HMEF5033 Comparative Education

78 TOPIC 4 EDUCATION STRUCTURE IN JAPAN

(c) Lower-secondary School: Chugakkou
At the lower-secondary level, children attend three years of free and
compulsory education. The subjects taken for grades seven, eight and nine
are stipulated under the Course of Study for Lower-Secondary Schools,
which was implemented during the 1992 to 1993 school year. These subjects
include Japanese language, moral education, mathematics, social studies,
science, music, fine arts, health, industrial arts, homemaking and physical
education. A foreign language such as English is also included as an
elective.

Typically, students in lower-secondary schools are expected to attend a
minimum of 1,050 periods of study for each year of junior high school (Jichi
Sogo Centre, 1991). Each period translates to about 50 minutes, which
means that if junior high school students have to attend school 200 days a
year, they would be carrying out academic study at school for 4 to 5 hours a
day, at the very least (See Table 4.2). Subject specialisation does not take
place at the lower-secondary school level.

Table 4.2: Number of School Hours in Japanese Lower-secondary Schools

Subjects Grade 7 Grade 8 Grade 9
Japanese language 175 140 140
Mathematics 105 140 140
Science 105 105
Moral Education 35 35 105 140
Music 70 70 35
Fine Arts 70 70 35
Health and Physical Education 105 105 35
Industrial Arts or Homemaking 70 70
Social studies 140 140 105 140
Special Activities 35 70 105
Elective Subjects 35 70 70 105
Total Minimum Required 105 140 105 210
1,050 35
1,050 140 280

1,050

Source: Jichi Sogo Centre, 1991

TOPIC 4 EDUCATION STRUCTURE IN JAPAN 79

For most students, the aim of lower-secondary education is to secure
a place in a prestigious or reasonably good upper-secondary school.
To qualify for upper-secondary schools, students take several short tests
and two main examinations each semester. These main examinations
prepare students for the Upper-Secondary Entrance Examination which
they have to take to qualify for the upper-secondary or college level. These
standardised upper-secondary school entrance examinations are administered
either at the prefectural or national level.

ACTIVITY 4.3

1. What do you think is the Malaysian equivalent of the Course of
Study for Lower-Secondary Schools?

2. What do you think is the Malaysian equivalent of the Upper-
Secondary Entrance Examination?

3. Does the Japanese lower-secondary school child spend more time
on academic subjects than a Malaysian child?

80 TOPIC 4 EDUCATION STRUCTURE IN JAPAN

In the News...

Identity Crisis and Schools by Jason Miks (29 June 2006)

The children [in Japan] are shuttled from school classes to cram class and
then to club activities like basketball or kendo. They are exhausted. A friend
of mine who teaches in a language school here said that many of the
students at her branch look like they are about to fall asleep in class. Indeed
one child did.

Working the kids longer isn't the right way forward, and getting them to be
good citizens isn't going to happen by changing school textbooks to gloss
over the past. If the government wants young people to be proud citizens
then it should provide opportunities for them to do what proud citizens do.
Instead of encouraging token gestures and empty words, perhaps schools
and parents should be easing some of the incredible pressure on their
children to achieve academically and get them involved in their communities
through voluntary work.

(d) Upper-Secondary School: Koutougakkou
Most lower-secondary school graduates advance to upper-secondary
schools although this third tier is not part of compulsory schooling in
Japan. Private schools may also be attended at this level. The role of upper-
secondary schooling, that is, Grades 10, 11 and 12, is to prepare students for
university placement and/or employment. Thus, this tier may be viewed as
a „pre-university stage‰ in Japanese education. Upper-secondary schools
follow curricular guidelines provided by Monbukagakusho and may
belong to any of the following categories:

(i) Regular or academic track (futsu); or
(ii) Vocational track which prepares students for commercial (shogyo); or
(iii) Industrial (kogyo) work.

Entrance into academic upper-secondary schools is more competitive than
into the vocational track. In the academic track, students take courses such
as Japanese language, English, mathematics and science. The vocational
track includes anything from ICT to fish farming. Students are admitted
to upper-secondary schools on the basis of their scholastic record and
performance in examinations in lower-secondary school. An informal
ranking system is used for upper-secondary schools based on the number

TOPIC 4 EDUCATION STRUCTURE IN JAPAN 81

of graduates who get admitted into prestigious universities. Thus, students
aim to get admission into highly-ranked upper-secondary schools so that
they can then be prepared for admission into highly-ranked universities.

Like the primary and lower-secondary schools, the upper-secondary
curriculum has been guided by the Course of Study for Upper-Secondary
Schools since 1994. One of the focal areas of this curriculum is the
importance of family life and the role of the family in society. For this
reason, home economics is offered as a course to both males and females.
Another change that was instituted in 1994 was in social sciences; where
there was a single course in social studies, the upper-secondary schools
now offer history, geography and civics. Like lower-secondary schools,
teachers in upper-secondary teachers teach courses in their areas of
specialisation.

ACTIVITY 4.4

1. Find out more about options that exist in Malaysia for post-
secondary students who wish to pursue a vocational or technical
education track.

