The Psychology Book

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 249

See also: Solomon Asch 224–27 ■ Serge Moscovici 238–39 ■ Philip Zimbardo 254–55 ■ Walter Mischel 326–27

The most famous labels that indicated the intensity Convincingly wired up, Mr. Wallace
and controversial of all of different ranges of shock levels, pretended to be an innocent volunteer.
obedience experiments. from “slight shock” at one end, to His screams failed to prevent 65 percent
“extreme intensity shock,” “danger: of participants from administering the
Richard Gross severe shock,” and finally, one highest level of fake electric shock.
marked simply “XXX,” at the other.
occupations, including teachers, play, the draw was always rigged so
postal workers, engineers, laborers, The role of the experimenter that Mr. Wallace took on the role of
and salesmen. They were each paid or “scientist” was played by a “learner” in every instance. In full
$4.50 for their participation; the biology teacher who introduced view of the participant, the “learner”
money was given to them as soon as himself to the participants as (Mr. Wallace) was strapped into an
they arrived at the laboratory, and Jack Williams. In order to give the “electric chair” with an electrode
they were told that the payment was impression of authority, he was attached to his wrist; the participant
theirs to keep regardless of what dressed in a gray laboratory was told that this electrode was
happened during the experiment. technician’s coat and maintained a attached to the shock generator ❯❯
stern and emotionless demeanor
In the laboratory, Milgram had throughout each of the experiments.
created a phony (but very impressive
and realistic-looking) electric shock The participants were told that
generator. This had 30 switches the study intended to investigate
marked in 15-volt increments with the effects of punishment on
learning. They were told that of two
volunteers, one would be the learner
and the other the teacher. In fact,
one of the two “volunteers” in each
case was not a participant but a
stooge: he was a likeable accountant
called Mr. Wallace, who had been
trained to play the role of the victim.
When Mr. Wallace and the genuine
participant drew paper from a hat to
determine which role they would

Stanley Milgram Stanley Milgram was born in 1933 he married Alexandra Menkin,
to a Jewish family in New York with whom he had two children.
City. His Hungarian parents ran In 1963, he returned to Harvard,
a bakery in the Bronx, and he but was denied tenure because
attended James Monroe High of the controversy surrounding
School with Philip Zimbardo. his experiment, so he moved to
the City University of New York,
A high academic achiever and a where he taught until his death
leader among his peers, Milgram at the age of 51.
initially studied political science,
but went on to receive a PhD in Key works
psychology from Harvard in 1960
under Gordon Allport. After 1963 Behavioral Study of
working with Solomon Asch on Obedience
conformity studies at Harvard, he 1967 The Small World Problem
became assistant professor at 1974 Obedience to Authority:
Yale, where he carried out his An Experimental View
obedience experiments. In 1961,

250 STANLEY MILGRAM 100% of the participants applied shocks
up to 300 volts; the point at which the
Milgram’s shock generator produced totally learner began to shout in apparent pain.
unexpected results. A team of 40 psychiatrists
predicted that fewer than 5 percent of participants
would administer shocks as high as 300 volts;
in fact, every participant went to this level.

Very strong shock Intense shock 35% of the participants applied
Strong shock intensityEsxthroeckme shocks of between 300 and 375
Moderate shock shock volts, but then refused to apply
Slight shock Danger: severe X
any more.
0V X X
65% of the participants continued
the experiment to the end, applying
the maximum shock of 450 volts as

many times as requested.

450V

located in an adjacent room. The correct answer, announce the level an incorrectly answered question
participant heard the “scientist” of shock he was about to receive, and apply the next level of shock
tell the “learner” (Mr.. Wallace) that and press a switch to administer the voltage. If he expressed misgivings
“although the shocks can be shock. Participants were instructed about continuing the experiment, he
extremely painful, they cause no to increase the shock level by 15 volts received a verbal prod from the
permanent damage.” To make the (in other words, to keep moving up “scientist” to encourage him, from
situation appear more authentic, the shock scale on the machine) a simple request to continue, to
the scientist then wired up the with every wrong answer. finally being told that he had no
participant and gave him a sample choice but to go on. If he refused
shock of 45 volts—which was in fact Applying the shocks to obey after the last prod, the
the only shock strength that the As part of the experiment, the experiment was terminated.
generator could produce. learner (Mr. Wallace) had been
briefed to answer incorrectly to With numbing regularity,
At this point, the participant around one question in every four, good people were seen
was moved to the room containing to ensure that the participant would to knuckle under the
the shock generator and asked to be required to start applying electric demands of authority
assume the role of “teacher.” He was shocks. During the experiment, the and perform actions that
asked to read a series of word pairs learner would pound the wall once were callous and severe.
(such as “blue-girl”, “nice-day”) the voltage had reached 300, and
aloud for the learner to memorize. shout: “I absolutely refuse to answer Stanley Milgram
After this he was to read out a series any more! Get me out of here! You
of single words; the learner’s task can’t hold me here! Get me out!”
was to recall the pairing word in As the shock level increased, the
each case and to indicate his answer learner would shout more frantically,
by pressing a switch that illuminated and then eventually cease making
a light on the shock generator. If the any noise at all; questions would
learner’s answer was correct, the be met with nothing but an eerie
questions continued; if the answer silence. The participant was told to
was incorrect, the participant was treat any unanswered question as
instructed to tell the learner the

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 251

In advance of the experiment, test that they were not emotionally Ordinary people, simply
Milgram had asked several different harmed by the experience. The doing their jobs, and
groups of people, including ordinary participants were also reunited with without any particular
members of the public as well as the “learner” (Mr. Wallace) so that hostility on their part,
psychologists and psychiatrists, they could see that no actual
how far they thought participants shocks had been administered. can become agents in a
would go when asked to administer terrible destructive process.
the electric shocks. Most people Feeling obliged to obey
thought participants would stop at Milgram noted several features Stanley Milgram
a level that caused pain, and the of the experiment that may have
psychiatrists predicted that, at most, contributed to such high levels of from the reactions and responses
one in 1,000 would continue to the obedience; for example, the fact of the participants that obeying the
highest level of shock. Astonishingly, that it took place at the prestigious “scientist” was violating their own
when the experiment took place, Yale University gave it credibility. sense of morality and negatively
Milgram found that all 40 of the In addition, participants believed affecting them both physically and
participants obeyed commands to that the study was designed to emotionally, but the pressure to
administer shocks up to 300 volts. advance knowledge, and they had comply was simply too powerful
Only five people refused to continue been assured that the shocks were to defy in most cases.
at this point; 65 percent of the painful but not dangerous. Being
participants obeyed the instructions paid may have increased their This sense of obedience,
of the “scientist” right to the end, sense of obligation, as did the fact Milgram felt, comes from the fact
obeying commands to administer they had volunteered to take part. that people are socialized from a
shocks to the top level of 450 volts. To test these explanations, Milgram very young age (by parents and ❯❯
ran many variations on the study,
Their discomfort at doing so but changing the context had only
was often evident: many showed minor effects on the results.
signs of severe distress, tension,
and nervousness over the course Milgram wanted to see if the
of the experiment. They stuttered, inclination to obey authority figures
trembled, sweated, groaned, broke can become the major factor in
out into nervous laughing fits, and determining behavior, even in
three people had full-blown seizures. extreme circumstances. It is clear
In every instance of the experiment,
the participant stopped and
questioned it at some point; some
even offered to refund the money
they were paid at the beginning.
Interviews after the experiments
confirmed that, with only a few
exceptions, participants had been
completely convinced that the
“learning experiment” was real.

All participants were fully
debriefed so they understood what
had actually taken place, and they
were asked a series of questions to

By the 1960s, Yale University was
known to the general public as being
highly prestigious; its authority may
have seemed literally unquestionable
to the participants of Milgram’s study.

252 STANLEY MILGRAM

teachers) to be obedient and to carried out by the Nazis. However, debriefed after the experiment.
follow orders—especially the rules the conflict between a person’s Self-knowledge, he argued, is a
set forth by authority figures. As conscience and external authority valuable asset, despite the
Milgram says, “obedience is as exerts a huge internal pressure, and discomfort that the participants
basic an element in the structure Milgram felt that this accounted for may have felt when forced to
of social life as one can point to… the extreme distress experienced confront the fact that they behaved
it serves numerous productive by the participants in his study. in a previously unthinkable way.
functions.” But equally, the
inhumane policies of the death Ethical concerns However, many psychologists
camps in World War II “could only There were many ethical concerns remained uneasy, and the study
be carried out on a massive scale associated with Milgram’s study. was ultimately crucial in the
if a very large number of persons When it was first published, the development of ethical standards of
obeyed orders.” His experiments ensuing controversy was so great psychological experimentation. It
clearly demonstrated that normally that the American Psychological helped to define important principles
harmless people become capable Association revoked his membership such as the avoidance of intentional
of committing cruel acts when a for a full year. However, it was deceit of participants, and the need
situation pressures them to do so. eventually reinstated, and Milgram’s to protect experimental participants
1974 book Obedience to Authority from emotional suffering.
In describing his results, received the annual Social
Milgram also turned to the theory of Psychology Award. Cross-cultural validity
conformism, which states that when Another criticism of Milgram’s
a person has neither the ability nor The major concern was that study was that he used an
expertise to make a decision, he will the participants in the experiment unrepresentative sample: American
look to the group to decide how to were explicitly deceived, both about men do not necessarily reflect the
behave. Conformity can limit and the nature of the study and about general population. Even so, Milgram
distort an individual’s response to the reality of the electric shocks. was able to conclude that obedience
a situation, and seems to result in a Milgram’s defense was that he was not a particular feature found in
diffusion of responsibility—which could not have obtained realistic the minds of 20th-century Germans,
Milgram felt was crucial to results without employing deception, but something more universal. A
comprehending the atrocities and all of the participants were number of cross-cultural replications

The behavior of Nazis during
World War II had been attributed to
a prevalence of the “authoritarian
personality” in the population; this was
questioned by Milgram’s experiments.

Obedience to authority is not a
feature of German culture, but
a seemingly universal feature

of human behavior.
Stanley Milgram

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 253

In wartime, a soldier does
not ask whether it is good
or bad to bomb a hamlet.

Stanley Milgram

American soldiers in Vietnam
reported that their behavior became
unacceptable by degrees—as with
the shock generator—until they found
themselves murdering innocents.

of the original experiment have twice: first with the virtual learner historical examples of people using
demonstrated remarkably high communicating only by text, and their authority to persuade others to
consistency in results within then with the computer-generated commit crimes against humanity.
societies, but slight differences model visible on screen. Those with
between one country and another. only text contact with the learner Equally importantly, Milgram
For example, in most of North had little trouble administering the showed that it is “not so much the
America and Europe, results are shocks; but when the virtual learner kind of person a man is, as the kind
very similar to those found in was visible, participants acted of situation in which he finds
Milgram’s original experiment, with exactly as they had in Milgram’s himself that determines how he
very high percentages of obedience. original experiment. will act.” Instead of examining
Asian studies, however, show even personalities to explain crimes, he
greater levels of obedience (in East Society demands obedience says, we should examine the
Asian and Muslim countries in The notion of a society rests on an context, or situation.
particular), while aboriginal African understanding that individuals are
and Latin American populations, prepared to relinquish some personal Milgram’s seminal study was
as well as the Inuit peoples of autonomy and look to others of heavily criticized at the time, not
Canada, show far less obedience. higher authority and social status least because it painted an
to make decisions on a larger scale unappealing and chilling portrait
Virtual torture or from a higher, broader perspective. of human nature. It is easier to
In 2006, the psychologist Mel Slater Even the most democratic of believe that there are fundamental
set out to see what the effect would societies requires the rulings of a differences between the Nazis and
be if participants were made recognized, legitimate authority to the rest of humanity than to accept
explicitly aware that the situation take precedence over individual that in certain situations, many of
was not real. His replication used a self-regulation, in pursuit of the us are capable of committing
computer simulation of the learner greater collective good. In order extraordinary acts of violence.
and shock process, so participants for any society to function, its Milgram held up a light to the dark
administering the shocks were fully populace must agree to obey its realities concerning power and the
aware that the learner was computer- rules. Legitimacy is, of course, consequences of our tendency to
generated. The experiment was run the key, and there are countless obey authority figures, and in so
doing, he simultaneously absolved
and made villains of us all. ■

254

WHAT HAPPENS
WHENYOU PUT
GOOD PEOPLE
IN AN EVIL PLACE?

