DK SMITHSONIAN TIMELINES OF EVERYTHING

TIMELINES OF
EVERYTHING



smithsonian

TIMELINES OF
EVERYTHING

Senior Art Editor Smiljka Surla Traveling through time
Senior Editor Sam Atkinson
The earliest events in this book took place a very long
Project Editors Steven Carton, Ben Ffrancon Davies, Sarah Edwards, Sarah MacLeod, time ago. Some dates may be followed by bya, short for
Ben Morgan, Sophie Parkes, Laura Sandford, Pauline Savage, Amanda Wyatt “billion years ago,” mya, short for “million years ago,” or
US Editors Kayla Dugger, Christy Lusiak ya, short for “years ago.” Other dates have bce and ce
Project Designers Sunita Gahir, Alex Lloyd, Gregory McCarthy, after them. These are short for “before the Common
Stefan Podhorodecki, Michelle Staples, Jacqui Swan, Sadie Thomas Era” and “Common Era.” The Common Era dates from
when people think Jesus was born. Where the exact
Illustrators Acute Graphics, Peter Bull, Edwood Burn, Sunita Gahir, Clare Joyce, date of an event is not known, “c.” is used. This is short
KJA Artists, Arran Lewis, Alex Lloyd, Maltings Partnership, Gus Scott for the Latin word circa, meaning “around,” and
DK Media Archive Romaine Werblow indicates that the date is approximate.
Picture Researchers Sarah Hopper, Jo Walton
Managing Editor Lisa Gillespie
Managing Art Editor Owen Peyton Jones
Producers, Pre-Production David Almond, Andy Hilliard
Senior Producers Alex Bell, Mary Slater
Jacket Designers Surabhi Wadhwa-Gandhi, Juhi Sheth, Smiljka Surla
Jackets Design Development Manager Sophia MTT
Jackets Editor Amelia Collins
Publisher Andrew Macintyre
Art Director Karen Self
Associate Publishing Director Liz Wheeler
Design Director Phil Ormerod
Publishing Director Jonathan Metcalf
Consultant Philip Parker

Contributors Laura Buller, Peter Chrisp, Alexander Cox, Susan Kennedy,
Andrea Mills, Sally Regan

DK Delhi
DTP Designers Jaypal Singh Chauhan, Syed Mohammed Farhan

Senior DTP Designers Neeraj Bhatia, Jagtar Singh
Jackets Designer Juhi Sheth

Jacket Senior DTP Designer Harish Aggarwal
Jacket DTP Designer Rakesh Kumar

Jackets Editorial Coordinator Priyanka Sharma
Managing Jackets Editor Saloni Singh

First American Edition, 2018
Published in the United States by DK Publishing
345 Hudson Street, New York, New York 10014

Copyright © 2018 Dorling Kindersley Limited
DK, a Division of Penguin Random House LLC

18 19 20 21 22 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
001–306015–Oct/2018

All rights reserved.
Without limiting the rights under the copyright reserved above, no part of this publication
may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form,
or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise), without the prior

written permission of the copyright owner.
Published in Great Britain by Dorling Kindersley Limited.
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

ISBN: 978-1-4654-7493-3

DK books are available at special discounts when purchased in bulk for sales promotions,
premiums, fund-raising, or educational use. For details, contact: DK Publishing Special Markets,

345 Hudson Street, New York, New York 10014
[email protected]

Printed and bound in the United Arab Emirates

A WORLD OF IDEAS:
SEE ALL THERE IS TO KNOW

www.dk.com

THE SMITHSONIAN
Established in 1846, the Smithsonian—the world’s largest museum and research complex—includes
19 museums and galleries and the National Zoological Park. The total number of artifacts, works of art, and
specimens in the Smithsonian’s collection is estimated at 154 million. The Smithsonian is a renowned research
center, dedicated to public education, national service, and scholarship in the arts, sciences, and history.

T DHE ANCIENT WORL

12 The story of the Universe 3000 bce–
14 Life on Earth
16 The age of dinosaurs 500 ce
18 End of the dinosaurs
20 Human ancestors 36 Mesopotamia
22 Agriculture 38 Fun and games
24 Working with metals 40 Ancient Egypt
26 Towns and cities 42 Ancient monuments
28 The story of the wheel 44 The Great Sphinx
30 The written word 46 Sharing stories
48 Jewelry
BEFORE 50 The story of sports
3000 bce 52 Ancient Greece
54 Mathematics
PREHISTORY 56 The story of democracy
58 Rise of the Celts
60 The Persian Empire
62 The Battle of Issus
64 The story of philosophy
66 The story of sculpture
68 Early Imperial China
70 Measuring time
72 The Roman Empire
74 Roman technology
76 Religion
78 The destruction of Pompeii
80 Fun and festivals
82 Ancient Indian empires
84 The transformation of the Roman Empire

LD THE AGE OF EXPLORA TION

90 China’s Golden Ages 1450–1750
92 Early Islamic empires
94 Empires of the Americas 132 Technology of writing
96 Germanic peoples 134 Ships
98 Medieval Europe 136 Renaissance
100 The Battle of Crécy 138 Exploring the world
102 The Vikings 140 A route to India
104 The Crusades 142 The story of painting
106 Kingdoms of Southeast Asia 144 The Reformation
108 Angkor Wat 146 Spanish America
110 Rise of the samurai 148 The fall of Tenochtitlán
112 Castles 150 The Ottoman Empire
114 Early North America 152 Astronomy
116 Settling the Pacific 154 Big battles
117 The colonization of the Pacific 156 The Battle of Lepanto
118 African kingdoms 158 Edo Japan
120 The Mongol Empire 160 Colonial America
122 Maps and mapmaking 162 The Scientific Revolution
124 Plagues and epidemics 164 Slavery in the US
126 Weapons and armor 166 The Mughal Empire
168 Ming and Qing China
500–1450 170 Chemistry
172 The story of dance
E MEDIEVAL WOR 174 The Golden Age of Piracy

TH

D 180 The Enlightenment ION T HE MODERN WORL
THE 182 The Great Lisbon Earthquake
184 Natural disasters AFTER 1914
186 The story of music
188 Imperial Russia 248 World War I
190 Birth of the US 250 The 1920s
192 Crossing the Delaware River 251 The 1930s
194 The Industrial Revolution 252 Archaeology
196 Aboriginal Australia 254 The Soviet Union
197 The colonization of Australia 256 The story of skyscrapers
198 The Storming of the Bastille 258 World War II in Europe
200 The French Revolution 260 War at home
202 Medicine 262 The Holocaust
204 The Napoleonic Wars 264 The D-Day landings
206 South American independence 266 The Pacific War
208 Trains 268 Indian independence
210 Spreading the news 269 African independence
212 Engineering 270 The story of spying
214 The US frontier 272 Middle East conflicts
215 Frontier wars 274 Household appliances
216 The 1848 Revolutions 276 The Korean War
218 Biology 277 The Vietnam War
220 The British Empire 278 The 1960s
222 The American Civil War 280 Postcolonial Africa
224 Colonialism in Africa 282 The Cold War
226 Telecommunications 284 Race to the Moon
228 Photography 286 Apollo launches
230 Crime detection 288 The Cuban Missile Crisis
232 Aircraft and aviation 290 The Civil Rights Movement
234 Getting the vote 292 Fashion
236 Physics 294 Space exploration
238 Cars 296 Booming nations
240 Great adventures 298 Computing
242 The voyage of R.M.S. Titanic 300 Feminism
302 The internet
1750–1914 304 Youth culture
306 The story of robotics
AGE OF REVOLUT 308 US presidents
310 British rulers
312 Glossary
314 Index

PREHISTORY

Before 3000 BCE

8



Prehistory

The period before written records were invented around
5,000 years ago is known as prehistory. Most of what we know
about this time comes from remains left behind, such as tools,
bones, and ruined buildings. Until recently, it was difficult to tell how
old these objects were, but scientific advances have allowed us to
put together a much clearer picture of not only human history, but
also the origin of life on Earth, and even of the Universe itself.

13.5 billion years ago 4.3 billion years ago 252 million years ago 1 million years ago
The first stars are born. Life begins on Earth. Dinosaurs become the The ancestors of humans
dominant life form on Earth. begin to use fire.

13.8 billion years ago 4.6 billion years ago 66 million years ago 7–6 million years ago 200,000 years ago
The Universe comes The Sun, planets, and other The dinosaurs die out in Apes in Africa evolve the Modern humans first
into existence with objects that make up our a mass extinction event. ability to walk upright.
the Big Bang. solar system are formed. appear in Africa.

The Big Bang Early life Dinosaurs Early humans

The Universe started with the The first forms of life on Earth Millions of years ago, dinosaurs The ancestors of humans,
Big Bang (see pages 12–13). were simple organisms, but they walked, swam, or flew on Earth known as hominins, evolved from
Over billions of years, stars, evolved over time into the many
galaxies, and eventually our own varieties of plants and animals (see pages 16–17). Until they tree-dwelling apes (see pages
solar system were formed. known today (see pages 14–15). became extinct, they were the 20–21). Over time, they began
dominant animals on the planet.
10 to use tools and make fire.

