HMEF5033 Comparative Education

Faculty of Education and Languages

HMEF5033

Comparative Education

HMEF5033
COMPARATIVE
EDUCATION

Prof Dr Kuldip Kaur

Project Directors: Prof Dato’ Dr Mansor Fadzil
Assoc Prof Dr Chung Han Tek
Module Writer: Open University Malaysia
Moderator:
Developed by: Prof Dr Kuldip Kaur
Open University Malaysia

Prof Dr John Arul Phillips
Asia e-University

Centre for Instructional Design and Technology
Open University Malaysia

First Edition, May 2007
Second Edition, April 2013 (rs)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), April 2013, HMEF5033
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means
without the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).

Table of Contents

Course Guide vii–xv
Course Assignment Guide xix–xxi

Topic 1: An Introduction to Comparative Education 1
1.1 Introduction to Comparative Education 2
1.2 Proponents of Comparative Education 6
1.3 Defining Comparative Education 13
Summary 16
Key Terms 17
References 18

Topic 2: The Purpose of Comparative Education 20
2.1 The Purpose of Comparative Education 20
2.2 A Brief Review of Literature 24
2.3 Planning 28
2.4 Improvement and Innovation 31
2.5 International Understanding 36
Summary 38
Key Terms 39
References 39

Topic 3: The Scope of Comparative Education 41
3.1 Key Concepts in Education 42
3.2 Education Philosophy 45
3.3 Education Planning 47
3.4 Education Policy 50
3.5 Goals and Objectives 53
3.6 Education Structure 57
3.7 A Case Study 62
Summary 64
Key Terms 65
References 65

iv TABLE OF CONTENTS

Topic 4: Education Structure in Japan 66
4.1 Contemporary Japan 67
4.2 History of Education in Japan 68
4.3 Structure of Education 70
4.4 Issues Related to Japanese Education Structure 86
Summary 88
Key Terms 89
References 90

Topic 5: Higher Education Policy in Sweden 91
5.1 Higher Education Policy 92
5.2 History of Education in Sweden2 102
5.3 Higher Education Policy in Sweden 104
Summary 110
Key Terms 111
References 112

Topic 6: Educational Planning in South Africa 113
6.1 Examining Education Planning 114
6.2 History of Education in South Africa 120
6.3 Educational Planning in the Rainbow Nation 125
Summary 132
Key Terms 133
References 133

Topic 7: Goals of the Primary School Curriculum 135
7.1 Curricular Goals 136
7.2 Curricular Control 137
7.3 Formulation of the Curriculum 139
7.4 Curricula Content 142
Summary 158
Key Terms 159
References 160

Appendices 161
Appendix 1 163
Appendix 2 169
Appendix 3 177
Appendix 4 182

EOWTUG"IWKFE

vi COURSE GUIDE

COURSE GUIDE vii

WELCOME TO HMEF5033

Welcome to HMEF5033 Comparative Education. This is one of the required
courses for the Master of Education (MEd) programme at Open University
Malaysia. The course serves as an introductory guide to the field of comparative
education. You are encouraged to tap into your experiences as a teacher,
instructor, lecturer or trainer to relate to the concepts and principles that will be
discussed. This is a 3-credit course conducted over a semester of 14 weeks.

WHAT WILL YOU GET FROM DOING THIS
COURSE?

Description of the Course

This is an introductory course in comparative education and assumes little or no
prior knowledge of the subject. However, the course will require you to read and
analyse comparative studies in education at an international level. By definition,
comparative education takes an international view of education by comparing
and examining similarities and differences in educational practice in different
countries. Generally, comparative studies of education are focused on the
comparison of educational practices in two or more countries. The course will
take an issues approach to the field by examining how different countries deal
with problems or issues of importance and by determining the merits of the
solutions used to address them. The first part of the course introduces you to key
concepts in the field so that you will have a frame of reference for the readings
that are introduced. In the second half of the course, you will explore issues of
educational importance by examining and analysing educational practices in a
number of countries.

All the concepts, principles and theories of learning are examined in relation to
their application in the classroom. Students are encouraged to discuss the
implications of the various theories on teaching and learning at all levels of
education. The final part of the course deals with finding ways of translating the
theories discussed into teaching methods that will enhance learning.

Aim of the Course

The main aim of the course is to provide you with a foundation on the principles
and theories of learning and their application in the classroom.

viii COURSE GUIDE

Objectives of the Course

The course aims to develop an understanding of the following areas:

1." To learn about the definitions, goals and scope of comparative education as
practiced in the field today, as well as to value the contributions of various
scholars by gaining a historical perspective of the field.

2." To provide a means for analysing the various methodological, theoretical and
topical areas that are interest to comparative education scholars.

3." To examine the relationship between education and economic, social and
historical factors in order to understand the cultural totality of educational
practice.

4." To develop an understanding of how issues in education may be studied, and
to study such issues in order to determine causes, solutions proposed and
related outcomes in order that one may be in a better position for judgement
of oneÊs own education system.

5." To develop an informed understanding of the role of comparative education
in the professional life of educationists for the purpose of planning, policy
development, status improvement, innovation and international understanding.

HOW CAN YOU GET THE MOST FROM THIS
COURSE?

Learning Package

In this Learning Package, you are provided with THREE kinds of course
materials:

1." The Course Guide, which you are currently reading;

2." The Course Assignment Guide (which describes the assignments to be
submitted and the examination you have to sit for); and

3." The Course Content (seven topics and a set of readings).

Please ensure that you have all of these materials at the start of the course.

COURSE GUIDE ix

Course Topics

Topic 1: An Introduction to Comparative Education
This topic examines the development of comparative education as a field, and
describes the contributions of various scholars. It also gives you an overview of
early and more recent definitions of comparative education.

Topic 2: The Purpose of Comparative Education
The second topic in this volume provides an overview of the purpose of
comparative education, and outlines the scope of the field. It also describes in
detail the three goals of planning, improvement and innovation as well as
international understanding.

Topic 3: The Scope of Comparative Education
In this topic, you will get to know and apply the various terms and concepts that
are common to the field and are used when making comparisons between
countries or selected features of education.

Topic 4: Education Structure in Japan
This topic examines how education is structured, as seen in the number of years
of schooling in primary and secondary schools as well as entry into institutions
of higher education.

Topic 5: Higher Education Policy in Sweden
This topic describes the main elements that influence higher education policy in a
country. It also examines the many socio-cultural elements that shape a countryÊs
decisions about higher education.

Topic 6: Education Planning in South Africa
In this topic, we take a look at the many historical, demographic and socio-
economic factors that influence education planning in post-conflict areas. We will
also study how countries have taken steps toward improving the economic and
social status of marginalised groups of people.

