The Psychology Book

PSYCHOTHERAPY 149

INSIGHT MAY
CAUSE BLINDNESS

PAUL WATZLAWICK (1921–2007)

IN CONTEXT P sychotherapy often relies of cause and effect. Watzlawick
heavily on patients gaining was drawn to the idea of circular
APPROACH an understanding of causality of human behavior, which
Brief therapy themselves, their history, and their shows people tend to return to the
behavior. This is based on the same actions again and again.
BEFORE belief that to counter emotional pain
1880s Psychodynamic and change behavior, we need to Insight, Watzlawick suggested,
therapy, also known as insight- understand where our emotional may even cause blindness, both to
oriented therapy, emerges. patterns are rooted. Austrian- the real problem and its potential
It focuses on unconscious American psychologist Paul solution. He supported the brief
processes as manifested in Watzlawick described this process therapy approach, which targets
a person’s present behavior. as “insight.” For example, a man and tackles specific problems more
who grieves for an abnormally long directly in order to achieve quicker
1938 B.F. Skinner introduces time after his partner leaves him results. But he also felt that for any
“radical” behaviorism, which might come to realize that he has therapy to succeed, it must offer the
does not accept that thinking, deep issues with abandonment, patient a supportive relationship. ■
perception, or any other kind because his mother left him when
of unobservable emotional he was a child. But a number of Anybody can be happy, but
activity can trigger a particular therapists have concluded that to make oneself unhappy
pattern of behavior. insight may be unnecessary to needs to be learned.
counter emotional pain, and some, Paul Watzlawick
AFTER including Watzlawick, have claimed
1958 American psychiatrist that it can make a patient worse.
Leopold Bellak sets up a brief
therapy clinic, where therapy Watzlawick famously stated he
is limited to a maximum of could not think of a single case in
five sessions. which someone changed as a result
of a deepening understanding of self.
1974 US psychotherapist The belief that understanding past
Jay Haley publishes events helps to shed light on present
Uncommon Therapy, problems is based on a “linear” view
describing Milton Erickson’s
brief therapy techniques. See also: B.F. Skinner 78–85 ■ Elizabeth Loftus 202–07 ■ Milton Erickson 336

150

MADNESS NEED NOT
BE ALL BREAKDOWN
IT MAY ALSO BE
BREAK-THROUGH

R.D. LAING (1927–1989)

IN CONTEXT Mental illness is not Psychosis is a valid
biological; it is developed and understandable
APPROACH expression of distress.
Anti-psychiatry through difficult
social interactions.
BEFORE
1908 Swiss psychiatrist Mental illness should be Psychiatry wrongly
Eugen Bleuler coins the term valued as a cathartic and stigmatizes mental illness
“schizophrenia” to refer to the transformative experience.
splitting of mental functions. because it does not
conform to social norms.
1911 Sigmund Freud proposes
that schizophrenia is purely Madness need not be all
psychological, though it breakdown. It may also be
cannot be treated with
psychoanalysis. break-through.

1943 French philosopher A t the end of the 19th in dire circumstances. It was from
Jean-Paul Sartre introduces century, the notion that this context that R.D. Laing emerged
the distinction between the mental illness was as the preeminent icon of a new
true self and the false self. different in degree—rather than cultural trend.
in kind—from the psychological
1956 Gregory Bateson, British suffering of normal people began Biology and behavior
social scientist, defines a to gain acceptance. Sigmund Freud Like Freud, Laing challenged the
“double bind” as an emotionally suggested that neurosis and fundamental values of psychiatry,
distressing dilemma in which normality are part of the same rejecting its focus on mental illness
all the potential resolutions scale, and that anyone is capable of as a biological phenomenon and
lead to negative consequences. succumbing to mental disturbance highlighting the significance of the

AFTER
1978 CT brain scans reveal
physical differences between
chronic schizophrenics and
non-schizophrenics.

PSYCHOTHERAPY 151

See also: Emil Kraepelin 31 ■ Sigmund Freud 92–99 ■ David Rosenhan 328–29

social, cultural, and familial also hinder the ability to think, and R.D. Laing
influences that shape personal as a result interfere with the natural
experience. Although he never process of true recovery. Ronald David Laing was born
denied the grim reality of mental in Glasgow, Scotland. After
illness, his views were in stark Approach to schizophrenia studying medicine at Glasgow
contrast to the accepted medical Laing’s main work centers on the University, he became a
basis and practice of psychiatry. understanding and treatment of psychiatrist in the British
schizophrenia—a serious mental Army, developing an interest
Laing’s work calls into question disorder characterized by severe in working with the mentally
the validity of psychiatric diagnosis disruptions in psychological distressed. He later trained at
on the grounds that the accepted functioning—and on explaining it the Tavistock Clinic, London,
process of diagnosing mental to ordinary people. Schizophrenia, England. In 1965, Laing and a
disorders does not follow the he says, is not inherited, but is group of colleagues created the
traditional medical model. Doctors an understandable reaction to Philadelphia Association and
perform examinations and tests to unlivable situations. He applies started a radical psychiatric
diagnose physical illness, whereas social scientist Gregory Bateson’s project at Kingsley Hall,
psychiatric diagnosis is based on theory of the “double bind,” in London, where patients and
behavior. According to Laing, there which a person is put into situations therapists lived together.
is also an inherent problem in where he or she faces conflicting
diagnosing mental illness based on expectations, and every action Laing’s erratic behavior
conduct, but treating it biologically leads to negative consequences, and spiritual preoccupations
with drugs. If a diagnosis is based resulting in extreme mental distress. in later life led to a decline in
on behavior, then so too should be his reputation. As he was
the treatment. He argues that drugs Illness as breakthrough unable to develop a workable
Laing was revolutionary in viewing alternative to conventional
Shakespeare’s King Lear is an the abnormal behavior and medical treatment, his ideas
iconic example of a man driven mad confused speech of schizophrenics are not generally accepted by
by difficult circumstances. In Laing’s as valid expressions of distress. For the psychiatric establishment.
view, Lear’s madness is an attempt to him, psychotic episodes represent Yet his contributions to the
return to his natural, healthy, state. attempts to communicate concerns, anti-psychiatry movement,
and should be seen as cathartic particularly in family therapy,
and transformative experiences have had a lasting impact. He
that could lead to important died of a heart attack in 1989.
personal insights. Laing accepts
that these expressions are difficult Key works
to comprehend, but he explains
that this is merely because they 1960 The Divided Self
are wrapped in the language of 1961 The Self and Others
personal symbolism, which is only 1964 Sanity, Madness and
meaningful from within. Laing’s the Family
drug-free psychotherapy tries 1967 The Politics of Experience
to make sense of a patient’s
symbolism by listening in an
attentive and empathetic spirit.
This is based on the belief that
people are healthy in their natural
state, and that so-called mental
illness is an attempt to return to it. ■

152

OUR HISTORY
DOES NOT DETERMINE
OUR DESTINY

BORIS CYRULNIK (1937– )

IN CONTEXT Bad things You can feel ...and
happen. crushed and continue to
APPROACH inadequate...
Positive psychology suffer.
You can
BEFORE accept the ...and move
1920s Freud says that early challenge... forward with
trauma negatively impacts
an infant’s brain and can your life.
override any genetic, social, or
psychological resilience factor. W hen tragedy strikes, unable to cope, somehow they
some people are are able to deal with painful
1955–95 A longitudinal study devastated. Unable to circumstances and move on.
by psychologist Emmy Werner summon their coping mechanisms,
following traumatized children they fall into deep depression or Boris Cyrulnik is interested
into adulthood suggests that despondency, sometimes losing in this difference of reaction. To
one-third of the population hope and even the will to carry find out why some people are so
tends toward resilience. on. They may become entirely deeply affected, while others are
preoccupied with the disaster seemingly able to “bounce back,”
1988 John Bowlby asks for and suffer nightmares, flashbacks, he has devoted his career to the
a study of resilience. and anxiety attacks. Other people, study of psychological resilience.
however, react differently. They
AFTER seem to manage not only the normal Resilience is not a quality
2007 The UK government ups and downs of their lives, but inherent within a person, Cyrulnik
starts the UK Resilience also potentially overwhelming found, but one that builds through a
Programme in schools. losses and traumas. Instead natural process. He says that “alone,
of becoming depressed and a child has no resilience… it is an
2012 The American interaction, a relationship.” We build
Psychological Association resilience from developing
forms a task force on
psychological resilience.

PSYCHOTHERAPY 153

See also: Sigmund Freud 92–99 ■ John Bowlby 274–77 ■ Charlotte
Bühler 336 ■ George Kelly 337 ■ Jerome Kagan 339

After disasters such as tsunamis
psychologists have witnessed the
formation of resilient communities,
characterized by the residents’
determination to overcome adversity.

relationships. We are constantly has happened, to find strength in Boris Cyrulnik
“knitting” ourselves from people the experience instead of letting it
and situations that we encounter, defeat them, and to use the strength Boris Cyrulnik was born to
through the words we exchange to move defiantly forward. Given Jewish parents in Bordeaux,
and the feelings that arise. We the right support, children are France, shortly before the
might feel that if one “stitch” is especially capable of complete outbreak of World War II. In
dropped, our lives will unravel. In recovery from trauma. Cyrulnik has 1944, when the Vichy regime
fact, “if just one stitch holds, we shown that the human brain is controlled unoccupied southern
can start all over again.” malleable and will recover if France by arrangement with
allowed. The brain of a traumatized Germany, his home was raided
Positive emotions and humor are child shows shrinkage of the and his parents were taken to
key factors in resilience. Cyrulnik’s ventricles and cortex, but where the Auschwitz concentration
research has shown that people who child is well supported and loved camp. His parents had placed
are better able to cope with life’s after the trauma, brain scans have him with a foster family for
difficulties or traumas are able to shown the brain to be capable of safety, but within days they
find meaning in hardship, seeing it returning to normal within a year. turned him over to the
as a useful and enlightening authorities for a small reward.
experience, and even to find ways Cyrulnik stresses the importance He escaped while awaiting
to laugh. Resilient people always of not labeling children who have transfer to a concentration
remain able to see how things may suffered a trauma, thereby sidelining camp and worked on farms
turn out for the better in future, even them to a seemingly hopeless future. until the age of ten, when he
if the present is painful. Trauma consists of the injury and was taken into care. He grew
the representation of that injury. up in France, without any
Enduring humiliating adult relatives. Largely self-taught,
interpretations of events can be the Cyrulnik eventually studied
most traumatic experience. Labels, medicine at the University of
he says, can be more damaging and Paris. Realizing he wanted to
damning than the experience. ■ reevaluate his own life, he
began to study psychoanalysis
Meeting the challenge Resilience is a person’s and later neuropsychiatry.
It had previously been thought that ability to grow in the face He has devoted his career
people who show more resilience to working with traumatized
are less emotional in general, but of terrible problems. children.
Cyrulnik believed that the pain is Boris Cyrulnik
no less for resilient people than it is Key works
for others; it is a matter of how they
choose to use it. The pain may 1992 The Dawn of Meaning
continue, even over a whole lifetime, 2004 The Whispering
but for these people it raises a of Ghosts
challenge that they decide to meet. 2009 Resilience
The challenge is to overcome what

154

ONLY GOOD
PEOPLE GET
DEPRESSED

DOROTHY ROWE (1930– )