PHILIP ZIMBARDO (1933– )

IN CONTEXT S tanley Milgram’s shocking willingly use (or abuse) the power
obedience studies revealed granted to them? In 1971 he carried
APPROACH that people will obey out the now-famous Stanford Prison
Conformity authority figures even if this entails experiment, using 24 middle-class
acting against their own moral American college students who had
BEFORE convictions. In the aftermath, Philip undergone tests to establish that
1935 Muzafer Sherif Zimbardo set out to discover how they were mentally healthy.
demonstrates how groups people would behave if they were
quickly come to develop a put into a position of authority with On the flip of a coin the students
“social norm” in his autokinetic unimpeded power. Would they were randomly assigned the role of
effect experiments. either “guard” or “prisoner,” and one

1940s Kurt Lewin shows how What happens when you put good people
people’s behavior changes in an evil place?
as their situations are altered.
Normal, healthy people start to behave
1963 Stanley Milgram conducts according to the social roles assigned to them.
his obedience studies, which
demonstrate that people will Those in the position of Those in a subordinate
obey authority even if it means power will naturally use position will submit to
committing cruel acts. (and abuse) their authority.
authority.
AFTER
2002 British psychologists It is the power of social situations, rather than the
Steven Reicher and Alex dispositions of people, that leads to evil behavior.
Haslam extend Zimbardo’s
study to explore positive rather
than negative group behavior.

2004 Zimbardo defends a
former Abu Ghraib prison
guard in court, arguing that
the circumstances caused
the guard’s cruel behavior.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 255

See also: John B. Watson 66–71 ■ Zing-Yang Kuo 75 ■ Kurt Lewin 218–23 ■
Elliot Aronson 244–45 ■ Stanley Milgram 246–53 ■ Muzafer Sherif 337

The “prisoners” rebelled against the To the researchers’ amazement, Philip Zimbardo
“guards,” but the guards’ tactics became the environment quickly became so
more aggressive. They began dividing threatening to participants that the Philip Zimbardo was born in
the prisoners into groups, giving some study had to be ended after only six New York City in 1933 to a
rewards and others punishments. days. Every guard became abusive Sicilian-American family,
and authoritarian; prisoners were and was a classmate of
Sunday morning soon afterwards, denied food or bedding, hooded, Stanley Milgram at James
the prisoners were arrested at their chained, and made to clean toilet Monroe High School in the
homes, booked at a real police bowls with their hands. As the Bronx. He went on to earn
station, then transferred to the boredom increased, they used the his BA degree from Brooklyn
basement of the Stanford University prisoners as their playthings, College, New York, and a PhD
psychology department, which had making them take part in degrading from Yale. He taught at several
been converted into a mock prison. games. After just 36 hours, one universities before moving to
prisoner had to be released because Stanford in 1968, where he is
The prison environment of uncontrolled crying, fits of rage, still a psychology professor.
In order to make the experience as and severe depression. When other
psychologically real as possible, prisoners showed symptoms of In 2000, Zimbardo stated
prisoners were stripped, searched, acute distress, Zimbardo realized that he agreed with George
deloused, and given uniforms and the situation had become dangerous Armitage Miller that it was
bedding upon their arrival. To and ended the experiment. time to “give psychology away
heighten their sense of anonymity to the public,” and his career
and dehumanization, they were Zimbardo’s experiment showed has reflected this idea. In the
addressed only by their given that good people can be induced into 1980s he presented a popular
numbers, and each had a chain behaving in evil ways by immersion TV series on “discovering
bolted around one ankle to serve as in “total situations” that have an psychology.“ The American
a reminder of their lack of freedom. apparently legitimizing ideology Psychological Foundation
and approved rules and roles. The presented him with an award
The guards wore military-style implications are vast, as Zimbardo for Distinguished Lifetime
uniforms and sunglasses (to make explains: “Any deed that any human Contributions to General
eye contact impossible), and carried being has ever done, however Psychology in 2000, and two
keys, whistles, handcuffs, and clubs. horrible, is possible for any of us years later he was elected
They were on duty 24 hours a day, to do—under the right or wrong president of the American
and were given complete control situational pressures.” ■ Psychological Association.
over the prisoners, with permission
to employ whatever tactics they Our study… reveals the Key works
saw fit in order to maintain order. power of social, institutional
1972 The Stanford Prison
forces to make good men Experiment
engage in evil deeds. 2007 The Lucifer Effect
Philip Zimbardo 2008 The Time Paradox
2010 Psychology and Life

256

TRAUMA MUST BE
UNDERSTOOD IN TERMS
OF THE RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN THE INDIVIDUAL
AND SOCIETY

IGNACIO MARTIN-BARO (1942–1989)

IN CONTEXT I gnacio Martín-Baró made his impartial, universal approach to
claim that “trauma must be psychology, he came to realize
APPROACH understood in terms of the that psychologists must take into
Liberation psychology relationship between the individual account the historical context and
and society” after witnessing first- social conditions of the people they
BEFORE hand the social injustices and are studying. He believed that
1965 Community psychology, violence endemic to El Salvador in while some mental health problems
a new discipline investigating the 1980s. Rejecting the idea of an reflect an abnormal reaction to
the relationships between
individuals and communities, Because it aims to be impartial and
arises from discussions at the universal, mainstream psychology does not
Swampscott Conference,
Massachusetts. address the way specific contexts
and environments shape mental health.
1970s A crisis over the
relevance of social psychology, But to understand and treat mental
the study of links between disorders, a psychologist should understand
social conditions, emotions,
and behaviors, erupts in the sociopolitical environment
Britain, North America, and of his subjects and patients.
most acutely in Latin America.
Trauma must be understood
AFTER in terms of the relationship between
1988 The Latin American
Institute of Mental Health and the individual and society.
Human Rights is founded.

1997 US psychologists Isaac
Prilleltensky and Dennis Fox
publish Critical Psychology,
highlighting how traditional
psychology can help sustain
injustice and social oppression.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 257

See also: Lev Vygotsky 270 ■ Jerome Kagan 339

reasonably normal circumstances, rather than considering how to The challenge is
the problems specific to oppressed awaken and drive the desire for to construct a new
and exploited groups tend to reflect justice or freedom. person in a new society.
a perfectly understandable and Ignacio Martín-Baró
normal reaction to abnormal Traumatized societies
circumstances. Martín-Baró His collection Writings for a well as its social and political
decided that psychologists needed Liberation Psychology, published environment, and that individuals
to be more aware of how living posthumously in 1994, captures must be treated with both these
within a difficult context affects several decades of Martín-Baró’s factors in mind.
mental health, and that they should concerns. It addresses the use of
help the society being studied to psychology as an instrument of war Martín-Baró focused on Central
transcend its history of oppression. and political manipulation, the role America, but his ideas are relevant
In the mid-1980s, he launched the of religion in psychological warfare, anywhere social and political turmoil
branch of liberation psychology, and the impact of trauma and disrupts daily life. His humane and
which is committed to improving violence on mental health. Martín- impassioned perspective draws a
the lives of all marginalized and Baró studied areas where dependent crucial link between mental health
oppressed people. economies and severe inequalities and the struggle against injustice,
had led to relentless poverty and and attempts to find fresh ways of
Liberation psychologists claim social exclusion. He examined the addressing associated psychological
that traditional psychology has psychological impact of civil war issues more effectively. ■
many inadequacies. It frequently and oppression in El Salvador, the
fails to offer practical solutions dictatorships in Argentina and
to social problems; many of its Chile, and poverty in Puerto Rico,
principles are developed from Venezuela, Brazil, and Costa Rica.
artificial settings in wealthy Each involved a different set of
countries, and so are unlikely to circumstances, affecting the local
translate to different situations; population in unique ways. He
it tends to ignore human moral concluded that the mental health
qualities, such as hope, courage, issues that arise in one context will
and commitment; and its main goal reflect the history of the place as
seems to be to maximize pleasure,

Ignacio Martín-Baró Ignacio Martín-Baró was born Central America and eventually
in Valladolid, Spain. In 1959, he becoming head of its psychology
joined the Jesuit order, and was department. Martín-Baró was
sent to South America. There, he openly critical of El Salvador’s
studied at the Catholic University rulers, and in 1986 set up the
in Quito, Ecuador, and at the University Institute of Public
Javeriana University in Bogotà, Opinion. He and five others
Colombia. In 1966, Martín-Baró, were murdered by an army
now a Jesuit priest, was sent to death squad for their exposure of
El Salvador. He continued his political corruption and injustice.
studies at the University of
Central America in San Salvador, Key works
gaining a licentiate in psychology
in 1975. He later earned a PhD in 1983 Action and Ideology
social psychology from the 1989 System, Group and Power
University of Chicago, before 1994 Writings for a Liberation
returning to the University of Psychology

DEVELOP

PSYCHOL

FROM INFANT
TO ADULT

MENTAL
OGY

260 INTRODUCTION

In a new edition of Lev Vygotsky’s Kenneth and Mamie Clark Noam Chomsky
Three Essays on the sociocultural theory of found the Northside Center challenges traditional
Theory of Sexuality, learning emphasizes the theories of language
Freud adds a section importance of the for Child Development in learning in Syntactic
outlining his theory community in learning Harlem, New York, where
they examine the formation Structures.
of psychosexual and development.
development. of racial bias.

1915 1930S 1946 1957
1920S 1950 1958-60
1936

The psychoanalytic world is Jean Piaget suggests that Eric Erikson publishes John Bowlby
divided on issues of child cognitive processes Childhood and Society, publishes a series of

development between develop in a series of which includes an articles rejecting
Anna Freud’s conservative well-defined stages exposition of the eight psychoanalytic and
approach and Melanie Klein’s stages of psychosocial behavioral theories
through childhood.
“revolutionary” one. development. of attachment.

I n the early part of the 20th Piaget raised some fundamental importance of a child’s social
century, two main approaches questions: whether we acquire and cultural environment. Erik
in psychology examined the knowledge gradually or in distinct Erikson also built on Piaget’s
psychological development of stages; whether certain abilities ideas, identifying eight stages
humans from childhood to are innate or learned; and how the of psychosocial development,
adulthood: the psychoanalytic environment affects development. including the “identity crisis”
theory of Freud gave an account His cognitive development theory of adolescence; while Lawrence
of psychosexual development suggested that a child’s growth into Kohlberg came up with six stages
in children, and behaviorism adulthood is divided into several of moral development in his studies.
explained the mechanics of the developmental stages, and within
learning process. However, the each stage the child learns by doing With the “cognitive revolution”
study of development itself—the rather than instruction. Piaget’s that followed World War II,
psychological, emotional, ideas set the stage for the new field psychologists such as Albert
and perceptual changes that of developmental psychology and Bandura looked at the issue of
occur during a lifetime—did not shaped the curricula of schools development again, this time
evolve until the 1930s, when Jean up to the present day. in the light of cognitive models
Piaget overturned conventional of information processing. Bandura
thinking with the idea that a child Other developmental theories retained elements of both Piaget’s
is not just a “miniature adult” soon emerged. Although broadly stages of development and
gaining knowledge as his or her agreeing with Piaget’s findings, Vygotsky’s social constructivism
body matures, but at the same Lev Vygotsky argued that it was in his social learning theory.
time is also going through radical necessary for a child to have adult Cognitive psychology also brought
psychological changes. guidance at various stages in his new ideas about learning,
learning, and also stressed the especially the acquisition of

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 261

Harry Harlow carries out Mary Ainsworth A school opens in Jerome Bruner
experiments on monkeys explores types of Neuville-du-Bosc, explores the way the
attachment in her France, which follows
proving that contact Strange Situation the educational theories developing mind
comfort is more of Françoise Dolto. structures its sense of
important than the studies. reality in The Narrative
provision of food in Construction of Reality.

forming attachments.