Topic 7: Goals of the Primary School Curriculum
This topic takes a closer look at the way in which basic education or the primary
school curriculum is structured in countries around the world. It also describes
the many elements that influence curricular goals, and how countries exercise
control over and articulate curricular content.

x COURSE GUIDE

Selected Readings
As in all graduate courses, you will be required to read widely to enhance your
knowledge of the field. A selection of readings has been added to this volume to
help you begin this process. Bear in mind that you would have to read other
articles and country reports in order to gain a deeper understanding of the field.

Organisation of Course Content

In distance learning, a print module such as this replaces the university lecturer.
This is one of the main advantages of distance learning where specially designed
study allows you to study at your own pace, anywhere and at anytime. Think of
it as reading the lecture instead of listening to a lecturer. In the same way that a
lecturer might assign something for you to read or do, the module tells you what
to read, when to read and when to do the activities. Just as a lecturer might ask
you questions in class, your module provides exercises for you to do at
appropriate points.

To help you read and understand the individual topics, numerous realistic
examples support all definitions, concepts and theories. Diagrams and text are
combined into a visually appealing, easy-to-read module. Throughout the course
contents, diagrams, illustrations, tables and charts are used to reinforce
important points and simplify the more complex concepts. The module has
adopted the following features in each topic:

" INTRODUCTION

Lists the headings and subheadings of each topic to provide an overview of the
contents of the topic and prepare you for the major concepts to be studied and
learned.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

This is a listing of what you should be able to do after successful
completion of a topic. In other words, whether you are be able to explain,
compare, evaluate, distinguish, list, describe, relate and so forth. You
should use these indicators to guide your study. When you have finished
a topic, you must go back and check whether you have achieved the
learning outcomes or be able to do what is required of you. If you make a
habit of doing this, you will improve your chances of understanding the
contents of the course.

COURSE GUIDE xi

SELF-CHECK

Questions are interspersed at strategic points in the topic to encourage
review of what you have just read and retention of recently learned
material. The answers to these questions are found in the paragraphs
before the questions. This is to test immediately whether you
understand the few paragraphs of text you have read. Working through
these tests will help you determine whether you understand the topic
and prepare you for the assignments and the examination.

ACTIVITY

These are situations drawn from research projects to show how
knowledge of the principles of research methodology may be applied to
real-world situations. The activities illustrate key points and concepts
dealt with in each topic.

The main ideas of each topic are listed in brief sentences to provide a
review of the content. You should ensure that you understand every
statement listed. If you do not, go back to the topic and find out what you
do not know.

Key Terms discussed in the topic are placed at end of each topic to make you
aware of the main ideas. If you are unable to explain these terms, you should go
back to the topic to clarify.

xii COURSE GUIDE

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:
At the end of each topic a list of questions is presented that are best solved
through group interaction and discussion. You can answer the questions
yourself. But, you are encouraged to work with your course-mates and discuss
online and during the seminar sessions.

At the end of each topic a list of articles and topics of books is provided that is
directly related to the contents of the topic. As far as possible the articles and
books suggested for further reading will be available in OUMÊs Digital Library
which you can access and OUMÊs Library. Also, relevant internet resources are
made available to enhance your understanding of selected curriculum concepts
and principles as applied in real-world situations.

WHAT SUPPORT WILL YOU GET IN STUDYING
THIS COURSE?

Seminars

There are 15 hours of seminars or face-to-face interaction supporting the course.
These consist of FIVE tutorial sessions of three hours each. You will be notified of
the dates, times and location of these tutorials, together with the name and phone
number of your tutor, as soon as you are allocated a tutorial group.

myVLE Online Discussion

Besides the face-to-face tutorial sessions, you have the support of online
discussions. You should interact with other students and your tutor using
myVLE. Your contributions to the online discussion will greatly enhance your
understanding of course content, how to go about doing the assignments and
preparation for the examination.

COURSE GUIDE xiii

Facilitator

Your facilitator will mark your assignments and provide assistance to you during
the course. Do not hesitate to discuss during the tutorial session or online if:

" You do not understand any part of the course content or the assigned
readings

" You have difficulty with the self-tests and activities

" You have a question or problem with the assignments.

HOW SHOULD YOU STUDY FOR THIS COURSE?

1." Time Commitment for Studying
You should plan to spend about six to eight hours per topic, reading the
notes, doing the self-tests and activities and referring to the suggested
readings. You must schedule your time to discuss online. It is often more
convenient for you to distribute the hours over a number of days rather than
spend one whole day per week on study. Some topics may require more
work than others, although on average, it is suggested that you spend
approximately three days per topic.

2." Proposed Study Strategy
The following is a proposed strategy for working through the course. If you
run into any trouble, discuss it with your tutor either online or during the
tutorial sessions. Remember, the tutor is there to help you.

(a)" The most important step is to read the contents of this Course Guide
thoroughly.

(b)" Organise a study schedule. Note the time you are expected to spend on
each topic the date for submission of assignments as well as seminar
and examination dates. These are stated in your Course Assessment
Guide. Put all this information in one place, such as your diary or a wall
calendar. Whatever method you choose to use, you should decide on
and jot down your own dates for working on each topic. You have some
flexibility as there are 10 topics spread over a period of 14 weeks.

xiv COURSE GUIDE

(c)" Once you have created your own study schedule, make every effort to
„stick to it‰. The main reason students are unable to cope is that they
get behind in their coursework.

(d)" To begin reading a topic:

" Remember in distance learning much of your time will be spent,
READING the course content. Study the list of topics given at the
beginning of each topic and examine the relationship of the topic to
the other nine topics.

" Read the topic overview showing the headings and subheadings to
get a broad picture of the topic.

" Read the topic learning outcomes (what is expected of you). Do you
already know some of the things to be discussed? What are the
things you do not know?

" Read the introduction (see how it is related to the previous topic).

" Work through the topic. (The contents of the topic has been
arranged to provide a sequence for you to follow)

" As you work through the topic, you will be asked to do the self-test
at appropriate points in the topic. This is to find out if you
understand what you have just read.

" Do the activities (to see if you can apply the concepts learned to
real-life situations)

3. When you have completed the topic, review the learning outcomes to
confirm that you have achieved them and are able to do what is required.

4. If you are confident, you can proceed to the next topic. Proceed topic by topic
through the course and try to pace your study so that you keep yourself on
schedule.

5. After completing all topics, review the course and prepare yourself for
the final examination. Check that you have achieved all topic learning
outcomes and the course objectives (listed in this Course Guide).

COURSE GUIDE xv

FINAL REMARKS

Once again, welcome to the course. To maximise your gain from this course you
should try at all times relate what you are studying with the real-world of
classrooms, schools and learners. Look at the environment in your institution
and ask yourself whether they provide opportunities for research. Most of
the ideas, concepts and principles you learn in this course have practical
applications. It is important to realise that much of what we do in education and
training has to be based on sound theoretical foundations. The contents of this
course provide the principles for doing research in education whether it is in a
school, college, university or training organisation.