IN CONTEXT I f people could stop blaming the idea of a Just World and think
themselves for things that more rationally about negative
APPROACH have happened in their lives, experiences. We might suffer from
Personal construct theory the rate of depression would bad parenting, job loss, or even a
decrease dramatically. This premise devastating tornado, but these
BEFORE is the foundation of Dorothy Rowe’s things did not happen because we
1940s Gestalt therapy is success in treating the problem. are doomed to misfortune, nor do
founded, introducing the we deserve to be treated badly.
notion that perception We are generally brought up to To recover from these setbacks,
influences meaning. believe that the world is a fair and we need to stop personalizing
rational place; that if we are good, events, start externalizing them,
1955 George Kelly publishes good things will happen to us. But and realize that sometimes bad
The Psychology of Personal if things go well when we are good, things just happen. ■
Constructs, outlining the what does that say about us when
theory that everyone has a set things go wrong? Our belief in a To turn natural
of constructs (beliefs) about “Just World”—where the good are sadness into depression,
the world and the people in it. rewarded and the bad punished— all you have to do is blame
makes us blame ourselves for the yourself for the disaster
1960 Psychologist and bad things that happen to us.
statistician Max Hamilton that has befallen you.
constructs the Hamilton When we are wronged or hurt in Dorothy Rowe
Depression Rating Scale some way, there is a tendency to ask,
(HAM-D), a tool used to “Why did this happen to me?” People
measure clinical depression. look back to see what they did to
cause the situation, even in the case
AFTER of a natural disaster. Self-blame, guilt,
1980 Psychologist Melvin helplessness, and shame irrationally
Lerner publishes The Belief in arise when bad things happen, and
a Just World: A Fundamental these can lead to depression.
Delusion, explaining how we
wrongly believe that people Rowe explained that we create
get what they deserve. and choose our beliefs. Once we
understand this, we can let go of

See also: Fritz Perls 112–17 ■ Carl Rogers 130–37 ■ Albert Ellis 142–45 ■
Melvin Lerner 242–43 ■ George Kelly 337

PSYCHOTHERAPY 155

FATHERS ARE
SUBJECT TO A
RULE OF SILENCE

GUY CORNEAU (1951– )

IN CONTEXT B efore French-Canadian Communication between fathers and
analyst Guy Corneau sons is often characterized by silences.
APPROACH published Absent Fathers, While sons long for recognition and
Masculine psychology Lost Sons in 1991, psychology had approval from their fathers, fathers are
given little attention to emotional reluctant to give this approval freely.
BEFORE communication between men.
1900s Freudian analysts Corneau’s book examined the
describe the Oedipus complex, difficulties of intimate conversations
which states that sons feel between the male generations. He
naturally competitive with recounts his attempts to make an
their father. emotional connection with his
own father: reaching out, seeking
1950s French psychoanalyst approval, but receiving only silence.
Jacques Lacan argues that
the son sees the father as Withholding approval compromising his own power,
embodying the law. Corneau recognizes that this making it less valuable. From the
sequence of events is a familiar son’s point of view, if approval is
AFTER pattern in men, who are often given too easily, without some
1991 In Iron John: A Book unable to shower their sons with degree of withholding, the father is
About Men, American author the praise, affection, or recognition then no longer worthy of impressing.
Robert Bly says that fathers craved by their offspring. When the It appears that in most forms of
fail to give their sons what son experiences this silence, he society there is a belief that men
they need to become men, may try harder to impress, or he cannot be both strong and open.
and suggests that they might withdraw, but the silence
need to reawaken the remains irrevocably imprinted in Corneau says that this behavior
“Wild Man” within. his mind, according to Corneau. does a disservice to men. They are
The phenomenon may stem from denied the opportunity to express
1990s American writers a competitive interplay of male affection toward their sons—and
Douglas Gillette and Robert egos; a man who showers his son the sons are forced to go without
L. Moore publish five books with praise would somehow be that affection. ■
exploring Jungian archetypes
and the male psyche. See also: Sigmund Freud 92–99 ■ Carl Jung 102–07 ■ Jacques Lacan 122–23

COGNITIV

PSYCHOL

THE CALCULATING
BRAIN

E

OGY

158 INTRODUCTION

Hermann Ebbinghaus’s Jerome Bruner and Cecile Alan Turing publishes Leon Festinger’s A
“nonsense syllables” Goodman publish Value Computing Machinery Theory of Cognitive
experiments show a and Need as Organizing and Intelligence, in which Dissonance suggests
method for studying he describes the human there is a human drive for
Factors in Perception, brain as an “organized consistency of beliefs.
cognitive processes. arguing that motivated machine” that learns

reasoning affects through experience.
perception.

1885 1947 1950 1957
1932 1949 1956 1958

Frederic Bartlett studies Donald Hebb explains George Armitage Donald Broadbent
reconstructive learning in terms of Miller argues that the publishes Perception and
connections between human brain can only
memory in The War of hold seven chunks Communication,
the Ghosts. stimuli and neurons. introducing the
of information information-processing
at once. model of cognition.

T he first half of the 20th psychology—a German school of to work from. At the same time,
century was dominated by thought that concentrated on advances in neuroscience led to a
two strands of thinking in perception and perceptual greater understanding of the
psychology: behaviorism (which organization—and was also a functions of the brain and nervous
concentrated on learning theory) precursor of cognitive psychology. system. This allowed psychologists,
and psychoanalysis (which focused notably Donald Hebb, to examine
on the unconscious and development The cognitive revolution mental processes directly, rather
in early childhood). The mental What eventually swung the balance than merely inferring them from
processes that had preoccupied from interest in behavior to the observations of behavior.
psychologists in the previous study of mental processes came from
century, such as perception, outside psychology. Improvements One of the first to apply the
consciousness, and memory, in communications and computer information-processing analogy to
were largely neglected. technology, and possibilities opened psychology was a student of Frederic
up by artificial intelligence—then Bartlett’s at Cambridge, Donald
There were inevitably some a growing field thanks to advances Broadbent, who had been inspired
exceptions. Psychologists Frederic made during World War II—led to by the work of computer scientist
Bartlett of the UK and Bluma a new way of thinking about the Alan Turing and communications
Zeigarnik of Russia were both brain: as an information processor. expert Colin Cherry in the 1940s
studying the process of memory in The mental processes, referred to and 50s. But the turning point came
the 1920s and 30s, anticipating the as “cognitive processes” or in the US, where behaviorism
work of later cognitive psychologists. “cognition,” which behaviorism began to be criticized for its
In Germany, Wolfgang Köhler’s would not or could not examine, limitations, leading to a so-called
work on problem-solving and now had a model for psychologists “cognitive revolution” in the late
decision-making drew on Gestalt 1950s. In the vanguard of this

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 159

Endel Tulving Aaron Beck outlines Gordon H. Bower Elizabeth Loftus’s book
produces a series cognitive behavior reports experiments Eyewitness Testimony
of seminal papers that suggest memory exposes the fallibility
on memory and therapy (CBT) in
retrieval processes. Depression: Causes retrieval is of eyewitness
mood-dependent. memory as evidence.
and Treatment.

1960S 1967 1978 1996
1967 1971 1992 2001

Ulric Neisser coins Roger Shepard and In Facial Expressions of In The Seven Sins
the term “cognitive Jacqueline Metzler Emotion, Paul Ekman of Memory, Daniel
psychology” in his publish research suggests that certain facial Schacter details
book of the same title. showing that people are expressions are universal
able to mentally rotate a and therefore biological. ways our
memories can
3-D object. be erroneous.

dramatic shift of approach were the Loftus, Daniel Schacter, and behavioral therapy and meditation
Americans George Armitage Miller Gordon H. Bower. There was also a techniques, soon became standard
and Jerome Bruner, who in 1960 reappraisal of Gestalt psychology: treatment for disorders such as
co-founded the Center for Cognitive Roger Shepard reexamined ideas of depression and anxiety, and led to
Studies at Harvard University. perception, and Wolfgang Köhler’s a movement of positive psychology
work on problem-solving and advocating mental wellbeing rather
A new direction decision-making resurfaced in the than just treating mental illness.
Miller and Bruner’s ground-breaking theories of Daniel Kahneman and
work led to a fundamental change Amos Tversky. And, perhaps for the At the beginning of the 21st
of direction in psychology. Areas first time, cognitive psychologists, century, cognitive psychology is
that had been neglected by including Bower and Paul Ekman, still the dominant approach to the
behaviorists, such as memory, made a scientific study of emotion. subject, and has had an effect on
perception, and emotions, became neuroscience, education, and
the central focus. While Bruner But it wasn’t only the theories of economics. It has even influenced
incorporated the concepts of behaviorists that were overturned; the nature–nurture debate; in the
cognition into existing theories Freud’s psychoanalytic theory and light of recent discoveries in
of learning and developmental its followers were also criticized for genetics and neuroscience,
psychology, Miller’s application of being unscientific. Aaron Beck evolutionary psychologists such
the information-processing model found that cognitive psychology as Steven Pinker have argued
to memory opened up the field, could provide a more effective that our thoughts and actions are
making memory an important area therapy—and that it was more determined by the make-up of our
of study for cognitive psychologists, amenable to objective scrutiny. The brains, and that they are like other
including Endel Tulving, Elizabeth cognitive therapy he advocated, inherited characteristics: subject
later incorporating elements of to the laws of natural selection. ■

160

INSTINCT IS
A DYNAMIC
PATTERN

WOLFGANG KOHLER (1887–1967)

IN CONTEXT If a chimp tries to solve …it pauses and
a problem using trial and considers the problem,
APPROACH
Gestalt psychology error, but fails… taking into account
everything around it…
BEFORE
1890 Austrian philosopher It then applies this solution … until it reaches an
Christian von Ehrenfels to similar problems insight that leads
introduces the concept in the future. to a solution.
of Gestalt in his book,
On the Qualities of Form. This pattern of insight- Instinct is a
learning is active, dynamic pattern.
1912 Max Wertheimer not passive.
publishes Experimental
Studies of the Perception I n the late 19th century, a group Gestalt psychology (not to be
of Movement, a landmark of German psychologists who confused with Gestalt therapy,
in Gestalt psychology. disagreed with the prevailing a much later development) took
schools of thought developed a new, as its starting point the idea that
AFTER scientific, and distinctly holistic concepts such as perception,
1920s Edward Tolman brings approach, which they called Gestalt. learning, and cognition should be
together ideas from Gestalt Wolfgang Köhler, who founded the considered as wholes, not studied
and behaviorist psychology in new movement along with Max by investigating their various parts.
his purposive behaviorism Wertheimer and Kurt Koffka,
(now cognitive behaviorism). explained that the word means Köhler thought the dominant
both “pattern” and, when applied to branch of psychology, behaviorism,
1935 Psychology of their theory, “organized whole.” was too simplistic and overlooked
Productive Thinking by Karl the dynamic nature of perception.
Duncker—a German Gestalt
psychologist—describes
experiments in problem-
solving and mental
restructuring.

