially acceptable.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 245

See also: Leon Festinger 166–67 ■ Solomon Asch 224–27 ■ Melvin
Lerner 242–43 ■ Stanley Milgram 246–53 ■ Philip Zimbardo 254–55

is therefore important that, Some situational variables can Elliot Aronson
before diagnosing people as move a great proportion of us
psychotic, social psychologists ‘normal’ adults to behave in Elliot Aronson grew up in
make every effort to understand Massachusetts, during the
the situations people have been very unappetizing ways. Great Depression. He won a
facing and the pressures that Elliot Aronson scholarship to attend Brandeis
were operating on them when the University, where he earned
abnormal behavior took place. false, did not reflect the beliefs of his bachelor’s degree, before
psychotic minds, but rather the completing a master’s degree
Cognitive dissonance attempt of pressured and conflicted at Wesleyan University and a
To illustrate his point, Aronson cites minds to find relief. PhD at Stanford University.
an incident that took place at Kent He has been a professor at
State University, Ohio, in 1970 in The conflict felt by these people several universities, including
which members of the Ohio National is known as “cognitive dissonance,” Harvard and Stanford.
Guard shot and killed four unarmed an unpleasant feeling experienced
students, wounding nine others. when two or more of one’s beliefs are Throughout his career,
Some of these students had been inconsistent. In order to reduce this Aronson has tried to use
protesting against the American dissonance, people change their his research findings to
invasion of Cambodia, but others attitudes, beliefs, and actions, even improve the human condition
were simply crossing the campus. if this involves justifying or denying and reduce prejudice. In
The reason for the shootings cruelty against others. This, Aronson recognition of his work, he
remains ambiguous, but the fact claims, is what happened after the was given the William James
that it was tragically unnecessary Kent massacre. The townspeople Award and the Gordon Allport
is clear. However, in the aftermath, wanted to believe in their National Prize, and was included in the
one Ohio schoolteacher (as well as Guards’ goodness, and this meant list of the 100 most influential
National Guard members) asserted believing their victims deserved to psychologists of the 20th
that the students had deserved to die. The idea that the slain had century, published by the
die, and rumors spread quickly that been wanton and dirty comforted Review of General Psychology.
the slain girls were either pregnant, the people, relieving the emotional He is the only person to have
had syphilis, or were filthy. Aronson conflict of believing that innocent won all three awards offered
argues that these rumors, though students were needlessly killed. by the American Psychological
Association: for writing,
The Kent State University Aronson claims that anyone teaching, and research.
shootings, in which four students could behave this way under similar
were shot dead by the National Guard, circumstances. By understanding Key works
caused the emotionally conflicted the reasons why people justify or
townspeople to denigrate the victims. deny the use of cruelty, we may be 1972 The Social Animal
better placed to mediate or prevent 1978 The Jigsaw Classroom
it in wider social contexts, such as 2007 Mistakes Were Made
war or social prejudice. ■ (but not by me)

PEOPLE

DO WHAT THEY ARE

TOLD TO DO

STANLEY MILGRAM (1933–1984)



248 STANLEY MILGRAM S ocial psychologist Stanley merely because he was ordered
Milgram dramatically to do so? His study went on to
IN CONTEXT changed our understanding demonstrate important aspects of
of human obedience when he the relationship between authority
APPROACH published Behavioral Study of and obedience, and it remains one
Conformism Obedience in 1963. This paper of the most controversial experiments
BEFORE contained results of an experiment in the history of psychology.
1939–45 During World War II, that seemed to suggest that the
approximately six million Jews majority of people are capable of The power of the group
are systematically killed on the causing extreme harm to others Milgram believed that it was the
orders of Nazi Germany. when told to do so by a figure of situation of World War II and the
1950 Solomon Asch authority. It also caused people compulsion to obey—rather than
demonstrates the power to question the ethical limits of the dispositions of the Germans—
of social pressure to make psychological experimentation. that had enabled Nazi cruelty. He
people conform in his maintained that the behavior was
line-task experiments. Milgram became particularly a direct result of the situation, and
1961 Nazi war criminal Adolf interested in studying obedience any of us might have behaved
Eichmann is tried, and claims during the trial of German Nazi identically in that very same
he was just “following orders.” war criminal Adolf Eichmann. The context. In the late 1950s, Milgram
AFTER prevailing view was that there was had worked extensively with
1971 Philip Zimbardo conducts something inherently different Solomon Asch on his conformity
his prison experiment, which about the 20th-century Germans; studies and had witnessed people
demonstrates that in certain in the 1950s, psychologists such as agreeing with the decisions of a
situations, otherwise good Theodor Adorno had suggested group, even when they knew
people can perform evil deeds. that the Germans had certain these decisions to be wrong. The
1989 American psychologists personality characteristics that experiments showed that people
Herbert Kelman and V.L. made them specifically susceptible are prepared to do or say things
Hamilton state that members to committing the atrocities of the that conflict with their own sense
of a group obey authority when Holocaust. Eichmann, however, of reality. Would they also allow
they accept its legitimacy. claimed he had just been “following their moral judgments to be
orders,” so Milgram set out to affected by the authority of a
Humans are socialized investigate if this could be true— group or even a single figure?
to be obedient from would an ordinary person lay aside
an early age. what he knew to be right or wrong The Milgram experiment
Milgram set out to test whether
We feel compelled to People do what normally kind, likeable people could
comply with the commands they are told to do. be made to act against their own
moral values in a setting where
of authority figures… …even when this some kind of authority held sway.
conflicts with our He devised an investigation of how
own moral values. obedient a selection of “ordinary”
men would be when they were told
by an authority figure to administer
electric shocks to another person.
The experiment took place in a
laboratory at Yale University in 1961,
where Milgram was a professor of
psychology. The participants were
recruited through a newspaper
advertisement, and a total of 40 men
were selected from a wide range of