The wheel

One of the most important technological
developments of the prehistoric era was
the wheel (see pages 28–29). Invented
independently by different cultures around
the world, the wheel revolutionized
transportation. It was also crucial to later
advancements in farming, construction,
industry, and engineering.

c.9000 bce 9000–4000 bce c.4000 bce c.3500 bce
Metalworking begins Early farmers establish The first great cities The first wheels used
in Mesopotamia the first villages. arise in Mesopotamia. for transportation appear
in West Asia. in Mesopotamia.
c.11,000–9000 bce
The development of c.8000 bce c.3300 bce
farming allows people to Communities begin to The Egyptians develop
produce their own food. construct walls around hieroglyphs, the first
system of writing.
their settlements.

Settling down Working with metal The first cities Writing

Early humans moved from place As humans discovered the Some villages continued to With the invention of writing (see
to place in search of food. With technology of creating items grow, becoming towns and pages 30–31), people could
the development of farming (see from copper, bronze, and iron eventually cities (see pages
(see pages 24–25), they crafted 26–27). These population hubs leave records to be read by later
pages 22–23), people built stronger tools and weapons. were bustling centers of trade. generations. The period known
villages and worked the land. as prehistory came to an end.

11

The Big Bang Matter forms First atoms Stars and galaxies

The Universe materializes Within a second, the incredible It takes 300,000 years for the Gravity pulls thicker areas
out of nothing. It is smaller energy of the expanding Universe Universe to cool sufficiently for of gas into clumps that get
than an atom but has all produces tiny particles of matter. protons and neutrons to form the tighter and tighter. This
the energy and mass it Most of these collide, destroy first atoms: hydrogen and helium. heats their cores,
will ever have. In the first each other, and vanish, but a triggering nuclear
trillionth of a trillionth of tiny fraction remain. These These gases form a thin cloud
a trillionth of a second, it leftovers build up to form that fills the Universe. Light can reactions, and so giving
expands to the size of a larger particles called protons now travel freely, making space birth to stars. The
football—a process and neutrons—the building transparent. This ancient light newborn stars cluster
known as inflation. blocks of atoms. can still be captured by by the billion in vast
astronomers today. whirlpools—galaxies.

13.8 billion 1 second later 13.7997 billion 13.5 billion
years ago years ago years ago

The story of
the Universe

The Universe began 13.8 billion years ago in
an event called the Big Bang. The Big Bang was
not an explosion of matter in space, but the
sudden appearance and expansion of space itself.
The expansion has continued ever since, creating a
cosmos of unimaginable vastness. Although light
travels extremely quickly, it still takes it billions of years to
cross the Universe. This means that peering into deep space
allows us to look back in time and study the Universe’s early years.

12

The Solar System Life begins The Sun dies The Big Freeze

Our local star, the Sun, forms Farther from the Sun than scalding About 5 billion years in the future, The Universe may continue
from a cloud of gas and dust left Venus but not as far as freezing the Sun will turn into a red giant expanding forever. Matter
by dying stars. Not all the material Mars, planet Earth is just the right star as its supply of fuel begins and energy will become
is absorbed by the new star temperature for liquid water to to run out. It will swell in size, its ever more thinly dispersed,
though—a gigantic disk of dust settle on its surface. A random outer layers engulfing the planets preventing new stars from
and gas is left in orbit around it. Mercury, Venus, and probably forming. After the last star
Over time, the particles of matter chemical reaction between Earth. The heat will vaporize burns out, the Universe will
carbon-based chemicals in the any water left on Earth, and be permanently dark and
in this disk stick together to form water produces a molecule that freezing cold—an endless
the planets, moons, asteroids, and can make copies of itself, as DNA possibly our planet’s crust, void with no activity.
comets of our Solar System. can today. It is the first form of life. too, making life impossible.
Over 100 trillion
4.6 billion 4.3 billion 5 billion years years in the future
years ago years ago in the future

YOU
ARE
HERE

13

14 The Great Dying Death of the dinosaurs

The greatest mass extinction in About half the world’s animal
history occurs before the age of species disappear in a mass
dinosaurs. Around 95 percent of extinction at the end of the age
the world’s species disappear. It of dinosaurs. The likely cause
is an asteroid hitting Earth.
takes almost 30 million years
for life on land to recover.

252 MYA 230–65 MYA 66 MYA 66–3 MYA 2.6 MYA to 10,000 BCE

Age of the Dinosaurs The rise of mammals The Ice Age

Dinosaurs become the Small mammals survive the Earth’s climate cools and sheets
dominant animals on land. asteroid strike and evolve into a of ice cover much of the northern
continents. The grasslands south
Birds evolve from small wide range of new species, of the ice are home to mammoths,
feathered dinosaurs, and the taking the place of dinosaurs. woolly rhinos, saber-toothed cats,
first small mammals evolve Some mammals adapt to life in
the ocean and become even and other ice-age mammals.
from synapsids. Many of these species vanish as
bigger than dinosaurs. humans spread around the globe.

299–252 MYA 359–299 MYA

Reptiles and relatives Prehistoric rainforests

Earth’s climate dries out, and deserts Earth’s climate is now warm and wet, Poisoned oceans
replace forests. Reptiles and related and lush rainforests cover much of
animals called synapsids become the the land. The forests are home to Another mass extinction takes place
dominant vertebrates on land. Unlike giant millipedes and dragonflylike near the end of the Devonian Period.
other vertebrates, which breed in water, insects as big as eagles. Fossils of the Most of the species that vanish lived
reptiles and synapsids lay waterproof trees will eventually form the coal we in the ocean, including reef-building
eggs and so can breed in dry places.
use in the modern world. organisms and armored fish.
Poisoning of the ocean by volcanic
First steps on land
eruptions may be to blame.
Four-legged vertebrates evolve from fish.
At first they use their muscular limbs for 360 MYA
paddling, but their descendants eventually
clamber onto land in search of prey. Plants
have now colonized the land, and small
animals such as millipedes, mites, and

scorpions live among them.

363 MYA

Dunkleosteus

Death in the ocean First vertebrates An explosion of life

Around 85 percent of all The first vertebrates—animals The first animals with hard body cases,
marine species disappear in a with backbones—appear. They jointed legs, biting mouthparts, and

series of major extinctions. are fishlike animals that swim gripping claws appear. This apparently
The cause is unknown, but like tadpoles and have simple sudden burst of evolution, called the
some scientists suspect mouths for sucking. Later, their Cambrian explosion, gives rise
climate change is to blame. descendants evolve hinged to all the major types of invertebrate
jaws, allowing them to grab animals alive today.
419–359 MYA 444 MYA
prey and tear flesh. 541 MYA

525 MYA

The age of fish First cells Snowball Earth First animals

Fish rule the ocean in the Devonian Single-celled organisms evolve. Earth’s surface freezes and a thick Soon after the Snowball era ends,
Period, which is also called the age They will be the only forms of life layer of ice encases the whole complex organisms that may be the
on Earth for most of the planet’s first animals appear. They are soft-
of fish. Sharks are now common, history. Many grow in mounds on planet for millions of years. Life on bodied, leaf-shaped creatures with no
but the most fearsome predator is the ocean floor, using sunlight to the surface is wiped out during this obvious organs, limbs, or mouthparts.
photosynthesize. They release They probably live on the ocean floor
Dunkleosteus, a 20 ft (6 m) long “Snowball Earth” period, but
predator with an armored body and the gas oxygen as a waste, microorganisms survive under and feed on particles of food
changing Earth’s atmosphere. absorbed through their skin.
huge jaws equipped with a flesh- the ice in the ocean.
cutting beak.

Origin of life 3.7 BYA 780–630 million years ago (mya) 600 MYA

Life begins in water, possibly Life on Earth
near hot volcanic springs in the
deep ocean. The first life forms After oceans first formed on Earth, it didn’t take long for life to
are carbon-based molecules appear on the planet. How life began remains one of the great
mysteries of science, but most scientists believe the first living
that have the ability to make things developed from carbon-based chemicals in water. No
copies of themselves. Once trace of these remains, but the animals and plants that evolved
from them left numerous fossils behind. The fossil record
they start multiplying, the shows that the story of life on Earth has had twists and turns,
process of evolution begins, with occasional mass extinctions wiping out the dominant
and the self-copying molecules species and allowing new forms of life to emerge.

become more complex.

4.3 billion years ago (bya)

The age of dinosaurs Rhamphorhynchus

Modern humans have existed for about 200,000 years, but
dinosaurs dominated life on Earth for nearly 200 million years.
This vast span of time is called the Mesozoic Era and is divided

into three distinct periods. The reign of the dinosaurs and
other giant reptiles came to an abrupt end in a mass
extinction 66 million years ago, but not every
kind of dinosaur was wiped out.

Eudimorphodon

Plateosaurus Cryolophosaurus

Stegosaurus

Isanosaurus Scelidosaurus
Eoraptor Coelophysis

Anchiornis

240 million years ago 220 210 200 190 180 170 160

Triassic Period Jurassic Period

The first dinosaurs appear in the middle of the Triassic Period. In the Jurassic Period, plant-eating dinosaurs reach
They are small, nimble animals that scamper on powerful hind gigantic sizes, making them the largest animals ever to
legs, using their stiff tails to balance and their small arms to walk on Earth. Exactly why this happens isn’t clear, but
handle food. This successful formula soon leads to variations. one theory is that predators target smaller animals,
Some dinosaurs evolve into plant-eaters, growing longer necks driving a process of natural selection that makes both
that help them reach leaves or armored skin for protection. prey and predator become larger and larger. Meanwhile,
Others specialize in hunting. While dinosaurs rule the land, the smallest dinosaurs evade predators by taking
other prehistoric reptiles adapt to life in the ocean and air. flight—they evolve into the first birds.