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 161

See also: Ivan Pavlov 60–61 ■ Edward Thorndike 62–65 ■ Edward
Tolman 72–73 ■ Max Wertheimer 335

Köhler studied chimpanzees solving behavior showed a cognitive trial- Wolfgang Köhler
task-related problems. He realized they and-error process rather than an
could actively perceive several possible actual one; they were solving the Wolfgang Köhler was born in
solutions before finding the answer problem in their minds first, and Estonia, but his family returned
through a moment of insight. only after an insight (the “aha” to their native Germany soon
moment) tried out their solution. after his birth. He studied at
Pavlov and Thorndike claimed that This is contrary to the behaviorist various colleges before
animals learn by trial and error view that learning is conditioned completing a PhD in Berlin.
through simple stimulus–response by response to a stimulus, and In 1909, he and Kurt Koffka
conditioning, but Köhler believed reinforced by reward. The chimps worked with Max Wertheimer
they were capable of insight and learned by perceiving the problem, at the Frankfurt Academy on
intelligence. He was able to put this not by receiving rewards. his perception experiments;
to the test when he became director these formed the basis of
of an anthropoid research center on This was a demonstration Gestalt psychology.
Tenerife from 1913–20, where he of Köhler’s dynamic model of
studied chimpanzees tackling a behavior, involving organization In 1913, Köhler became
number of problem-solving tasks. within perception, rather than director of the Prussian
passive learning through response Academy of Sciences research
Insightful learning to rewards. The pattern (Gestalt) station in Tenerife, where he
What Köhler observed confirmed his of learning by insight—failure, became stranded at the start
belief, and also demonstrated that pause, perception, insight, and of World War I, remaining
problem-solving and learning could attempt—is an active one; but there until 1920. On his return
be explained in terms of Gestalt. this is not necessarily apparent to to Berlin, he served as director
When faced with a problem, such as someone watching the chimps’ of the Psychological Institute
how to reach food in an inaccessible separate attempts to solve the until 1935, when he emigrated
place, the chimpanzees were problem, mainly because it is not to the US to escape the Nazi
frustrated in their initial attempts, possible to see the organization of regime. He taught at several
but would then pause and apparently perception in the chimp’s mind. US colleges, and was elected
take stock of the situation before What we call instinct, the president of the American
attempting some kind of solution. apparently automatic response to Psychological Association for
This often involved using tools— solving a problem, is affected by this 1959. Ulric Neisser described
such as sticks or crates that were process of insight learning, and is him as “a genuinely creative
lying around in their play area—to itself an active, dynamic pattern. ■ thinker as well as a person of
reach the food. When subsequently great dignity and honor.”
faced with the same problem, they Insight has the appearance
instantly applied the same solution. of a complete solution with Key works
Köhler concluded that the chimps’
reference to the whole 1917 The Mentality of Apes
layout of the field. 1929 Gestalt Psychology
1938 The Place of Values in
Wolfgang Köhler a World of Facts

162

INTERRUPTION OF A TASK
GREATLY IMPROVES
ITS CHANCES OF
BEING REMEMBERED

BLUMA ZEIGARNIK (1901–1988)

IN CONTEXT W hile researching for her experiment in which participants
doctorate in Berlin, were given simple puzzles or tasks
APPROACH Russian psychologist to do. They were interrupted during
Memory studies Bluma Zeigarnik was told by her about half these tasks. Later, when
professor, Kurt Lewin, that he had asked how well they could remember
BEFORE noticed waiters could recall details the activities, it became clear that
1885 Hermann Ebbinghaus of orders that were still not paid for they were twice as likely to recall
publishes his pioneering book, better than details of orders they details of the interrupted tasks,
Memory: A Contribution to had completed. This led Zeigarnik whether these were ultimately
Experimental Psychology. to wonder whether unfinished tasks completed or not. Zeigarnik
have a different status in memory, reasoned that this could be due to
1890 William James in The and are remembered better, than the task lacking closure, leading
Principles of Psychology makes finished ones. She devised an to the memory being stored
the distinction between differently, and more effectively.
primary (short-term) and The “Zeigarnik effect” can be
secondary (long-term) memory. demonstrated by the fact that a waiter This phenomenon, which
is more likely to remember details of became known as the “Zeigarnik
AFTER an order that has not yet been paid for, effect,” had important implications.
1956 George Armitage Miller’s than one that has been completed. Zeigarnik proposed that students,
The Magical Number Seven, especially children, retained more
Plus or Minus Two revives if they had frequent breaks while
interest in the study of memory. studying. But little notice was
taken of her ideas until memory
1966 Jerome Bruner stresses once again became a key subject
the importance of organization for research in the 1950s. Since
and categorization in the then, Zeigarnik’s theory has been
learning process. accepted as a major step in the
understanding of memory, and
1972 Endel Tulving has found practical application
distinguishes between not only in education but also in
episodic memory (of specific advertising and the media. ■
events) and semantic memory
(of factual information unrelated See also: Hermann Ebbinghaus 48–49 ■ Jerome Bruner 164–65 ■ George
to an event or situation). Armitage Miller 168–73 ■ Endel Tulving 186–91 ■ Daniel Schacter 208–09

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 163

WHEN A BABY
HEARS FOOTSTEPS,
AN ASSEMBLY
IS EXCITED

DONALD HEBB (1904–1985)

IN CONTEXT I n the 1920s, a number of assemblies and phase sequences
psychologists turned to are being formed. In his book, The
APPROACH neuroscience for answers Organization of Behavior (1949), he
Neuropsychology to questions about learning and gave the example of a baby hearing
memory. Prominent among these footsteps, which stimulates a
BEFORE was Karl Lashley, who led the way number of neurons in its brain;
1890 William James puts in examining the role played by if the experience is repeated, a
forward a theory about neural neural connections, but it was his cell assembly forms. Subsequently,
networks in the brain. student, the Canadian psychologist “when the baby hears footsteps…
Donald Hebb, who formulated a an assembly is excited; while this
1911 Edward Thorndike’s theory to explain what actually is still active he sees a face and
Law of Effect proposes that happens during the process of feels hands picking him up, which
connections between stimulus associative learning. excites other assemblies—so the
and response are “stamped in,” ‘footsteps assembly’ becomes
creating a neural link, or Hebb argued that nerve cells connected with the ‘face assembly’
association. become associated when they are and with the ‘being-picked-up
simultaneously and repeatedly assembly.’ After this has happened,
1917 Wolfgang Köhler’s study active; the synapses, or links, that when the baby hears footsteps only,
of chimps shows that learning connect them become stronger. all three assemblies are excited.”
by insight is longer-lasting Repeated experiences lead to the In adults, however, learning tends
than learning by trial and error. formation of “cell assemblies,” or to involve the rearrangement
groups of connected neurons, in the of existing cell assemblies and
1929 Karl Lashley publishes brain—a theory often summed up phase sequences, rather than the
Brain Mechanisms and as “cells that fire together, wire formation of new ones.
Intelligence. together.” Similarly, separate cell
assemblies can also become linked, Hebb’s theory of cell assembly
AFTER forming a “phase sequence,” which was a cornerstone of modern
1970s George Armitage Miller we recognize as a thought process. neuroscience, and his explanation
coins the term “cognitive of neural learning, which became
neuroscience.” This associative process, Hebb known as Hebbian learning,
found, is especially noticeable in remains the accepted model. ■
1980s Neuroscientists devise childhood learning, when new cell
imaging techniques, allowing
them to map brain functions. See also: Edward Thorndike 62–65 ■ Karl Lashley 76 ■ Wolfgang Köhler 160–61 ■
George Armitage Miller 168–73 ■ Daniel Schacter 208–09

164

KNOWING
IS A PROCESS
NOT A PRODUCT

JEROME BRUNER (1915– )

IN CONTEXT We learn things by Instructing someone is not
active experience. just telling them something
APPROACH
Cognitive development but encouraging them
to participate.
BEFORE
1920s Lev Vygotsky develops We acquire knowledge through the use of reasoning, by
his theory that cognitive constructing meaning from the information.
development is a both a
social and a cultural process. This is a form of information processing.

1936 Jean Piaget publishes Knowing is a process, not a product.
his developmental theories
in his book, Origins of T he field of developmental widened the meaning of the word
Intelligence in the Child. psychology was dominated “experience” to encompass cultural
throughout much of the and social experience. Children,
AFTER 20th century by Jean Piaget, who he said, learn mainly through
1960s The teaching program explained how a child’s thinking interaction with other people.
“Man: A Course of Study develops and matures in stages,
(MACOS),” based on Bruner’s as a result of a natural curiosity At this point in the 1960s, the
theories, is adopted in to explore the environment. Lev “cognitive revolution” was gaining
schools in the US, the Vygotsky’s theory, which appeared momentum; mental processes were
UK, and Australia. in English shortly after Piaget’s, increasingly being explained by
also claimed that a child finds the analogy of the brain as an
1977 Albert Bandura meaning through experience, but “information processor.” Jerome
publishes Social Learning Bruner was a key figure in this new
Theory, which looks at
development through a
mixture of behavioral
and cognitive aspects.

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 165

See also: Jean Piaget 262–69 ■ Lev Vygotsky 270 ■ Albert Bandura 286–91

Ideas are first presented in a
simple and intuitive way.

They are continuously Jerome Bruner
revisited and
The son of Polish immigrants
reconstructed in an in New York City, Jerome
increasingly formal way... Seymour Bruner was born
blind, but regained his sight
A spiral curriculum would work ...and are finally after cataract operations at
best in schools, Bruner suggested. This connected to other the age of two. His father died
involves a constant revisiting of ideas, of cancer when Bruner was 12,
building incrementally until the child knowledge for and his grief stricken mother
reaches a high level of understanding. comprehensive mastery moved the family frequently
during his subsequent school
of the subject. years. He studied psychology
at Duke University, then at
approach, having previously development, but “to instruct Harvard, where he attained a
studied the ways that our needs someone... is not a matter of getting PhD in 1941 alongside Gordon
and motivations influence him to commit results to mind. Allport and Karl Lashley.
perception—and concluding that Rather, it is to teach him to
we see what we need to see. He participate in the process.” When Bruner served in the US
became interested in how cognition we acquire knowledge, we need to army’s Office for Strategic
develops, and so began to study actively participate and reason, Studies (an intelligence unit)
cognitive processes in children. rather than passively absorb during World War II, then
information, because this is what returned to Harvard, where he
The mind as processor gives knowledge meaning. In terms collaborated with Leo Postman
Bruner began his investigations of cognitive psychology, reasoning and George Armitage Miller. In
by applying cognitive models to is seen as “processing information,” 1960, he cofounded the Center
Piaget and Vygotsky’s ideas, so the acquisition of knowledge for Cognitive Studies with
shifting the emphasis in the study should be seen as a process, not Miller at Harvard, remaining
of cognitive development from the a product or end result. We need until it closed in 1972. He spent
construction of meaning to the encouragement and guidance in the next ten years teaching at
processing of information: the that process, and for Bruner, that Oxford University in England,
means by which we acquire and is the role of a teacher. before returning to the US.
store knowledge. Like Piaget, he Bruner continued to teach
believes that acquiring knowledge In The Process of Education into his nineties.
is an experiential process; but like (1960), Bruner presented the idea
Vygotsky, sees this as a social that children should be active Key works
occupation, not a solitary one. He participants in the process of
maintains that learning cannot be education. The book became a 1960 The Process of Education
conducted unassisted: some form of landmark text, altering educational 1966 Studies in Cognitive
instruction is essential to a child’s policy in the US at governmental Growth
and schoolteacher level. ■ 1990 Acts of Meaning

166

A MAN WITH
CONVICTION
IS A HARD MAN
TO CHANGE

LEON FESTINGER (1919–1989)

IN CONTEXT If we hold strong beliefs that are undermined
by evidence to the contrary…
BRANCH
Cognitive psychology …we find ourselves in an uncomfortable state of
“cognitive dissonance.”
APPROACH
Learning theory If we accept the contradiction, this
causes further inconsistency between our
BEFORE
1933 Gestalt psychologist Kurt past and present beliefs.
Lewin leaves the Berlin School
of Experimental Psychology So instead we may find ways to make the new
and emigrates to the US. evidence consistent with our beliefs.

AFTER A man with conviction is a hard man
1963 Stanley Milgram to change.
publishes his experiments on
willingness to obey authority
figures, even when orders
conflict with one’s conscience.

1971 Philip Zimbardo’s
Stanford prison study shows
how people adapt to the roles
they are assigned.

1972 US social psychologist
Daryl Bem proposes the
alternative self-perception
theory of attitude change.

1980s Elliot Aronson defends
Festinger’s theory, conducting
experiments into initiation rites.