We wish you success with the course and hope that you will find it interesting,
useful and relevant towards your development as a professional.

xvi COURSE GUIDE

""EQWTUG"CUUKIPOGPV""
""IWKFG"

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

x  COURSE GUIDE

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

COURSE ASSIGNMENT GUIDE xix

INTRODUCTION

The Assignment Guide provides an outline on how you will be assessed in
this course during the semester. It contains details of the Facilitator-marked
assignments, final examination and participation required for the course.

One element in the assessment strategy of the course is that all students and
facilitators should have the same information about the answers to be assessed.
Therefore, this guide also contains the marking criteria that facilitators will use in
assessing your work.

Please read through the whole guide at the beginning of the course.

ACADEMIC WRITING

(a) Plagiarism

(i) What is Plagiarism?
Any written assignment (essays, project, take-home examinations, etc)
submitted by a student must not be deceptive regarding the abilities,
knowledge or amount of work contributed by the student. There are
many ways that this rule can be violated. Among them are:

Paraphrases: A closely reasoned argument of an author is paraphrased but
the student does not acknowledge doing so. (Clearly, all our
knowledge is derived from somewhere, but detailed arguments
from clearly identifiable sources must be acknowledged.)

Outright Large sections of the paper are simply copied from other sources

plagiarism: and the copied parts are not acknowledged as quotations.

Other These often include essays written by other students or sold
sources: by unscrupulous organisations. Quoting from such papers is
perfectly legitimate if quotation marks are used and the source
is cited.

Works by Taking credit deliberately or not deliberately for works
others: produced by others without giving proper acknowledgement.
These works include photographs, charts, graphs, drawings,
statistics, video clips, audio clips, verbal exchanges, such as
interviews or lectures, performances on television and texts
printed on the Web.

Duplication The student submits the same essay for two or more courses.

xx COURSE ASSIGNMENT GUIDE

(ii) How Can I Avoid Plagiarism?

" Insert quotation marks around „copy and paste‰ clause, phrase,
sentence, paragraph and cite the original source.

" Paraphrase clause, phrase, sentence or paragraph in your own
words and cite your source

" Adhere to the APA (American Psychological Association) stylistic
format, whichever applicable, when citing a source and when
writing out the bibliography or reference page

" Attempt to write independently without being overly dependent
on information from anotherÊs original works

" Educate yourself on what may be considered as common
knowledge (no copyright necessary), public domain (copyright
has expired or not protected under copyright law), or copyright
(legally protected).

(b) Documenting Sources
Whenever you quote, paraphrase, summarise or otherwise refer to the work
of others, you are required to cite its original source documentation.
Offered here are some of the most commonly cited forms of material.

" Direct Citation Simply having a thinking skill is no assurance that
children will use it. In order for such skills to
become part of day-to-day behaviour, they must be
cultivated in an environment that values and
sustains them. „Just as childrenÊs musical skills
will likely lay fallow in an environment that
doesnÊt encourage music, learnerÊs thinking
skills tend to languish in a culture that doesnÊt
encourage thinking‰ (Tishman, Perkins and Jay,
1995, p. 5)

" Indirect Citation According to Wurman (1988), the new disease of
the 21st century will be information anxiety, which
has been defined as the ever-widening gap
between what one understands and what one
thinks one should understand.

COURSE ASSIGNMENT GUIDE xxi

(c) Referencing
All sources that you cite in your paper should be listed in the Reference
section at the end of your paper. HereÊs how you should do your Reference.

Journal Article DuFour, R. (2002). The learning-centred principal.
Online Journal Educational Leadership, 59(8). 12–15.

Webpage Evnine, S. J. (2001). The universality of logic: On the
connection between rationality and logical ability
Book [Electronic version]. Mind, 110, 335–367.
Article in a
Book National Park Service. (2003, February 11). Abraham
Lincoln Birthplace National Historic Site. Retrieved
Printed February 13, 2003, from http://www.nps.gov/abli/
Newspaper
Naisbitt, J., & Aburdence, M. (1989). Megatrends 2000.
London: Pan Books.

Nickerson, R. (1987). Why teach thinking? In J. B. Baron,
& R. J. Sternberg (Eds). Teaching thinking skills:
Theory and practice. New York: W. H. Freeman and
Company. 27–37.

Holden, S. (1998, May 16). Frank Sinatra dies at 82:
Matchless stylist of pop. The New York Times,
pp. A1, A22–A23.

ASSESSMENT

Please refer to myINSPIRE.

TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)
DIGITAL LIBRARY

The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for
the use of its learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible
through the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases
comprising e-journals, e-theses, e-books and more. Examples of databases
available are EBSCOhost, ProQuest, SpringerLink, Books24 7, InfoSci Books,
Emerald Management Plus and Ebrary Electronic Books. As an OUM learner,
you are encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this
library.

xxii COURSE ASSIGNMENT GUIDE

Topic An Introduction
to Comparative
1 Education

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

1. Review historical developments in the field of comparative education;
2. Differentiate between basic and advanced levels of comparison and

analysis;
3. Examine the contributions of various scholars in the field of

comparative education; and
4. Derive a practical definition of comparative education based on a

review of related literature.

INTRODUCTION

What is comparative education? How do comparative studies in education at an
international level help scholars and educators advance their knowledge of
education within their own country or region? This volume on comparative
education will address questions such as these whilst providing a means for
exploring issues of educational importance.

In this topic, we first discuss past and recent developments in the field with a
view to understand the scope of comparative studies in education. Next, we take
a historical approach to the field by examining the contributions of a number of
scholars in the field. Finally, we discuss various definitions that have been
forwarded by scholars so that you can gain an understanding of the field, and
thereby derive a definition that is both practical and useful for your own
research.

2 TOPIC 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO COMPARATIVE
EDUCATION

Developments in the Field
The field of comparative education first emerged as a new branch of study in the
19th century, a time many scholars view as the beginning of a new era in
education. It started off as scholars were concerned with the cultural patterns
underlying the educational set up of different countries. This was a time when
more and more people were travelling to different parts of the world and coming
into contact with other cultures. It was also a time when new schools were being
set up by one cultural group for another, e.g. English-medium schools were
being set up in India and Malaysia, while the Dutch were setting up schools in
South Africa.

Over time, the field of comparative education has grown to accommodate
a number of perspectives and methodologies that can be employed to study
problems faced by educationists. Scholars the world over have debated and
written on methodological issues, definitions, aims and theories of comparative
education. The nature of studies in the field has moved from single, within-
country or two-country comparisons to large-scale comparative studies using
collaborative research initiatives. Researchers perceive that the growth of
comparative education has developed due to global economic developments and
competition in education (Crossley & Watson, 2003). Today, the influence of the
field is reflected in the presence of a number of comparative and international
education research centres in universities, journals and books documenting
empirical work in the area and a rise in the number of well-known academics in
the field.

For this reason you will find that comparative studies of education involve a
number of approaches, and assume many different forms. A comparative study
may be anything from a country-by-country description of one aspect of
education to an in-depth discussion on one or more issues confronting education.
Scholars in the field may also examine education-related problems in various
countries and learn from the different solutions that are attempted to address
these problems.