Nothosaurus

Liopleurodon

Mixosaurus

16

Argentinosaurus

Diplodocus

Quetzalcoatlus

Pteranodon
Therizinosaurus

Confuciusornis Tyrannosaurus
Allosaurus

Sauropelta

Iguanodon Struthiomimus Triceratops
150 140 130 120 110 100 90 Velociraptor

Cretaceous Period 80 70

During the Cretaceous Period, Earth’s continents slowly drift Mosasaurus
toward their current configuration, moving about as fast as
human toenails grow. There are now more kinds of dinosaurs 17
than ever, including flightless, feathered giants and small but
ferocious carnivores with hooklike foot claws that might be used
to disembowel prey. At the end of the Cretaceous, all types of
giant prehistoric reptiles disappear in a mass extinction, perhaps
victims of a catastrophic asteroid strike, but birds survive.

Albertonectes

End of the dinosaurs

Almost 66 million years ago, a
catastrophic event occurred that wiped
out more than half of life on Earth,
including the dinosaurs. Most experts
believe this mass extinction was caused
by an enormous meteorite crashing
into Earth. Such a huge impact would
have created a worldwide cloud of dust
and fumes, choking animals and
blocking out the Sun’s light and warmth.
The planet’s climate would have
changed dramatically, making life
impossible for many species.



Upright walking Australopithecines

In the African forests, apes Several species of bipedal
evolve the ability to walk ape, Australopithecines,
spread across the grasslands
upright. This frees their hands of East Africa. The most
for carrying and throwing. famous Australopithecus is
The first known ape which Lucy, a female whose 3.2
may have been bipedal million-year-old bones were
(two-legged) is called discovered in Ethiopia in 1974.
Sahelanthropus tchadensis.
4 mya
Human ancestors7–6mya(millionyearsago)
Hand axe
Humans originated as African apes and are related
to chimps and gorillas. Around 6 million years ago, our Homo erectus moves out
closest ape ancestors, called hominins, began to walk of Africa and into Asia. It
on two legs. Over time, they developed bigger brains invents a new kind of stone
and learned to make tools and control fire. As hominins tool—a hand axe with a
evolved, they left Africa to settle all over the world. leaf-shaped cutting blade.
This is the first tool made

to a design.

1.8–1.75 mya

Making fire Homo
heidelbergensis
Homo erectus uses fire,
allowing the species to cook, Homo heidelbergensis
keep warm, and protect itself appears in Africa, later
moving into West Asia
from wild animals. The and Europe. It is the first
earliest evidence of fire is hominin species to build
shelters and use spears
a 1 million-year-old
collection of charred animal to hunt animals.

bones found in a cave in 700,000 ya (years ago)
South Africa.

1 mya

Warming climate First art Last Neanderthals

The climate warms, causing sea Humans in Europe and Asia Neanderthals die out,
levels to rise. Big game animals, produce the first works of perhaps unable to adapt
art: paintings and carvings to the rapidly changing
such as mammoths, die out. of animals and people. The climate. Our own species
Humans adapt by eating new paintings, created in caves, (Homo sapiens sapiens) is
plant foods and catching more now the last type of human
fish. The bow and arrow, a new probably serve a ritual on the planet. However,
invention, allows them to hunt purpose, such as contacting today, most of us carry
animal spirits to bring about some Neanderthal genes.
small game such as deer.
a successful hunt.
14,000–12,000 ya
35,000 ya 39,000 ya
20

Homo habilis Human migrations NORTH AMERICAEUROPE ASIA

Following the first use of stone Modern humans left Africa SOUTH AMERICA AFRICA
tools by Australopithecines 3.3 120,000 years ago, beginning
million years ago, Homo habilis a journey that would take them AUSTRALIA
(“handy man”) spreads across to every inhabitable place on ANTARCTICA
Earth. Sea levels were much
East and southern Africa. It lower than they are now. A
makes simple chopping tools by bridge of land linked Asia and
America, and the distance
smashing river pebbles. by sea to Australia was far
shorter than it is today.
2.5 mya

Homo erectus

Homo erectus (“upright
man”), the first hominin with

the body size of modern
humans, evolves in Africa.
Like an ape, Homo erectus
has a low, flat forehead and a
projecting jaw with big teeth.

1.9 mya

Neanderthals Homo sapiens sapiens

Our closest hominin Modern humans (Homo
relatives, the Neanderthals, sapiens sapiens) appear in Africa.
appear in Asia and Europe. Modern humans and Neanderthals
They are the first hominins have similarly large brains. Both
to bury their dead—they do learn to make clothes from animal
so in caves with offerings.
skins, allowing them to move
400,000 ya to cooler regions.

200,000 ya

Cro-Magnons Homo floresiensis

Modern humans called Homo floresiensis, a tiny
Cro-Magnons move into hominin just 3 ft 6 in (1 m)
Europe, where they live tall, lives on the island of
alongside Neanderthals. Flores in Indonesia. It is
They are the first humans to thought to have died out
sew, using bone needles, around 50,000 years ago.
and make jewelry from
100,000 ya
shells and bones.

45,000 ya

21

gbi“uvAcetgatsrhnrieciccuoahlntlelulshyreetroirncoahownet onastn.s”iolhyne,CdrAweDe99vcfhs0ete0ece.l01ltreoaa001tntp,h,atbas00ec(nniwFenldd0ab,eSfisbtca0srhtyaretseIremr–ciltarNeeenydfaiArlAaesoningssdgarVTeuftisrmaaeIhfDhgerer,laaeaelgionteegrrenhcreFgdesynre.eosoero)ssbdBt.imtwrs,aNsAmsbyteftmia—piheielenlaeserfvaacegbmgfaitntoddrocutoiimrefnouhwa.mstmrng1nteerhoodics0efcefliseiivelaptari.hl,roensarPft0nrermrsotosCusiode’kg.v0sg.eomriscinhydrw0’est.setes8haTarCbeate5hcisnvdreoca0dem,ibrrrwlpaei0emedaempiaSggantrsfotysoaiibthsihlnlvmkpboataoeceaeowprSonafaernreiacimerkdnlepinsehsrdidaagtnomaactamverosguftynpomiioelnnacedenkfuoroigedldn.iiengpgabdrWdercswdolb.tigss.chhfTaah.Tli4rrehtae7eaohtehnh0.ssemtsem0nPeh0itpdsadih.yere00rewfecoeogbsa0porrceoraloteeehifbl.astlcweioanectrcikbitIdoneslrolkeaapcftsIrccoqnhshs,kr)ia.tMs,5hfnfwlaeeon5rysaoemIohy0ndglARspfeadsrilusiIs0ooorclirffibasawceoteroram,obba.ad,.ifimImswMlutcgwteltehrifgihrelaaaaaitddgecrhitnrco(eteeliemwmaerhwiRdrriagovroeicmoisgisneifinrdnndia.cteliaeand5goewttsyleih’dsrsopwt0atnhrthsnoapotaba-aee0.addpouthvroendaglp.oe0erdEiyhwuleodfvolsobarelu,iotgcnoitdoiternmun.faaiuwetlscepllSCyidohdleB,latswhiooorimrnioeinpfnsunaeltgeekicspclsiuelnk.fJoerso2sgpeofcwwCeeerchreu0sderehostonIonoosshduphr0vstppittamiliaisoeoaenlslsutertrnkbbrganpaphianesn,ie,ncnerEtoaisuEteenpovefnwFHnbtofaueuggrprldjeoairsnoeigolrerioeesydonoetcmchnphwnw,apnttlDt.jeosoadso1teatndyh.unhab0rutFuwlnteaiehret.nhsaertat0Aafosaeafitoreosootrobmnc.f0tprfnpariychlaleeel.llkiifelorevcnroomdstenwresfsitri:neottogolotdnacsetkein

Agriculture

The history of agriculture is essentially the history of
producing food as opposed to finding it. It includes
farming, rearing animals for food, and learning how to
improve techniques. Before agriculture took off, people
relied on hunting and gathering—activities that involve
a lot of chance. By contrast, farmers can influence food
production by sowing seeds and raising animals.