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 167

See also: Kurt Lewin 218–23 ■ Solomon Asch 224–27 ■ Elliot Aronson 244–45 ■ Stanley Milgram 246–53 ■
Philip Zimbardo 254–55 ■ Stanley Schachter 338

B y the end of World War II, “cognitive dissonance.” He reasoned their prediction and consequent
social pscychology had that the only way to overcome this cognitive dissonance would cause
become an important field discomfort is to somehow make the cult members to abandon their
of research, spearheaded in the US belief and the evidence consistent. beliefs, the opposite occurred. As
by Kurt Lewin, the founder of the the day of reckoning drew near,
Research Center for Group Dynamics Unshakeable conviction another “message” came through,
at the Massachusetts Institute of After reading a report in a local declaring that, due to the group’s
Technology in 1945. newspaper in 1954, Festinger dedication, the world was to be
saw an opportunity to study the spared. Cult members became even
On the staff at the center was reaction to just such a cognitive more fervent believers. Festinger
one of Lewin’s former students, Leon dissonance. A cult claimed to have had anticipated this; to accept the
Festinger. Originally attracted by received messages from aliens contradictory evidence would set
Lewin’s work in Gestalt psychology, warning of a flood that would end up an even greater dissonance
he later took an interest in social the world on December 21; only between past belief and present
psychology. In the course of his true believers would be rescued by denial, he argued. This effect was
research, Festinger observed that flying saucers. Festinger and some compounded if a great deal
people continually seek to bring of his colleagues at the University (reputation, jobs, and money) had
order to their world, and a key part of Minnesota gained access to the been invested in the original belief.
of that order is consistency. To group, interviewing them before
achieve this, they develop routines the designated apocalyptic date Festinger concluded that
and habits, such as establishing and again afterward, when the cognitive dissonance, or at least
regular mealtimes and choosing events had failed to transpire. the avoidance of it, makes a man
favorite seats on their daily of strong conviction unlikely to
commute to work. When these The now-famous Oak Park change his opinion in the face of
routines are disrupted, people feel study of this group, written up by contradiction; he is immune to
very uneasy. The same is true, he Festinger, Henry Riecken, and evidence and rational argument. As
found, of habitual thought patterns Stanley Schachter in When Festinger explains: “Tell him you
or beliefs. If a very strong opinion is Prophecy Fails, describes the disagree and he turns away. Show
met with contradictory evidence, it reaction of the cult members. him facts or figures and he questions
creates an uncomfortable internal Where common sense might lead your sources. Appeal to logic and
inconsistency; Festinger called this us to expect that the failure of he fails to see your point.” ■

Leon Festinger Leon Festinger was born in cult predicting the end of the
Brooklyn, New York, to a Russian world. He moved to Stanford
immigrant family. He graduated University in 1955, continuing
from City College of New York in his work in social psychology,
1939, then studied at the University but in the 1960s he turned to
of Iowa under Kurt Lewin, finishing research into perception. He
his PhD in Child Psychology in later focused on history and
1942. After spending the later archaeology at the New School
years of World War II in military for Social Research in New York.
training, he rejoined Lewin in 1945 He died of liver cancer, aged 69.
at the Research Center for Group
Dynamics at the Massachusetts Key works
Institute of Technology (MIT).
1956 When Prophecy Fails
It was during his appointment 1962 A Theory of Cognitive
as professor at the University of Dissonance
Minnesota that Festinger made 1983 The Human Legacy
his famous Oak Park study of a

THE MAGICAL

NUMBER 7

PLUS OR MINUS 2

GEORGE ARMITAGE MILLER (1920– )



170 GEORGE ARMITAGE MILLER

IN CONTEXT Before information is
stored in long-term memory,
APPROACH
Memory studies it is processed by
working memory.
BEFORE
1885 Hermann Ebbinghaus Working memory has a
publishes his pioneering book limited capacity—about
Memory: A Contribution to seven (plus or minus two) elements.
Experimental Psychology.
If individual “bits” of information
1890 William James makes are organized into “chunks”
the distinction between (meaningful patterns) of information
primary (short-term) and
secondary (long-term) memory they are easier to store.
in The Principles of Psychology.
Working memory
1950 Mathematician Alan can then hold seven (plus
Turing’s test suggests that a or minus two) of these larger
computer can be considered
a thinking machine. chunks of information.

AFTER
1972 Endel Tulving makes the
distinction between semantic
and episodic memory.

2001 Daniel Schacter proposes
a list of the different ways we
misremember in The Seven
Sins of Memory.

G eorge Armitage Miller and introduction, Miller had a advances in computer science
once famously complained: serious intent, and the article was had brought the idea of artificial
“My problem is that I have to become a landmark of cognitive intelligence closer to reality, and
been persecuted by an integer. psychology and the study of working while mathematicians, such as Alan
For seven years this number has memory (the ability to remember Turing, were comparing computer
followed me around.” So begins his and use pieces of information for processing with the human brain,
now famous article The Magical a limited amount of time). cognitive psychologists were
Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: engaged in the converse: they
Some Limits on our Capacity for Miller’s paper was published in looked to the computer as a
Processing Information. He goes on: The Psychological Review in 1956, possible model for explaining the
“There is… some pattern governing when behaviorism was being workings of the human brain. Mental
its appearances. Either there really superseded by the new cognitive processes were being described in
is something unusual about the psychology. This fresh approach— terms of information processing.
number or I am suffering from which Miller wholeheartedly
delusions of persecution.” Despite embraced—focused on the study of Miller’s main interest was in the
the whimsical nature of his title mental processes, such as memory field of psycholinguistics, stemming
and attention. At the same time, from his work during World War II on

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 171

See also: Hermann Ebbinghaus 48–49 ■ Bluma Zeigarnik 162 ■ Donald Broadbent 178–85 ■ Endel Tulving 186–91 ■
Gordon H. Bower 194–95 ■ Daniel Schacter 208–09 ■ Noam Chomsky 294–97 ■ Frederic Bartlett 335–36

The persistence with by the recurrence and possible accurately assigning numbers to
which this number significance of the number seven; each of them, but above seven
plagues me is far more “sometimes a little larger and (give or take one or two), the
than a random accident. sometimes a little smaller than results deteriorated dramatically.
George Armitage Miller usual, but never changing so much
as to be unrecognizable.” In another experiment, by
speech perception, which formed the Kaufman, Lord, et al, in 1949,
basis for his doctoral thesis. This The first instance of the researchers flashed varying numbers
led him to take an interest in the “magical” number came from of colored dots on to a screen in
growing field of communications, experiments to determine the front of participants. When there
which in turn introduced him span of absolute judgment—how were fewer than seven dots,
to information theory. He was accurately we can distinguish a participants could accurately
particularly inspired by Claude number of different stimuli. In one number them; when there were
Shannon, a leading figure in experiment cited in Miller’s paper, more than seven, participants were
communications, who was the physicist and acoustic only able to estimate the number
investigating effective ways of specialist Irwin Pollack played a of dots. This suggests that the
turning messages into electronic number of different musical tones span of attention is limited to
signals. Shannon’s communication to participants, who were then around six, and caused Miller to
model, which involved translating asked to assign a number to each wonder whether the same basic
ideas into codes made up of “bits,” tone. When up to around seven process might be involved in both
underpins all digital communication. different tones were played, the the span of absolute judgment
Miller was inspired to look at mental subjects had no difficulty in and the span of attention. ❯❯
processes in a similar way, and to
establish the ground rules for the
modern field of psycholinguistics
in his 1951 book, Language and
Communication.

Seven categories An experiment into the span of attention presented
Miller took Shannon’s method of participants with random patterns of dots flashed on a
measuring information and his idea screen for a fraction of a second. Participants instantly
of “channel capacity” (the amount recognized the number if there were fewer than seven.
of information that can be processed
by a system) and applied it to the
model of short-term memory as an
information processor. This was
when he began to be “persecuted”

172 GEORGE ARMITAGE MILLER

The tones and dots in these took this idea of channel capacity The process of memorizing
experiments are what Miller calls a stage further, applying it to the may be simply the
“unidimensional stimuli” (objects model of short-term memory.
that differ from one another in only William James first proposed the formation of chunks…
one respect); but what interested notion of short-term memory, and until there are few enough
Miller is the amount of information it had long been an accepted part
in speech and language we can of the model of the brain as an chunks so that we can
effectively process, and items such information processor, coming recall all the items.
as words are “multidimensional between the sensory input of
stimuli.” He looks to later studies by information and long-term memory. George Armitage Miller
Pollack in which the simple tones Hermann Ebbinghaus and Wilhelm
were replaced by tones that varied Wundt had even suggested that that by the same principle,
in six ways (such as pitch, duration, short-term memory had a capacity working memory organizes “bits”
volume, and location). Surprisingly, limited to around seven items of information into “chunks,” to
despite the apparently larger amount (seven, again). Miller believed that overcome the informational
of information, the results still what he called working memory bottleneck caused by our limited
pointed to a differential limit of had a capacity that corresponded spans of absolute judgment and
seven, plus or minus two. The to the limits of absolute judgment short-term memory. A chunk is not,
difference is that as more variables and span of attention. however, just an arbitrary grouping,
are added, accuracy slightly but an encoding of bits into a
decreases. Miller claims this allows Bits and chunks meaningful unit; for example, a
us to make “relatively crude In terms of our ability to process string of 21 letters represents 21
judgments of several things information, if working memory is bits of information, but if this can
simultaneously.” It may explain how limited to about seven elements, be broken down into a sequence
we are able to recognize and there is a potential bottleneck of three-letter words, it becomes
distinguish such complex things as restricting the amount that can be seven chunks. Chunking is
spoken words and people’s faces, put into long-term memory. But dependent on our ability to find
without having to process the Miller suggested that there was patterns and relationships in the
individual sounds or features. more to the correspondence than
just the number seven, no matter
Miller sees the human mind as how magical it appeared. The
a communication system: as the multidimensional stimuli of
input information increases, the previous experiments could be
amount transmitted to the brain seen as composed of several “bits”
also increases initially, before of related information, but treated
leveling off at an individual’s as a single item. Miller believed
“channel capacity.” Miller then

Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious

Super cali fragi listic expi ali docious

Miller’s theory of chunking says that by building
up or breaking down long streams of numbers or letters
into memorable chunks, we increase the amount of
information we can hold in working memory.

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 173

Binary code is a way of recoding
information into ever-more tightly
packed parcels (through multibase
arithmetic). Miller claims our chunking
process operates in a similar way.

powerful weapon for increasing the
amount of information we can deal
with.” It effectively stretches the
informational bottleneck.

bits of information. To someone The study of memory George Armitage Miller
who does not speak the same Miller himself moved away from
language, the seven words might the subject of memory in his later George Armitage Miller was
be meaningless, and would not research, but his theory prompted born in Charleston, WV. After
constitute seven chunks, but 21 bits. others to examine it in more detail. graduating from the University
Donald Broadbent argued that the of Alabama in 1941 with an
Miller’s theory was backed up real figure for working memory is MA in speech pathology, he
by earlier experiments by other probably less than seven, and this earned a PhD at Harvard in
psychologists. In 1954, Sidney was later confirmed in experiments psychology, working in Stanley
Smith conducted experiments in by Nelson Cowan, who found it to Smith Stevens’ Psychoacoustic
memorizing a sequence of binary be around four chunks, depending Laboratory, with Jerome
digits—a meaningless string of on the length and complexity of the Bruner and Gordon Allport.
ones and zeroes to anyone chunks, and the age of the subject. During World War II the
unfamiliar with the binary system. laboratory was asked to help
Smith broke the series down into In the conclusion to his paper, with military tasks such as
chunks, at first into pairs of digits, Miller is dismissive of the radio jamming.
and then in groups of three, four, significance of the number
and five, and then “recoded” them that originally prompted it. He In 1951, Miller left Harvard
by translating the binary chunks concludes by saying: “Perhaps there for Massachusetts Institute
into decimal numbers: 01 became is something deep and profound of Technology (MIT), then
1, 10 became 2, and so on. He found behind all these sevens… but I returned to Harvard in 1955,
that by using this system it was suspect that it is only a pernicious, where he worked closely with
possible to memorize and accurately Pythagorean coincidence.” ■ Noam Chomsky. In 1960, he
reproduce a string of 40 digits or cofounded the Harvard Center
more, as long as the number of The kind of for Cognitive Studies. He later
chunks was limited to the span linguistic recoding worked as a professor of
of working memory. psychology at Rockefeller
that people do University, New York, and
As an aid to memorizing large seems to me to be Princeton University. In 1991,
amounts of information, chunking the very lifeblood of he was awarded the National
and recoding is an obvious boon, the thought processes. Medal of Science.
but it is more than a mnemonic George Armitage Miller
trick. Miller pointed out that this Key works
form of recoding is an “extremely
1951 Language and
Communication
1956 The Magical Number
Seven, Plus or Minus Two
1960 Plans and the Structure
of Behavior (with Eugene
Galanter and Karl Pribram)

174 IN CONTEXT

THERE’S MORE APPROACH
TO THE SURFACE Cognitive therapy
THAN MEETS
THE EYE BEFORE
1890s Sigmund Freud
AARON BECK (1921– ) proposes an analytic approach
to psychotherapy.