It is only through contact and comparison that the relative value or
worthlessness of the various cultural elements can be clearly and
critically seen and understood.

Hu Shih, Chinese philosopher (1891 1962)

TOPIC 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPARATIVE EDUCATION 3

Depth and Focus of Studies
In their simplest form, comparative studies of education are focused on the
comparison of one aspect of an education system with another. At this level, one
may be interested mainly in identifying the similarities and differences between
the educational practices of two countries or places. For instance, a scholar may
be interested in examining how the Japanese school curriculum is similar or
different to the curriculum in Malaysian schools. Another scholar may wish to
compare the origins of Malay-medium schools in the state of Perak against those
in Sabah. The purpose of such basic or one-unit comparisons may be to learn
from the practices of others, or merely to engage in an intellectual exercise on
cross-border history.

At another level, comparative studies in education can take the form of in-depth
inquiries of issues that are of concern to policy-makers, or investigations that
involve several countries at a time. For example, a researcher may have a theory
of gender discriminatory practices in higher education institutions in Asian
countries. To do this, the researcher may collect data from eighty or a hundred
institutions of higher learning in Asia. The institution-by-institution as well as the
country-by-country analysis will help him/her confirm or disapprove the theory
he/she has built. This exercise could then inform policy decisions on, for
instance, the role of women in the management of higher education institutions.
It may also give other scholars the opportunity to carry out studies to re-examine
or reconfirm a theory on gender discrimination.

Therefore, it is important to recognise the fact that comparative education means
different things to different people. Further, comparisons do not always have to
involve two or more countries; comparisons of situations within a country, or
what is known as intra-country comparisons, can also be made. It is, therefore,
best to view comparative studies in education in terms of a continuum, with
studies comprising basic, one-unit comparisons on one end, and advanced level
studies, or multidimensional international-oriented inquiry on the other. (Refer
to Figure 1.1 for a perspective on the range of comparative studies that may be
carried on in education. Note that basic comparisons can be made either at the
intra-country level or at the inter-country level. The same applies to in-depth
studies requiring critical analysis and evaluation.)

4 TOPIC 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPARATIVE EDUCATION
SELF-CHECK 1.1

What do you understand by the following terms?
(a) Educational system;
(b) Within-country comparisons;
(c) Two-country comparisons;
(d) Disapprove a theory;
(e) Comparative studies in education; and
(f) Collaborative research initiatives.

Figure 1.1: Continuum of comparative studies in education1

1 Titles of articles quoted in Figure 1.1 are from the Comparative Education Review, a Journal of
the Comparative and International Education Society.
(http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/CER/index).

TOPIC 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPARATIVE EDUCATION 5

ACTIVITY 1.1

Read Abstracts A and B and answer the following questions.

1. How would you classify each of these studies in terms of the level
of analysis and in terms of its focus? Use terms such as basic level,
advanced level, intra-country, inter-country, one-unit comparison
and in-depth analysis in your answer.

2. What are some of the characteristics of each study that helped you
in the classification?

3. What are the objectives of each study?

Abstract A

The Comparative Academic Performance of International
Students in Australia
by

Alan Olsen, Zena Burgess & Raj Sharma
International Higher Education, 42 (Winter 2006): 11 12.

International students do just as well as Australian students. This is the
key finding from a study of the academic performance of 338,000 full-time students
at 22 Australian universities in 2003. The results of the study are important to
international education professionals globally at a time when there have been
allegations that Australian universities were dropping standards to favor foreign
students. The Sydney Morning Herald claimed in June 2005 to have found evidence of
quality falling at universities to cater to international students with poor English
seeking degrees so as to be accepted for migration. The research proved these
allegations to be untrue. Australian students passed 89.4 percent of courses attempted;
international students 88.8 percent. The results suggest that in their recruitment of
international students Australian universities set their standards at about the right
level. Consistent with research globally, the study found a gender difference. Female
students passed 91.6 percent of courses attempted; male students 86.5 percent. Simply,
girls did better than boys.

(www.bc.edu/cihe)

6 TOPIC 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

Abstract B

Asian Universities:
Historical Perspectives and Contemporary Challenges

Edited by
Philip G. Altbach and Toru Umakoshi (2005)

This volume offers a detailed comparative study of the emergence of the
modern university in Asia, linking the historical development of universities in the
region with contemporary realities and future challenges. The contributors describe
higher education systems in eleven countries Korea, China, Vietnam, Cambodia,
Malaysia, Phillippines, Singapore, Indonesia, Thailand, India, and Japan and explore
similarities and differences through two comparative essays. Each case study includes
a discussion of the nature and influence of both indigenous and European educational
traditions; a detailed analysis of development patterns; and a close examination of such
contemporary issues as population growth and access, cost, the role of private higher
education, the research system, autonomy, and accountability.

(www.press.jhu.edu/books)

1.2 PROPONENTS OF COMPARATIVE
EDUCATION

In this section, we take a historical look at comparative education by reviewing
the work of some of the major proponents of the field.

(a) Sir Michael Sadler (1861 1943) Figure 1.2:
Historically speaking, Sir Michael Sadler (Figure 1.2) Sir Michael Sadler
was the first person to attempt a definition of the
subject of comparative education. He was born in
northern England and was educated at Oxford. He
had a deep interest in adult education and moral
education. From 1885 to 1903, he worked at Oxford
University where he produced reports on educational
policy and practice both for local and international
purposes, and advised the government on the
development of educational policy. Later, as a
lecturer at the University of Manchester, Sadler
produced reports on secondary education for local
education authorities. In 1911, he became Vice-
Chancellor of the University of Leeds, and stayed
there until 1923 when he became master of University
College, Oxford.

TOPIC 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPARATIVE EDUCATION 7

Sadler viewed comparative education as an examination of the set up and
problems of other countries in order to better understand the workings of
oneÊs own system (Sodhi, 1998). SadlerÊs experiences as an educational
administrator and his work on the Calcutta University Commission led him
to believe in the power of education over conduct and character. Latter-day
researchers have credited him with the development of the problem-
method for educational research and inquiry. Sadler often required
investigators to deal with specific problems and to identify related factors
within the social context where these problems occurred. He also
encouraged them to work on the implications of these problems and to
make suggestions for future action.

However, SadlerÊs most important contribution to the field of comparative
education lies in the publication of eleven volumes known as Special
Reports. These reports document in detail the educational developments in
several European countries during the late 19th century. The reports also
contain extensive historical accounts of educational practice in the United
States and in the various territories occupied by Great Britain. Today,
educationists, historians and sociologists use these Special Reports for the
comparative study of the roots of educational problems in our world.

SELF-CHECK 1.2

List three aspects of SadlerÊs work that could be categorised as
significant contributions to the field of comparative education.