22

Scythe

The scythe is an agricultural tool used
to mow grass and reap crops. It is
swung along the ground, and the sharp
blade slices the grass or crop at the
base. The first scythes may have been
developed around 500 bce.

pfroobct11maaiw5t4rwttrlothhueA0ho0eeiesylerses,0xl0gfda,EArctlauo,noshsumcnidmbtar–rdsoeeonrapryc.cgptiCeceoohesCaameoicdlaesnsfo,refr.s,teepmAoocfeeeerooneoxp,px.ritpfmmcpnersloh,eaoaAbamwr,rlsseessnuaiEmagaamgnreu;poeosawrdvo,rr,heeapaeceonar;fodtt,shrseeagtphraeawpirtnaitcatahbeuisdrnHatesshtasa,soitncrkrhtRvyshicrneeteereghsossrteahwpeipn.eaupCohgsplralyi,ikeisnratr,vrunas,dgesdlalooosMbrmnntwieugnecaan.gCwbcnd.yhoHdleairhnibmssraeadniccdksk- icnlvsoeogniagltBoiisnofltgnaethceuiseklpswpAcmliomaldiwstelShtyr-tJiiostcrouoeakhcnenenceppleDplrospaetswhilerfosueiree.lw.sHfitrniioscvmkeynts
1794 1831 186ist6uhseeogdhreobsbniwyrzpeeefreceaea,aedraxt1mirppro8cteleaneGar8oprisrnnirspa.m5CetTtSssstgrezo.hs.aoeMeneiisstrctdselesMhke,lnoewnsfecdnrcuoiniettactwthidlhvrihdlevferealaoeloldenyscuswgdogccbeesnrhoricrdblsoiepueaearucsnerniltnutldsdivtsdhaetiimennncdttegohenhrrrteaetJaShsraordahtylhetectntaosrrromaFewmcprp-oitostpaohevroaraleeiTwrctt.eahehAersaeragmietexnr.ccpdvaeaeeirttninnhnocftrsarserionvsmehers

AmmtmhureeiiendcrUmmivhdceSlaoaeen’-tvastoebissnbfroiiegaitarghrnlmsgCeaweienan1eiosvl9cdldtehtbtfsehniatenxtfcoscorepteoorneotnmmhErrt.taguleB.citrWioyymnt,thtahoitkenneesy 1837

clemmaasnicugsphchcrcitnoryeAoedsrupuotssshcCtftaauwertatlosiicncltithmaoguhnmtoebsbnHbl,faeitiiurhdnnspgreeteaheschss.Voahshmirecovastmfeo,risatrevstnMreecdrci,asaKltlayeyr 1890s nfnrpauocottmurwcrtoireGatoap“innotrlesatreniinymbanc,elfecaopotfrcnoiserecodGyormaamisdrnsllMteayegeessn”mamyciyswcfi.oeeotaimrtpltdrdyhoeeim,frtsibapiehsotodseksno,s(.bsGTuthMte)y
1990s
1940s

pmrtaaenocccFovtrhGeaiuocnmrrsemoirssselehoetnahigrentnseigtendoignsfpoluRoMsropopbeedddrexe.av.uTiatccoehdoeeflalumeramtodirioenagn

23

Working with metals
c.9000 bce c.4500 bce c.4500 bce c.3100 bce c.2200 bce
The use of metals was one of the greatest technological leaps in
24
history. Unlike stone tools, metal ones can be molded or beaten

into any shape, and metal blades are easy to resharpen. The first

metal tools were made mostly with copper, a soft metal that

was easy to find. Later, people discovered how to work

iron—a much harder metal that had to be Pouring
extracted from rock in a furnace. bronze

Bronze is a soft metal
that is relatively easy to
melt and pour into a mold. Gold,
silver, copper, tin, and lead are also
soft metals. Iron is harder and melts at a
much higher temperature.

Metalworking begins The Copper-Stone Age

Metalworking begins in western The people of western Asia discover
Asia, where the world’s first farmers how to extract copper from copper-rich
rocks by heating them in a fire (this is
live. Early farmers find naturally called smelting). They pour the molten
occurring copper nuggets and hammer copper into molds to make tools. Most
them into beads. Soon after, they make people still use stone tools, so this
period is called the Copper-Stone Age.
objects from gold, silver, and lead.
Malachite is a copper-rich
Oldest gold treasure mineral found in rocks.

In Varna, in what is now Bulgaria, The Bronze Age
people are buried with thousands of
In western Asia and Central
items of gold jewelry. The oldest Europe, the use of bronze becomes
gold treasure in the world, it will lie widespread. Bronze is made by
hidden underground for over 6,000 melting copper with a small amount
years before being discovered by of tin. This results in a much harder
metal. A trade in tin, which is a rare
accident in 1972. metal, also develops.

Iron

Iron is first made by the Hittites
of western Asia, who use it to

make weapons. Although iron is
the most common metal, it requires

great heat to extract from rock.
Instead of being poured into molds, it

is softened and beaten into shape.

The Iron Age c.1200 bce 1200–1101 bce 800–300 bce c.700 bce c.600 bce Chinese statues

The use of iron spreads from Western Asia to bce 6th century 5th century The Sanxingdui people of China make
Europe, and India’s Iron Age takes off at around large bronze statues with masklike faces. Their
bce bronze includes lead, as well as tin and copper,
the same time. Iron’s hardness makes it making a stronger, heavier metal. The biggest
ideal for tools, cooking pots, and 13th century ce statue, of a tree, stands almost 13 ft (4 m) high.
nails, as well as
weapons. Iron-Age Europe

Peru and Bolivia Iron working spreads throughout
Europe, where readily available
In Peru and Bolivia, people iron weapons lead to an increase in
begin large-scale smelting of warfare. This 6th-century-bce Greek
copper. They use gold, silver, vase shows blacksmiths using a forge
(a powerful fire) to soften iron before
and tumbaga (gold mixed shaping it with a hammer.
with copper or silver) to
African iron
make beautiful works of art
in various colors. The Iron Age reaches sub-
Saharan Africa, where the
Indian steel Nok people of Nigeria use iron
to make spearheads, knives,
Indian metalworkers make the highest quality and bracelets. The use of iron
steel in the ancient world. It is later exported tools helps farming spread
to China and the West, where it is called across Africa.
“wootz.” It is used to make exceptionally
sharp, hard-wearing swords. Cast iron

European In China, people discover
blast furnaces how to make iron in a blast
furnace—a furnace powered by
The first European blast a blast of hot air. The resulting
furnaces begin operating in iron can be remelted and poured
Germany, Switzerland, and into molds to make cast iron. Blast
furnaces will not be invented in the
Sweden. They use water West for almost 2,000 years.
wheels to power bellows

that blow air into the
furnace, and because of

this, are built by rivers.

25

9000–4000 bce
Prehistoric communities

Early farmers establish villages
with basic buildings and shared

structures. The first of these
are found in Mesopotamia in
West Asia. Gradually, they expand
to become small towns with

organized communities.

8000 bce

Walled settlements

Communities begin to surround their settlements
with protective walls. In the town of Jericho in
Palestine, a huge stone wall is constructed for
defense, surveillance, and flood protection,
keeping the 3,000 inhabitants safe.

Towns and cities Byzantine bazaars

The first settlements started in prehistoric times. In the Byzantine Empire,
Basic buildings provided shelter and safety as around the Mediterranean,
these communities grew into towns and villages. public areas and main roads in
With more opportunities for trade and work, cities start to become closed
the populations of many increased, eventually off by shops. These eventually
resulting in the growth of major cities. The birth evolve into bazaars—covered
of new technologies enabled many of these markets where locals barter to
towns and cities to develop even faster into get the best price for goods.
the modern metropolises we know today.

Replacement walls 500–700 ce

King Philip II of France orders a new wall to Factory towns
be built around Paris, stretching beyond the
outskirts of the city. It is 8 ft (2 m) wide with During the Industrial Revolution,
people move to work in factories.
around 70 towers. Many other medieval New towns grow rapidly around the
European cities also rebuild their original
factories to house workers.
walls to contain their growing centers.

1190 1807

1750–1800 Street lights

The first public street lighting that
uses gas is demonstrated in London.
This becomes the norm across towns

and cities, solving the problem of
limited light at night.

Early cities Trading hubs

The first great cities develop in Mesopotamia’s cities become
Mesopotamia. These are each important trading centers,
using rivers to transport
ruled by a king. Grand stone goods. Long-distance trade
structures called ziggurats are takes place between cities
in Mesopotamia and in the
built, containing shrines,
staircases, and towers. Indus Valley in Pakistan. Luxury
items such as spices, textiles,
metals, and precious stones Sewer systems

are exchanged. The first sewer systems are
constructed by the Indus Valley
civilization. Underground tunnels
carry water from place to place,
allowing most homes to have a

bath, toilet, and water supply.

4000–3000 bce 2900–2300 bce 2600 bce

Record-breaking Rome City-states

Rome becomes the first city to reach a In ancient Greece, cities
population of 1 million people. Most Romans establish themselves as
live in blocks of flats called insulae that are independent states with
their own political systems.
6 or 7 stories high, maximizing space
in the city. Athens, Sparta, and
Thebes are some of the
most important city-states.

1 ce 800 bce

Skyscrapers City slickers

The first high-rise building, Half of the world’s population
nicknamed a “skyscraper,” is now lives in cities. Megacities,
built in Chicago, IL. Building
upward saves space in the which have populations of
more than 10 million, have
packed city center and is become more common. Tokyo,
possible due to the Japan, is the biggest city in the
world, with around 13 million
invention of the elevator and
sturdy steel. people living there.

1863 1885 2008

Underground railway “What is the city
but the people?”
The world’s first underground railway
system opens in London. Moving William Shakespeare, Coriolanus, c. 1608 ce
transportation underground saves
27
space and provides a quicker way to
get around the bustling city.