1959 1970 1973 1991
1961 1971 1974 1995

Albert Bandura performs Lawrence Kohlberg Eleanor E. Maccoby Simon Baron-Cohen
the Bobo Doll identifies six stages conducts a study into publishes Mindblindness,
of moral growth in gender differences
experiments into in The Psychology of exploring the
observational learning Stages of Moral implications of growing
Development. Sex Differences.
(modeling). up with autism.

language, and Noam Chomsky’s survival. The basic ideas of civil rights movement and
suggestion that this is an innate attachment theory were reinforced feminism were influencing thought
capability once more opened the by experiments carried out by in both social psychology and
nature versus nurture debate. psychologist Harry Harlow in the developmental psychology. How
US, who showed the effects of our prejudices are acquired, and
Attachment theory isolation and maternal separation at what stage of development,
While much developmental on infants. His experiments became an area of interest for the
psychology concerned itself with demonstrated that to build healthy African-Americans Kenneth and
the process of learning, a growing cognitive and social development, Mamie Clark, who based their work
area of interest arose from the infants needed companionship on studies of child development in
research carried out by the British and care. Later research by Mary Harlem, New York; while Eleanor
psychoanalyst and psychiatrist Ainsworth built on these findings, Maccoby examined the differences
John Bowlby. His study of children adding the concept of a “secure in development between the
who had been separated from their base” from which an infant sexes—the first of many similar
families during World War II led can explore the world. Bruno explorations in the new field of
to the formulation of attachment Bettelheim developed his own, more gender studies.
theory, which deals with the way controversial, theories of childhood
we build and maintain relationships development from the basis of Developmental psychology is
with family and friends, placing attachment theory, rejecting the currently exploring the causes and
a special importance on the importance of the traditional family treatment of autism and learning
attachments made by infants to the after his study of children brought difficulties. And, with a growing
people who care for them; Bowlby up communally in kibbutzim. In aging population, psychology
saw this as a natural impulse for the 1960s, social issues such as the is also looking into issues that
confront us as we enter old age. ■

THE GOAL OF

EDUCATION

IS TO CREATE MEN AND WOMEN

WHO ARE CAPABLE OF DOING

NEW THINGS

JEAN PIAGET (1896–1980)



264 JEAN PIAGET S omewhere between his the world around them as they move
roots as a precocious young through the developmental stages.
IN CONTEXT biologist and his later He also believed that it is of primary
fascination with epistemology, Jean importance to nurture and guide
APPROACH Piaget carved out his own niche in children on this journey, giving
Genetic epistemology a discipline that he called genetic them the freedom to experiment
epistemology, the study of how and explore on their own, in a very
BEFORE intelligence changes as children individual, trial-and-error manner.
1693 English philosopher grow. Piaget was not interested in The task of a good teacher is,
John Locke’s Some Thoughts comparing levels of intelligence therefore, simply to support children
Concerning Education suggests between children of different ages on their journey through these
a child’s mind is a tabula rasa, (quantitative cognitive change); stages, constantly encouraging
or blank slate. his interests lay in the natural their creativity and imagination,
development of mental skills over because “the goal of education is
1780s German philosopher time (qualitative cognitive change). to create men and women who are
Immanuel Kant introduces the Quantitative studies make possible capable of doing new things.”
concept of the schema and numerical comparisons, but Piaget
suggests that morality wanted to explore differences in Learning is active
develops independently of the types, experience, and qualities One theme that pervades Piaget’s
authority figures through of children’s learning, which theory of intellectual development
interaction with peers. required “qualitative” research. is the concept of learning as an
Breaking away from the prevalent active personal process. From
AFTER behaviorist model, which had infancy through childhood, he
1907 Italian educator linked child development entirely says, learning arises from a child’s
Dr. Maria Montessori with environmental factors, Piaget natural desire to sense, explore,
opens the first Montessori decided to explore the innate, or move, and then master. For this
school, which encourages inborn, capacities that he believed reason Piaget had many misgivings
independence and respect for guide children’s progression about the notion of standardized
natural developmental stages. through a series of age-defined testing, in which children undergo
developmental stages. preformatted tests that have
1970s–80s Many Western “correct” answers to provide
education systems incorporate Piaget believed that children quantitative measures of
a more child-centered are active and autonomous learners, intelligence. While working on
approach to learning. using their senses to interact with

A child’s cognitive processes are Children move through four stages
fundamentally different from of development autonomously and

those of an adult. independently.

The goal of education is to Teachers must provide tasks
create men and women who are that are appropriate to the child’s stage

capable of doing new things. of development, and nurture
independent thinking and creativity.

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 265

See also: Alfred Binet 50–53 ■ Jerome Bruner 164–65 ■ Lev Vygotsky 270 ■ Erik Erikson 272–73 ■ Françoise Dolto 279
■ Lawrence Kohlberg 292–93 ■ Jerome Kagan 339

standardizing intelligence tests Education, for most
for Alfred Binet in the early 1920s, people, means trying to lead
he became interested less in a
child’s ability to produce correct the child to resemble the
answers than in what those typical adult of his society.
answers actually were. Their
explanations revealed that Jean Piaget
children’s assumptions about how
the world works are very different
to those of adults, leading Piaget to
believe that children not only think
differently to adults, but also that
children of different ages have
different methods of thinking.

The evolving mind impersonal list of questions, this Children are not mini adults who
Since the 17th century, the flexible method allowed the child’s simply do not yet know as much as
idea that a child is effectively answers to determine the adults; rather, they see the world
a miniature adult had held sway. subsequent question. By following differently and interact with it in
Empiricist philosophers of the time the child’s line of thought, Piaget a wholly distinct way.
had suggested that a child’s brain believed he could better understand
works exactly like an adult’s, but has the processes underlying it. His reaching for a toy. So Piaget
fewer associations. Another group of rejection of a notion of quantitative concluded that action, rather than
thinkers, the psychological nativists, or measurable intelligence led to social interaction, is the source
claimed that certain concepts— some groundbreaking theories of of thought at this stage.
such as the ideas of time, space, childhood cognitive development.
and number—are innate, or “hard- This discovery formed part of
wired” into the brain, so babies Developing the intellect his theory that every child passes
are born with an ability to make Piaget initially believed that social through various stages of cognitive
use of them. Piaget’s suggestion factors, such as language and development, and that these stages
that children’s mental processes— contact with family members and are different in quality and are
from infancy to adolescence—are peers, impacted most on children’s hierarchical. A child only moves
fundamentally different to an adult’s intellectual development. However, on to the next stage upon genuine
was a radical and controversial while studying infants, he realized completion of the current stage. In
departure from this view. that for them language is less studies and observations, Piaget
important and their own activity is determined that all children pass
Piaget himself claimed that it paramount. In the first few days of through the stages in the same
is vitally important to understand life, babies have limited bodily sequence, without skipping any or
the formation and evolution of movements—mainly crying and regressing to previous ones. This is
intelligence during childhood, sucking—though they quickly not a process that can be rushed,
because this is the only way we begin to add new actions, such as and although children generally
can reach a full understanding of tend to go through the same stage
human knowledge. His use of at roughly the same age, each
psychotherapeutic interviewing individual child has his or her
techniques to ask children to own pace of development.
explain their answers was inspired,
and it became an important tool The four stages defined by
in all his research. Rather than Piaget represent levels in the
adhering to a pre-determined and development of intelligence ❯❯

266 JEAN PIAGET

The Four Stages of Development

?

1 At the sensorimotor 2 Children begin 3 During the concrete 4 Verbal reasoning and
stage, babies learn about to arrange objects operational stage, children hypothetical thinking
the world through touch logically during the learn that quantities can develop in the formal
and their other senses. pre-operational stage. take different forms. operational stage.

and, as such, they provide a list of government.” Intelligent behavior, begin to develop and use internal
the “schemas” that children make according to Piaget, is comprised of images, symbols, and language.
use of at that particular moment in a growing collection of schemas. This constitutes the second, or
their development. A schema is a pre-operational, stage when a
representation in the mind of a set Four stages of development child is primarily interested in
of ideas, perceptions, and actions Piaget’s first stage is called the how things look or appear. They
that provide a mental structure sensorimotor stage, and this spans will demonstrate skills such as
to help us organize our past the first two years of a child’s life. arranging objects in a logical order
experiences, and prepare us for During this period, infants learn (according to height, for example),
future experiences. During infancy about the world primarily through or comparing two objects (such as
and early childhood, a schema can their senses (sensori-) and through blocks) through shared attributes,
be as simple as “things I can eat.” physical action or movement focusing on one perceptual quality
However, as children grow, their (motor). Children at this stage are (such as size or color) at a time.
schemas become more complex, egocentric, able to see the world From years two to four, the child
offering an understanding of what only from their own viewpoint. thinks in absolute terms (such as
constitutes “a kitchen,” a “best At the beginning of this stage, “big” or “biggest”); from four to
friend,” or “democratic infants practice reflexes without seven, they begin to use relative
understanding or intention; later terms (such as “bigger” or
Knowledge…is a they can extend and coordinate “heavier”). The ability to think
system of transformations reflexes with objects. Then they logically is still limited and children
that become progressively begin to coordinate their senses in remain egocentric, unable to see
a way that anticipates events; for things from another’s perspective.
adequate. example, they can imagine objects
Jean Piaget that are not present and find hidden The third stage is the concrete
ones. They begin to experiment operational stage, and this is
and set goals in their use of objects, when a child becomes capable of
and think about a problem before performing logical operations, but
acting. These developments mark only in the presence of actual
the completion of the first stage. (concrete) objects. The child now
begins to grasp the concept of
As the child moves toward conservation, understanding that
the development of self-awareness, the quantity of an object remains
they now have the tools of the same despite physical changes
representational thought and can in its arrangement. They realize

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 267

that if you pour liquid from a short, required through each of the stages; Intelligence is what you
wide glass into a tall, thin one, the assimilation, accommodation, and use when you don’t know
amount of liquid remains the same equilibrium. Assimilation is the
despite the difference in height. process by which we incorporate what to do.
Children can also understand that new information into existing Jean Piaget
objects can be sorted according to schemas. Accommodation is
many qualities simultaneously—a required when, in the process of approach to teaching, in theory and
marble can be large, green, or clear. assimilating, we discover that we in practice. Rather than trying to
A little less egocentric now, children need to modify existing knowledge teach a child to think and behave
begin to incorporate more relativity or skills. A child who is able to like an adult, educators were
into their viewpoints. assimilate successfully most or all encouraged to view their
new experiences is said to be in work as an opportunity to engage
During the fourth stage—the a state of equilibrium. However, children in novel and individual
formal operational stage—children if the existing schemas are modes of thinking. Piaget believed
begin to manipulate ideas (rather inadequate for coping with new that education should inspire
than simply objects) and are able situations successfully, then the people to create, invent, and
to reason purely on the basis of child is in a state of cognitive innovate, and actively discourage
verbal statements. They no longer disequilibrium, and the schemas them from conforming or following
need to refer to concrete objects, need to develop in order to established guidelines at the
and can follow an argument. They accommodate the necessary expense of imagination. If the
start to think hypothetically, and information. Essentially, this is the natural process of learning—from
this new capacity for imagination, process of adaptation, one of the infancy onward—is individual,
and their ability to discuss abstract most basic forms of learning. active, and exploratory, then so too
ideas, reveals that they have now should be a system of education
become less egocentric. Impact on education that guides children’s formal
Piaget’s work inspired the intellectual development.
Reaching equilibrium transformation of the education
In addition to defining the four systems of Europe and the US Another vitally important aspect
stages, Piaget identified several during the 1970s and 80s, bringing of a child-centered education is an
fundamental facets of the about a more child-centered awareness of the concept of
developmental process that were “readiness,” which involves setting
limits on learning based on the
child’s stage of development.
One of Piaget’s most enduring
contributions to the field of
education, particularly with ❯❯

Educators should not insist
on a particular way of doing or
understanding something, Piaget
(pictured left) asserted, but nurture
children’s natural learning processes.

268 JEAN PIAGET

Piaget believed that children learn Children have real
from being active rather than from understanding only
passive observation, and teachers of that which they
must adapt to this. Interaction invent themselves.
between students is of primary
significance in the classroom, and Jean Piaget
having established that one of the
best ways to secure knowledge is
to teach it to somebody else, it
follows that if children are allowed
to discuss topics actively among
themselves (rather than listening
passively to lessons), they are more
likely to deepen and consolidate
their existing knowledge.