2. Conduct a brief survey among your friends or family to find out
whether most Malaysians are aware of institutions that provide
vocational/technical training.

3. What are the admission criteria for such institutions?

(e) Higher Education
Japan has an extensive tertiary education system with a large number of
state and private universities. The country also has one of the highest
university enrolment rates in the world: in the year 2004, 54% of the
population of tertiary age was actually enrolled in tertiary education
(UNESCO Institute of Statistics, 2004). Notably, in 1991, this figure stood at
30% (Figure 4.5). As the society becomes more advanced, the number of
institutions offering graduate programmes (MasterÊs and PhD levels) is also
expected to grow. There are, however, very few foreign students enrolled in
Japanese universities and colleges.

82 TOPIC 4 EDUCATION STRUCTURE IN JAPAN

Figure 4.5: Enrolment in tertiary education over 14 years
Source: UNESCO Institute of Statistics, 2004

For most courses, the term of study in universities is four years; exceptions are
courses such as medicine, dentistry and veterinary science. According to the
School Education Law in Japan, the purpose of universities is to conduct teaching
and research in depth in specialised academic subjects as well as to provide
broad knowledge as a centre of learning and to develop intellectual, moral and
practical abilities.
Higher education in Japan consists of four categories of institutions:

Universities;
Junior colleges; Colleges of technology;
Colleges of technology; and
Specialised training colleges.

TOPIC 4 EDUCATION STRUCTURE IN JAPAN 83

(a) Universities

As shown in Table 4.3, there were
702 universities in Japan in the year 2003.
Of these, 526 or 75% were private
universities. The number of new graduates
from universities entering the job market in
the year 2003 was 299,987. In the same
year, the number of teachers graduating
from universities was 17,464 (less than
6%)4. It has been noted that there is an
upward trend in the growth of tertiary
institutions in Japan.

Figure 4.6: University of Tokyo
Source:

www.ism.ac.ru/IR/ujapan

Table 4.3: Number of Universities in Japan

Universities Total National Local Private Percentage
of Private
1955 228 72 34 122
60 245 72 33 140 (%) 53.5
65 317 73 35 209 57.1
70 382 75 33 274 65.9
75 420 81 34 305 71.7
80 446 93 34 319 72.6
85 460 95 34 331 71.5
90 507 96 39 372 72.0
95 565 98 52 415 73.4
73.5

99 622 99 66 457 73.5
73.7
2000 649 99 72 478 74.1
74.6
01 669 99 74 496 74.9

02 686 99 75 512

03 702 100 76 526

Source: Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan, 2004

4 These statistics are available from http://www.mext.go.jp/english/statist

84 TOPIC 4 EDUCATION STRUCTURE IN JAPAN

The university system is guided by the Standards for the Establishment of
Universities (revised by MEXT in 1991). All universities have to define their
educational and research agenda and actively strive to contribute to the
enhancement of education and research in the country.

Entry into JapanÊs top-ranked universities (Figure 4.7) is highly competitive,
with public national universities being regarded as the most prestigious. All
students seeking entrance to university must take the University Entrance
Examination. Many students attend special intensive classes called Juku in
order to prepare for this examination. Others wait a year or two and take
the examination only when they are ready. Additionally, many universities
have their own entrance examination and evaluation methods to determine
whether a candidate can cope with a course after admission.

Another pathway to universities is offered by the University Entrance
Qualification Examination. Typically, this is taken by students who have
not graduated from upper-secondary school, but seek admission to a
university. As Japan has a very large number of institutions providing
higher education, it is possible to be highly selective, and to provide a
diverse range of courses and specialisations.

Top Japanese Universities

1. University of Tokyo
2. Kyoto University
3. Osaka University
4. Tokyo Institute of Technology
5. Tohoku University

6. Keio University

Figure 4.7: Top Japanese universities

TOPIC 4 EDUCATION STRUCTURE IN JAPAN 85

(b) Junior Colleges
The statistics for junior colleges are presented in Table 4.4. There were
525 junior colleges in Japan in the year 2003, of which 88% were private.
However, of the 71,146 graduates in 2003, 65,951 (93%) were female.
Further, of the total number of graduates from junior colleges, 21,080 (30%)
graduated with an education or teacher training degree.

Table 4.4: Number of Junior Colleges in Japan
Universities

Year Total National Local Private Percentage
of Private
1955 264 17 43 204
60 280 27 39 214 (%) 77.3
65 369 28 40 301 76.4
70 479 22 43 414 81.6
75 513 31 48 434 86.4
80 517 35 50 432 84.6
85 543 37 51 455 83.6
90 593 41 54 498 83.8
95 596 36 60 500 84.0
83.9

99 585 23 59 503 86.0
2000 572 20 55 497 86.9
559 19 51 489 87.5
01 541 16 50 475 87.8
02 525 13 49 463 88.2
03

Source: Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan, 2004

(c) Colleges of Technology
In terms of the statistics for Colleges of Technology, there were 58 colleges
offering engineering and mercantile marine courses in 2003. However, only
a small number of these were privately owned. Besides that, of the 10,000
graduates in that year, only 1,894 (less than 20%) were female.