(b) Isaac Leon Kandel (1881 1965) Figure 1.3:
Isaac Leon Kandel (Figure 1.3) was a student of Isaac Leon Kandel
Sir Michael Sadler. He was born in Romania to
British parents. He received his bachelorÊs and
masterÊs education in the University of Manchester
and studied comparative and international education
for his PhD degree at Teachers College, Columbia
University, New York. He was author of several
influential works, including Twenty-Five Years of
American Education (1924), Essays in Comparative
Education (1930), The Cult of Uncertainty (1943) and
his landmark work, Comparative Education (1933).

8 TOPIC 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

Kandel perceived SadlerÊs problem-based definition of comparative
education to be rather limiting as it did not consider a number of other
factors. According to Kandel, a comparative educator who truly wants to
understand various nationsÊ school systems must not be content with only
gathering important factual data pertaining to those systems. To improve a
system, he proposed that educators uncover the causes of educational
problems first and then examine the solutions that a nation uses to address
problems. More importantly, the rationale for selecting particular solutions
should be studied. For these reasons, Kandel required comparative
educationists to have a working knowledge of more than one language, and
to be knowledgeable in a number of subjects. He believed that researchers
should not only know about education, but also be aware of political
developments, anthropology, economics, sociology and geography.

Kandel was a leading proponent of the perspective in comparative
education known as historical functionalism. Fundamentally, this school of
thought espoused that education systems do not operate in a vacuum, but
are inextricably intertwined with other historical, social and political forces.
In KandelÊs view, comparative education is a continuation of the study of
the history of education into the present. Like Sadler, Kandel believed that
educational systems could not be directly transferred from one country to
another (1959). However, he perceived that ideas, strategies and practices
developed in one context could stimulate further action in another, i.e.
nations can learn from each otherÊs experiences.

Today, many of KandelÊs ideas are used in education systems throughout
the world. Among the most common are lifelong learning, parent
participation in public schooling, well-thought out curricula and teacher
effectiveness. These ideas and concerns are contemplated at all levels: basic
education, secondary education and higher education.

SELF-CHECK 1.3

Kandel thought that SadlerÊs definition of comparative education was
„limiting‰. What, in KandelÊs view, are some of the factors that Sadler
did not consider in his definition?

TOPIC 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPARATIVE EDUCATION 9

(c) Nicholas Hans (1888 1969) Figure 1.4: A university
Nicholas Hans was born and educated in building in Odessa
Russia, and first taught at the University of
Odessa. In 1919, he left for London and Source: users.odessa.net
began his studies in KingÊs College, London.
In 1946, he was appointed lecturer at KingÊs
College, where he later became a Reader in
Comparative Education in 1948. It was here
that he wrote and published on a wide range
of topics, including comparative education,
Russian educational policy and 18th century
educational history. Hans has been credited
with a number of essays on comparative
research, many of which are available at
the Institute of Education at the University
of London. These papers include published
works, unpublished essays and notebooks
from his time at the University of Odessa.

According to Sodhi (1998), Hans perceived that a number of common traits
underlie the customs, traditions, policies and socio-historical factors that
influence educational practice in different countries. These commonalities
may be studied to provide insight into the factors that lead to educational
decision making in a country. Hans was of the opinion that the solutions to
educational problems that have been attempted in one country should
be examined in light of the common educational and socio-historical
backgrounds of other countries under scrutiny.

(d) George Z. F. Bereday (1920 1986)
George Bereday was a professor of comparative education at Columbia
University, New York. In 1964, he wrote Comparative Methods in
Education, a book many scholars view as a seminal work in the field of
comparative education. The book attempts to define the field by method,
and talks about systematic data collection and comparison (Kelly, Altbach
& Arnove, 1982). To conduct research using a systematic form, Bereday
proposed a four-stage procedure, commonly known as the „description-
interpretation-juxtaposition-comparison‰ method. His methodology
emphasised the collection of precise, similar data from each country being
studied, with the overall purpose of constructing theory about schooling
and society.

10 TOPIC 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

Like Kandel, Bereday stressed the importance

of multilingualism in conducting comparative

analyses of education. He believed that

scholars of comparative education should

know several languages before they could

adequately carry out a comparative analysis

of several countries. He wrote: „knowledge

of language lets one in on the intimate secrets

of the nation under study‰ (1964:139). He

felt that one of the main objectives of

comparative education was to gain a

comprehensive understanding of the qualities

and shortcomings of different systems of

education in the world. Today, Bereday is

remembered not only for his work on Figure 1.5: Comparative
comparative education methodology, but also Education Review by George
for his role in making the field part of
mainstream education. He was the first editor Z. F. Bereday
of the Comparative Education Review Source: http://www.journals.

uchicago.edu

(Figure 1.5), a journal that was first published

in 1977. Since 1981, the George F. Bereday Award has been presented for

outstanding articles published in the Comparative Education Review.

SELF-CHECK 1.4

1. Why did Kandel and Bereday stress the importance of
multilingualism for the purpose of conducting comparative studies?

2. What do you think is meant by „constructing theory about
schooling and society‰?

TOPIC 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPARATIVE EDUCATION 11

(e) Philip G. Altbach Figure 1.6: Philip
G. Altbach
Philip Altbach (Figure 1.6) is the director of the Centre
for International Higher Education in the Lynch School
of Education at Boston College. He is also the J. Donald
Monan, SJ professor of higher education. He received
his undergraduate and post-graduate education from
the University of Chicago and today, he is one of the
most distinguished scholars in the field of comparative
and international higher education. He has also been a
Fulbright Scholar in India, Malaysia and Singapore, an
Onwell Fellow at the University of Hong Kong and
Guest Professor at Peking University in China.

Altbach has published widely on higher education, comparative education,
and on publishing and knowledge distribution (see http://www.bc.edu/
cihe/pga for a full list of his publications). His famous book Comparative
Higher Education (1998) has been published in Japanese, Chinese and
Spanish, while several other books have been translated into German,
Indonesian and Turkish. A more recent book by him is Asian Universities:
Historical Perspectives and Contemporary Challenges (2004). Over the
years, AltbachÊs work has addressed many issues in international higher
education. Some of these are academic freedom; student political activism,
which is represented in a landmark work written by an international team;
educational structures and politics of various countries; education and
scientific development; and trends in higher education in USA, India,
Africa and Japan.

ACTIVITY 1.2

Find out more about the Centre for International Higher Education
(CIHE) at Boston College by visiting http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/
avp/soe/cihe/ and answer the following questions.

1. What are some of the activities carried out by this centre?

2. What makes CIHE one of the foremost places for research on
comparative education?

3. Why do you think Philip Altbach is considered by some to be „a
giant among todayÊs comparativists‰?

12 TOPIC 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

(f) Saravanan Gopinathan

Saravanan Gopinathan (Figure 1.7) received a BA
(1965) and an MEd. (1972) from the University of
Singapore. He did his PhD in Comparative
Education (1984) at the State University of New
York. He is a specialist in comparative education,
focussing his work on language policy, planning,
bilingualism and higher education. Gopinathan was
founding editor of the Singapore Journal of
Education, and helped set up the Centre for
Teaching Thinking in Singapore.