Children at this Montessori school Moral education promoted peer interaction within
bring Piaget’s ideas to life. They are As with intellectual development, the classroom as an integral part
encouraged to build their own learning Piaget believed that children also of the learning experience.
with hands-on activities and plenty of develop morally in stages and, for
discussion with their peers. the most part, autonomously. Real The role of the teacher in
moral growth is not the product Piaget’s child-centered classroom
regards to mathematics and of adult instruction, but is based is, therefore, almost one of a mentor
science, is the acknowledgement on a child’s own observations of and an enabler rather than that of
that teachers need to be aware of the world. Piaget viewed peer a standard instructor. Teachers
and honor an individual child’s interaction as absolutely crucial for need to assess carefully each
capacity to deal with a novel the moral development of children. student’s current level of cognitive
experience or to take on fresh Peers, not parents or other authority development and then set tasks
information. The tasks that a figures, are seen as being vital to that are intrinsically motivating.
teacher sets should reflect, and also moral growth, providing a key Interestingly, teachers must also
be adapted as precisely as possible source for understanding concepts create cognitive disequilibrium
to, the individual student’s such as reciprocity, equality, and in their students in order to help
cognitive level and capabilities. justice. Consequently, Piaget keenly them advance to the next stage of

Jean Piaget Born in Neuchâtel, Switzerland, observations about cognitive
Jean Piaget grew up with an development. In 1955, he
insatiable interest in the natural created the International Centre
world, and at the age of 11 he for Genetic Epistemology and
wrote his first scientific paper. was its director until his death
He studied natural sciences and in 1980. He was awarded prizes
earned a PhD from the University and honorary degrees worldwide.
of Neuchâtel at the age of 22. His
interest moved to psychoanalysis Key works
and he developed his theories of
genetic epistemology in France. 1932 The Moral Judgment of
In 1921, he became the director the Child
of the Jean-Jacques Rousseau 1951 The Psychology of
Institute in Geneva. He married Intelligence
Valentine Châtenay and they had 1952 The Origins of Intelligence
three children, who were the in Children
subjects of many of Piaget’s 1962 The Psychology of the Child

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 269

development, thereby providing olds were able to adjust their theory—which states that children
genuine learning opportunities. explanation of something in order require the help of adults or older
They should focus on the process to clarify it for a blindfolded person, children to complete some tasks—
of learning, rather than on the and would use simpler forms of served as a response to Piaget.
achievement of end results, by speech when talking to younger
encouraging their students to ask children, which is inconsistent Another area of exploration has
more questions, experiment, and with Piaget’s description of an been the assumed universality of
explore, even if that means making egocentric child who has no the developmental stages identified
some mistakes along the way. awareness of the needs of others. by Piaget. Although he had no
Above all, they must engender a compelling evidence to support
collaborative space where students Piaget’s portrayal of children this assumption at the time, more
teach and learn from each other. as primarily independent and recent cross-cultural investigations
autonomous in their construction of concerning the sensorimotor stage
Criticisms of Piaget’s work knowledge and their understanding (including one study conducted by
Despite his popularity and the of the physical world also met with Pierre Dasen in 1994) indicated that
broad influence of his work in the some resistance, as it seemed to the sub-stages suggested by Piaget
fields of developmental psychology, ignore the important contribution are indeed universal, though
education, morality, evolution, that other people make to a child’s environmental and cultural factors
philosophy, and even artificial cognitive development. Pioneering seem to affect the rate at which
intelligence, Piaget’s ideas were psychologist Lev Vygotsky’s work these stages are reached, and how
not accepted without scrutiny and focused on proving that knowledge quickly they are then completed.
criticism. As with all highly and thought are essentially social
influential theories, years of in nature, and disproving Piaget’s Piaget’s work unquestionably
exploration and research have assumption that a child was not paved the way for many new
brought to light its problems and really a part of the social whole. His areas of enquiry into the nature
weaknesses. Piaget’s notion of theory suggests human development of child development and human
egocentrism, for instance, has been exists on three levels: the cultural cognitive development. He created
called into question. Studies by the and the interpersonal as well as the the context in which a vast body of
US psychologist Susan Gelman in individual, and his main concern research took shape in the 20th and
1979 demonstrated that four-year- was with the first two levels. His 21st centuries, and fundamentally
“zone of proximal development” changed the nature of education
Australian Aboriginal children in the Western world. ■
aged between eight and 14, and living
in remote parts of central Australia,
were found by Pierre Dasen to progress
through the stages identified by Piaget.

The deep structures,
the basic cognitive processes,

are indeed universal.
Pierre Dasen

270

WE BECOME
OURSELVES
THROUGH OTHERS

LEV VYGOTSKY (1896–1934)

IN CONTEXT F or Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky believed that children
Vygotsky, the skills needed absorb the accumulated wisdom,
APPROACH to reason, understand, and values, and technical knowledge of
Social constructivism remember all stem from a child’s previous generations through
experiences with parents, teachers, interactions with their caregivers,
BEFORE and peers. Vygotsky saw human and use these “tools” to learn how
1860s Francis Galton sparks development as taking place on to conduct themselves effectively in
debate about whether nature three levels—cultural, interpersonal, the world. But it is only through
(innate ability) or nurture and individual. He focused on the social interaction that children can
(upbringing) has the most cultural and interpersonal levels, experience and internalize these
influence on personality. believing that our most formative cultural tools. Even our ability to
experiences are social; “we become think and reason on an individual
AFTER ourselves through others.” level stems from social activities in
1952 Jean Piaget argues the course of our development that
that the ability to absorb and All higher foster our innate cognitive abilities.
process information develops psychological functions
through interaction between Vygotsky’s theories influenced
children’s innate talents and are internalized approaches to both learning and
their environment. relationships of the teaching. He believed that teachers
should play an instructive role,
1966 Jerome Bruner suggests social kind. constantly guiding and nurturing
that any subject can be taught Lev Vygotsky their pupils in order to improve their
effectively to a child at any attention span, concentration, and
stage of development. learning skills, and so build up their
competence. This idea had a
1990 American educational marked effect on education,
psychologist Robert Slavin particularly in the late 20th century,
designs his Student Teams stimulating a shift from child-
Achievement Divisions (STAD) centered to curriculum-centered
to promote more collaborative teaching, and to a greater use of
learning, and downgrade collaborative learning. ■
competitive, winner–loser
approaches to education. See also: Francis Galton 28–29 ■ Jerome Bruner 164–65 ■ Jean Piaget 262–69

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 271

A CHILD IS NOT
BEHOLDEN TO ANY
PARTICULAR PARENT

BRUNO BETTELHEIM (1903–1990)

IN CONTEXT W hile running a center Kibbutz children, Bettelheim found,
where disturbed children often develop closer bonds with each
APPROACH were raised successfully other than with adults. This ability to
Parenting systems by professional carers, Bruno relate well to their peers may explain
Bettelheim began to question the their professional success as adults.
BEFORE common assumption that the best
1945 American psychoanalyst upbringing involved a close mother– often become accomplished adults.
René Spitz reports on the child relationship. He wondered In fact, the children Bettelheim
disastrous effects of bringing if the Western world might have studied were tracked down in
up children in institutions. something to learn from communal the 1990s by a journalist, who
child-rearing systems, such as the discovered that a high percentage
1951 John Bowlby concludes one used on an Israeli kibbutz. were now successful professionals.
that an infant requires an
intimate and continuous In 1964, Bettelheim spent seven Bettelheim concluded that the
relationship with his mother. weeks on a kibbutz, where children kibbutz’s communal approach was
were cared for in special houses, a huge success. By publishing his
1958 US anthropologist away from their family home. In his findings, he hoped to improve
Melford Spiro writes Children 1967 book The Children of the Dream, childcare systems in the US. ■
of the Kibbutz, insinuating he stated that “a kibbutz child is not
that Western child-rearing beholden to any particular parent,”
methods, with the focus on and although he observed that this
the mother as the main carer, led to fewer one-to-one relationships,
work best in all cultures. it did encourage many less intimate
friendships and an active social life.
AFTER
1973 American psychiatrists Successful adults
Charles M. Johnston and Before his study, Bettelheim had
Robert Deisher argue that predicted that a kibbutz might
communal child-rearing produce mediocre adults who had
provides advantages that little cultural impact on society.
few nuclear families offer. Instead, he found that kibbutzniks

See also: Virginia Satir 146–47 ■ John Bowlby 274–77

272

ANYTHING THAT
GROWS HAS A
GROUND PLAN

ERIK ERIKSON (1902–1994)

IN CONTEXT E rik Erikson understood Stage three, from three to six years,
human development in terms presents the crisis of “initiative
APPROACH of the epigenetic principle, versus guilt.” This is when children
Psychosocial development which states that every organism is learn to act creatively and playfully,
born with a certain purpose and its but also with purpose. As they
BEFORE successful development results in interact with others they discover
1930s Jean Piaget proposes the fulfillment of this purpose. In that their actions can adversely
a stage-based theory of Erikson’s own words, “anything that affect someone else. Severe
cognitive development. grows has a ground plan, and out of punishments at this stage can
this the parts arise.” He proposed inflict paralyzing feelings of guilt.
1956 Sigmund Freud develops that the human personality unfolds
his theory of psychosexual and evolves in eight predetermined From 6 to 12, children focus on
development, claiming there stages. According to Erikson, this education and learning social skills.
are five stages through which growth involves the constant This fourth stage is known as
a child progresses toward interaction between heredity “industry versus inferiority,” and it
sexual maturity. and environmental influences. provides a feeling of competence,
although an over-emphasis on work
AFTER The eight stages can lead children mistakenly to
1980 Building on Erikson’s The first stage, which takes place equate self-worth with productivity.
work, American psychologist during a baby’s first year, is “trust
James Marcia explores identity versus mistrust.” If the infant’s Hope is both the earliest
formation in adolescence. needs are badly or inconsistently and the most indispensable
met, feelings of mistrust develop
1996 In her bestselling book that can recur in later relationships. virtue inherent in the
New Passages, American The second stage, “autonomy versus state of being alive.
writer Gail Sheehy notes that shame and doubt,” takes place
adults are prolonging their from 18 months to 2 years. This is Erik Erikson
adolescence into their 30s, when the child learns to explore,
pushing back all of Erikson’s but also for the first time must deal
stages of adulthood by with feelings of shame and doubt as
approximately ten years. a result of small failures or parental
reprimands. Healthy willpower
develops as a result of learning to
negotiate both success and failure.

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 273

See also: G. Stanley Hall 46–47 ■ Sigmund Freud 92–99 ■ Kurt Lewin 218–23 ■
Jean Piaget 262–69 ■ Lawrence Kohlberg 292–93

Anything that grows has a ground
plan, and out of this the parts arise.

The human personality develops through eight distinct Erik Erikson
and predetermined stages between birth and death.
Erik Erikson was born in
By negotiating each Failure at any stage Frankfurt, Germany, as the
stage successfully, results in a mental result of an extramarital affair.
we develop as mentally deficiency (such as lack of He was given the surname of
healthy individuals. trust or an overwhelming his mother’s husband, never
sense of guilt) that stays knew his biological father,
with us throughout life. and his mother married again
when he was three years old.
From here we enter adolescence reflect on their lives, becoming Unsurprisingly, Erikson always
and the fifth stage of “ego-identity either satisfied and at peace with struggled with identity issues.
versus role confusion.” This is when their old age, or despairing over He was encouraged to study
we develop a coherent sense of who physical disintegration and the medicine, but rebelled and
we are, through consideration of our reality of death. Successful studied art, touring Italy in his
past, present, and future. When negotiation of this stage results youth as a “wandering artist.”
successfully negotiated, this stage in the attainment of wisdom. ■ He then suffered what he
ensures a unified sense of self, but called an “aggravated identity
problems here can lead to an“identity Erikson said that in our older years crisis” and went to Vienna,
crisis”—a term coined by Erikson. we achieve a sense of completeness where he taught art in a school
and “personal wholeness” in direct run on psychoanalytic
During the sixth stage of proportion to the degree to which we principles. Embracing these
“intimacy versus isolation,” between successfully negotiated earlier stages. fully, he then trained as a
the ages of 18 and 30, we build close psychoanalyst under Anna
relationships and experience love. Freud. In 1933, he married
The penultimate stage, “generativity Joan Serson and they
versus stagnation,” from 35 to 60, emigrated to Boston, where
sees us working on behalf of future he became the first child
generations, or contributing to psychoanalyst in the city. He
society through cultural activities later taught at Harvard, Yale,
or social activism. and Berkeley. He changed his
surname to the self-chosen
The final stage, “ego-integrity “Erikson” when he became an
versus despair,” starts at the age of American citizen in 1933.
around 60. It occurs when people
Key works

1950 Childhood and Society
1964 Insight and Responsibility
1968 Identity: Youth and Crisis

274 IN CONTEXT

EARLY EMOTIONAL APPROACH
BONDS ARE AN Attachment theory
INTEGRAL PART
OFHUMAN NATURE BEFORE
1926 Sigmund Freud presents
JOHN BOWLBY (1907–1990) the psychoanalytic theory of
“cupboard love,” suggesting
that infants become attached
to caregivers because they
fulfil physiological needs.

1935 Konrad Lorenz’s research
shows that non-humans form
strong bonds with the first
moving object they encounter.

AFTER
1959 Harry Harlow’s work
demonstrates that macaque
monkeys separated from their
mothers in infancy develop
social and emotional problems.

1978 Michael Rutter shows
that children can become
strongly attached to a variety
of attachment figures (such as
fathers, siblings, peers, and
inanimate objects).