(d) Specialised Training Colleges
The last group of higher education institutions falls under the category of
specialised training colleges offering advanced courses. Courses are related
to medical technology, health, business, home economics and agriculture.
In 2003, there were 3,439 such colleges, and 91% of them were private.
There were about 335,784 graduates from these colleges, half of whom were
females (53%).

86 TOPIC 4 EDUCATION STRUCTURE IN JAPAN

SELF-CHECK 4.4

Examine the statistics on the four categories of higher education
institutions in Japan.

1. Which category had the highest number of graduates in 2003?

2. Where did the largest number of teachers graduate from in 2003?

3. What is the difference between Colleges of Technology and
Specialised Training Colleges?

4.4 ISSUES RELATED TO JAPANESE
EDUCATION STRUCTURE

We now turn our attention to the impact of the education structure in Japan
on employment and student life. To begin, the emphasis on equal access to
basic education provides the opportunity for all its citizens to attain lifelong
knowledge and skills. The fact that the Japanese education structure is well-
defined helps students (and their parents) plan their careers. At the higher-
secondary and tertiary level, students are dedicated to the course of study they
have chosen. The large number of tertiary institutions also provides all Japanese
with the opportunity to pursue higher education. In addition to this, there exists
an effective system of job placement in Japan to help new graduates work in their
areas of specialisation. Finally, the close link between school values and Japanese
societal norms fosters strong and cohesive communities.

However, as with all education systems, there are several issues that need
attention, and Japanese education is no exception. Some of the issues that have
raised concern among educationists are:
(a) A lack of instruction that deals with different levels of ability;
(b) Pressure induced by excessive competition; and
(c) Strict regulation to ensure student discipline.

As always, it is important to realise that although all countries plan and
implement educational goals based on a number of factors, the education system
affects different groups of people in different ways.

Let us take a closer look at the issue of a lack of instruction that deals with
different levels of ability. This may also be interpreted as a lack of personalised

TOPIC 4 EDUCATION STRUCTURE IN JAPAN 87

or individualised instruction in Japanese schools. Many children face difficulty as
they are unable to conform to the strict demands laid by a highly rigid education
structure. For example, there is little room for instruction for slow learners as
teaching for some subjects is lecture-oriented. Japanese teachers and educators
have also raised the issue of a lack of flexibility in the lower-secondary school,
where students are exposed to examination-oriented teaching and learning.
Teachers, in turn, are expected to cover all curricular requirements within an
allotted time. Additionally, students find that there is little opportunity to take
subjects that are of interest to individuals. Although flexibility, creativity,
internationalisation (kokusaika), individuality and diversity were the focus of
JapanÊs education reform in the 1980Ês, change has been slow. As a result, the
school-refusal syndrome (toko kyohi) or excessive absenteeism has been
observed in some lower-secondary schools.

Another major issue that has been raised is excessive competition in Japanese
education (Ellington, 2003). For almost every Japanese child, schoolwork remains
the focus of daily life. As mentioned before, children attend out-of-school extra
classes called juku to become more proficient in academic subjects. From a young
age, children are socialised into believing that educational excellence is
important and that they have to aim for the best universities. Young children are
made aware of the importance of college or university entrance examinations,
thus adding a serious tone to the nature of school life and study habits.

The third issue, strict regulation to ensure student discipline, is one that has
surfaced in recent times. In many upper-secondary schools, there is a great deal
of supervision by school authorities to ensure that all students behave in an
appropriate manner. There are strict codes that govern dress codes, hairstyles
and leisure activities outside of school.

However pressing these issues may be, you will note from the article in
Appendix 2 (in the Appendices section) that Japanese school children and
undergraduates remain highly motivated and continue to perform well in
international tests. It appears that the „secret‰ to Japanese education lies in
emphasising effort over ability, engaging students in the study of concepts,
building strong classroom relationships and using instruction as a way of
unifying the students in a class.

88 TOPIC 4 EDUCATION STRUCTURE IN JAPAN

For the future, the National Council on Educational Reform, Japan, has
emphasised the following: internationalisation of education, the use of
information technologies, individuality, lifelong learning and adjustment to
social change. The Council has recommended that a number of areas be explored
for the future of Japanese education. These are:
(a) Organising a system of lifelong learning and reducing the emphasis on the

educational background of individuals;
(b) Improving and diversifying higher education;
(c) Enriching and diversifying elementary and secondary education;
(d) Improving the quality of teachers; adapting to internationalisation;
(e) Adapting to the Information Age; and
(f) Conducting a review of the administration and finance of education.

As you can see from the above list, Japanese education in the 21st century is
poised to improve and diversify further, whilst maintaining social values that are
an inherent part of Japanese society.

Contemporary Japan is economically progressive and has a population that
is highly homogenous in nature. Japanese society places a high value on
educational excellence at all levels of schooling, and the Japanese education
system is considered to be highly prestigious.

The Second World War marked an important turning point in the history of
Japanese education. Prior to the war, education was more restrictive and less
accessible to the population. However, many changes and reforms were
introduced from the 1950s to the 1980s to make education serve the needs of
contemporary society.