Inventing the wheel The story traTWnmhosaeffftaaochtgshrthartmeei-innnfTewrlepdohdiaeiwwunne7tbosvgei0wnypeehro0glsntiewenfhtyst,edcehheettodmoreeaielnrefpriwnavolsllo.merai,wTswintan,oheterni6inraosro’to0tnathfh0bemaeercriell..
of the wheel
Wheels can be seen in so many objects ArAcGrchrehiersimmokctteairenradtviendneeasgwsnelf,lottcoarsogrowanmr’rrn,oiakdnssusngefineccrvwrdrrieieergaeltnwoaotdtepthtirfsohritgonaaohmtbbgyelorowund. c.100 bce
around us that it is tricky to imagine a Early humans realized that heavy tury
time when they didn’t exist. Nobody objects could be moved more
knows exactly how the wheel evolved easily if they were rolled instead
to form the wheel we see today, but of dragged. It took thousands of
archaeologists think it all began years to develop the wheel. Many
thousands of years ago with simple inventions developed over the
log rollers and sleds. past 3,500 years would not have
been possible without it.
Rolling along
The ancient Sumerians realized that they “The greatest inventors
could move bulky objects more easily if are unknown to us.

they rolled them over round log rollers. Someone invented the
wheel—but who?”
Simple sled
Rollers proved awkward to move around, Isaac Asimov,
so the Sumerians developed a sled with a science-fiction writer, 1988
The first wheel
curved front that could be pulled along
more easily. The first wheels are potters’

Teaming up inwwhhdMgileefafobeedllebeersta.etleclio.efTnnorth3hawbceras5uoyrlotpduw0blueenersn0odgeiaepslb3nndeta5cdctcjol0eroaa0aoryc,pssbr.tscpehetae.aTacsethnarfhhtereeedoearerrabineltamluroaicotlooWraen.tlrsnivnwfshe3eersarMpseepopn5teeabodeomssor0lewitrclfosphlsatya0opotererlitiftoaetebtohl.sdt.ooaniascrtnwTeauromirohsaaenoevenydedlec.nEscre2ghgpemyuamooTli0iapnkohetzSidked0esesaedispatlfn0inrnhwsomgobbcathiohtkartcoemetteeeeetwnlolrthheqsdubteeuEaria4ylegllnucmtw.cysokndlhuahpTtttcwtyfs.rithhietacoacaeenunhbia4eehdnsartnglenecasbenenhdrxdieetidactmonwtusbeoiaimlsrlpn,gccmptleyehyeacuitleervccwnlhsoGdyehheeiec.eanbarsentk.apctnTesruel,epohdssiasilecfelntasnaGaoyrehrurrcCeireaabcsc,httrneileheaiotanwreoohsaftsoseetrhatkehde
The Sumerians decided to combine 3rdbcceen
the sled and roller, finding that the sled
glided over the rollers more smoothly

than over the ground.

Making grooves
Over time, the movement of the
sled over the roller wore grooves
in the log roller, which helped keep the

sled in place.

Early wheels
To improve the design, the Sumerians
chipped away at the log to create two
wheels and an axle. Pegs fixed on the sled

hooked it onto the axle.

The first cart
The Sumerians later fixed individual
wheels onto an axle and attached the
sled to it securely by drilling holes

in its frame.
28

The Penny Farthing

The enormous front wheel enabled high
speeds, but the Penny Farthing was
dangerous. It lost popularity in the 1880s
with the introduction of “safety bicycles.”

TaohannwbinsdijghdeaahecpsstettltssarlrsokfontihyAnntneo,adoothsstfmmteicnhtalieaprdcenrnoiaidntrshlbgwluicedaesaanepebsylacno.evteuthseiigflieanytaimtoisotnontrtatrouohsrssfees mssaetptodc1nhaicrenh0eeensvsi.rnd1ifgr0eglsoey1ylsnoo’tws.0pbaipTfiOamhtitc0cmhicceonFaeoieesaenenmclnnlahtoyirtelseitafsneewnaut1fcconcthtvs0urefhteh.yee1omtrn0ahdm3gwesoseyait0hboelne.oonwecs0lgrcdaeteehaiclerasel1l,014c0ulosmcekdetctiotcshmhahkametiegphnaacsdeiatincMtkhaaetrDaoaeneavrraTdl’agneeestcVahhppuilnrsoclnAileeroonolamoapurcwnhtccphirpamniae’khestauwaidstvnihl,semiilnaadeoefwtneaonprdeeernLndhdtrthtawdisrwestectfclvoeeioiooeiloatostiaaschrfnhrraadnfdcenodelastbsrdeethp.crliopihclv.dvstartcercefeeeooediiantswralenooldlPclteosphattiprdoreaVoclotdelciilfcnsrpktelc.eoeaivfdtleteelhresleyirgns a WTihtIhneRtdtheuIeecnsdhctvbedrnarioeveaonluoecalldlooRloustoigimomnetptivvnerismeeoosi,osaensldufncptnlmtuirotiisnoruotaninnncenfsi,iganamytsmhgltunehteocmeecewhwhntahagahcenisehnieipsenlmose.wss,earnd
c1.050 0bccee

101706b0ce 101803b4ce EThlMeemoefcimrlroeipstmtetcztraooctuviJrrcht,esaioccmaascramrnbsoaetlihlbccaeweoeahtin,eeeliwetcnldeueooraegnscbnysreeytyvrftreiioiognncrrdyttmot.sahIytae.ny
9b3ce
Pneumatic tires
101808b8ce
bUpriwunuunmmvibttttehaiibuplrnkeppeywctisnrnoejwooewgamdoiuurt,hfdfehrmtoonererfuareeanitlanvylltaesoeicsmcb.dlroePloteuhmwirnnrcasreeifhivtrodhshudermaewmethad.anoiieacrbter,rtloeleeidycs

asrperasew,woawrfhdaWcth,espowuiToecpnientrhlhetsslaediendhwpvouWeeeaoneoalnrnpaieorugsrslgasiuh.eIrcinTtbtoashdomhatsuTvstenntaoaewiadddtrvnramo.eneokan.fsoookkTltarravrhesuremergidsesareoe,dbmrsrsueaoiltbfioler
101901b5ce

29

The written word c.3300 bce

Spoken language has existed since prehistoric times. World’s first writing
The need to keep records of trade led civilizations
around the world to invent ways of writing language The Egyptians invent hieroglyphs,
down. This allowed knowledge to be collected a system of around 700–800 picture
and passed on from person to person both reliably
and over great distances. It’s thanks to the written signs, which stand for words,
word that we know the thoughts and ideas of sounds, and ideas.
people who lived thousands of years ago.
c.800 bce
c.650 bce c.800 bce

Roman alphabet Greek alphabet Brahmi script

In Italy, the Romans adapt the Greek The Greeks adapt the Phoenician alphabet, This script is developed in India, using
alphabet to write their own language, Latin. adding letters for vowels. It has 24 letters, signs for consonants with additional
The Roman alphabet goes on to become markings for vowels. Brahmi is the
and is usually written from left to right. ancestor of around 200 later Asian scripts.
the world’s most widely used script.
c.150 bce 3rd century ce
c.300 bce

Mayan writing Runes Arabic script

In Central America, the Mayan people In Scandinavia and modern-day Germany, Arabs create an alphabet with 28 letters,
develop a writing system with signs people begin to use runes, with 24 signs. written from right to left. With the spread
standing for syllables as well as ideas. They The system is inspired by contact with the of Islam, the Arabic script is later adopted
carve monumental inscriptions, paint text Roman alphabet, but uses straight lines, so across North Africa and much of Asia.
on vases, and write on fig tree bark. it can be easily carved onto wood or stone.

30

c.3200 bce c.2600 bce c.2500 bce

Cuneiform Indus script Chinese writing

The Sumerians of Mesopotamia The Indus people of India invent a The earliest surviving Chinese writing uses
(see pages 36–37) invent cuneiform, script that remains undeciphered picture signs called “ideograms.” Each picture
a writing system of shapes pressed stands for an idea or an object. The signs later
to this day. Evidence suggests
into clay with a reed stylus. it was written from right to left. develop into the script used in China today.

c.1200 bce c.1850–1650 bce

Phoenician alphabet First alphabet

Phoenicians (from the eastern Mediterranean To the east of Egypt, the first alphabet,
coast) simplify the Proto-Sinaitic alphabet. Proto-Sinaitic (or Canaanite), is created.
Based on Egyptian hieroglyphs, people only
They use 22 signs, all standing for consonants. need to learn 30 signs to be able to write.
The script later inspires the Hebrew, Arabic,
and Greek writing systems. c.860–880

5th century

Japanese scripts Slavic scripts The Rosetta Stone

Japanese people adapt Chinese writing to Bulgarian churchmen adapt the Greek The Rosetta Stone is an inscribed basalt block,
create a script called kanji. They also invent alphabet to create the Glagolitic and Cyrillic discovered by French soldiers in Egypt in 1799.
two other scripts, hiragana and katakana, alphabets, which they use to translate the Carved in 196 bce, the same text is written on it
with signs standing for syllables. As a result, in Ancient Greek, hieroglyphs, and demotic (an
Bible into Slavic languages from Central everyday Egyptian script). In 1822, French linguist
Japan has three writing systems. and Eastern Europe. Cyrillic later evolves Jean-François Champollion used the inscriptions
on the stone to work out how to read hieroglyphs,
into the modern Russian alphabet. which until then had been impossible to decipher.