I n the 1950s, the prevailing
theory on how infants form
attachments was based on
the psychoanalytical concept of
“cupboard love.” This suggested
that babies form bonds with people
who fulfil their physiological needs,
such as feeding. At the same time,
the animal studies of Konrad
Lorenz suggested that animals
simply bond with the first moving
object they encounter, which is
usually the mother.

It was against this background
that John Bowlby took a distinctly
evolutionary perspective on early
attachment. He argued that because
newborn infants are completely
helpless, they are genetically

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 275

See also: Konrad Lorenz 77 ■ Sigmund Freud 92–99 ■ Melanie Klein 108–109 ■ Anna Freud 111 ■ Kurt Lewin 218–23 ■
Lev Vygotsky 270 ■ Bruno Bettelheim 271 ■ Harry Harlow 278 ■ Mary Ainsworth 280–81 ■ Michael Rutter 339

Infants and mothers are …within the critical period it should take place during the first
biologically programed of the child’s life year, or at the very least before the
to form an attachment with child is two years old. Bowlby
(the first 24 months). thought that any attempts at
each other… mothering beyond the age of three
would be useless, and the child
would be on course to suffer the
effects of maternal deprivation.

Attachment If this attachment is broken Maternal deprivation
behavior is an within the critical period In 1950, Bowlby was commissioned
integral part of it will cause serious and by the World Health Organization
human nature. permanent damage to to study children who had suffered
the child’s development. maternal deprivation during World
programed to form an attachment War II due to evacuation or being
with their mothers in order to ensure that, although an infant may have made homeless. He was also asked
their survival. Mothers, he believed, more than one attachment figure, to investigate the effects of being
are also genetically programmed to his attachment to a mother-figure raised in residential nurseries and
bond with their babies, feeling the is simply different from and more other large institutions (such as
need to keep them in close proximity. significant than any other orphanages). The result of this early
Any conditions that threaten to attachment he will form throughout work was Bowlby’s 1951 report,
separate mother and child activate his life. Both the infant and his Maternal Care and Mental Health,
instinctive attachment behaviors mother behave in ways that secure in which he observed that children
and feelings of insecurity and fear. this attachment. An infant, for deprived of maternal care for
instance, engages in sucking, prolonged periods of time during
These ideas formed the basis of cuddling, looking, smiling, and early childhood suffered some
Bowlby’s theory, which developed crying in order to shape and control degree of intellectual, social, or
to explain the lifelong significance his caregiver’s behavior, and a emotional retardation later in life.
of the mother–infant bond as well caregiver would be sensitive and
as the psychological difficulties responsive to the infant’s needs. Five years later Bowlby began a
that children suffer if this bond is In this way the two behavioral second study, this time investigating
damaged or entirely broken. systems—attachment and children who had spent five months
caregiving—help to shape one to two years in a tuberculosis ❯❯
Mothers only another and create a lifelong bond.
One of the most controversial Mother love in infancy is as
aspects of Bowlby’s theory is that Bowlby believes that this bond is important for mental health
infants always attach to a female, so deeply formative that if it fails to as are vitamins and proteins
never a male. This female figure take place, or breaks down within
may not be the natural mother, but the first few years of life, the child for physical health.
she certainly represents a mother- will go on to suffer serious negative John Bowlby
figure. The term he gave for this consequences in later life. He also
tendency to attach to a female is argues that there is a critical period
“monotropy,” and he emphasized during which a mother and infant
should develop a secure attachment:

276 JOHN BOWLBY

Bowlby predicted that child
evacuees would suffer long-term
attachment problems as a result of
enforced separation from their mothers;
later studies found this to be the case.

sanatorium (which offered no The reason why this primary, secure by supporting the mother financially
substitute mothering) when they attachment is so important, Bowlby and emotionally. The evolutionary
had been less than four years old. says, is that it is essential for the basis of Bowlby’s theory suggests
The children—aged seven to 13 by development of an inner working that women are naturally inclined
the time of the study—were rougher model or framework that the child to be parents, with inborn maternal
in play, showed less initiative and uses to understand himself, others, instincts that guide them through
more over-excitement, and were less and the world. This inner working the process of child-rearing, whereas
competitive than those with a more model guides a person’s thoughts, men are more naturally suited for
traditional upbringing. feelings, and expectations in all of being providers.
his personal relationships, even into
In extreme cases, Bowlby found adulthood. Because the primary However, British psychologist
that maternal deprivation could even attachment serves as a prototype Rudolph Schaffer—who worked
result in “affectionless psychopathy,” for all future relationships, the under Bowlby at the Tavistock
a clinical condition in which people quality of the attachment will Clinic in London—found that there
are unable to care deeply for others determine whether or not a child is considerable cultural variation
and so do not form meaningful grows to trust others, view himself in the extent to which fathers are
interpersonal relationships. Those as valuable, and feel confident in involved in childcare. Increasing
who suffer from it display a higher society. These working models are numbers of fathers are taking on
incidence of juvenile delinquency resistant to change; once formed, the role of principal parent, which
and antisocial behavior without any they determine how people behave suggests that parenting roles are
sign of remorse, since they are and the kind of bond they will form a consequence of social convention
unable to experience feelings of guilt. with their own children. rather than biology.
In Bowlby’s 1944 study of juvenile
thieves, he found that many of the The father’s role Bowlby’s view implies that men
young criminals had been separated Bowlby’s attachment theory has will inevitably be inferior parents,
from their mothers for a period of been criticized for exaggerating the but research by Schaffer and the
more than six months before they importance of the mother–child American psychologist Ross Parke
were five years old, and of these, relationship and undervaluing suggests that men are equally
14 had developed the condition of the father’s contribution. Bowlby capable of providing warmth and
affectionless psychopathy. sees the father as having no direct sensitivity to their infants. They
emotional significance for the also found that a child’s
Attachment behavior is infant, contributing only indirectly developmental outcome is not
held to characterize determined by the parent’s gender,
but rather by the strength and
human beings from the
cradle to the grave.
John Bowlby

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 277

Direct observations mothers; they should stay with the Bowlby claimed that day care
of men in their fathering child, fulfilling the role of essential centers are not suitable for the care of
primary caregiver. For decades infants, because maternal deprivation
role has shown them after Bowlby’s theory was posited, leads to juvenile deliquency; this created
to be as capable of as generations of working women a real dilemma for working mothers.
were saddled with guilt, but many
much warmth and studies since then have questioned have used Bowlby’s basic premise
sensitivity as women. this aspect of Bowlby’s theory. For to delve more deeply into childhood
H. Rudolph Schaffer instance, in the 1970s psychologists attachment patterns, and to develop
Thomas Weisner and Ronald theories of adult attachment by
quality of the bond that is forged. Gallimore showed that mothers are exploring how the bond between
In a further study, Schaffer and the exclusive caregivers in only a parent and child can influence the
psychologist Peggy Emerson found very small percentage of human future bond between spouses and
that infants and young children societies, and it is not uncommon romantic partners. Bowlby’s
display a wide range of attachment for groups of people (including theories have also had many
behaviors toward many people relatives and friends) to share beneficial effects on various
besides their mothers, and that responsibility for raising children. aspects of child-rearing, such as
multiple attachments may actually Schaffer also points to evidence the improvement of institutional
be the rule rather than the exception. suggesting that children of mothers care and the growing preference
who are happy in their work for fostering as an alternative. ■
These later findings were develop more successfully than
especially important for working children whose mothers are
women, because the implication of frustrated from staying at home.
Bowlby’s theories was that women
should not work once they become Groundbreaking work
Despite the many criticisms and
revisions that it has provoked,
Bowlby’s work remains the most
comprehensive and influential
account of human attachment to
date, and led to the groundbreaking
experiments of Harry Harlow and
Mary Ainsworth. Psychologists

John Bowlby John Bowlby was the fourth of six Longstaff, with whom he had
children born to a London-based, four children. After the war he
upper-middle-class family. He was became director of the Tavistock
raised primarily by nannies and Clinic, where he remained until
sent to boarding school at the age retirement. In 1950 he carried
of seven. These experiences made out a major study for the World
him particularly sympathetic to Health Organization. He died at
the attachment difficulties faced his summer home on the Island
by young children. He studied of Skye in Scotland, aged 83.
psychology at Trinity College,
Cambridge, then spent some time Key works
teaching delinquent children. He
later earned a medical degree and 1951 Maternal Care and
qualified as a psychoanalyst. Mental Health (WHO Report)
1959 Separation Anxiety
During World War II, Bowlby 1969, 1973, 1980 Attachment
served in the Royal Army Medical and Loss (three volumes)
Corps and in 1938 married Ursula

278

CONTACT COMFORT
IS OVERWHELMINGLY
IMPORTANT

HARRY HARLOW (1905–1981)

IN CONTEXT M any psychologists have Infant macaque monkeys in
suggested that an infant Harlow’s experiment formed a
APPROACH becomes attached to its strong attachment to their cuddly,
Attachment theory caregiver simply because that cloth, surrogate “mother,” despite her
person fulfils its need for food. John inability to provide any nourishment.
BEFORE Bowlby challenged this “cupboard
1926 Sigmund Freud’s love” idea theoretically, but Harry Harlow’s work was enormously
psychoanalytic theory of Harlow set out to prove it. important, because contemporary
“cupboard love” suggests that advice from psychologists and
an infant becomes attached Harlow took infant macaque doctors had warned parents
to a caregiver because that monkeys from their mothers, placing against rocking or picking up a
person is a source of food. them in cages with surrogate crying child. The results of his
“mothers”—one made of wire with experiments were so conclusive
1935 Konrad Lorenz states a feeding bottle attached; the other that they changed the approach to
nonhumans form strong bonds made of soft, cuddly, terry cloth, but parenting in the Western world. ■
with the first moving object with no bottle. If the “cupboard
they meet—often the mother. love” theory was correct, the baby
monkeys would remain with the
1951 John Bowlby argues that mother that provided food. But in
human mothers and infants fact, they spent most of their time
are genetically programmed to with the cloth mother, using her as
form a uniquely strong bond. a secure base, and clinging to her
for safety when frightening objects
AFTER were placed in the cage. Later
1964 UK psychologists Rudolf tests, in which the cloth mother
Schaffer and Peggy Emerson was also able to rock and provide
show that infants are attached food, showed this attachment was
to people who do not perform even stronger. Harlow, therefore,
feeding and caretaking duties. suggested that the main function
of nursing might even be to ensure
1978 Michael Rutter shows body contact with the mother.
that children bond with a
variety of attachment figures, See also: Konrad Lorenz 77 ■ Sigmund Freud 92–99 ■ Abraham Maslow 138–39 ■
including inanimate objects. John Bowlby 274–77 ■ Mary Ainsworth 280–81 ■ Michael Rutter 339

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 279

WE PREPARE CHILDREN
FOR A LIFE ABOUT WHOSE
COURSE WE KNOW NOTHING

FRANCOISE DOLTO (1908–1988)

IN CONTEXT F ollowing her own difficult from the adults who teach them,
childhood, French physician simply because they must have
APPROACH and psychoanalyst Françoise had experiences that the older
Psychoanalysis Dolto decided that her work should generation could never have had
help children discover and release when they were that age.
BEFORE their desires, believing that this
1924 Sigmund Freud theorizes release would prevent neuroses. For Dolto, the goal of education
about the castration anxiety She felt that some of the illnesses was to allow each child the freedom
children face, which Dolto says commonly manifested by children to explore his individual inclination.
is a factor in our unconscious were, in reality, reflections of a The adult, she believed, should
image of our own bodies. lack of connection between parents serve as a role model, offering an
and their offspring. Adults, she example rather than attempting to
1969 Jacques Lacan observed, often seemed unable to impart a method. The educator’s
investigates “otherness,” understand children, in spite of role, Dolto declared, was to teach
which becomes central to once being children themselves. children how to lead themselves. ■
Dolto’s work focusing on the
distinctiveness of individuals. Unique perspective It is too late to
Dolto believed that every child make a difference
AFTER possesses a unique perspective, with adults; the work has
1973 A school based on which traditional education seeks to be done with children.
Dolto’s theories opens in La to stifle. She condemned any Françoise Dolto
Neuville-du-Bosc, France, system of morality or education
emphasizing well-being and that seeks to control children
non-compulsory activities. through obedience or imitation,
and was dissatisfied with the
1978 La Maison Verte, a techniques being used, both at
daycare center based on school and at home, to anticipate
Dolto’s ideas, opens in Paris, a child’s future when that future
with the aim of helping is fundamentally unknowable.
parents and children to Children, she stated, are different
minimize the adverse
effects of separation. See also: Sigmund Freud 92–99 ■ Alfred Adler 100–01 ■ Jacques Lacan 122–23 ■
Daniel Lagache 336–37

280

A SENSITIVE MOTHER
CREATES A SECURE
ATTACHMENT

MARY AINSWORTH (1913–1999)

IN CONTEXT I n the early 1950s, Mary Situation,” which studied how
Ainsworth, working closely babies balance their needs for
APPROACH with attachment theorist John attachment and exploration under
Attachment theory Bowlby, developed a particular varying levels of stress. In each
interest in the relationship between experiment, Ainsworth placed
BEFORE mothers and infants. In 1969, she a mother and her one-year-old baby
1950s John Bowlby experimented with a procedure in a room with toys for the baby
emphasizes the significance that became known as the “Strange to play with, and watched their
of the mother-child bond.
When an infant is separated from his mother he displays
1959 Harry Harlow’s research one of three different kinds of attachment.
with infant macaque monkeys
demonstrates that they use an If he shows no signs If he shows intense signs
attachment figure as a secure of distress and a stranger of distress but resists
base from which to explore contact with her on her
their environment. is able to comfort him,
the attachment is return, the attachment is
AFTER anxious-resistant.
1980 American psychologist anxious-avoidant.
Brian E. Vaughn shows that
the attachment figure may If he is distressed, but upon her return
change, according to uses her as a secure base from which to explore,
variations in a family’s
circumstances. there is a secure attachment.