Figure 1.7:
Saravanan Gopinathan

For some years now, GopinathanÊs work has served as a key reference
for students of education in Singapore and in comparative education
internationally. His research and writing have focused on economic
restructuring and educational reform in Singapore, and on the role of
language and society in university education reform. He has co-edited
Language, Society and Education in Singapore: Issues and Trends (1998)
and The Culture of Change: Case Studies of Improving Schools in
Singapore and London (2000). He believes that although we are faced by
several global trends in economy and technology, a countryÊs educational
policies are often determined by national factors (1996). These factors may
be a countryÊs national economic agenda, its ethnic composition and its
socio-historic profile.

ACTIVITY 1.3

Discuss the following statement by Gopinathan (2005). How is this
view related to the current state of higher education in Malaysia?

GlobalisationÊs effects can be seen in greater internationalisation,
of a trend towards the commodification of education, greater
convergence in views about how education should contribute
to the economy, greater use of choice, competition, [and]
deregulation.

TOPIC 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPARATIVE EDUCATION 13

1.3 DEFINING COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

Complexities Surrounding Definitions
Most educators believe that there is no single or fixed definition of comparative
education. This is primarily because the field is multidisciplinary, and various
writers have given the field their own interpretation of what constitutes a
„legitimate‰ comparison of education systems. Miller (1998) indicates that one of
the difficulties in defining comparative education lies in outlining what is to be
compared and what categories should be investigated when making
comparisons. As indicated in Section 1.1 earlier, almost anything that is of
interest to educationists may be compared. Similarly, Figure 1.1 (Section 1.1)
shows us that categories or topics for an investigation can range from cause-effect
relationships to analyses of history and policy.

Early Definitions
In a field as diverse and as multifaceted as comparative education, it is best to
begin with a definition that provides the most essential elements of the field. The
earliest definitions are attributed to Sir Michael Sadler, who in 1900 spoke of the
practical value behind the study of other educational systems (Higginson, 1979).
In the 1930s, this definition was expanded upon by Issac Kandel who viewed
comparative education as a study of the causes of educational problems, the
identification of differences among education systems and an examination of the
solutions used to address problems. Later, in the 1950s, Nicholas Hans discussed
how lessons learnt from comparisons led one to envisage educational reform,
primarily to accommodate changing social and economic conditions.

It follows that between 1900 and 1960, the definition of comparative education
followed an ameliorative strain: it has evolved from a focus on the value of
comparisons and on the nature of comparative investigations, to a consideration
of how comparative inquiry can inform educational reform in the face of socio-
economic changes.

14 TOPIC 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

Table 1.1 presents a number of definitions of comparative education, each
reflecting the views of a researcher and/or scholar in the field.2

Table 1.1: Definitions of Comparative Education

Researcher/Scholar Definitions of Comparative Education

Sir Michael Sadler: A study of the working of foreign systems of education so that
1900 we are better able to understand and study our own education
systems.

Issac Kandel: 1933 A comparative approach to educational problems helps explain
differences between various systems by:
Nicolas Hans: 1959
(i) analysing causes of problems;
George Bereday:
1964 (ii) identifying differences among various education systems;
and
Harold Noah & Max
Eckstein: 1969 (iii) studying the solutions attempted to address problems.

Edward King: Comparative education not only compares existing systems of
1979 education but envisages reform for the future. Thus,
comparative education helps us to reform education to suit new
Robert Arnove, economic and social conditions.
Philip Altbach &
Gail Kelly: 1992 Comparative education is focused on social and cultural
contexts to help make sense of similarities and differences. We
can thus deduce lessons from the variations in educational
practices in different countries.

Comparative education is best defined as an intersection of the
social sciences, education and cross-national study. A problem
in comparative education is the common concern of both social
scientists and educators, but the exclusive concern of neither.

Comparative education is characterised by much debate and
diversity relating to both its subject matter and orientation. The
field is held together by the belief that education can bring about
improvements in society, and lessons can be learnt from
developments in other societies.

Comparative education is a discipline that systematises our
observations for the purpose of shaping the future. It is no
longer possible to identify solutions to educational problems
from within the country; we need to look at other countries,
societies and cultures as well to help us resolve educational
problems.

2 The perspectives attributed to the various scholars have been adapted from those provided by
Crossley & Watson (2003:16-20), Sodhi (1998:1-3) and Noah and Eckstein (1969).

TOPIC 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPARATIVE EDUCATION 15

Latter-day Definitions
Let us now turn our attention to definitions that embody a multidisciplinary
perspective when identifying the characteristic features of the field. According to
Noah and Eckstein (1969), „the field of comparative education is best defined as
an intersection of the social sciences, education and cross-national study.
Consequently, a problem in comparative education is the common concern of
both social scientists and educators, but the exclusive concern of neither.‰ In their
view, comparative studies of education involve more that just categories related
to education. Rather, Noah and Eckstein believed that comparativists examine
educational issues from an inter-disciplinary perspective, and rely on the
collective wisdom of social science and education experts.

The above multidisciplinary approach to the field encompasses an international
dimension to the study of education. In fact, many centres of comparative
education carry the word „international‰ in their name. In this module, however,
our focus is on comparative education, i.e. work that involves comparisons
among educational contexts, both at the intra-country level and at an
international level.

The work of Bereday takes a somewhat different dimension of comparative
education. Bereday attempted to define comparative education by method (Kelly,
Altbach & Arnove, 1982). In his definition, systematic data collection and
comparisons were to be made whilst paying heed to „area studies, languages‰ as
well as „the cultural, social and historical backgrounds of the nations‰ whose
education was being compared (Kelly, Altbach & Arnove, 1982: 511 512). This
was therefore an inductive approach to the field, a view that was not shared by
BeredayÊs two students, Noah and Eckstein, who believed in a more deductive
approach using quantitative methodology and hypothesis formation.

Although, there is still a great deal of debate about definitions and methodology,
most scholars adopt a descriptive-inductive approach to comparative studies in
education. Current conceptions of the field are best reflected by the position
taken by Crossley and Watson (2003):

16 TOPIC 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

“[Comparative education] is a complex, multifaceted field that is both

difficult to define and challenging to engage with (p. 19)

⁄ Because comparative and international research in education is
influenced by many different intellectual, disciplinary and professional
foundations, it cannot lay claim to any one single theoretical or
methodological perspective‰ (p. 31).

As a concluding note, it can be said that there is agreement among comparativists
that comparative studies in education is characterised by the following features:
(a) Comparison of one or more aspects of education, within a country or

between/among countries;
(b) A quest for similarities and differences;
(c) An analysis of issues and problems; and
(d) Context-based adoption of solutions to problems.

SELF-CHECK 1.5

Read the definitions of comparative education in Table 1.1 again, this
time focussing on the dates and names of researchers.