1940s and 1950s Fritz Perls,
with Laura Perls and Paul
Goodman, develops Gestalt
therapy—a cognitive approach
to psychotherapy.

1955 Albert Ellis introduces
Rational Emotive Behavior
Therapy (REBT), breaking with
the tradition of analysis.

AFTER
1975 Martin Seligman defines
“learned helplessness” in
Helplessness: On Depression,
Development, and Death.

1980s A blend of Beck’s ideas
and the behavior therapies of
Joseph Wolpe give rise to new
cognitive behavioral therapies.

A fter psychology had
become established as
a distinct field of study,
around the turn of the 20th century,
two main schools, or approaches,
emerged. These were experimental
psychology, which was dominated
by the behaviorism originating
from Ivan Pavlov’s experiments,
and which was enthusiastically
championed in the US; and clinical
psychology, which was largely
based on the psychoanalytical
approach of Sigmund Freud and
his followers. The two had little in
common. Behaviorists rejected the
introspective, philosophical
approach of earlier psychologists,
and strove to put the subject on a

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 175

See also: Joseph Wolpe 86–87 ■ Sigmund Freud 92–99 ■ Fritz Perls 112–17 ■
Albert Ellis 142–45 ■ Martin Seligman 200–01 ■ Paul Salkovskis 212–13

Psychoanalytic therapy Cognitive therapy
places an emphasis on places an emphasis on

delving into the patient’s examining people’s
unconscious to solve perceptions of their
current disorders.
experiences.

The evidence for the There is strong Aaron Beck
success of psychoanalytic empirical evidence for
the success of cognitive Born in Providence, Rhode
therapy is based on Island, Aaron Temkin Beck
personal accounts rather therapy. was the son of Russian Jewish
immigrants. Athletic and
than facts or research. outgoing as a young child, he
became far more studious and
The key to effective treatment lies not in the unconscious, introspective after suffering a
but in the examination of how a disorder manifests itself serious illness at the age of
eight. He also acquired a fear
in a patient’s perceptions. of all things medical and,
determined to overcome this,
There’s more to the surface than meets the eye. decided to train as a doctor,
graduating from Yale in 1946.
more scientific, evidence-based to all of them. Some psychologists Beck then worked at Rhode
footing. The psychoanalysts were beginning to question the Island Hospital, before
explored those very introspections, validity of this kind of therapy, and qualifying as a psychiatrist in
with theories, rather than proof, Aaron Beck was among them. 1953. Disillusioned with the
to support their case. psychoanalytical approach
When Beck qualified as a to clinical psychology, he
Cognitive revolution psychiatrist in 1953, experimental instigated cognitive therapy
By the mid-20th century, both psychology was focused on the and later established the
approaches to psychology were study of mental processes—it Beck Institute for Cognitive
being critically examined. But was the dawn of the “cognitive Therapy and Research in
although behaviorism was being revolution.” However, the practical Philadelphia, now run by his
overtaken by cognitive psychology approach of cognitive psychologists daughter, Dr. Judith Beck.
in experimental work, the clinical remained much the same as that of
sphere was offering no alternative the behaviorists. If anything, they Key works
to the psychoanalytical model. were frequently even more rigorous
Psychotherapy had evolved into in establishing evidence for their 1972 Depression: Causes and
many forms, but the basic idea of theories. Beck was no exception Treatment
psychoanalysis and exploration to this. He had trained in and 1975 Cognitive Therapy and
of the unconscious was common practiced psychoanalysis, but grew the Emotional Disorders
skeptical of its effectiveness as a ❯❯ 1980 Depression: Clinical,
Experimental, and Theoretical
1999 Prisoners of Hate: The
Cognitive Basis of Anger,
Hostility, and Violence

176 AARON BECK

I concluded that Psychoanalytic Institute on the and evaluate how realistic or
psychoanalysis was a grounds that his “desire to conduct distorted their perceptions were
faith-based therapy. scientific studies signaled that he’d was the first step in overcoming
been improperly analyzed.” Those depression. This flew in the face of
Aaron Beck who found fault with the idea of conventional psychoanalysis, which
analysis did so, some analysts sought and examined underlying
therapy. He could find no reliable argued, because of insufficient drives, emotions, and repressions.
studies of the success rates of analysis of themselves. Beck’s “cognitive therapy” saw
psychoanalysis—only anecdotal this as unnecessary or even
evidence of case reports. In his Beck was suspicious of both counterproductive. The patient’s
experience, only a minority of the circularity of these arguments, perception could be taken at face
patients showed improvement and the link with the therapist’s value because, as he was fond of
under analysis, and the general own personality. Coupled with his putting it, “there’s more to the
consensus among therapists was personal experience as a practicing surface than meets the eye.”
that some got better, some got psychoanalyst, this led him to
worse, and some stayed about the examine thoroughly every aspect of What Beck meant by this was
same, in almost equal numbers. therapy, looking for ways in which that the immediate manifestations
it could be improved. He carried out of depression—the negative
Of particular concern was the a series of experiments designed to “automatic thoughts”—provide all
resistance of many psychoanalysts evaluate the basis and treatment of the information needed for therapy.
to objective scientific examination. depression, one of the most common If these thoughts are examined
Compared with experimental reasons for seeking psychotherapy, and compared with an objective,
psychology, or with medicine, and found that far from confirming rational view of the same situation,
psychoanalysis seemed largely the idea that this condition could the patient can recognize how
faith-based, with widely different be treated by examination of his perception is distorted. For
results between individual unconscious emotions and drives, example, a patient who has been
practitioners. Reputation was his results pointed to a very offered a promotion at work might
frequently based solely on the different interpretation. express negative thoughts such as
charisma of a particular analyst. “I’ll find the new job too difficult,
Beck concluded that “the Changing perceptions and fail,” a perception of the
psychoanalytic mystique was In describing their depression,
overwhelming… It was a little bit Beck’s patients often expressed A distorting mirror creates a view
like the evangelical movement.” negative ideas about themselves, of the world that can seem terrifying
Many psychoanalysts regarded their future, and society in general, and ugly. Similarly, depression tends
criticism of their theories as a which came to them involuntarily. to cast a negative perspective on life,
personal attack, and Beck soon These “automatic thoughts,” as Beck making sufferers feel more hopeless.
discovered that any questioning called them, led him to conclude
of the validity of psychoanalysis that the way the patients perceived
was likely to be countered with their experiences—their cognition
universal denouncement. At one of them—was not just a symptom
time, he was turned down for of their depression, but also the key
membership of the American to finding an effective therapy.
This idea, which came to him in
the 1960s, chimed with concurrent
developments in experimental
psychology, which had established
the dominance of cognitive
psychology by studying mental
processes such as perception.

When Beck applied a cognitive
model to treatment, he found that
helping his patients to recognize

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 177

Some people For others, who view their
would view this situation in a more negative light,
glass as half full.
the glass is half empty.
By correcting erroneous
beliefs, we can lower How people assess the same
excessive reactions. situation varies with temperament.
Aaron Beck Beck’s cognitive therapy can help
patients question their perceptions,
leading to a more positive outlook.

situation that leads to anxiety and pains to demonstrate that it was his treatments, as did many other
unhappiness. A more rational way the therapy that was successful, psychotherapists in the 1980s. This
of looking at the promotion would and not the therapist. has resulted in the varied forms of
be to see it as a reward, or even a cognitive behavioral therapy that
challenge. It is not the situation Beck was not the only, or are used by psychologists today.
that is causing the depression, even the first, psychologist to
but the patient’s perception of it. find traditional psychoanalysis Beck’s pioneering work marked
Cognitive therapy could help him to unsatisfactory, but his use of a a turning point for psychotherapy,
recognize how distorted it is, and cognitive model was innovatory. and his influence is considerable.
find a more realistic and positive He had been influenced in his As well as bringing a cognitive
way of thinking about the situation. reaction against psychoanalysis approach into clinical psychology,
by the work of Albert Ellis, who Beck subjected it to scientific
Empirical evidence had developed Rational Emotive scrutiny, exposing the weaknesses
Beck’s cognitive therapy worked. Behavior Therapy (REBT) in the of psychoanalysis. In the process,
for a large number of his patients. mid-1950s, and he was no doubt he introduced several methods for
What is more, he was able to aware of the work of behaviorists assessing the nature and severity
demonstrate that it worked, as elsewhere in the world, including of depression that are still used:
he applied scientific methods the South Africans Joseph Wolpe the Beck Depression Inventory
to ensure that he had empirical and Arnold A. Lazarus. Although (BDI), the Beck Hopelessness Scale,
evidence for his findings. He different in approach, their the Beck Scale for Suicidal Ideation
designed special assessments therapies shared with Beck’s a (BSS), and the Beck Anxiety
for his patients, so that he could thoroughly scientific methodology Inventory (BAI). ■
monitor their progress closely. and a rejection of the importance
The results showed that cognitive of unconscious causes of mental Don’t trust me,
therapy was making his patients and emotional disorders. test me.
feel better, and feel better more
quickly, than was the case under Once the success of cognitive Aaron Beck
traditional psychoanalysis. Beck’s therapy had been established, it
insistence on providing evidence was used increasingly for treating
for any claims he made for his depression, and later Beck found
therapy opened it up to objective that it could also be helpful for other
scrutiny. Above all, he was most conditions, such as personality
anxious to avoid acquiring the disorders and even schizophrenia.
guru-like status of many successful Always open to new ideas—as long
psychoanalysts, and was at great as it could be shown that they were
effective—Beck also incorporated
elements of behavior therapy into

WE CAN LISTEN

TO ONLY

ONE VOICE

AT ONCE

DONALD BROADBENT (1926–1993)



180 DONALD BROADBENT I n Britain prior to World War II, psychology and the kind of
psychology as an academic problems it addresses, which led
IN CONTEXT discipline lagged behind him to look at some of the problems
Europe and the US. Britain’s encountered by pilots in a different
APPROACH psychologists had tended to follow way. He thought these problems
Attention theory in the footsteps of the behaviorist might have psychological causes
and psychotherapeutic schools of and answers, rather than simply
BEFORE thought that had evolved elsewhere. mechanical ones, so after leaving
1640s René Descartes says In the few university psychology the RAF, he went to Cambridge
the human body is a kind of departments that existed, the University to study psychology.
machine with a mind, or soul. approach followed that of the
natural sciences: the emphasis was Broadbent’s mentor at Cambridge,
1940s British psychologist on practical applications rather Frederic Bartlett, was a kindred
and APU director Kenneth than theoretical speculations. spirit: a thoroughgoing scientist,
Craik prepares flow diagrams and England’s first professor of
comparing human and artificial It was in this unpromising experimental psychology. Bartlett
information processing. academic environment that Donald believed that the most important
Broadbent, who went on to become theoretical discoveries are often
AFTER one of the most influential of the made while attempting to find
1959 George Armitage Miller’s early cognitive psychologists, found solutions to practical problems. This
studies suggest that short-term himself when he left the Royal Air idea appealed to Broadbent, and
memory can hold a maximum Force after the war and decided to prompted him to continue working
of seven pieces of information. study psychology. However, the under Bartlett at the new Applied
practical approach proved ideal Psychology Unit (APU) after it
1964 British psychologist for Broadbent, who was able to opened in 1944. It was during his
Anne Treisman suggests that make perfect use of his wartime time there that Broadbent was to
less important information is experience as an aeronautical do his most groundbreaking work.
not eliminated at the filter engineer and pilot. He chose to ignore the then-
stage but attenuated (like dominant behaviorist approach to
turning down the volume) Practical psychology psychology and to concentrate on
so it can still be “shadowed” Broadbent had enlisted in the RAF the practical problems he had come
by the mind. when he was 17, and he was sent across in his time in the RAF. For
to the US as part of his training. example, pilots sometimes confused
Here he first became aware of similar-looking controls; in some

Information from the senses… …is briefly held in the
short-term memory store…

…so that only one piece of information is …then passed through a filter…
selected for attention.