1990 American psychologist
Mary Main identifies a fourth
attachment type in young
children—“disorganized”—to
describe an infant who is
fearful of both the environment
and the attachment figure.

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 281

See also: Sigmund Freud 92–99 ■ John Bowlby 274–77 ■ Harry Harlow 278 ■ Jerome Kagan 339 ■ Michael Rutter 339

return. She suggested that a baby’s
reactions upon reunion with his
mother indicate three distinct
patterns, or types, of attachment.

Attachment behavior is Attachment types Mothers in non-Western cultures
strongly activated under Around 70 percent of the babies in often keep their infants close to them
circumstances when the Ainsworth’s studies were “securely at all times. Customs such as these
attached.” These infants used their can affect the incidence of different
attachment figure is mothers “as a secure base from attachment types in a community.
inaccessible. which to explore.” They were
distressed when she left the room, Ainsworth claimed that a mother’s
Mary Ainsworth but played happily, even in the sensitivity largely determines the
presence of a stranger, as long as type of attachment. A sensitive
interactions both before and after the mother was on hand if needed. mother, she stated, understands
the introduction of a stranger to her child’s needs and responds
the room. The “situation” included The babies who appeared to be appropriately to them, creating
periods when the mother left the indifferent to their mothers, and a secure attachment.
baby alone with the stranger, then were hardly affected when she left
returned to the room. the room, Ainsworth classified as
“anxious-avoidant.” They were as
Ainsworth found that the easily comforted by the stranger
most important information about as by the mother. About 15 percent
mother-child bonding was gleaned of the infants fell into this group.
not from the baby’s reaction to the
mother leaving the room, but rather A further 15 percent, described
from the infant’s reaction to her as “anxious-resistant,” were wary of
the stranger, even with the mother
present. They became intensely
distressed when the mother left the
room, but were also angry and
resistant to contact on her return.

Mary Ainsworth In 1954, the couple moved to Criticism
Uganda, where Leonard had Critics of Ainsworth’s work have
Mary Ainsworth was born in accepted a post, and Mary took suggested that attachment types
Glendale, Ohio, USA, moving the opportunity to study mother- are not always permanent, and that
to Canada at the age of five. child bonding in tribal society. babies do not fit neatly into a single
She gained her doctorate in On returning to the US in 1956, type. Cultural differences have also
psychology from the University she continued her academic been noted. A 1990 study in Japan
of Toronto in 1939, and taught career, eventually becoming a uncovered an unusually high
there briefly before joining the professor at the University of percentage of anxious-resistant
Canadian Women’s Army Corps Virginia in 1975. infants, which may have been due
in 1942. After World War II, she to Japanese babies being less used
returned to the University of Key works to separation from their mothers
Toronto, marrying graduate than US infants. However, the
student Leonard Ainsworth in 1967 Infancy in Uganda Strange Situation is considered to
1950 and moving to London, 1971 Infant Obedience and be one of the most important studies
where Mary worked with John Maternal Behavior in attachment research, and is still
Bowlby at the Tavistock Clinic. 1978 Patterns of Attachment widely replicated today. ■

282

WHO TEACHES A CHILD
TOHATE AND FEAR
A MEMBER OF
ANOTHER RACE?

KENNETH CLARK (1914–2005)

IN CONTEXT D uring the late 1930s, Clark’s doll experiments of the late
Kenneth Clark and his 1930s and early 1940s showed that black
APPROACH wife, Mamie Phipps Clark, children in segregated schools often
Race attitudes studied the psychological effects of preferred white dolls, a sign that they
segregation on African-American had absorbed prevailing prejudices.
BEFORE schoolchildren, particularly on their
1929 German-born writer and self-image. They designed a “doll that this reflected the children’s
social worker Bruno Lasker test” that would indicate children’s tendency to absorb racial prejudices
publishes Race Attitudes in awareness of racial differences and that exist in society and then to
Children, setting up methods their underlying attitudes about turn this hatred inward, the Clarks
for the psychological study of race. Working with children asked a very important question:
children’s views on race. between the ages of three and “Who teaches a child to hate and
seven, they used four dolls, each fear a member of another race?”
Early 1930s Canadian identical in appearance except for
psychologist Otto Klineberg the color of their skin, which ranged Passing on prejudice
works with lawyers fighting from shades of white to dark brown. The Clarks sought to understand
for equal salaries for black The children showed an undeniable the influences shaping prejudice
public-school teachers. awareness of race by correctly in America, and decided that as
identifying the dolls on the basis of children learn to evaluate racial
AFTER their skin color, as well as differences, according to the
1954 The US Supreme Court identifying themselves in racial standards of society, they are
rules that racial segregation in terms by choosing the doll that
schools is unconstitutional, looked most like them.
in the Brown v. Board of
Education of Topeka hearings. In order to explore the children’s
attitudes about race, the Clarks
1978 Elliot Aronson devises asked each of them to point out the
the “jigsaw method” of doll they liked best or most wanted
teaching—where mixed-race to play with; the doll that had a nice
groups of students work color; and the doll that looked bad.
interdependently—to help Distressingly, black children
reduce racial prejudice in showed a clear preference for the
integrated classrooms. white dolls and a rejection of the
black dolls, which can be interpreted
as indirect self-rejection. Convinced

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 283

See also: Elliot Aronson 244–45 ■ Muzafer Sherif 337

By the age of three, In 1930s America, white
children are racially and even black children
aware and already showed a preference for
forming prejudices. whiteness and a rejection

of blackness.

Segregation and Who teaches Kenneth Clark
social influences from a child to hate
parents, teachers, playmates, and fear a member Kenneth Clark was born in
of another race? the Panama Canal Zone, but
and the media lead to moved to Harlem, New York,
children internalizing when he was five. After his
mother refused to accept a
racist attitudes. ruling that her son would be
limited to trade or vocational
required to identify with a specific The Clarks concluded that these schooling, Clark was enrolled
group, and each racial group has an attitudes are determined by a mix in high school. He went on
implied status within a hierarchy. of influences, including parents, to earn a master’s degree in
That young black children preferred teachers, friends, television, films, psychology from Howard
the white doll showed they were and comics. Although it is very rare University, Washington DC,
aware American society preferred for parents to deliberately teach their where he met his wife. The
white people, and had internalized children to hate other racial groups, pair carried out research
this. Children as young as three many subtly and unconsciously together, becoming the first
had expressed similar attitudes to pass on dominant social attitudes. African-American man and
those of adults in their community. Some white parents, for example, woman to receive a PhD in
may discourage their children psychology from Columbia
Segregation is a way from playing with their black peers, University in New York City.
in which society tells implicitly teaching them to fear They also founded child
a group of human beings and avoid black children. development and youth
that they are inferior. opportunity centers in Harlem.
Clark’s 1950 summary of his
Kenneth Clark research insisted that segregation Clark was also the first
was damaging the personalities of African-American to hold a
white and black children alike. His permanent professorship at
expert testimony in court cases the City University of New
tied into the 1954 Brown v. Board York, and to serve as the
of Education of Topeka case, which president of the American
determined that racial segregation Psychological Association.
was unconstitutional in public
schools, contributed directly to Key works
desegregated schooling and to the
Civil Rights Movement in America. ■ 1947 Racial Identification and
Preference in Negro Children
1955 Prejudice and Your Child
1965 Dark Ghetto
1974 Pathos of Power

284

GIRLS GET
BETTER GRADES
THAN BOYS

ELEANOR E. MACCOBY (1917– )

IN CONTEXT There is no But because girls tend to put in
significant difference a greater effort at school, and
APPROACH have greater interest and
Feminist psychology in the overall better work habits…
intellectual aptitude
BEFORE …girls get better grades
Early 20th century First of boys and girls. than boys.
research into sex differences
by female psychologists. T he emergence of feminist between the sexes are in fact
psychologists during the myths, and that many gender
1970s Studies of the sexes 1970s revived an interest in stereotypes are untrue. Although
tend to emphasize differences the study of sex differences, which some findings had shown boys to be
between men and women. had waned during the rise of more aggressive and more adept at
behaviorism. Feminist concerns mathematics and spatial reasoning
AFTER became increasingly important to than girls, and girls to have superior
1980s Studies suggest US psychologist Eleanor Maccoby. verbal abilities, subsequent studies
structural differences between Frustrated by the tendency of revealed that these differences
the male and female brain. psychological literature to report on are either negligible or are more
research findings that emphasized complex than they initially appear.
1993 Anne Fausto-Sterling the differences between men and
claims biological graduations women rather than the similarities, One difference that was
exist between “male” and Maccoby, with student Carol consistent and undeniable was
“female,” such that we can Jacklin, reviewed more than 1,600 that “girls get better grades than
identify five different sexes studies of gender differences. They boys” in school. Maccoby found
along the spectrum. published their findings in The this particularly interesting,
Psychology of Sex Differences (1974) especially considering that girls
2003 Simon Baron-Cohen with the aim of showing that what did not obtain higher aptitude test
argues that the female brain is most consider essential differences scores when all of the subject
predominantly hard-wired for matter areas were reviewed.
empathy, and the male brain
for understanding systems.

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 285

See also: Janet Taylor Spence 236 ■ Simon Baron-Cohen 298–99

Girls show greater responsiveness
to teacher’s expectations and are more
willing to work, according to Maccoby’s
research, which makes them more
likely to do better at school than boys.

Furthermore, previous research into Maccoby concluded that their Intellectual development
achievement motivation seemed to better grades clearly reflect some in girls is fostered
suggest that boys should outperform combination of greater effort, by their being
their female peers. Males were greater interest, and better work
arguably more oriented toward habits than their male peers. assertive and active.
achievement for its own sake Whatever discrepancy exists Eleanor E. Maccoby
than girls, showing greater task between boys and girls in terms of
involvement, and more exploratory achievement motivation does not The ongoing debate over inherent
behavior; females were primarily reflect school-related motivation. sex differences is tied up with
interested in achievement relating This motivation could prove general political questions about
to interpersonal relationships— significant throughout girls’ lives, how society should be organized,
exerting effort to please others, and as performance at school is also and the roles that men and women
demonstrating low self-confidence relevant to job performance. are “naturally” equipped to fill. By
with respect to many tasks. pointing out that psychological
literature tends to publish results
Challenging stereotypes indicating sex differences, while
Maccoby systemically argued ignoring those indicating equality,
against these assumptions, Maccoby has fought against the
pointing to the fact that girls are assignment of men and women to
higher academic achievers than stereotypical professions. ■
boys, show greater interest in
school-related skills from an early
age, and are less likely to drop out
before completing high school.