Japanese education comes under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education,
Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. The Fundamental Law of Education
(1947) spells out the goals of and the governing principles for education at all
levels in Japan. The School Education Law and the Social Education Law also
play a role in the regulation and management of educational activity in the
country.

Three levels of government administration national, prefectural and
municipal help administer the various financial and supervisory
educational services in the country.

TOPIC 4 EDUCATION STRUCTURE IN JAPAN 89

Japan practices nine years of compulsory basic education. Children attend
college or university after 12 years of schooling. The five levels of schooling
in Japan are Pre-school, Primary, Lower-secondary, Upper-secondary and
Higher Education.

Some of the issues related to Japanese education:

(a) A lack of instruction that deals with different levels of ability;

(b) Pressure induced by excessive competition; and

(c) Strict regulation to ensure student discipline.

For the future, the National Council on Educational Reform, Japan, has
emphasised internationalisation of education, the use of information
technologies, individuality, lifelong learning and adjustment to social change.
A number of strategies have been outlined for further diversification and
modernisation of the JapanÊs education system.

Academic track (Futsu)
Commercial (Shogyo)
Industrial (Kogyo)
Lower-secondary school (Chugakkoa)
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports Science and Technology/

Monbukagakusho (MEXT)
Municipalities
National
Prefectures
Pre-school (Yohchien/Hoikusho)
Primary school (Shogakkou)
Upper-secondary school (Koutougakkoa)

90 TOPIC 4 EDUCATION STRUCTURE IN JAPAN

Bunge, F. M. (Ed.) (1983). Japan: A country study. London: National Committee
of Inquiry into Higher Education.

Centre for Educational Research and Innovation. (1993). Education at a glance:
OECD indicators. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development, p. 116.

Ellington, L. (December, 2003). Beyond the rhetoric: Essential questions
about Japanese education. FPRI Newsletter, Vol. 8, No. 7. Available from:
http://www.fpri.org/footnotes/087.200312.ellington.japaneseeducation.html.

Goedegebuure, L., Kaiser, F., Maassen, P., Meek, L., Vught, F. A. Van, & Weert, E.
de (Eds.). (1994). Higher education policy: An international comparative
perspective. Oxford: Pergamon.

Jichi Sogo Centre. (1991). Education system in Japan. Tokyo: Japan Shipbuilding
Industry Foundation.

Murray-Harvey, R., Slee, P., Saebel, J., & Taki, M. (2001). Life at school in
Australia and Japan: The Impact of stress and support on bullying and
adaptation to school. AARE 2001Code: MUR01081.

Okamoto, K. (1992) Education of the rising sun. Tokyo: Monbukagakusho.

Sahara Ahmad (2000). Education for all: 2000 assessment report of Malaysia.
Educational Planning and Research Division, Ministry of Education,
Malaysia.

Treml, J. N. (2001). Bullying as a social malady in contemporary Japan.
International Social Work, 44, 107 117.

Topic Higher
Education Policy
5 in Sweden

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Describe, in detail, key aspects of higher education policy;
2. Discuss various factors that influence policy development in higher

education; and
3. Compare and contrast the higher education policies in two or more

countries.

INTRODUCTION

One of the main areas of focus in an education system is policy, both in terms of
formulation and implementation. In order to better understand the many factors
that influence education policy, this topic focuses on higher education policy. The
topic begins with an overview of some of the reasons for the importance
accorded to higher education policy, as well as of the main areas in higher
education that are linked to policy development. The topic describes how policies
affect funding, planning, development, regulation, monitoring, accreditation and
quality assurance. In order to understand how governments formulate higher
education policy, as well as how they respond to national labour and economic
needs or how they accommodate global trends in the field, let us now examine
the case of higher education in Sweden. This European country presents a unique
higher education model that is both centralised in terms of governance, and
autonomous in terms of how students plan and choose their programme of
study. The various activities included in this topic are aimed at providing you
with the basic skills for examining the impact of higher education policy in your
own country and in other countries.

92 TOPIC 5 HIGHER EDUCATION POLICY IN SWEDEN

5.1 HIGHER EDUCATION POLICY

Policy
The word policy refers to a written principle or rule to guide decision-making at
the institutional or national level. Often a policy directs the course of action at the
national level or within an organisation. For example, if the policy in your school
or institution is to encourage the use of ICT, then the school administrators and
instructors will find the resources to equip the institution with the necessary ICT
infrastructure. As part of everyday practice, teachers or lecturers will actively
strive to use computers for making instructional plans, for sending out notices
for school/college events and so on. Similarly, a country that believes in ICT will
enact policies that facilitate the use of ICT for education, administration, health
and other services.

Higher Education Policy
This topic focuses on higher education policy as a way to understand how
universities, colleges and other post-secondary institutions operate within an
education system. Education policy is also a window to understanding how
governments respond to national labour and economic needs, and how they
accommodate global trends in the field. Of late, higher education policy has
received much attention for a number of reasons, chief among which are
massification, diversification, internationalisation and marketisation (Lee and
Healy, 2006).