31

THE
ANCIENT
WORLD

3000 BCE–500 CE



The Ancient World

The earliest civilizations established their cultures around
huge rivers that could support farming, such as the Tigris and
Euphrates in West Asia, and the Nile in Egypt. As technology
developed and trade expanded after 3000 bce, great empires
also sprang up across Europe and East Asia. As these new
societies took shape, many of them came into conflict with
one another in competition for land and resources.

c.2500 bce c.950–612 bce 550 bce 490–479 bce 336–323 bce
The first recorded war takes place, The Assyrians of Mesopotamia Cyrus the Great founds The Persians make two Alexander of Macedon unites Greece
between the cities of Umma and create an empire stretching the First Persian Empire, unsuccessful attempts to and conquers the Persian Empire. Greek
Lagash in Mesopotamia. from Egypt across West Asia. based in West Asia. conquer the cities of Greece. cities are founded as far east as India.

2589–2566 bce c.1900 bce c.509 bce 508 bce c.450–50 bce 321–185 bce
The Egyptians The Amorites conquer most The people of Rome in Italy The Athenians of The Celtic La Tène Chandragupta Maurya of South
construct the Great of Mesopotamia, which they overthrow their king, and begin Greece establish culture develops in
Pyramid at Giza. rule from the city of Babylon. to expand the city’s influence. the first democracy. modern-day Switzerland. India invades the north and
establishes the Maurya Empire.

Mesopotamia Land of the Pharaohs Ancient Greece The Celts

The earliest cities were built in Ruled by kings known as In Athens, one of the warring Spread across Central and
West Asia, in a historical region pharaohs, the ancient Egyptians city-states of ancient Greece Western Europe, the Celts (see
known as Mesopotamia (see pages pages 58–59) were warriors who
36–37). The cultures of this area (see pages 40–41) built large (see pages 52–53), great
invented farming and the wheel. monuments called pyramids thinkers developed early shared a single culture. They
philosophy and democracy. were experts at crafting metal.
to house their royal dead.

34

Pottery

The process of creating pottery was
first discovered in prehistoric times, but
in the ancient world, many cultures—
particularly the Greeks—perfected
pottery design as an art form. Objects
such as this Greek amphora (jug) give
historians many visual clues about
the fashions, stories, and societies
of the ancient world.

221 bce 27 bce c.320 ce
The king of Qin unites the kingdoms After a civil war, Octavian Chandra Gupta I conquers the
of China under his rule, becoming becomes Rome’s first emperor, Ganges Valley in northern India,
Shi Huangdi (“First Emperor”). taking a new name, Augustus. founding the Gupta Empire.

202 bce–220 ce 30 bce 79 ce 476 ce
The emperors of the Egypt is conquered by the Mount Vesuvius in Italy Rome falls to Germanic invaders,
Han Dynasty rule China Romans, bringing an end erupts, destroying the towns but its empire survives in the
for more than 400 years. to the rule of the pharaohs. of Pompeii and Herculaneum. east as the Byzantine Empire.

The Persian Empire Imperial China Rome Ancient India

Centered in West Asia, the Emperor Qin Shi Huang created Beginning as a small hilltop town Greatly influenced by the
Persian Empire (see pages the first of a series of imperial in Italy, Rome (see pages 72–73) religions of Hinduism and
60–61) was split into provinces, dynasties that would go on to became the capital of an empire Buddhism, a series of empires
each one ruled by a regional rule China (see pages 68–69) that spanned much of Europe, sprang up across the Indian
governor known as a satrap. for the next 2,000 years. subcontinent (see pages 82–83).
North Africa, and West Asia.
35

Mesopotamia Early beginnings

Mesopotamia means “the land between the two rivers,” Farming people in northern Mesopotamia
referring to the Tigris and the Euphrates in western Asia. develop systems to supply their fields with
It was here, more than 5,000 years ago, that the world’s water. Fine Mesopotamian painted pottery is
first cities were built. The Mesopotamians invented
organized religion, royalty, armies, law, and many other exported across southwest Asia.
fundamental features of civilization as we know it.
c.6000–4000 bce

Babylonians Ziggurat Akkadians

The Amorites, a people from the western The first ziggurats (stepped temples) King Sargon of Akkad (a region in
deserts, conquer most of Mesopotamia, are built in Ur, Eridu, Nippur, and Uruk. northern Mesopotamia) conquers all of
which they rule from Babylon. They are Sumer, creating the world’s first empire.
known as the Babylonians, and their new These huge stone structures were
built as places of religious worship. The Akkadian language gradually
empire is called Babylonia. replaces Sumerian in Mesopotamia.
c.2100 bce
c.1900 bce c.2350 bce

Hammurabi’s law code Hittites and Kassites Assyrians

King Hammurabi reigns over Babylon. The Hittites and Kassites invade The Assyrians of northern Mesopotamia
He is famous for his law code, which, Babylonia using iron weapons and create an empire stretching from Egypt
although based on earlier codes, he fast chariots pulled by horses. The to western Persia. They speak Aramaic,
Kassites conquer Babylonia, which which becomes the standard language
claims to have received in person
from Shamash, the god of justice. they rule for 500 years. used across southwest Asia.

1792–1750 bce c.1595–1530 bce c.950–612 bce

36

Sumer First city Kings and writing

Northern Mesopotamians move into Villages at Uruk join together to form the Around a dozen city-states emerge. Each
the flat southern plains, later called world’s first city. It has walls, is ruled by an ensi (king), who lives in a
Sumer. They establish large villages,
build the first temples, and invent the monumental architecture, and a society palace and claims to govern on behalf of
split into specialized classes, including the local god. Cuneiform writing (see
potter’s wheel. priests, merchants and craftworkers. page 31) is invented.

c.5000 bce c.4500 bce c.3300–3100 bce

Warfare Royals tombs of Ur Bronze

The first recorded war in history takes Kings and queens of Ur are buried in Sumerians learn how to make
place, between the cities of Lagash and tombs with treasures made of gold, bronze by mixing copper and tin.
Umma. A carving shows King Eannatum At first they use it to make tools
silver, lapis lazuli, and carnelian. and weapons, eventually creating
of Lagash leading his army to victory, The tombs also contain the bodies of
marching over fallen enemies. servants who have been sacrificed. sculptures with it.

c.2500 bce c.2750–2400 bce c.3000 bce

The Standard of Ur

This box was found in a royal tomb in the city of Ur. It was made
around 2500 bce and its mosaic decoration shows what life was
like in early Mesopotamia. This side depicts warfare, while the
other side shows life during peacetime.

Fall of Assyria Cyrus the Great

There are widespread rebellions against King Cyrus the Great of Persia
Assyrian rule, led by the Babylonians conquers the Babylonian Empire.
and the Medes. The Assyrian cities are He claims to rule on behalf of Marduk,
burned, and Babylonia takes control the chief god of the city of Babylon.
of the Assyrian Empire.
539 bce
614–612 bce

37

Senet The royal game of Ur Tic-tac-toe

Board games are popular in This game is played on a People all across the Roman
ancient Egypt, with some royalty board of 20 squares with four- Empire play a version of tic-tac-
deciding to be buried with their
games. A favorite game is senet, sided dice and two sets toe (also known today as
of seven pieces. The aim is for noughts and crosses).
which is played on a board
marked with 30 squares. a player to get their pieces The Roman version is called
from one end of the board terni lapilli (meaning “three

to the other. pebbles at a time”).

c.3500 bce c.2600 bce 1st century bce

c.2800 bce Chess

This skill and strategy game
is first played in either

Northern India or Central
Asia. As trade routes from
India and Persia in West

Asia expand, chess will
reach Europe by 1000 ce.

Dice c.500 bce c.600
4th century ce
People have been rolling Go
objects as part of games
for thousands of years, but Invented in China, go is played on a
the oldest known dice come grid board, with players taking turns
from Shahr-e Sūkhté, a to place white and black stones at
the grid intersections. It is one of the
Bronze Age city in
modern-day Iran. Dice oldest board games that is still
soon become common. played today.

Fun and games Pachisi

People have been sitting down to play games The Indian game of pachisi is
together for many thousands of years. Board played on a cross-shaped
games were popular in ancient Egypt, while board. Six or seven cowrie
card games were created in imperial China. shells are thrown to decide
Today, old favorites are enjoyed alongside how many places a player
new fantastical storytelling adventures. Games
provide hours of entertainment and competition moves their pieces. Emperor
at every roll of the dice or choice of a card. Akbar (1542–1605) has a

38 gigantic board built, on which
humans are moved around

as game pieces.

Dominoes

In the 12th century, the Chinese created
two-sided tiles with dots to represent
numbers on each side. They were given
the name “dominoes” in Italy and can be

used to play a variety of games.