Eleanor E. Maccoby Born in Tacoma, Washington, Achievement Award from the
Eleanor Maccoby (née Emmons) American Psychology Foundation
earned a bachelor’s degree from and The American Psychological
the University of Washington and Association introduced an award
an MA and PhD in experimental in her name. Maccoby’s work to
psychology from the University of debunk stereotypes is considered
Michigan. In the 1940s, she worked fundamental to understanding
for the Department of Agriculture, children’s socialization and
and then at Harvard University, gender differences.
supervising research on child-
rearing practices. Perceiving that Key works
gender bias was holding her back,
she moved to Stanford University, 1966 The Development of Sex
where she became the first Differences
woman to serve as Chair of the 1974 The Psychology of Sex
Psychology Department. Maccoby Differences
went on to receive a Lifetime 1996 Adolescents after Divorce

MOST HUMAN

BEHAVIOR

IS LEARNED THROUGH

MODELING

ALBERT BANDURA (1925– )



288 ALBERT BANDURA I n the 1940s and 1950s, learning observing others, is at the heart of
was understood primarily in social learning theory. This theory
IN CONTEXT behaviorist terms, with B.F. suggests that learning is achieved
Skinner’s theory of operant by mentally rehearsing and then
APPROACH conditioning—in which learning is imitating the observed actions of
Social learning theory wholly determined by rewards and other people, who serve as models
punishments—dominating the of appropriate or acceptable
BEFORE field. From this context emerged behavior. Bandura argued that
1938 B.F. Skinner proposes Albert Bandura’s interest in studying “most human behavior is learned
the behaviorist notion of childhood aggression—an area he through modeling.”
operant conditioning, which felt was too complex to explain in
explores positive and negative terms of operant conditioning—as Bandura noted four conditions
reinforcements in learning. a learned behavior. that are necessary for a person to
successfully model the behavior
1939 US psychologist John Bandura’s hypothesis was that of another: attention, retention,
Dollard argues that aggression children learn aggression through reproduction, and motivation.
is always a consequence of observing and imitating the violent Learning requires that the learner
frustration, and that frustration acts of adults—particularly family is paying attention to the behavior
always leads to aggression. members. He believed that the key in the first place, that he remembers
to the problem lies at the intersection what he saw or heard, that he is
AFTER of Skinner’s operant conditioning actually able to physically reproduce
1966 American pychologist and Freud’s psychoanalytic theory the behavior, and that he has a
Leonard Berkowitz claims of identification, which explores how good motive or reason to reproduce
environmental cues, such people assimilate the characteristics it, such as the expectation of reward.
as those associated with of others into their own personalities.
aggressive behavior, must Bandura’s work culminated in his Although the concept of reward
be present for aggression to famous Bobo doll experiment, and is part of his social learning theory,
follow anger. his hugely influential 1977 treatise Bandura’s move away from
Social Learning Theory. behaviorism is evident in his
1977 US psychologist Robert A. radical, anti-behaviorist ideas about
Baron suggests that Bandura’s Social learning theory the relationship between
experiment implies that violence Bandura’s belief that people learn a person’s environment and his or
in the media contributes to not through reinforcement (rewards her behavior. According to
violence in society. and punishments), but through behaviorism, environmental
circumstances entirely determine

We are surrounded Most human We notice and
by people talking and behavior is remember these
acting in different ways. learned through observed actions…
modeling.
…and, if motivated, …which we then
physically reproduce mentally rehearse…

ourselves.

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 289

See also: Konrad Lorenz 77 ■ B.F. Skinner 78–85 ■ Sigmund Freud 92–99 ■ Lev Vygotsky 270

behavior, but Bandura believes
in “reciprocal determinism”—the
idea that a person influences the
environment just as the environment
influences him. Bandura conceived
of personality as an interaction
between three different components:
the environment, behavior, and
psychological processes (the ability
to use language and entertain
images in the mind). All of these
components are relevant to the
study of childhood aggression,
which, Bandura argued, was learned
by watching and modeling adults.

Bobo doll experiment For the experiment, 36 boys and 36 Children attack the Bobo doll
Bandura’s social learning point of girls, all between the ages of three in Bandura’s 1961 experiment on
view was the basis for his 1961 and six, were recruited from a local aggressive behavior. In some cases,
Bobo doll experiment on childhood nursery school. They were divided subjects devised new ways to attack
aggression, which sought to explain up into three groups of 24, each the doll by using other toys in the room.
how aggressive behavior develops, comprising 12 boys and 12 girls.
what provokes people to carry The first group was the control child was later left alone in a room
out aggressive acts, and what group (which did not see any adult of toys that included a Bobo doll, he
determines whether they will role model); the second group was or she imitated a good deal of the
continue to behave aggressively. By exposed to an adult modeling aggressive acts performed by the
proving that a child will imitate the aggressive behavior toward an the adult models, even creating
behavior of an adult role model, the inflatable Bobo doll; the third group novel acts of violence against the
experiment showed the power of was exposed to a passive adult doll. Children in this group were
examples of aggression in society. model. All of the children in the also generally less inhibited than
experiment were tested individually those in the other groups, showing
Behavior partly to ensure that they would not be an increased attraction to guns
created the influenced by their peers. despite the fact that playing with
guns was not modeled.
environment, and the In the experiments on the
resultant environment, second group, each child watched By contrast, children who were
an adult performing physically and either in the control group or who
in turn, influenced verbally aggressive acts toward the were exposed to a passive adult
the behavior. doll. The adult pummeled the large model only rarely demonstrated
Bobo toy with a mallet, flung it in any kind of physical or verbal
Albert Bandura the air, kicked it, threw it down on aggression. Although Bandura
the floor, and beat it. When each did consider the possibility that
observing aggressive acts merely ❯❯

290 ALBERT BANDURA

Violence in computer games, and
in the media generally, has been cited
as a potential source of behavior
modeling, although this view has not
been strongly supported by studies.

weakened any inhibitions that
the children may have already
had about behaving violently, the
fact that they often imitated the
exact behavior they had just
seen suggests that observational
learning was taking place.

Violence in the media indicate that exposure to violence Social learning theorists accept
Bandura’s research has raised many can actually decrease the amount that cognition has a part to play
important questions surrounding of aggression in children. This in modeling, and that cognitive
the prevalence of violence in the theory—known as the Catharsis factors mediate the process
media. If a stranger performing effect—suggests that an individual between viewing violence and
aggressive acts can be a model of may be able to relate to a violent actually imitating it. For instance,
aggression for children, you might on-screen character and release the perception and interpretation
argue that television programs negative feelings, thereby becoming of TV violence, and how realistic
could also be considered a source less aggressive personally than the program is, are both important
of behavior modeling. Modern films prior to the viewing. intervening variables. Bandura
and television shows include also considers that environmental
graphic violence, which is often Other psychologists regard experiences are another influence
expressed as an acceptable (or at television as a form of education, in the social learning of aggression
least expected) form of behavior, and believe that, as characters in children. Unsurprisingly,
which children who are regularly often serve as role models for people living in neighborhoods
exposed to the media may feel children, they should be positive with high crime rates are
inclined to imitate. This idea has models in order to help decrease more likely to commit acts
been hotly debated. Many studies the general level of violence of violence than those living
indicate that violent films and prevalent in society. in low-crime areas.
television shows do not increase
a child’s tendencies toward Although Bandura himself does Gender development
violence. Some studies even not believe in the Catharsis effect The social learning theory
of viewing aggressive behavior, underlying Bandura’s research
Exposure to he was careful to note that there on childhood aggression has
aggressive modeling is was a distinction between learning important implications for our
and performance. Children, he understanding of the development
hardly cathartic. thought, could certainly learn of gender identity. According to
Albert Bandura aggressive behavior from viewing the gender development theory,
it, but knowledge of violent acts one reason why boys and girls
would not necessarily result in tend to exhibit differences in their
committing these acts themselves. behavior is that they are treated
He warned against assuming a differently by their parents (as well
more direct and causal relationship as other significant adults and
between violence in the media and
real-world aggression.

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 291

peers). It has been shown that half a century later, reflecting the Albert Bandura
people unwittingly tailor their breadth and scope of his influence.
behavior toward children from birth His groundbreaking contributions Albert Bandura was born to
to match their own gender-role span many of the fields of Polish parents in the small
expectations; this encourages psychology, including social town of Mundare in Alberta,
children to behave according to cognitive theory, personality Canada. He graduated from the
what are considered gender norms. theory, and even therapeutic University of British Columbia,
practices. His ideas also serve moving on to take his master’s
According to Bandura’s as a bridge between preceding degree and doctorate at the
findings, children also learn how behaviorist learning theories University of Iowa, where his
to behave through reinforcement and subsequent cognitive interest in learning theory
and observation learning. By learning theories. developed. In 1953, he took up
imitating the behavior of others, a teaching post at Stanford
children are highly likely to receive Bandura’s focus on processes University, California, where
positive reinforcement for the type such as attention, memory, and he is a professor emeritus.
of behavior that is considered most motivation marked a departure
appropriate to their sex. They will from studying only observable One of the world’s most
also be either directly or subtly and measurable variables (the eminent and influencial
discouraged from behaving in ways sole concern of behaviorists) psychologists, Bandura has
that are not sex-appropriate. and looked instead to the mental received numerous awards,
realm—the mind—for information including the Thorndike
Although there has been some about how people learn. For these Award for Distinguished
criticism of Bandura’s work (often reasons, Bandura is considered by Contributions of Psychology
centered on whether his idea is many of his peers to be one of the to Education (1999), and a
truly a theory of cognitive most distinguised and influential Lifetime Achievement Award
development), his findings and psychologists of all time. ■ from the Association for the
theories are still cited and debated Advancement of Behavior
Therapy (2001). He also has
Behavior seen as sex-appropriate in children, more than 16 honorary degrees,
such as independence (in boys) or empathy (in girls), and in 1974 was elected
is often positively reinforced by adults’ expectations, president of the American
as well as by children’s imitation of adults and peers. Psychological Association.

Dependence Independence Key works

Empathy Self-reliance 1973 Aggression: A Social
Learning Analysis
Emotional Emotional 1977 Social Learning Theory
expressiveness control 1986 Social Foundations of
Thought and Action: A Social
Female Male Cognitive Theory

292

MORALITY
DEVELOPS IN
SIX STAGES

LAWRENCE KOHLBERG (1927–1987)

IN CONTEXT L awrence Kohlberg believed neither of which could be considered
that morality develops completely acceptable, and noted
APPROACH gradually throughout their responses. One example was
Moral development childhood and adolescence. In 1956, whether it was right or wrong for a
he began a study involving man with no money to steal drugs
BEFORE 72 boys between the ages of 10 and that his sick wife desperately
1923 Sigmund Freud offers 16. He presented the boys with needed. Kohlberg followed up on 58
a psychoanalytic account moral dilemmas that required them of the boys, testing them every three
of moral development. to choose between two alternatives, years over the course of 20 years, to

1932 Jean Piaget argues that Morality develops in six stages throughout childhood,
morality develops from two adolescence, and adulthood.
types of reasoning: one that is
subject to the rules of others, In the two preconventional stages, moral behavior
and another that is subject is determined by the concepts of punishment,
only to a person’s own rules. reward, and reciprocity.

AFTER In the two conventional stages, moral behavior is
1977 American educational consistent with doing what others believe to be
psychologist William Damon
suggests that young children right, upholding laws, and maintaining social order.
are able to take the needs of
others into account, earlier In the two postconventional stages, the individual
than Kohlberg claims they are. is the ultimate judge of moral behavior,

1982 American psychologist based on his own conscience and universal
Nancy Eisenberg argues that moral principles rather than social norms.
in order to understand
children’s moral development,
we must examine their
reasoning when faced with
conflict between their own
needs and those of others.