To begin, countries in all parts of the world have seen an increase in the demand
for higher education (HE). As a response to greater demand, the number of
universities as well as the number of programmes that are offered has increased.
In Malaysia, the number of universities in existence today far exceeds that of
twenty years ago. To cater to the needs of the masses, so to speak, government
policies have moved away from an exclusive-selective stance to a more inclusive-
open stance. Policies have also been revised in order to provide people from all
parts of the country greater access to HE. This is referred to as the massification
of HE.

Higher education is everybodyÊs rite Anon.

TOPIC 5 HIGHER EDUCATION POLICY IN SWEDEN 93

Secondly, HE is a hugely dynamic field. At the global level, the character of
programmes offered at tertiary level has changed. Colleges, academic departments
and courses have become more diverse as people become increasingly more
specialised in their professions. Programmes have also become more varied as
institutions of higher education compete with one another to offer what is deemed
necessary for the modern world. In Malaysia we have seen the development of
HE policies that have led to the expansion of private sector education. Today,
Malaysians have access to degree programmes offering a diverse range of subjects
from tourism to petroleum engineering. All of this may be characterised as the
diversification of HE.

Thirdly, we see a growing trend in the internationalisation Cross-border
of education. Students from Asia can get a degree from education refers to
an Australian or a Canadian university without having higher education
to go to those countries. Education is now a commodity programmes or
that can be exported and imported. Internationalisation educational services
has led to universities setting up branches in foreign in which the learners
lands, and offering services beyond their geographical are located in a
borders. A case in point is the Open University Malaysia country different
which offers its programmes to students in Yemen from the one where
and in Bahrain. In tandem to this, AustraliaÊs Monash the awarding
University has branch campuses in West Malaysia and institution is based.
in South Africa, while Curtin University has opened up
in Miri, Sarawak. Initiatives such as these are a result of UNESCO (2005)
the Malaysian governmentÊs policies on cross-border www.unesco.org/ia
education.

94 TOPIC 5 HIGHER EDUCATION POLICY IN SWEDEN

SELF-CHECK 5.1

1. What is meant by higher education policy?

2. Based on the discussion above, how have higher education policies

affected choice and access to HE in your country?

Internationalisation is a growing trend in HE worldwide and has several benefits,
as indicated in a report by The Observatory (2002):

Branch campuses deepen universitiesÊ commitment to international
provision, moving away from dependence on local partners for
delivery and towards a corporate presence. ⁄ branch campuses offer
a number of advantages, including firmer corporate control, higher
local profile and an innovative way to stand out in a crowded
marketplace.

Fourthly, HE has moved away from being solely state-owned and state-directed
to a more market-driven enterprise. In Malaysia, during the 1970s, the setting up
of universities appeared to be a responsibility to be carried out only by the
government. Today universities and university colleges in Malaysia are also
owned by individuals, private companies and foreign organisations. We also
have corporate sector universities such as Universiti Teknologi Petronas
Malaysia and University Tenaga Nasional which, among other things, offer
programmes that are suited for the needs of their own organisation. Thus,
liberalisation policies have led to the marketisation of education. This has, in
turn, allowed HE to serve the needs of the public and the private sector, with
some organisations seeing education as an opportunity for investment or
business.

SELF-CHECK 5.2

1. Write your own definitions of the following words as they relate to
higher education: massification, diversification, internationalisation
and marketisation.

2. What are some of the reasons for the occurrence of these phenomena?

3. Based on the discussion above, make a list of higher education

policies that are related to these four key areas.

TOPIC 5 HIGHER EDUCATION POLICY IN SWEDEN 95

Wed 12 July 2006 NZ and Malaysian VCs discuss collaboration

A 10-strong Malaysian Vice-Chancellors delegation led by MVCC chair
Professor DatoÊ Dzulkifli Abdul Razak met with NZVCC representatives led by
Professor Roy Sharp in Wellington this morning. On the agenda for discussion
were the respective internationalisation policies and strategies of the Malaysian
and New Zealand universities and governments, along with collaboration
opportunities around academic and research exchange. Research links were
discussed around identified areas of possible co-operation. Two-way student
mobility was another avenue explored with the Malaysian delegation making the
point that an increasing number of university courses in Malaysia were now
taught in English.

(www.scoop.co.nz/stories)

Scope of HE Policy
Higher education policy refers, collectively, to all principles, rules and
procedures that govern, direct, guide, regulate, monitor and manage activities in
tertiary institutions in a country. In most countries higher education institutions
(HEIs) are bound by a number of Acts or laws that prescribe procedures or
processes related to the way HEIs should be governed, where their funding
should come from or how degrees should be awarded (this is not a
comprehensive list). In order to better understand the scope of this subject, let us
first take a look at the key areas covered by government policy on HE.1
According to the work of Goedegebuure, et. al (1994) and Lee & Healy (2006),
there are at least four broad areas that are covered by HE policy, as detailed
below.