1. How does the chronological list reflect developments in the field?

2. How has the definition of comparative studies in education
changed over time?

Comparative education is a branch of education that is focused on the
comparison of one aspect of education with another or the comparison of
features present in different educational contexts, places or countries.

Comparative studies in education involve a number of approaches and
assume many different forms.

TOPIC 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPARATIVE EDUCATION 17

Comparative education means different things to different people;
comparative studies in education can take the form of intra-country, inter-
country, basic level comparisons, or in-depth analyses of several aspects of
education at a time.

The historical development of comparative education is characterised by the
work of a number of different scholars, beginning from the early part of the
19th century. Today, there are numerous scholars espousing different
dimensions of comparative education in their research.

Definitions of comparative education can be complex or simple, depending
on how researchers view the field. While early definitions focused on the
practical value of comparisons, and on the similarities and differences in
education in different contexts, modern day definitions tend to assume a
multidisciplinary character.

There is some consensus that comparative studies in education are
characterised by the following features:

Comparison of one or more aspects of education, within a country or
between/among countries;

A quest for similarities and differences;

An analysis of issues and problems; and

Context-based adoption of solutions to problems.

Comparative education Multilingualism
In-depth analysis One-unit comparisons
Inter-country Two- country comparisons
Intra-country Within- country comparisons

18 TOPIC 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

Altbach, P. G., Arnove, R. F., & Kelly, G. P. (Eds.). (1982). Comparative education.
New York: Macmillan.

Bereday, G. Z. F. (1964). Comparative method in education. New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston.

Crossley, M., & Watson, K. (2003). Comparative and international research in
education. London: RoutledgeFalmer.

Gopinathan, S. (2005). Globalization, the Singapore developmental state and
education policy: A thesis revisited. Working paper, National Institute of
Education, Singapore.

Higginson, J. H. (1979). Michael Ernest Sadler (1861 1943). PROSPECTS: The
quarterly review of comparative education, Paris, UNESCO. International
Bureau of Education, vol. 24, no. 3/4, 1994, p. 455 69.

Kandel, I. L. (1959). The methodology of comparative education. International
Review of Education, vol. 5, no. 3.

Miller, S. I. Review of Thomas, R. Murray (1998). Conducting educational
research: A comparative view. Westport, CT: Bergin & Garvey. In Education
Review available: http://edrev.asu.edu/reviews/rev71.htm.

Noah, H. J., & Eckstein, M. A. (1969). Toward a science of comparative
education. New York: Macmillan.

Sodhi, T. S. (1998). Textbook of comparative education (6th ed.). New Delhi:
Vikas Publishing House.

Further Reading

(a) Comparative education review An International Journal
http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/CER/v45n4toc.html

(b) Comparative Education An International Journal
http://www.jstor.org/journals/03050068.html

TOPIC 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPARATIVE EDUCATION 19

(c) Discussion Board for articles appearing in Comparative Education
www.cies.ws

(d) MasterÊs Monographs
http://www.stanford.edu/dept/SUSE/ICE/masters_monographs_ice.html

(e) Comparative/International Education Journals
http://www.pitt.edu/~iise/journals.html

Topic The Purpose
of Comparative
2 Education

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Evaluate the many purposes of engaging in comparative studies in

education; and
2. Examine the role of comparative education in planning, implementing

improved and innovative strategies, and international understanding.

INTRODUCTION

What is the purpose of comparative education? This topic takes a close look
at the many purposes that are served by comparative studies in education. In
particular, the topic focuses on three broad goals: planning, implementing
improved and innovative strategies as well as international understanding. The
discussion on these areas uses a number of examples to help you see the value of
conducting comparative studies. The contents of the topic illustrate how the goals
of comparative education are realised at the internal and external level, as well as
at the intra-country and international level.

2.1 THE PURPOSE OF COMPARATIVE
EDUCATION

In this section we are going to look at the purpose of comparative education

(a) Subject and Process
Comparative education serves many purposes, both as a subject and as a
process. As a field of study, the comparative study of education systems

TOPIC 2 THE PURPOSE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION 21

help nations plan and implement innovative ideas in schools and colleges.
As a process, comparative education provides a form of intellectual exercise
in understanding the broad policies, assumptions, decisions and philosophy
underlying educational systems from different countries. In this sense, the
general objective of comparative education is to determine the basic
principles underlying different national systems of education, or in fact to
understand the different ways in which educational practice is realised.
This means that as we trace the development of education in a number of
countries, we are able to determine the systematic and scientific purpose of
schooling, tertiary education and the establishment of universities, and
study the ways in which a countryÊs citizens are affected by it. Scholars rely
on ideas borrowed and adapted from education systems in other countries
in order to enhance their understanding of their own educational system.

(b) Comprehensive Analysis
An important aspect of comparative education is that comparisons about
education, or selected aspects of education, are made in consideration of the
social, political and cultural environment in which an education system is
situated. In other words, the purpose is not to compare for the sake of
finding similarities and differences; rather, the purpose is to compare so
that educational practice may be explained in consideration of the many
internal and external factors governing education systems across countries.
For example, factors such as student enrolment, school structure,
composition of students, etc. are considered alongside factors related to
national educational policy, economics, history, social strata and
demography.

External Factors Internal factors
e. g. national e. g. enrolment,

educational policy, composition
economics, history, of students,
teaching quality,
social strata and structure of
demography
schools
CONSIDERATIONS

22 TOPIC 2 THE PURPOSE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

(c) Effect of Education Policy
Apart from the above factors, the comparative study of educational systems
often includes, as part of its focus, the impact of policy on marginalised or
disadvantaged groups of people. Some of these may be people with
disability, e.g. the blind, the deaf or autistic children; they may also be
women or people who come from language minorities, e.g. the Semelai
from Central Pahang or the Orang Ulu from Sarawak in Malaysia. Since the
education system in most countries is implemented wholly or in great
part by the government, another purpose of comparative studies in
education is to examine how different groups of people are affected by
education polices. Think, for example, of the many people who are denied a
basic right to education, as exemplified in this quote taken from the
education campaign under the United NationsÊ millennium development
goals:

Unfortunately, too many children in the world today grow up
without this chance, because they are denied their basic right to even
attend primary school. A sustainable end to world poverty as we
know it, as well as the path to peace and security, require that citizens
in every country are empowered to make positive choices and
provide for themselves and their families. This can only be achieved if
all the children of the world are given the chance to learn in a high-
quality schooling environment at least through primary school.

(http://www.millenniumcampaign.org/)

When educationists or politicians realise that there is unequal access
to education, policies in country or state are examined to see how
educational equity can be achieved. Figure 2.1 shows a newspaper
report illustrating this in relation to the situation in Bangladesh.

TOPIC 2 THE PURPOSE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION 23

Bangladesh

Vol. 5 Num 693

Poor have little access to better education

Fri. May 12, 2006

Principal Secretary to the prime minister Kamaluddin Siddiqui yesterday expressed
deep concern over the division in education system saying its consequences will be
dangerous if the division between the rich and the poor is not minimised on an
emergency basis.