Snakes and Modern board games
ladders
Families and groups of friends
Originally called rediscover tabletop games as
mokshapat, this board a fun group activity. There is a
game is invented by an
huge rise in people playing
Indian saint named games and a surge in the
Gyandev. It is meant to help production of new games.

children understand the There are now many
difference between good thousands of titles on the
and evil, with the ladders market to choose from.
representing good and the
snakes representing evil. 21st century

c.13th century Monopoly Role play

American Elizabeth Magie Fantastical role-playing
invents “The Landlord’s Game” games become popular
to warn children against pitfalls
of capitalism. Magie’s original with the release of
Dungeons and Dragons.
board uses made-up street
names, but later versions of the With its nonhuman
game (now called Monopoly) characters and magical
each use real place names from narrative, the game soon
spreads around the world.
a city around the world.
1974

1904

9th century

Playing cards 1870 1933 1944
Clue
The Chinese invent the Mahjong Scrabble
earliest playing cards. This classic crime mystery board
When cards reach Europe, This tile-laying game is first An American architect named game is invented by British
the suit markings are cups, developed in China and becomes Alfred Butts invents the word musician Anthony E. Pratt.
gold coins, swords, and popular across Asia. The game of game Scrabble to mix spelling
polo sticks. In about 1480, skill and strategy is usually played skills with a scoring system. Players are suspects who must
the French suits familiar During the 1950s, it becomes follow clues to decide which of
today (hearts, diamonds, with a set of 144 tiles featuring such a big hit that stores ration them is the murderer, where the
Chinese symbols. crime was committed, and what
spades, and clubs) supplies per customer.
become standard. weapon was used.

39

Ancient Egypt “Hail to you O Nile! …
Come, O Nile, come
Around 3000 bce, the people of Egypt created the
world’s first united state. It was governed by a king and prosper!”
known as a pharaoh, who was believed to be the
representative of the gods on Earth. For 3,000 years, Hymn to the Nile,
Egyptians wore similar white linen clothing, spoke the
same language, and followed a regular cycle of work, c.2100 bce
governed by the annual flooding of the River Nile.

2181–2055 bce 2589–2566 bce

Dark period Great Pyramid

The fall of the Old Kingdom At Giza, Pharaoh Khufu builds the Great Pyramid,
after a period of political which remains to this day the world’s biggest stone
strife and widespread building. The whole nation takes part in the project, either

drought is followed by a time hauling stone or growing food for the workforce.
of disunity, called the First
Intermediate Period. There

are few monumental building
projects during this time,
as the power of royal
authority was in decline.

2055–1710 bce 1650 bce

Middle Kingdom The Hyksos

Egypt is reunited by Pharaoh A people from western
Mentuhotep II, the founder of Asia, the Hyksos, move
what historians would later into northern Egypt and

call the Middle Kingdom. destroy the Middle
This period is remembered for Kingdom. They bring with
its great achievements in art them the new technology

and literature, which leave of fighting from horse-
behind clues about the daily drawn chariots. While the
lives of ancient Egyptians.
Hyksos rule the north,
Mentuhotep II Egyptian pharaohs
continue to govern
in the south.

332–30 bce 664–332 bce 1279-1213 bce

Ptolemaic Dynasty Foreign rulers Ramesses
the Great
Egypt is ruled by 15 Macedonian During the Late Period,
pharaohs, all called Ptolemy. Egypt is conquered by a Ramesses II rules for an
The capital of Egypt during this series of foreign powers. astonishing 66 years and
period is Alexandria, founded by The first invaders are the
Alexander the Great on the fathers around 100
Mediterranean coast. The last ruler Nubians, followed by children. He has many
is Queen Cleopatra (ruled 51–30 the Assyrians and the colossal statues built of
bce). Egypt is then conquered by himself, as well as a temple
the Romans, bringing an end Persians. Finally, in at Abu Simbel, where he is
to the rule of ancient Egypt. 332 bce, King Alexander worshipped as a god.
the Great of Macedon,
Coins showing Cleopatra ruler of an empire that
extends from Greece,

takes control.

c.4500 bce c.3300 bce

First settlements Early writing

Farming people settle in Egyptians invent the world’s first writing
villages by the Nile. They system: hieroglyphics.
grow wheat and barley,
keep cattle and sheep, It uses hundreds of picture
and make polished red signs, standing for ideas,
pottery with blackened words, and sounds. These
tops. This early culture is are carved on stone or painted
on sheets of papyrus, a writing
later called Badarian, material made from the reeds
after the site of El Badari,
along the Nile.
the remains of which Early hieroglyphs on
were excavated in 1923. wooden labels

2667–2648 bce c.3100 bce
Stepped pyramid
A kingdom united
Pharaoh Djoser, the first ruler of
a period that historians call the Egypt, previously two kingdoms,
is united under one king. The first
Old Kingdom, builds the first king we know of is called Narmer.
pyramid. This is a royal tomb
He is shown in art as a warrior
where the king’s body, defeating enemies while wearing
preserved as a mummy, is the crowns of Upper (southern)
thought to live on after death.
Djoser’s pyramid has stepped and Lower (northern) Egypt.
rather than smooth sides and
is Egypt’s first monument Narmer wears the white Narmer wears the red
to be built out of stone. crown of Upper Egypt. crown of Lower Egypt.

1550–1525 bce 1504–1425 bce

New Kingdom Egyptian Empire

Ahmose, ruler of Thebes, drives out Thutmose I aggressively expands
the Hyksos and reunites Egypt, Egyptian rule into Nubia, a country
that lies to the south of Egypt, as
founding what would become known well as into areas of western Asia.
as the New Kingdom. Pharaohs are The Egyptian Empire continues to
no longer buried in pyramids, but in
grow under his successors,
hidden tombs in the Valley of the Thutmose II (1492–1479 bce) and
Kings, in the desert to the west of
Thebes. The Theban god Amon-Re Thutmose III (1479–1425 bce).

becomes chief Egyptian god. Thutmose I

Depiction of Amon-Re 1352–1336 bce

1336–1327 bce Sun worship
Tutankhamun
Pharaoh Akhenaten makes sweeping
Under the rule of changes to Egypt’s religion, closing
Pharaoh Tutankhamun, the down the temples to the gods and
old religion is restored. After introducing worship of the Aten,
a disk that represents the Sun.
his death at the age of He builds a new capital called
around 18, Tutankhamun is Akhetaten (modern-day
buried in a tomb filled with El Amarna), with open-air temples
treasures. Discovered in for the worship of the Sun.

1922, the tomb of
Tutankhamun is the only
unrobbed Egyptian royal

tomb ever found.

41

Ancient monuments Dolmens

For most of prehistory, people lived as nomadic hunter- In western Europe, people begin
gatherers and left behind little trace of their existence. It to build dolmens—tombs using
was only after people became settled farmers that they
began to build monuments, such as tombs and temples. three or more huge standing
Most were simple structures, but some were built on an stones supporting a flat table-
enormous scale that required hundreds of laborers—a stone. These are covered with
sign they were built for powerful leaders. earth or rocks to form a mound

called a barrow.

10,000–9000 bce c.4500–2000 bce c.4000 bce
Abu Simbel
First temple Standing stones
At Abu Simbel in southern
People in Göbekli Tepe in Turkey In Brittany in France, farming Egypt, Pharaoh Rameses II
build the world’s oldest religious people set up more than 3,000 has a great temple carved out
structure, with more than 200 standing stones in long lines. of solid rock. It is dedicated to
Their purpose is a mystery, but three gods. Colossal statues
pillars arranged in 20 circles. of the pharaoh sit outside and
Unusually, it seems to have been it is possible that each one line the temple’s entrance hall.
built by hunter-gatherers in the was placed in honor of a
1264–1244 bce
process of becoming farmers. dead person.

Korean dolmens 700 bce
c.250 bce
In Korea, people begin to
build dolmen tombs.
Some stand above

ground, but others have
an underground burial
chamber. About 45,000
are built, giving Korea the
world’s largest collection

of dolmens.

Sanchi Stupa c.200 bce

At Sanchi in India, Emperor Great Pyramid of Cholula
Ashoka builds a great stupa—
a domed monument holding The people of Cholula in Mexico build a pyramid
relics of the Buddha. Stupas temple to worship the god Quetzalcoatl. Over the next
thousand years, it is rebuilt on a progressively bigger
are places of pilgrimage for
Buddhists, who walk around scale, until it is the largest pyramid in the world.
them praying and meditating.

42

Newgrange Stonehenge First pyramid

In Ireland, people use 200,000 In Wiltshire, England, people arrange standing The Egyptian pharaoh Djoser
tons of rock to build an stones in circles. Some of the stones are builds the first pyramid as his
tomb. It has stepped sides in
enormous, mound-shaped tomb hauled hundreds of miles from Wales. Their six levels and is made of stone.
with a long passage leading to a purpose is unclear, but certain stones align
with the midwinter Sun, so Stonehenge may The steps may have been
central burial chamber. The seen as a stairway to the
passage is aligned with the be used to establish calendar dates. heavens for the pharoah.
midwinter sunrise, which lights up
the burial chamber for 17 minutes.

c.2950–2500 bce Pyramids in Peru

2630–2611 bce People at Caral in Peru build
Pyramids and Sphinx the first pyramids in South
America. They have stepped
At Giza, the largest of Egypt’s pyramids sides like Djoser’s, but they
are built by the pharaohs Khufu, Khafre, serve as temples rather than
and Menkaure. Khafre’s is guarded by tombs. They are arranged
around a plaza in the middle
the Great Sphinx, a colossal statue
of a lion with the head of a pharaoh. of a great urban center.

c.3200 bce

c.2600 bce

Ziggurats 2589–2504 bce

In Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq), Easter Island statues
rulers build stepped temples, called
ziggurats. Each is seen as the home On Easter Island in the Pacific
of the local god, whose statue is kept Ocean, islanders carve 887 statues

in a shrine at the very top. of their chieftains and ancestors.
These have eyes of white coral with
c.2100 bce
black obsidian pupils, and caps
Monk’s Mound 1113–1150 ce made of red stone.