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 181

See also: René Descartes 20–21 ■ George Armitage Miller 168–73 ■
Daniel Schacter 208–09 ■ Frederic Bartlett 335–36

A World War II plane incorporates a Broadbent was influenced in his Donald Broadbent
dazzling display of informational data; thinking about how we process
Broadbent was interested in discovering information by another product of Born in Birmingham, England,
how pilots prioritized information and wartime research: the development Donald Broadbent considered
what design changes would aid this. of computers and the idea of himself to be Welsh, since he
“artificial intelligence.” The first spent his teenage years
planes, the lever for pulling up the director of the APU, Kenneth in Wales after his parents’
wheels was identical to the one for Craik, had left the unit important divorce. He won a scholarship
pulling up the flaps, and the two manuscripts and flow diagrams to the prestigious Winchester
were situated together under the comparing human and artificial College, then joined the Royal
seat; this led to frequent accidents. information processing, which Air Force aged 17, where he
Broadbent thought these incidents Broadbent clearly studied. trained as a pilot and studied
could be avoided if the capacities aeronautical engineering.
and limitations of the pilots were At the same time, code breakers
taken into consideration during such as the mathematician Alan After leaving the RAF in
the design process, rather than Turing had been tackling the notion 1947, he studied psychology
surfacing at the point of use. of information processing, and in under Frederic Bartlett at
the postwar period he applied this Cambridge, then joined the
Broadbent was interested in to the idea of a “thinking machine.” newly founded Applied
using psychology not only to design The comparison of a machine to Psychology Unit (APU),
better equipment, but also to reach the workings of the brain was a becoming its director in 1958.
a better understanding of what powerful analogy, but it was Married twice, he was a shy,
affected the pilots’ capabilities. Broadbent who turned the idea famously generous man whose
They clearly had to cope with large around, considering the human “puritanical streak” led him
amounts of incoming information, brain as a kind of information- to believe that his work was
and then had to select the relevant processing machine. This, in a privilege and should always
data they needed to make good essence, is what distinguishes be of real use. In 1974, he
decisions. It seemed to him that cognitive psychology from was awarded the CBE and
mistakes were often made when behaviorism: it is the study of appointed a fellow of Wolfson
there were too many sources of mental processes, rather than their College, Oxford, where he
incoming information. manifestation in behavior. ❯❯ remained until his retirement
in 1991. He died two years
later of a heart attack, aged 66.

Key works

1958 Perception and
Communication
1971 Decision and Stress
1993 The Simulation of Human
Intelligence

182 DONALD BROADBENT

To study how our attention works, Our mind can be conceived use to “filter out” the irrelevant
Broadbent needed to design as a radio receiving many information from the masses of
experiments that would back up data we receive through our senses
his hunches. His background in channels at once. all the time. Following the air traffic
engineering meant that he would Donald Broadbent control model, he chose to present
not be satisfied until he had aural (sound-based) information
evidence on which to base a theory, could only effectively deal with one through headphones to the subjects
and he also wanted that research message at a time. What interested of his experiment. The system was
to have a practical application. him was the mental process that set up so that he could relay two
The APU was dedicated to applied must take place in order for them to different streams of information at
psychology, which for Broadbent select the most important message the same time—one to the left ear
referred not only to therapeutic from the various sources of incoming and one to the right—and then test
applications, but also to applications information. He felt that there must the subjects on their retention of
that benefited society as a whole; be some kind of mechanism in the that information.
he was always very conscious that brain that processes the information
his research was publicly funded. and makes that selection. As Broadbent had suspected, the
subjects were unable to reproduce
One voice at a time The experiment that Broadbent all the information from both
One of Broadbent’s most important devised, now known as the dichotic channels of input. His feeling that
experiments was suggested by his listening experiment, was one of we can only listen to one voice at
experience with air traffic control. the first in the field of selective once had been confirmed, but still
Ground crew often had to deal with attention—the process our brains the question remained as to exactly
several streams of incoming how the subject had chosen to retain
information simultaneously, sent some of the incoming information
from planes arriving and departing, and effectively disregard the rest.
which was relayed to the operators
by radio and received through Thinking back to his initial
headphones. The air traffic training as an engineer, Broadbent
controllers then had to make quick suggested a mechanical model to
decisions based on that information, explain what he felt was happening
and Broadbent had noticed that they in the brain. He believed that when
there are multiple sources of input,
they may reach a “bottleneck” if the
brain is unable to continue to process
all the incoming information; at this
point, there must be some kind of
“filter” that lets through only one
channel of input. The analogy he
uses to explain this is typically
practical: he describes a Y-shaped
tube, into which two flows of ping
pong balls are channeled. At the
junction of the two branches of the
tube, there is a flap that acts to
block one flow of balls or the other;
this allows balls from the unblocked
channel into the stem of the tube.

Air traffic controllers have to deal
with a multitude of simultaneous
signals. By re-creating this problem in
listening experiments, Broadbent was
able to identify attention processes.

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 183

A question still remained, however: Our short-term Information from all
at what stage does this filter come memories are like the senses is fed in...
into operation? In a series of a Y-shaped tube.
experiments that were variations
on his original dichotic listening ...which creates a
tasks, Broadbent established that “bottleneck” where
information is received by the information must be
senses and then passed on in
its entirety to some kind of store, filtered...
which he called the short-term
memory store. It is at this stage, he ...so that only one stream
believes, that the filtering occurs. of information is
His description of how and when processed.
information is selected for attention
is known as the “Broadbent Filter many conversations to give our important implications when
Model,” and it demonstrated a attention to, and which to ignore? applied to air traffic control, for
completely new approach to And how is it possible to be example, where decisions could
experimental psychology, not only distracted from our focused be made on possibly irrelevant or
in combining the theoretical with attention on conversation “A” inaccurate information, rather than
the practical, but also in considering by conversations “B” or “C”? being prioritized according to
the workings of the brain as a form meaning and importance.
of information processing. To help answer these questions,
Broadbent turned his attention to Broadbent and Cherry worked
The cocktail party problem the nature of the filter in his model. together on many dichotic listening
Broadbent was not the only person Precisely what information does experiments to test the filtering
to address the problem of selective it filter out, and what does it allow process. They realized that filtering
attention. Another British scientist, through? Following another process is also affected by expectation. In
Colin Cherry, also investigated the of rigorous experimenting, he found one experiment, participants were
subject during the 1950s. Working that the selection is made not on asked to listen to different sets of
in communication rather than the content of the information (what numbers presented simultaneously
psychology, Cherry posed what he is being said), but on the physical to each ear. In some cases they
called the “cocktail party problem:” characteristics of any message, were instructed which ear (the
how, at a party where lots of people such as clarity or tone of voice. information channel) they would
are talking, do we select which of This suggests that even though be asked about first; in others no
information is stored, albeit very instructions were given. The
One of the two voices is briefly, in short-term memory, it results showed that when people
selected for response without is only after filtering that it is know which ear is receiving the
reference to its correctness, processed for meaning and actually stream of information they will
understood. This finding had be asked for first, they switch ❯❯
and the other is ignored.
Donald Broadbent

184 DONALD BROADBENT

attention to that ear, and the comprehension, and memory. problem, and in particular one
information that enters the other The timing was significant, as phenomenon Cherry had identified
ear is not always accurately it coincided with a divergence of concerning the nature of information
retrieved from memory. In all cases opinion about the importance that is selected for attention. When
the information that people chose of behaviorism in the US, and the an overheard conversation includes
or were asked to remember first book slowly became known information that has some kind of
seemed to be processed more as one of the landmarks in the special significance for a person—
accurately than the later material; development of the new cognitive such as a personal name—the
it was thought this might be due to psychology. As a result, Broadbent attention is switched toward that
parts of the information being lost was recognized, by his peers if conversation, and away from the
from the short-term memory store not the public, as the first major one previously attended to.
before the participant tried to psychologist Britain had produced,
retrieve it. In 1957, Broadbent and was rewarded the same year Further dichotic listening
wrote: “We can listen to only one by being appointed director of the experiments at the APU bore out
voice at once, and the first words APU to succeed Bartlett. Cherry’s findings: attention is
we hear are the best recalled.” filtered by physical characteristics
Not one to rest on his laurels, but also by meaning, using feedback
Modifying the model however, Broadbent saw his new from memory stores, prior experience,
In 1958, Broadbent published the appointment as an opportunity to and expectations. The sound of a
results of his research in a book, continue his work on attention, siren, for instance, would divert
Perception and Communication, widening the scope of his research attention on to that stream of sound.
which effectively outlined a and refining the theory. From the This suggests that information is in
framework for studying attention, starting point of his filter model, some way understood before being
he returned to the cocktail party selected for attention.

Sarah

Sarah?

People at a cocktail
party may be listening
to one conversation,
but then become aware
of (and switch attention
to) another, if it includes
personally significant
information.

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 185

The test of a psychological
theory, as well as its moral

justification, lies in its
application to concrete
practical considerations.
Donald Broadbent

Complex industrial processes could
be transformed in efficiency, Broadbent
thought, through the application of
psychology. He was committed to
producing genuinely useful research.

Broadbent realized that his filter and their causes. In each case the shape the development of cognitive
model needed modification, but results of his experiments led to science. His work also established
was pleased rather than dismayed refinements of his theories. In 1971, applied psychology as an important
to have to make the changes. As a he published a second book, approach for problem-solving,
scientist, he felt that all scientific Decision and Stress, which detailed increasing its impact well beyond
theories are temporary, derived an extended version of his filter the confines of the laboratory. A key
from the evidence available at the theory. Like its predecessor, this figure in the founding of cognitive
time, and so susceptible to change book became a classic textbook of psychology, his research into
in the light of new evidence; this is cognitive psychology. attention laid the groundwork for a
how science progresses. new field of enquiry that continues
The cognitive approach to yield rich results today. ■
The work of the APU centered Broadbent’s books did not reach
around Broadbent’s research into the general public, but were widely His psychology was intended
attention, but this allowed for a read by scientists from other for society and its problems,
constantly widening range of disciplines. His comparison of the not merely for the dwellers
applications. Broadbent worked workings of the human brain with
tirelessly to ensure that his work electronic machines became more in ivory towers.
was practically useful, examining and more relevant as interest in Fergus Craik and
the effects of noise, heat, and stress computing increased. His model
on attention in work environments, of the various stages of human Alan Baddely
and he constantly reviewed his information processing—acquisition,
ideas as he worked. In the process, storage, retrieval, and use—echoed
he gained government support for the work on artificial intelligence
his ideas, and the respect of many at that time.
industries whose practices were
improved by his work. This led to Broadbent was instrumental in
yet more research into areas such setting up a Joint Council Initiative
as differences of attention between on Cognitive Science and Human-
individuals, and lapses of attention Computer Interaction, which helped

TIME’S ARROW

IS BENT

INTO A LOOP

ENDEL TULVING (1927– )



188 ENDEL TULVING Episodic memory is made up of events and
experiences that are stored in long-term memory.
IN CONTEXT
It is distinct from semantic Memories of our
APPROACH memory, which is our experiences are associated
Memory studies with particular times and
long-term memory store for places and can be triggered
BEFORE facts and knowledge.
1878 Hermann Ebbinghaus by these cues.
conducts the first scientific
study of human memory. Associated sensory cues such as a particular
song or scent can also help us recall seemingly
1927 Bluma Zeigarnik
describes how interrupted complete memories of past events.
tasks are better remembered
than uninterrupted ones. Only humans can “travel back in time” to
reflect on their experiences in this way…
1960s Jerome Bruner stresses
the importance of organization …as if time’s arrow is bent into a loop.
and categorization in the
learning process.