(a) Policies on Funding
Funding is regarded as the most powerful instrument used by the
government to direct or transform HE. It refers to the amount of money
given to HEIs, and the way in which money is disbursed to them. Of late,
the trend in many countries has been to reduce government funding in
public institutions of higher learning. Due to this policy, many HEIs have to
seek their own sources of funding, and/or set up a department that will

1 Note that the discussion in this section is restricted to government policy on HE, and does not
cover policies that come under the jurisdiction of independent bodies (such as Malaysian
Qualifications Agency) or those drafted by individual HEIs.

96 TOPIC 5 HIGHER EDUCATION POLICY IN SWEDEN

engage in entrepreneurial work to bring in funds. As a result of this policy,
the cost of education has gone up for the consumer, often leading to an
increase in the fees charged to the student.

In Malaysia, public universities (IPTAs) receive almost all their funding
from the state, while research grants and funding for special projects may
be sourced from corporate bodies or international organisations. In addition
to this, HE policy also determines the degree to which financial responsibility
and control over spending rests with the government or with the institution
itself.

ACTIVITY 5.1

Discuss the following quote with respect to HE in Malaysia.

Today virtually every country has three higher education ambitions. First is a
demand for greater levels of access, and in every part of the world access to
higher education is rising rapidly. ⁄ The second ambition in every country is to
improve the quality of higher education. ... A third common ambition of
universities worldwide is to improve equity, that is, to offer scholarships and
fellowships to the able students from impoverished families or disadvantaged
regions.

(Heyneman, 2006)

(b) Policies on Planning and Development The Malaysian government
In many countries there is often a has made it an explicit
policy on how and who should be policy to become an Asian
involved in planning HE activities. hub for higher education.
These activities include criteria for
admission to universities, development of – Sachi Hatakenaka (2004)
new programmes, fee structure, spending
patterns, staffing as well as changes in the
curriculum.

TOPIC 5 HIGHER EDUCATION POLICY IN SWEDEN 97

While some planning activity is centralised, i.e. carried out at the
Ministerial level, other activities are carried out by the institution itself.
For example, in Vietnam, the policy on admission criteria to HEIs is
centralised. In planning for greater access to higher education for people
from rural, remote and mountainous areas, policies have been put in place
to admit students from these areas under special admission criteria. A
student from the suburbs or towns has to have higher scores in the
university entrance examination than someone who comes from rural or
mountainous areas. According to Ngo (2006), „[There exists] a special
policy [in Vietnam] for ethnic minority children from remote mountainous
areas: they can be admitted into affirmative action classes in some higher
education institutions without taking entrance examinations. During the
period of 1999 to 2004, a total of 4,284 ethnic minority children benefited
from this policy.‰ (p. 231).

ACTIVITY 5.2

1. What do the following terms mean to you?

(a) Criteria for admission to universities

(b) Development of new programmes

(c) Fee structure

(d) Spending patterns

(e) Staffing

(f) Changes in the curriculum

(g) Affirmative action

2. With respect to your country and your university, which of these
areas do you think are centralised and which are determined by the
institution?

3. What would you like to see changed in terms of the policies related
to each of the areas listed above?

98 TOPIC 5 HIGHER EDUCATION POLICY IN SWEDEN

(c) Policies on Regulation and Monitoring
The government often acts as the main agent for regulating or monitoring
activities in HEIs in order to bring about uniformity. Monitoring refers to
ongoing supervision, observation or testing to make sure that what is
expected of an HEI is achieved. Regulation by the state is often done
through a policy statement on standards to be adopted for a number of
processes. In Malaysia, HE is regulated by five legislations: Education Act,
1995; University and University Colleges (Amendments) Act, 1995; Private
Higher Education Act, 1996; National Council of Higher Education Act,
1996; and National Accreditation Board Bill, 1996. Prior to 1996, there were
only two Acts regulating education in Malaysia, namely the Education Act,
1961 and the University and University Colleges Act, 1971, both of which
were revised in 1995.

Let us look at some examples of regulation and monitoring. A number of
policy decisions regulate the activities of student unions in Malaysian
universities. Students in Malaysian HEIs are not allowed to form
organisations that are affiliated to political parties. In India, the maximum
number of foreign students admitted in a single Indian university is
restricted by the Indian government. A large number of foreign students
in India would be financially beneficial, but too many foreign students
means that fewer Indian citizens will get a place in local universities.
Such activities may be monitored by requesting enrolment records from
universities, by conducting spot checks or even reacting to complaints
made by students or lecturers.

It is the policy of the University of California that all
faculty have access to affordable, quality child care on
or near campus. It is the policy of the University of
California that child care facilities be included in the
plans in much the same way as the needs for parking
and food service facilities are and that funding for
adequate child care facilities be included in the capital
plans for the campus.

Source: www.universityofcalifornia.edu

TOPIC 5 HIGHER EDUCATION POLICY IN SWEDEN 99

(d) Policies on Accreditation and Quality Assurance
Accreditation of programmes of study is often carried out to ensure quality
in practice and to ascertain that an educational programme meets defined
standards. Accreditation refers to the recognition or the granting of
approval for a programme of study against a set of criteria and/or specific
requirements. On the other hand, quality assurance covers many areas,
such as: the standard and quality of courses of study offered at HEIs; the
level of achievement specified for graduation; facilities provided for the
conduct of lectures, research, laboratory work as well as consultation with
academics; and the qualifications of academic staff.