Kamaluddin Siddiqui said the rich are sending their children abroad or educating
them in the best educational institutions, whereas children of the poor are getting
education at lower standard institutions.

"As a result children of the rich are getting better jobs depriving the poor and this
deprivation will bring dangerous consequences," he cautioned while speaking as
chief guest at a publication ceremony of Halkhata, an annual report on primary
education by Sushikkha Andolon, a citizens' movement on quality education.
http://www.thedailystar.net

Figure 2.1: The Daily Star, Bangladesh

(d) Macro-level Impact
A comparative study of educational practices also helps us to
understand the ways in which countries expand, upgrade and reform
education. Such knowledge is necessary for policymakers and
practitioners to address issues and challenges as well as to solve
problems that are associated with success and failure in schools. This
also helps us build a knowledge base for teacher education and
trainer training whilst taking into account the cultural, philosophical
and economic factors governing education.

(e) Influence of Culture
One other important reason for the comparative study of educational
systems from around the world is to examine the influence of culture
on education. In fact, some researchers believe that education is based
on culture, and the way in which a society develops its education
system says a great deal about its cultural norms and practices. The
psychologist, Jerome S. Bruner, says in his book The Culture of
Education (1996) that how a person conceives of education, is a
function of how one conceives of culture and the aims of culture. More
recently, Bruner has become critical of the „cognitive revolution‰ and
has focused on the building of a cultural psychology that takes proper
account of the historical and social context of participants.

24 TOPIC 2 THE PURPOSE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

In fact, his arguments are developed with respect to schooling (and education
more generally), as demonstrated in this quote:

⁄ the influence of culture and individual life experiences may
enhance or impede the learning process. Knowledge of the culture
is an essential ingredient for teaching effectiveness, and examples
of specific teaching and learning issues relevant to cultural and
migration experiences [should be] reviewed. (Bruner, 1996: ix x).

To conclude, we can say that there are many purposes of comparative education,
some of which affect education at the macro-level, while others are related
to micro-level considerations. These objectives help us change, reform and
understand internal factors related to schools, such as improvement of teaching
and learning effectiveness, as well to external factors such as policy, planning
and international understanding. Let us now take a more incisive look at the
many purposes of comparative education as espoused by some scholars in the
field.

ACTIVITY 2.1

If you were to conduct a comparative study in education, what purpose
would it serve, and why?

2.2 A BRIEF REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Researchers have often seen comparative studies in education as serving a
multipronged purpose. In fact, as you may have noticed in Topic 1, the definition
of comparative education is often accompanied by a statement of the purpose of
conducting cross-national analyses or cross-context inquiries. In the following
pages, we look at how some scholars in the field have defined the objectives of
comparative education.

(a) Understand Our Own
In a comprehensive review of past literature, Crossley and Watson (2003)
propose that the fundamental purpose of comparative education is that
educationists be able to better understand and work on education in their
own country. They argue that as explanation and analysis of education are
key features of the field, comparisons give us the basis for reform and
implementing solutions to problems. They quote Phillips (1999:15) who

TOPIC 2 THE PURPOSE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION 25

says that the purpose of making comparisons is so that we can „properly
defend our position on most questions of importance which require the
making of judgement.‰ In this view we see the need for application: the
process of analysis, comparison, explanation and realisation helps us not
only by applying new knowledge of education systems, but to also
benchmark our own systems and practices against the features of best
practice that we discover.

As a form of summary, Crossley and Watson (2003:19) outline the following
purposes of comparative education:
(i) Gain a better understanding of our own systems;
(ii) Satisfy intellectual and theoretical curiosity about other cultures;
(iii) Better understand the relationship between education and society;
(iv) Explain and analyse similarities and differences;
(v) Understand problems in education;
(vi) Contribute to improvement of educational policy and practice; and
(vii) Promote intellectual understanding and cooperation through

improved sensitivity to differing world views and cultures.

The power of imagination created the illusion that
my vision went much farther than the naked eye
could actually see Nelson Mandela

ACTIVITY 2.2

As outlined by Crossley and Watson, one of the purposes of
comparative education is to „understand problems in education.‰

1. What, in your view, are some of the problems with Malaysian
education?

2. How can you better understand these problems if you study the
educational practices and policies of other Asian countries?

26 TOPIC 2 THE PURPOSE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

(b) Understand and Affect
The Indian author T. S. Sodhi gives us reason to believe that the goals of
comparative education go beyond the implementation of education ideals
and the application of lessons learned (1998). In his view, there are eight
broad goals of comparative education, as listed below:

(i) Intellectual
As an intellectual activity, comparative education gives us insight and
knowledge which may be used to contribute to the social sciences and
improve pedagogy.

(ii) Planning
Comparative education provides a means for making rational and
progressive plans for formulating educational objectives and how
these objectives may be achieved.

(iii) Practicality
Through a process of comparison and analysis, the field allows us to
implement more practical ideas and to discontinue practices that are
impractical.

(iv) Humanitarian
By comparing the educational patterns of poor and rich countries, and
advanced and less advanced countries, we are able to assist poor
nations to improve livelihood through education.

(v) International
Educational problems in many countries stem from similar causes; we
can therefore institute reform and attempt solutions in one country by
studying how other countries have overcome their problems.

(vi) Innovation
Comparative education helps us keep abreast of developments and
innovations that are taking place in other countries.

(vii) Economics
It is widely accepted that education is closely linked with income and
economic well-being. For this reason, comparisons help us examine
closely how nations can use education to tackle problems such as
unemployment, poverty and lack of productivity.

TOPIC 2 THE PURPOSE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION 27

(viii) Education for International Understanding
One of the chief purposes of comparative education is to bring
nations closer together, both for the purpose of working together
and for the recognition of each otherÊs cultural and educational
values and ideals.

(c) Understand Us and Ours
You will notice that Crossley and WatsonÊs and SodhiÊs lists of goals of
comparative studies cover a wide range of possibilities. The components of
their lists are consistent with those provided by the Canadian educator
Roby Kidd (1915 1982), which read thus:

(i) Become better informed about the educational systems of other
countries;

(ii) Become better informed about the ways in which people in other
cultures have carried out certain social functions by means of
education;

(iii) Become better informed about the historical roots of certain activities
and thus to develop criteria for assessing contemporary developments
and testing possible outcomes;

(iv) Better understand the educational forms and systems operating in
oneÊs own country;

(v) Satisfy an interest in how human beings live and learn;

(vi) Better understand oneself; and

(vii) Reveal how oneÊs own cultural biases and personal attributes affect
oneÊs judgment about the possible ways of carrying on learning
transactions.

(Source: Knoll, J. http://www.iiz-dvv.de/englisch/Publikationen)

ACTIVITY 2.3

Draw a concept map of all the goals of comparative education. What
are three or four main categories of goals that you can identify?