AFTER
1979 Elizabeth Loftus looks at
distortions of memory in her
book Eyewitness Testimony.

1981 Gordon H. Bower makes
the link between events and
emotions in memory.

2001 Daniel Schacter
publishes The Seven Sins of
Memory: How the Mind
Forgets and Remembers.

M emory was one of the studies, notably by Bluma Zeigarnik area of study. Forced to abandon
first fields of study for and Frederic Bartlett in the 1920s the study of visual perception due
psychologists in the and 30s, memory was largely ignored to a lack of facilities, Tulving turned
19th century, as it was closely as a topic until the “cognitive his attention to memory. The
connected with the concept of revolution” took place following funding deficit also shaped his
consciousness, which had formed World War II. Cognitive psychologists approach to the subject, designing
the bridge between philosophy and began to explore the idea of the experiments that used no more
psychology. Hermann Ebbinghaus brain as an information processor, than a pen, some paper, and a
in particular devoted much of his and this provided a model for the supply of index cards.
research to the scientific study of storage of memory: it was seen as
memory and learning, but the next a process, whereby some items The free-recall method
generation of psychologists turned passed from short-term or working Learning about the subject as he
their attention to a behaviorist memory into long-term memory. went along, Tulving worked in a
study of learning, and “conditioning” rather unorthodox way, which
replaced memory as the focus of By the time Endel Tulving occasionally earned him criticism
research. Apart from a few isolated finished his doctorate in 1957, from his peers, and was to make
memory was once more a central

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 189

See also: Hermann Ebbinghaus 48–49 ■ Bluma Zeigarnik 162 ■ George Armitage Miller 168–73 ■ Gordon H. Bower
194–95 ■ Elizabeth Loftus 202–07 ■ Daniel Schacter 208–09 ■ Roger Brown 237 ■ Frederic Bartlett 335

publishing his results difficult. His the better they organize the In the course of his research,
maverick instincts did, however, information, the better they are Tulving was struck by the fact
lead to some truly innovative able to remember it. His subjects that there seemed to be different
research. One hurriedly designed, were also able to recall a word kinds of memory. The distinction
ad hoc demonstration to a class of when given a cue in the form of between long-term memory and
students in the early 1960s was to the category (such as “animals”) short-term memory had already
provide him with the model for in which they had mentally filed been established, but Tulving felt
many later experiments. He read that word. Tulving concluded that there was more than one kind of
out a random list of 20 everyday although all the words memorized long-term memory. He saw a
words to the students, and then from the list were actually available difference between memories
asked them to write down as many for remembering, the ones that that are knowledge-based (facts
as they could recall, in any order. were organized by subject were and data), and those that are
As he expected, most of them more readily accessible to memory, experience-based (events and
managed to remember around especially when the appropriate conversations). He proposed a
half of the list. He then asked them cue was given. division of long-term memory into
about the words that they had not two distinct types: semantic
remembered, giving hints such as Memory types memory, the store of facts; and
“Wasn’t there a color on the list?,” Where previous psychologists episodic memory, the repository
after which the student could often had concentrated on the process of our personal history and events.
provide the correct answer. of storing information, and the
failings of that process, Tulving Tulving’s experiments had
Tulving developed a series of made a distinction between two demonstrated that organization of
experiments on this “free recall” different processes—storage and semantic information, such as lists
method, during which he noticed retrieval of information—and of words, helps efficient recollection,
that people tend to group words showed how the two were linked. and the same appeared to be true
together into meaningful categories; of episodic memory. But where ❯❯

ANIMALS FOOD

TRANSPORTATION TOOLS

In Tulving’s free recall experiments, people were asked
to remember as many words as possible from a random list.
“Forgotten” words were often recalled using category cues.
They were stored in memory but temporarily inaccessible.

190 ENDEL TULVING

semantic memories are organized Remembering is memorable event—such as the 9/11
into meaningful categories of subject mental time travel. terrorist attacks—occurs, are an
matter, episodic memories are Endel Tulving extreme example of this.
organized by relation to the specific
time or circumstances in which Emotional events such as weddings Tulving described recollection
they were originally stored. For give rise to episodic memories. These from episodic memory as “mental
example, a particular conversation are stored in such a way that the time travel,” involving us in a
may have taken place during a person remembering relives the event, revisiting of the past to access
birthday dinner, and the memory in a form of “time travel.” the memory. In his later work he
of what was said would be stored pointed out that episodic memory
in association with that occasion. provide a retrieval cue for the is unique in featuring a subjective
Just as the category of “city” might semantic memory “Beijing,” the sense of time. Specific to humans,
mention of “40th birthday” might it involves not merely awareness of
act as a cue for the retrieval of what has been, but also of what
what had been said over that may come about. This unique
dinner. The more strongly these ability allows us to reflect on our
autobiographical memories are lives, worry about future events,
associated with the time and and make plans. It is what enables
circumstances of their occurrence, humankind to “take full advantage
the greater their accessibility is of its awareness of its continued
likely to be. “Flashbulb memories,” existence in time” and has allowed
which are stored when a highly us to transform the natural world
into one of numerous civilizations
and cultures. Through this facility,
“time’s arrow is bent into a loop.”

Encoding information
Tulving realized that organization
is the key to efficient recall for both
semantic and episodic memory, and
that the brain somehow organizes
information so that specific facts
and events are “pigeonholed” with
related items. Recalling that specific

Endel Tulving Born the son of a judge in Tartu, University of Toronto, where
Estonia, Endel Tulving was he graduated in psychology in
educated at a private school for 1953, and took his MA degree in
boys, and although a model 1954. He then moved to Harvard
student, he was more interested where he gained a PhD for his
in sports than academic subjects. thesis on visual perception.
When Russia invaded in 1944, In 1956, Tulving returned to the
he and his brother escaped to University of Toronto, where he
Germany to finish their studies continues to teach to this day.
and did not see their parents again
until the death of Stalin 25 years Key works
later. After World War II, Tulving
worked as a translator for the 1972 Organization of Memory
American army and briefly 1983 Elements of Episodic
attended medical school before Memory
emigrating to Canada in 1949. He 1999 Memory, Consciousness,
was accepted as a student at the and the Brain

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 191

information is then made easier Different types of memory are Semantic memory
by direction to the appropriate physically distinct, according to stores facts and
pigeonhole—the brain “knows Tulving, because each behaves and knowledge.
where to look” for the memory it functions in a significantly
wants and can narrow down the different way. Episodic memory
search. The implication, he stores events and
believed, is that the brain encodes recollection, even though the
each memory for storage in long-term information is stored and available recollections.
memory, so that specific memories in long-term memory.
can be located for recollection by a Procedural memory
more general retrieval cue. The Unlike previous theories of stores methods and
cues that prompt episodic memory memory, Tulving’s encoding principle techniques.
are usually sensory. A specific sound, made a distinction between memory
such as a piece of music, or a scent that is available and that which is are active during encoding and
can trigger a complete memory. accessible. When someone is unable retrieval of memory, and establish
to recall a piece of information, it that episodic memory is associated
Tulvings’s theory of the does not mean that it is “forgotten” with the medial temporal lobe and,
“encoding specificity principle” in the sense that it has faded or specifically, the hippocampus.
was especially applicable to simply disappeared from long-term
episodic memory. Memories of memory; it may still be stored, and Partly due to his unorthodox
specific past events are encoded therefore be available—the problem and untutored approach, Tulving
according to the time of their is one of retrieval. made innovative insights that
occurrence, along with other proved inspirational to other
memories of the same time. He Scanning for memory psychologists, including some of
found that the most effective cue Tulving’s research into the storage his former students such as Daniel
for retrieving any specific episodic and retrieval of memory opened up Schacter. Tulving’s focus on storage
memory is the one which overlaps a whole new area for psychological and retrieval provided a new way of
with it most, since this is stored study. The publication of his thinking about memory, but it was
together with the memory to be findings in the 1970s coincided perhaps his distinction between
retrieved. Retrieval cues are with a new determination by many semantic and episodic memory that
necessary to access episodic cognitive psychologists to find was his breakthrough contribution.
memory, but not always sufficient, confirmation of their theories in It allowed subsequent psychologists
because sometimes the relationship neuroscience, using brain-imaging to increase the complexity of the
is not close enough to allow techniques that had just become model to include such concepts as
available. In conjunction with procedural memory (remembering
Relating what we know neuroscientists, Tulving was able how to do something), and the
about the behavior of memory to map the areas of the brain that difference between explicit memory
(of which we are consciously aware)
to the underlying neural and implicit memory (of which we
structures is not have no conscious awareness,
but which nonetheless continues
at all obvious. That’s to affect us). These topics remain
real science. of great interest to cognitive
psychologists today. ■
Endel Tulving

192

PERCEPTION IS
EXTERNALLY GUIDED
HALLUCINATION

ROGER N. SHEPARD (1929– )

IN CONTEXT H ow the mind makes use An optical illusion creates confusion
of information gathered in the viewer, demonstrating that we are
APPROACH from the external world not just perceiving, but also attempting
Perception has been a major concern for to fit the sensory data to what we
philosophers and psychologists already understand in the mind’s eye.
BEFORE throughout history. Exactly how
1637 René Descartes in his do we use the information gained world and mental visualization.
treatise Discourse on the through our senses? In the early Perception, Shepard said, is
Method suggests that though 1970s, cognitive and mathematical “externally guided hallucination,”
our senses can be deceived, psychologist Roger Shepard and he described the processes
we are thinking beings with proposed new theories of how of dreaming and hallucination as
innate knowledge. the brain processes “sense data.” “internally simulated perception.”