A unique feature of accreditation and quality assurance in Malaysia is that
public and private HEIs are governed by different bodies. The National
Accreditation Board or Lembaga Akreditasi Negara (LAN), which was
established in 1996, oversees all activity in private HEIs. The Quality
Assurance Division (QAD) of the Ministry of Higher Education, Malaysia,
which was established in 2001, governs activity in public universities.

The establishment of a new entity which merges the LAN and the QAD
was approved by the Government on 21 December 2005. This new entity,
called the Malaysian Qualifications Agency (MQA), is responsible for
quality assurance of higher education for both the public and the private
sectors.

The MQA was established on 1 November 2007 with the coming in force of
the Malaysian Qualifications Agency Act 2007. It was officially launched by
the Honourable Minister of Higher Education, Dato' Mustapa Mohamed,
on 2 November 2007.

The main role of the MQA is to implement the Malaysian Qualifications
Framework (MQF) as a basis for quality assurance of higher education and
as the reference point for the criteria and standards for national
qualifications. The MQA is responsible for monitoring and overseeing the
quality assurance practices and accreditation of national higher education.

100 TOPIC 5 HIGHER EDUCATION POLICY IN SWEDEN

The establishment of the MQA saw LAN dissolved and its personnel
absorbed into the MQA.

With the vision to be a credible and internationally recognised higher
education quality assurance body and the mission to inspire the confidence
of its stakeholders through best practices, the MQA is set to chart new
boundaries in higher education quality assurance.

Source: www.mqa.gov.my

ACTIVITY 5.3

Read the contents of Figure 5.1 and answer these questions.

1. How is quality assurance defined by the Ministry of Higher
Education (MOHE)? How would you interpret this definition, in
light of your work as a teacher, school principal or college instructor?

2. What is the rationale given for ensuring that „quality is being
maintained and enhanced‰ as indicated in paragraph 1?

3. What are some of the „mechanisms to ensure the quality‰ of
programmes in universities as indicated in paragraph 2?

4. What evidence is there for the „internationalisation of the labour-
market, international mobility of teachers, researchers, students and
competitive educational programmes‰ as indicated in paragraph 3?

TOPIC 5 HIGHER EDUCATION POLICY IN SWEDEN 101

MOHE Malaysia

Definition of Quality Assurance

Quality assurance comprises all those planned and systematic actions (policies,
strategies, attitudes, procedures, and activities) necessary to provide adequate
confidence that quality is being maintained and enhanced and the products and
services meet the specified quality standards. In higher education, quality
assurance is the totality of systems, resources and information devoted to
maintaining and improving the quality and standards of teaching, scholarship and
research, and of students' learning experience.

Rationale for Quality Assurance

Universities have traditionally used several mechanisms to ensure the quality of
their programmes. Use of external examiners, movement of academics around
institutions, involvement of professional associations in the accreditation of
awards, national and international peer evaluation for staff appointment and
promotions as well as allocation of research grants by competitive assessment have
had discernible effect on the exchange of information and the maintenance of high
academic standards. However, mechanisms that work in an elite system are no
longer sufficient in mass education. Democratisation of higher education has led to
a rapid expansion of the numbers of students and higher educational institutions.

There has also been increased internationalisation of the labour-market,
international mobility of teachers, researchers, students and competitive
educational programmes and thus the need to be able to assess the equivalence of
qualifications, standards and credits. It is no surprise that societal concern for
quality in higher education has increased. Demands for transparency in public
expenditure and the necessity of defining priorities in education in relation to other
socially desirable activities have focused the attention of higher education policy-
makers on adopting formal methodological approaches to provide guarantees of
quality.

The National Accreditation Board was legally established in 1996 to certify
minimum standards and accreditation of programmes conducted in private
colleges and universities. The Quality Assurance Division (QAD) in the Ministry of
Education was established in December 2001 as the national agent responsible for
managing and coordinating the Quality assurance system for public universities.

Source: Ministry of Higher Education, Malaysia (apps.emoe.gov.my/qad)

Figure 5.1: Definition and rationale of Quality Assurance by MOHE Malaysia

Let us now examine higher education policy in Sweden, a country which has a
long history of higher education.

102 TOPIC 5 HIGHER EDUCATION POLICY IN SWEDEN

5.2 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN SWEDEN 2

Universities have been in existence in Sweden
as far back as 1477 when the University of
Uppsala (Figure 5.2) first opened its doors to
Scandinavian scholars. Almost two centuries
later, in 1666 the University of Lund was
established. By the beginning of the 19th century
several private colleges and professional schools
of higher learning were already in existence.

The first period of marked change in Swedish Figure 5.2: University of Uppsala
higher education was the post-Second World Source:
War period. At that point in time, the growth
in the economy and the welfare system led to terragalleria.com/europe//sweden
greater demands in education. The education
system was expanded, causing enrolments in
secondary schools to grow at a fast rate.
Although there were already a large number of
higher education institutions, these proved
insufficient for the increased number of people
seeking higher education at the post-secondary
level.