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 293

See also: Sigmund Freud 92–99 ■ Jean Piaget 262–69 ■ Albert Bandura 286–91

Moral thought may be rules as fixed and absolute. In the Mahatma Gandhi was among the
considered partially to first of its two stages (the stage of few who reach the final stages of moral
generate its own data obedience and punishment), we development described by Kohlberg.
determine whether actions are right Throughout his adult life, he felt a duty
as it goes along. or wrong by whether or not they to disregard unjust and oppresive laws.
Lawrence Kohlberg lead to a punishment. In the second
stage (the stage of individualism The third level of moral development
observe how their moral inclinations and exchange), right and wrong are is when we move beyond simple
changed with age. Based on the determined by what brings rewards. conformity, but Kohlberg suggested
answers given by his subjects, The desires and needs of others are that only around 10–15 percent of us
Kohlberg identified six stages of important, but only in a reciprocal ever reach this level. In its first
moral development, which spanned sense—“You scratch my back and stage (the social contract and
three levels of moral reasoning: I’ll scratch yours.” Morality at this individual rights stage), we still
preconventional, conventional, and level is governed by consequence. respect authority, but there is a
postconventional. growing recognition that individual
The second level of moral rights can supersede laws that are
Building moral reasoning reasoning starts in adolescence, destructive or restrictive. We come
The preconventional level of moral and continues into early adulthood. to realize that human life is more
reasoning, which develops during It sees us starting to consider the sacred than just following rules.
our first nine years of life, considers intention behind behavior, rather The sixth and final stage (the stage
than just the consequences. Its first of universal ethical principles) is
Lawrence Kohlberg stage, often called the “good boy– when our own conscience becomes
nice girl” stage, is when we begin the ultimate judge, and we commit
The youngest of four children, classifying moral behavior as to ourselves to equal rights and respect
Lawrence Kohlberg was born whether it will help or please. Being for all. We may even resort to civil
in Bronxville, New York. After seen as good becomes the goal. In disobedience in the name of
completing high school at the the second stage (the law and order universal principles, such as justice.
end of World War II, he became stage), we start to equate “being
a sailor, and helped smuggle good” with respecting authority Kohlberg’s six-stage theory was
Jewish refugees into Palestine. and obeying the law, believing that considered radical, because it stated
this protects and sustains society. that morality is not imposed on
In 1948, Kohlberg enrolled at children (as psychoanalysts said),
the University of Chicago, where While in Belize in 1971, Kohlberg nor is it about avoiding bad feelings
he completed his bachelor’s contracted a parasitic infection (as the behaviorists had thought).
degree in just one year, and that left him battling with Kohlberg believed children developed
went on to research and teach, persistent pain and depression. a moral code and awareness of
gaining a doctorate in 1958. He On January 19, 1987, after respect, empathy, and love through
also taught at Yale University, asking to leave a treatment interaction with others. ■
and finally Harvard. session, he committed suicide,
reportedly by walking into the
icy waters of the Atlantic Ocean.

Key works

1969 Stage and Sequence
1976 Moral Stages and
Moralization
1981 The Philosophy of Moral
Development

294 IN CONTEXT

THE LANGUAGE APPROACH
ORGAN GROWS Nativism
LIKE ANY OTHER
BODY ORGAN BEFORE
1958 B.F. Skinner uses
NOAM CHOMSKY (1928– ) operant conditioning to
explain language development,
arguing that children learn
words and phrases through
reinforcement.

1977 Albert Bandura argues
that children may imitate the
general form of sentences, and
fill in these with specific words.

AFTER
1994 Steven Pinker argues
that language is an instinct
from an innate program
hard-wired in the brain, which
arose because it was adaptive
for human survival.

2003 Psychologists Stan Kuczaj
and Heather Hill claim parents
offer children better examples
of grammatical sentences than
Chomsky suggests.

I n the middle of the 20th
century, learning theory as
explained by B.F. Skinner
and Albert Bandura dominated
psychologists’ conception of
language development. These
behaviorists believed that
language—like all other human
faculties—was a direct result
of environmental input and
learning, developed through
the reinforcement and reward
techniques at the heart of operant
conditioning. Skinner noted that
when children imitate verbal
sounds, and form correct
words, they receive immediate
reinforcement and approval from
their parents, which motivates

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 295

See also: B.F. Skinner 78–85 ■ Jerome Bruner 164–65 ■ Steven Pinker 211 ■ Jean Piaget 262–69 ■ Albert Bandura 286–91

Young children Young children can heredity. The onset of puberty, for
spontaneously use understand the meaning instance, is an aspect of human
grammatical rules growth that is like the “growth” of
that they have never of an entire sentence the language organ. We assume
without understanding unquestioningly that it is a
been taught. genetically determined milestone,
all the words. and though the specific details of
its onset depend on several variable
Verbal imitation combined with approval and praise does not environmental influences, the
explain the productivity and creativity of language. fundamental process is the same
across the human species. We take
The human capacity to understand grammar for granted that this is a result of
is innate and biological. basic biological programming.
Language growth, Chomsky
The language organ grows like emphasizes, is another genetically
any other body organ. programmed inevitability of human
development, on a par with the
them to continue learning new to understand the meaning of an processes that determine that we
words and phrases. Bandura entire sentence without necessarily have arms instead of wings, or that
broadened the concept of understanding the meaning of each build the structure of our visual or
imitation, noting that children word. For Chomsky, this ability is circulatory systems.
imitated not only specific words innate in humans—he claimed that
and sounds, but also the general “the language organ grows like any The concept that language is
form and structure of sentences, other body organ,” likening it to other a part of our growth process is
as though filling in templates with features acquired through heredity. important because it highlights
specific words. Chomsky’s belief that it is not a
Nativism consequence of learning. He
Linguist Noam Chomsky, Chomsky maintained that, adopts a nativist perspective,
however, did not believe that although a child’s environment focusing on the inherited
operant conditioning adequately supplies the content of language, contributions to behavior and
explained the productivity, grammar itself is an in-built and minimizing the importance of
creativity, and innovation biologically determined human environmental input. However,
of language. It also seemed capacity. To illustrate his point, he he believes that the environment
insufficient to explain children’s refers to other aspects of human plays a role in determining the
spontaneous use of grammatical development that we accept as specific direction of language ❯❯
rules that they have neither heard being an inevitable outcome of
nor learned, as well as their ability Language is a process
of free creation.

Noam Chomsky

296 NOAM CHOMSKY

growth, insofar as an individual’s aspects of grammar are understood We are designed
language organ develops according without requiring any instruction, to learn languages based
to early experiences. For instance, and that the knowledge is therefore
because Chomsky grew up in innate. This is the only way to upon a common set of
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, he explain how people have such a principles, which we may
absorbed knowledge of that rich grammatical understanding call universal grammar.
particular English dialect and his and how children can use language
language organ’s structure was so creatively by the age of six. Noam Chomsky
tailored accordingly. The same
process occurs for everyone, Chomsky claims that “universal (LAD). He bases his claim for its
whether they have grown up in grammar” is found worldwide, with existence on three things: the
Paris, Tokyo, or London. modifications according to people’s fact that children are born with
native languages. It is a predefined the capacity to formulate and
Universal grammar mechanism that acts as the basis understand all kinds of sentences
But where is the proof that language for the acquisition of any language. despite never having heard or
acquisition is inborn rather than He argues that this is demonstrated learned them; that every human
learned? According to Chomsky, by the way that all children are language appears to have certain
the most convincing evidence for equally able to learn any language universal elements; and that some
this claim is that there are aspects to which they are exposed. He says grammatical principles are
of grammar that are so intuitive that a common set of linguistic acquired by individuals regardless
and self-evident that they need features is built into the language of their culture or intelligence.
never be discussed or learned in organ through heredity, and it There is other supporting evidence
order to be understood (they are includes elements of grammar, as well, including the fact that the
therefore part of our biological meaning, and speech. It is what human vocal organs, breathing
inheritance). For instance, there makes it possible for us to speak
are certain constructions in the and learn human languages, and
English language that permit the may make it impossible for us to
dropping of pronouns, and others learn any language that violates
that do not. The difference between these principles.
the two is subtle, yet even by the
age of six, native English-speaking Language device
children will use the constructions Chomsky proposes a name for
flawlessly. This implies that certain our innate language organ: the
Language Acquisition Device

Noam Chomsky Linguist, philosopher, cognitive have made him a highly
scientist, and social activist controversial figure. He has
Noam Chomsky was born in won several honorary degrees
Pennsylvania to Jewish parents. as well as being a recipient of
He studied philosophy and the Distinguished Scientific
linguistics at the University Contribution Award, the
of Pennsylvania, where he earned Dorothy Eldridge Peacemaker
his bachelor’s, master’s, and Award, and the Orwell Award.
doctoral degrees. Chomsky joined He was married to linguist
the Massachusetts Institute of Carol Schatz for 59 years
Technology in 1955, becoming an until her death in 2008.
Institute Professor in 1976.
Key works
Chomsky is widely known as
one of the fathers of modern 1957 Syntactic Structures
linguistics, but he is also a 1965 Cartesian Linguistics
political dissident and anarchist. 1968 Language and Mind
His criticisms of US foreign policy

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 297

Deaf children communicate using evolved, arguing that language environment could also be a factor.
a “gestural language,” which has the represents a distinct mental module There is also some degree of doubt
same characteristics as spoken that is unique to human beings and surrounding Chomsky’s assumption
language, suggesting that knowledge completely independent of general that language is unique to human
of grammar and syntax is innate. cognitive ability. beings. Data from studies with
chimpanzees and gorillas has
apparatus, auditory system, and Linguist Jean Aitchison is also suggested that the difference
brain are all specialized for spoken in agreement with Chomsky’s between ape and human language is
communication. Chomsky argues claim that children are hard-wired quantitative rather than qualitative,
that, in light of the frequency with with knowledge of linguistic rules, which raises questions about how
which children are exposed to the but her view is that children have species-specific language really is.
ungrammatical and incomplete built-in problem-solving abilities
speech uttered by their parents and that enable them to process Chomsky’s work has been
other adults, only some kind of LAD linguistic data (and other forms highly influential across linguistics,
can explain the fact that children of data). Chomsky maintains, psychology, philosophy, and even
seem to possess knowledge of however, that human beings’ mathematics. Although the idea
grammatical rules. Finally, studies innate language ability exists that children are predisposed to
of deaf children provide further independently of other abilities, and learn language is widely accepted,
evidence for an LAD, revealing the because the mind is constructed of his claim that children have an
untutored emergence of a “gestural mental organs similar to those of innate knowledge of language that
language” that shares the basic the body, language can easily be is not deeply influenced by their
principles of spoken language. isolated from other mental faculties. parents is highly controversial.
He has been widely considered the
Criticism also comes from most extreme nativist in the history
Robin Chapman, an expert in of psychology, and although a
communicative disorders, who biological source for language
argues that the study of language development is widely thought
development should also be to be nearer the truth than one
understood within the context of involving operant conditioning, it
children’s social interactions. She is still unlikely to offer the complete
notes that language structure is picture. Chomsky’s work has led to
acquired piecemeal over several the emergence of more integrated
years, and that there are wide views, which will no doubt lead to
variations in how rapidly children new research and understanding. ■
acquire it, suggesting that social

Evaluation
Cognitive scientist Steven Pinker
agrees that language is an instinct
stemming from an innate program
that is hard-wired in the human
brain, but says that it arose through
evolution and was therefore
adaptive, helping our ancestors to
survive. Chomsky disagrees with
Pinker about how language

Studies of how chimpanzees
communicate with each other
shows that their language is complex,
although it appears to have less content
and variation than human language.

298

AUTISM IS AN
EXTREME FORM OF
THE MALE BRAIN

SIMON BARON-COHEN (1958– )

IN CONTEXT A utism is a disorder that influential theories is Simon Baron-
affects the brain’s normal Cohen’s “theory of mind” hypothesis,
APPROACH development of social and which, when supported by his
Theory of mind communication skills. Autistic observations about sex differences
children often react to the world in the brain, suggests that “autism
BEFORE around them in a way that seems is an extreme form of the male brain.”
1943 American psychiatrist bizarre to others. They may have
Leo Kanner identifies autism, poor communication skills, and Brain types
suggesting it is the result of social interaction with autistic In 2003, Baron-Cohen developed the
cold, unemotional parenting. children tends to be challenging, empathizing–systematizing theory
partly because many of them fail to of “female” and “male” brains, which
1944 Austrian pediatrician speak, and partly because many assigns a particular “brain type” to
Hans Asperger describes show little interest in others. The every person, regardless of gender,
autism as “an extreme variant majority of autistic children are depending on ability to empathize or
of male intelligence.” male, and most remain impaired systematize. His research suggests
throughout adulthood. Various that the female brain is largely hard-
1979 British psychiatrists explanations for autism have been wired for empathy, with females
Lorna Wing and Judith Gould offered. One of the most recent and usually showing more sympathy for
discover that there is a wide others, and greater sensitivity to
spectrum of autistic disorders. The person with facial expressions and non-verbal
the extreme female communication. The male brain, by
AFTER contrast, appears to be geared toward
1989 German-born brain would be understanding and building systems;
psychologist Uta Frith states ‘system-blind.’ it is mostly interested in how things
that autistic individuals tend Simon Baron-Cohen work, as well as their structure, and
to notice detail, rather than the organization. It is therefore often
broader aspects of situations. better at tasks requiring decoding
skills, such as map reading.
1997 UK psychologist Peter
Mitchell argues Baron-Cohen’s This does not mean, however,
“theory of mind” fails to explain that there is a neat gender split.
the exceptional memory and Baron-Cohen’s experiments showed
ability in specific areas that that around 17 percent of men
some autistic people possess. appear to have an “empathizing
brain,” and 17 percent of women