At the meeting of the Mississippi, Angkor Wat 1300–1500 ce
Missouri, and Illinois rivers, North
Americans build Monk’s Mound, an In Cambodia, King Suryavarman 43
immense, pyramid-shaped mound of II constructs Angkor Wat, a Hindu
soil and clay. Its base is as large as
temple containing his tomb. It
that of Egypt’s Great Pyramid. takes around 30 years to build
and today remains the world’s
900–1200 ce
largest religious structure.

The Great Sphinx

The ancient Egyptians built sphinx
statues to guard important areas such
as tombs and temples. The most famous
sphinx is the Great Sphinx of Giza,
situated on the west bank of the River
Nile. It was carved out of a huge outcrop
of limestone that sticks up above the
desert floor to guard the pyramid of
Khafre in Giza. It was built 4,500 years
ago, and is one of the largest and oldest
statues in the world. The Sphinx has a
human head, probably that of Pharaoh
Khafre, and the body of a lion.



Sharing stories “Those who
tell stories
Many of the earliest stories were composed as rule the world.”
poems, as the rhythm and repetition of poetry
made it easier for storytellers to learn them. With Hopi American Indian proverb
the invention of writing around 6,000 years ago,
these stories began to be written down. Drama
and, much later, the novel developed as new
forms of storytelling. Today, books are still a
popular format for reading stories, but they are
also available digitally as e-books or online.

In the story, the
Monkey King had
a magic staff that
could shrink or
grow in size.

13th century 13th–15th century 16th century 1623

Scandinavian sagas Medieval romances Monkey magic First Folio

Most Icelandic sagas are tales of Tales of chivalrous knights going Journey to the West (also known Shakespeare adds many words to
historic voyages, battles, and kings on quests and having heroic as Monkey) is a Chinese novel the English language and has a
of northern Europe. Some sagas based on the true story of a monk’s huge impact on the development
adventures are known in medieval journey to bring Buddhist scrolls
tell of a legendary past full of Europe as romances. Old French from India to China. The novel of literature around the world. After
dwarves and giants. As well as and British legends of King Arthur adds characters from Chinese his death, 36 of his plays are
sagas, the Icelanders write down and his Knights of the Round Table collected together for the first
stories of Thor and Loki from are written down as romances in mythology, such as the time in the First Folio.
Monkey King.
Norse mythology. the late Middle Ages.

1864 1884 1887 1914–1918

Science fiction Great American Novel Elementary, War poets
my dear Watson
Science and fantasy meet in US novelist Mark Twain’s A number of British and French
French writer Jules Verne’s Adventures of Huckleberry Finn Scottish writer Sir Arthur Conan soldiers fighting on the front lines
Journey to the Center of the Earth vividly portrays the American Doyle creates the world’s
and, later, 20,000 Leagues Under South and the language of its in World War I write about their
the Sea (1870). These stories are people. It is considered one of the best-known fictional detective, horrific experiences in
early masterpieces of what we “Great American Novels”—works Sherlock Holmes, as well as his
that capture the spirit of America. sidekick, Dr. Watson, in his novel haunting poetry. Sadly, many
now call science fiction. of them never come home
A Study in Scarlet. from the war.

46

Ancient Greek The story of Aladdin and the genie
actors wore was added by the French writer
Antoine Galland in the 18th century.
masks to identify
The tale of the character
Gilgamesh from they played.
Mesopotamia in
modern-day Iraq
is the oldest
surviving epic.

After 2100 bce 5th century bce 8th–15th century ce c.1000–1012

Ancient epics Greek drama 1001 stories First novel

Societies of the ancient Early Greek plays involve only a One Thousand and One Nights The Tale of Genji by the Japanese
world produce long poems called single actor and a chorus (a group is a collection of popular stories lady-in-waiting Murasaki Shikibu is
epics. Performed by storytellers of performers who comment on from Arabia. Although they appear
rather than written down, these in Arabic folk tales, many of its maybe the world’s first novel.
the action). Playwrights add a well-known characters—Sinbad, Written on sheets of paper pasted
epics celebrate a civilization’s second and then a third actor to Aladdin, and Ali Baba—will be
culture through stories the stage, laying the foundations and folded together, it tells the
of great heroes. added much later. story of “Shining Genji,” the son of
for Western drama.
an ancient Japanese emperor.

18th–19th century 1812–1822 1818 1865

Rise of the novel Once upon a time Gothic horror Wonderland

The novel becomes an extremely Brothers Jacob and Wilhelm Mary Shelley writes Frankenstein, English clergyman Lewis Carroll’s
popular form of literature. Many Grimm collect traditional German one of the greatest works of Gothic Alice in Wonderland is full of
European and American writers folk tales such as Snow White and horror—a type of story that deals
produce their novels in serial form. Hansel and Gretel, in Children’s and with the supernatural, ghosts, and nonsense speech and fantastical
They are published in sections as Household Tales. The cruelty and characters. It brings about a
monthly parts to make them more violence of the original stories is haunted houses. One of the last
examples of Gothic horror is “Golden Age” in which children’s
affordable to the public. toned down in future editions. books focus on entertainment
Dracula (1897) by Bram Stoker.
rather than education.

1920s 1950s 1960s 1997–2007

Stream of Postcolonial writing Black voices Harry Potter
consciousness
As European powers lose hold of African-Americans inspired by British novelist J.K. Rowling’s seven
A new style of writing, called their international empires, the Civil Rights Movement books about Harry Potter and the
“stream of consciousness” (see pages 290–291) write wizard school of Hogwarts become a
attempts to show fragments writers from former colonies in about the experiences of worldwide phenomenon. The novels
of thoughts and feelings as Africa, South America, and their people. The decade have since been translated into
also sees the rise of female around 80 languages and have sold
they pass through a Asia—particularly India—begin African-American poets.
character’s mind. to write about the experience more than 450 million copies.

of being colonized.

47

“I adore wearing gems, RTovhameluRaeponiiommnfnreaoapanSrmomemsersttapbihbinIlneieatn)err,ilcssaiwn(nerhfrmoogghohrsseiartictgs,ehdoqhaihseleuinptzaohadiernsfeondttatytteohmeitrencineuetBsEletcahutklsertloai(cwccpeheesaa. ,rremrs). wInwaeAvnMaeoodzraelbdclrtnixspaeeooiitcncdtpsucohioieecraa,eqrnnjAnaprrueod,tdlztouaecaywtfigdekpnsvesc.eteeeawsT,mrstnliyshhatoroahheenhybfderydjajalseleerlae.dsdwsola,esfero, lry
but not because they 13152251–

are mine. You can’t
possess radiance, you

can only admire it.”

Elizabeth Taylor
Actress and jewelry collector

CfareTnlbothrdBrsreoimiglAiwtynwotvlaoGgianoedrenrmiorefomcenairtimnnwxsabwWodioCronarfIefsoyrtneshhctlneiealebzteogdcairyaeprhnvn(coprmCyda.seaEetelrtnsyuntiraoteekall.,corlocnpkuoTdcmseht,owiseureynna-)la.lrym c.100 ce
1c0.05 b0c0e–

Scythian gold c.700 bce

The Scythians are nomads ETghbeyriaapgnnthitdcijaceeehnniatwlmsrjeradelEirrdengbemylie.ygnfuwpspr,rtaMeileoellealacannirmn,wpodiseyglsuwapollsoroegavldscnmzteaoodeuolslrlians,n,acnertabosss,nepsadpudcecsr,.oclh.oar3s3e0d0000b–ciJegsafoidlpotrCreidi,iiszthkantieselhhdaneooanrpeoumcidkg,odsershegnteerattmcjhen.iooCea1dgnhbnihbsd0lenseytaeaa0c,towbahlnb0auaeeoy,.sttnbehoce
living in Central Asia who

carry their wealth with
them. They wear jewelry
and decorate their armor

and clothing with gold
ornaments. This comb is
topped with a group of

fighting warriors.

Jewelry thberritamuctsaemtlolAradifecrrktwinileEselag.rcartenrhaldTheoyalhmoecfneeofkSmlsymdniieoatthenvmcdohisle.aeeseglrysolherntMeailfwhlbhndoeesurdredalartmaenoaddEnass istn
c.100,000 bce
Humans have always worn jewelry,
whether it is made from simple
items such as shells and feathers, or
expensive metals like gold and silver.
Modern manufactured materials such
as plastics have expanded the range
even further. Throughout history, there
have been many reasons for people to
wear jewelry. Some societies and
cultures have used jewelry to protect
against evil, some to display wealth or
rank, and some simply for decoration.

48