1920s Gestalt theorists study Shepard argued that our brains Shepard’s research introduced
visual perception, finding that not only process sense data, but also revolutionary techniques for
people tend to view objects make inferences from it, based on an identifying the hidden structure
comprising composite parts internal model of the physical world of mental representations and
as a unified whole. where we can visualize objects in processes. His work in visual and
three dimensions. The experiment auditory perception, mental imagery,
1958 Donald Broadbent’s book he used to prove this, in which and representation has influenced
Perception and Communication subjects tried to ascertain whether generations of psychologists. ■
introduces a truly cognitive two tables—each drawn from a
approach to the psychology different angle—were the same,
of perception. showed that we are able to perform
what Shepard called “mental
AFTER rotation:” turning one of the tables
1986 American experimental in our mind’s eye for comparison.
psychologist Michael Kubovy
publishes The Psychology Shepard used a series of optical
of Perspective and (and aural) illusions to demonstrate
Renaissance Art. that our brains interpret sense data
using both knowledge of the external

See also: René Descartes 20–21 ■ Wolfgang Köhler 160–61 ■
Jerome Bruner 164–65 ■ Donald Broadbent 178–85 ■ Max Wertheimer 335

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 193

WE ARE CONSTANTLY
ON THE LOOKOUT FOR
CAUSAL CONNECTIONS

DANIEL KAHNEMAN (1934– )

IN CONTEXT U ntil very recently, our Israeli-American Daniel Kahneman,
perception of risk and with Amos Tversky, reexamined
APPROACH the way that we make theories of how we make decisions
Prospect theory our decisions was considered to when faced with uncertainty, in
be more a matter of probability Judgment under Uncertainty:
BEFORE and statistics than psychology. Heuristics and Biases (1974). They
1738 The Dutch-Swiss However, cognitive psychology, found the general belief that people
mathematician Daniel with its emphasis on mental made decisions based on statistics
Bernoulli proposes the processes, brought the concepts and probability was not true in
expected utility hypothesis of perception and judgment to practice. Instead, people base their
to explain decision-making the field of problem-solving, with decisions on “rule of thumb”—on
preferences in situations some surprising results. specific examples or small samples.
involving risk. Consequently, judgments can
After observing a long frequently be wrong, because they
1917 Wolfgang Köhler publishes run of red on the roulette are based on information that
The Mentality of Apes—his comes easily to mind, rather than
study of problem-solving wheel, most people that has actual probability.
in chimpanzees. erroneously believe that
Kahneman and Tversky noticed
1940s Edward Tolman’s black is now due. this experience-based method of
studies on animal behavior Daniel Kahneman & problem-solving has a pattern: we
open up a new area of tend to overestimate the likelihood
research into motivation Amos Tversky of things with low probability (such
and decision-making. as a plane crash), and underestimate
those with a higher probability (such
AFTER as crashing while driving drunk).
1980 US economist Richard
Thaler publishes the first These findings formed the basis
paper on the subject of of Kahneman and Tversky’s prospect
behavioral economics: theory, proposed in 1979, and led to
Toward a Positive Theory the collaborative field of psychology
of Consumer Choice. known as behavioral economics. ■

See also: Edward Tolman 72–73 ■ Wolfgang Köhler 160–61

194

EVENTS AND EMOTION
ARE STORED IN
MEMORY TOGETHER

GORDON H. BOWER (1932– )

IN CONTEXT When we are in a When we are in an
happy mood, we tend unhappy mood, we tend
APPROACH to store in memory the
Memory studies to store in memory the
positive things negative things
BEFORE that happen... that happen...
1927 Bluma Zeigarnik
describes the “Zeigarnik ...because we pay more attention
effect” of interrupted tasks to the information that agrees with
being better remembered
than uninterrupted ones. our mood.

1956 George Armitage Events and emotion are stored
Miller’s The Magical Number in memory together.
7, Plus or Minus 2 provides a
cognitive model for storage When we are happy, When we are unhappy,
in short-term memory. we find it easier to we find it easier to

1972 Endel Tulving makes a recall memories from recall memories from
distinction between semantic a happy time. an unhappy time.
and episodic memory.

AFTER
1977 Roger Brown coins the
term “flashbulb memory” for
autobiographical memory
connected with highly
emotional events.

2001 Daniel Schacter
publishes The Seven Sins of
Memory, which categorizes
the ways that memory can fail.

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 195

See also: Bluma Zeigarnik 162 ■ George Armitage Miller 168–73 ■ Endel Tulving 186–91 ■ Paul Ekman 196–97 ■
Daniel Schacter 208–09 ■ Roger Brown 237

T he 1950s saw a revival of that we form an association between An idyllic vacation, according to
interest in the study of our emotional state and what is Bower, is more easily recalled when we
memory. Increasingly going on around us, and the emotion are in a happy mood. Bad memories of
sophisticated models of short- and and the information are stored in the trip are likely to be forgotten, or
long-term memory were developed, memory together. It is then easier to only remembered when we are unhappy.
in order to explain how information recall facts that we learned when
is selected, organized, stored, and we were in the same mood as we Bower’s findings led him to study
retrieved. The ways in which are when recollecting them. people in various emotional states,
memories could be forgotten or retrospectively observing their
distorted were also identified. Bower also discovered that videotaped interactions with others.
emotion plays a part in the type of Memory and judgement of past
Memory and mood information that the brain stores. behavior varied with current mood.
By the 1970s, the focus in learning When we are happy, he observed This research helped Bower to
theory and memory had moved to that we tend to notice—and refine his ideas about emotion and
investigating why some memories therefore remember—positive memory, and inspired further
are better stored or more easily things; when we are sad, negative psychological examination of the
retrieved than others. One of the things attract our attention and are role emotions play in our lives. ■
foremost psychologists in the field, committed to memory more easily.
Gordon H. Bower, had noticed that For example, Bower found that
emotion appeared to impact on unhappy people recalled details of
memory. Bower carried out studies a sad story better than those who
in which people learned lists of were happy when they read it. He
words while in different moods, and called this “mood-congruent
later had to recall them, again when processing,” and concluded that
in varying emotional states. He episodic memory—of events, not
uncovered what he called “mood- just words or facts—is especially
dependent retrieval:” whatever a linked to emotions. The events and
person has learned when unhappy emotions are stored together, and
is easier to recall when they are we remember best the events that
again unhappy. Bower concluded match our mood, both when they
occurred, and when recalling them.

Gordon H. Bower Stanford University, California, People who are happy
where he taught until his during the initial experience
Gordon H. Bower was brought retirement in 2005. His research learn the happy events better;
up in Scio, Ohio. At high school, there helped to develop the field
he was more interested in of cognitive science, and in 2005 angry people learn anger-
baseball and playing jazz than Bower was awarded the US provoking events better.
studying, until a teacher National Medal of Science for
introduced him to the works of his contributions to cognitive Gordon H. Bower
Sigmund Freud. He went on to and mathematical psychology.
graduate in psychology at Case
Western Reserve University, Key works
Cleveland, switching to Yale
for his PhD in learning theory, 1966, 1975 Theories of Learning
which he completed in 1959. (with Ernest Hilgard)
1981 Mood and Memory
From Yale, Bower moved on 1991 Psychology of Learning
to the internationally acclaimed and Motivation (Volume 27)
psychology department of

196

EMOTIONS ARE A
RUNAWAY TRAIN

PAUL EKMAN (1934– )

IN CONTEXT E motions, and more When Ekman began his research
especially emotional in the 1970s, it was assumed that
APPROACH disorders, played a large we learn to physically express
Psychology of emotions part in psychotherapy from its emotions according to a set of
beginnings, but they were seen social conventions, which differ
BEFORE more as symptoms to be treated from culture to culture. Ekman
1960s The study of isolated than as something to be examined traveled widely to all corners of the
tribal communities by in their own right. One of the first world, first photographing people in
American anthropologist to realize that emotions deserved the “developed countries,” such as
Margaret Mead suggests as much attention as thought Japan and Brazil, and then people
that facial expressions are processes, drives, and behavior in far-flung, cut-off places without
culture-specific. was Paul Ekman, who came to access to radio or television, such
the subject through his research as the jungles of Papua New
1960s American psychologist into nonverbal behavior and Guinea. He found tribespeople
Silvan Tomkins (Ekman’s facial expressions. could interpret facial expressions as
mentor) proposes his Affect
Theory of Emotions, distinct Emotions can and Emotions can
from the basic Freudian drives often do start before override some of our
of sex, fear, and the will to live. our conscious mind is most fundamental
drives (disgust can
1970s Gordon H. Bower aware of them.
uncovers and defines the override hunger).
links between emotional
states and memory. It is therefore Emotions are
difficult to control powerful and difficult
AFTER
2000s The findings of what we become to hold back, like a
Ekman’s work on facial emotional about. runaway train.
expressions and deception
are incorporated into security
procedures used by public
transport systems.

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 197

See also: William James 38–45 ■ Gordon H. Bower 194–95 ■ Nico Frijda 324–25 ■ Charlotte Bühler 336 ■ René Diatkine
338 ■ Stanley Schachter 338

The Six Basic Emotions

Anger Disgust Fear Happiness Sadness Surprise

well as anyone in more globally- mind has time to register the Ekman that a better understanding
aware countries, which suggests causes of that emotion. Ekman of emotions would help to overcome
that facial expressions are universal inferred not only that our faces can some mental disorders. We may be
products of human evolution. reveal our inner emotional state, unable to control our emotions, but
but that the emotions responsible we may be able to make changes to
Basic emotions for these involuntary expressions are the things that trigger them and
Ekman came up with six basic more powerful than psychologists the behavior they lead to.
emotions—anger, disgust, fear, had previously thought.
happiness, sadness, and surprise— Running parallel to his work
and because of their ubiquity, In Emotions Revealed, Ekman on emotions, Ekman pioneered
concluded they must be important states that emotions can be more research into deception and the
to psychological make-up. He noted powerful than the Freudian drives ways we try to hide our feelings.
that facial expressions linked to of sex, hunger, and even the will to He identified small tell-tale signs,
these emotions are involuntary— live. For example, embarassment or which he called “microexpressions,”
we react automatically to things fear can override libido, preventing detectable when someone is either
that trigger these emotional a satisfactory sex life. Extreme consciously or unconsciously
responses—and that this reaction unhappiness can override the will concealing something. This has
often happens before our conscious to live. The power of the “runaway proved useful in devising security
train” of emotions convinced measures to counter terrorism. ■

Paul Ekman Paul Ekman was born and spent nonverbal behavior and facial
his early childhood in Newark, expressions. This work led to his
New Jersey. At the outbreak of studies of the concealment of
World War II, his family moved emotions in facial expressions,
west to Washington, then Oregon, which in turn took Ekman deep
and eventually southern California. into the then-unexplored field of
Aged just 15, Ekman took up a the psychology of emotions. He
place at the University of Chicago, was appointed Professor of
where he became interested in Psychology at UCSF in 1972,
Freud and psychotherapy, and and remained there until his
went on to study for his doctorate retirement in 2004.
in clinical psychology at Adelphi
University, New York. After a brief Key works
spell working for the US Army,
he moved to the University of 1985 Telling Lies
California, San Francisco (UCSF), 2003 Emotions Revealed
where he began his research into 2008 Emotional Awareness

198

ECSTASY IS
A STEP INTO AN
ALTERNATIVE REALITY

MIHALY CSIKSZENTMIHALYI (1934– )

IN CONTEXT D uring the “cognitive Carl Rogers were beginning to
revolution,” there was a think about what constituted a
APPROACH growing movement in good and happy life, rather than
Positive psychology clinical psychology away from merely alleviating the misery of
seeing patients solely in terms depression and anxiety. From this
BEFORE of their disorders, toward a more grew a movement of “positive
1943 Abraham Maslow’s A holistic, humanistic approach. psychology,” which concentrated
Theory of Human Motivation Psychologists such as Erich on finding ways to achieve this
lays the foundations for a Fromm, Abraham Maslow, and good and happy life.
humanistic psychology.
When we engage in an activity that we enjoy and that gives
1951 Carl Rogers publishes enough challenge to our skills…
Client-Centered Therapy, a
humanistic approach to …we become absorbed in that activity and reach
psychotherapy. a state of “flow” in which…

1960s Aaron Beck introduces …we are …we feel a …we feel a …we have a
cognitive therapy as an totally sense of sense of feeling of
alternative to psychoanalysis. serenity.
focused. timelessness. inner clarity.
1990s Martin Seligman
switches from “learned Above all, we are not conscious of ourselves or the
helplessness” and depression world around us.
to “positive psychology.”
Flow is similar to a state of ecstasy.
AFTER
1997 Csíkszentmihályi works
on The GoodWork Project with
William Damon and Howard
Gardner, publishing Good Work:
When Excellence and Ethics
Meet and Good Business:
Leadership, Flow, and the
Making of Meaning in 2002.