The turning point in Swedish higher education, however, was the higher
education reform movement beginning in 1977. The need for more graduates in
the fields of medicine, engineering and natural sciences paved the way for reform
in Swedish higher education. These reforms also incorporated national planning
and regulation policies by the government. The Swedish parliament drafted
policies on HE goals, length of programmes, location of programmes and
financing. A new structure was soon introduced whereby private colleges and
schools were taken over by the government and incorporated into one system
called högskolan. For the next decade and a half, the government continued to
determine the curricula for all programmes. New post-secondary programmes
such as those for teacher education were introduced in what became known as

2 The information on Sweden given in this topic is based on reports by C. Salerno (2002) for the
Center for Higher Education Policy Studies, University of Twente, and by S. Hatakenka (2004)
for the Higher Education Policy Institute, as well as the work of G. Svanfeldt (1994) on Higher
Education Policy in Sweden. See the Reference section for a full citation.

TOPIC 5 HIGHER EDUCATION POLICY IN SWEDEN 103

„academic colleges‰. More reforms were introduced in 1983, aimed at reducing
bureaucracy and giving more autonomy to institutions of higher education.
Policies were devised to create „aesthetic schools‰ to cater to fields such as art,
music and theatre.

Figure 5.3: Map of Sweden

Today, all education matters in Sweden (Figure 5.3) come under the Ministry of
Education, Research and Culture or Utbildnings och kulturdepartementet. All
universities and colleges are financed by the Ministry of Education, Research and
Culture, except for the University of Agriculture which is financed by the
Ministry of Agriculture.

The country practices 9-year compulsory schooling followed by 3 years in
upper-secondary school (which includes both academic and vocational tracks).
There are now 39 universities and institutions of higher education here, for
both undergraduate and postgraduate education. Göteborg University is the
largest university not only in Sweden, but also in Scandinavia. It has about
51,000 students and 5,500 employees. The oldest university, Uppsala, is a

104 TOPIC 5 HIGHER EDUCATION POLICY IN SWEDEN

research university with more that 30,000 students enrolled in three disciplines:
humanities and social sciences, medicine and pharmacy, and science and
technology. Education and research takes place at all higher education institutions.

In the pages that follow, we will look at higher education policy in Sweden, with
particular reference to reforms instated in 1977 and after 1993.

5.3 HIGHER EDUCATION POLICY IN SWEDEN

Background
Higher education policy in Sweden today promotes a perspective aimed at equity
and „aggressive expansion‰ (Salerno, 2002:18). This is in response not only to
economic developments in the region, but also to the high demand for HE in the
country. Fifty years ago, only 2% of the population was expected to go through
HE; today this figure has gone up to 30% (Salerno, 2002). In addition to this
expansion policy, Sweden aims to make its HEIs more diverse in terms of culture
and ethnicity, and to get a higher representation of women in HE. Figure 5.4
shows almost twofold increase in the number of students in undergraduate
education during 1991 2004 period.

Figure 5.4: Students in undergraduate education autumn
semesters 1991 2004, head counts
Source: web2.hsv.se/publikationer

TOPIC 5 HIGHER EDUCATION POLICY IN SWEDEN 105

The 1977 Reforms
Let us now look at the development of higher education policy in Sweden. We
will begin with major policy changes that were introduced during the 1977 HE
reforms.

(a) Centralisation and Unification
Before 1977, Sweden had four HE sectors, i.e. universities, university
colleges, institutes and vocational schools. These four sectors were thought
to be too disparate in terms of their focus, the programmes they offered and
the way they were financed. The 1977 reforms were aimed at assimilating
all four sectors so that there would be greater regulation and control of their
activities by the government. Hence, the policy was aimed at centralisation:
administration of all HEIs would come under the Ministry of Education,
while a single central body would oversee all forms of curriculum planning
in all HEIs.

This policy was formulated to achieve the following aims:

(i) Create a more level playing field so that different kinds of
institutions would have equal standing.

(ii) Promote a culture of cooperation among HEIs.

(iii) Provide students from diverse backgrounds equal HE access and
opportunity.

(b) Vocational Education Figure 5.5: Vocational education
Prior to 1977, vocational Source:
education was concentrated
in just one sector, that is, www.vetinfonet.det.wa.edu.au
vocational schools. As part
of educational reform, it
was decided that all
students should benefit
from vocational education.
The 1977 reforms therefore
introduced vocational skills
training into almost all
undergraduate programmes
to prepare all students for
the workplace.

106 TOPIC 5 HIGHER EDUCATION POLICY IN SWEDEN

According to the Swedish Agency for Advanced Vocational Education,
vocational courses combine a practical orientation with in-depth theoretical
knowledge in areas such as engineering, trade and tourism, agriculture or
forestry, information technology and health care (www.ky.se/engelskainfo).
The incorporation of training in such areas provides students with practical
skills that are useful for entry into the workplace.

SELF-CHECK 5.3

1. Draw a concept map of all the changes that were introduced in
Swedish HE between the Second World War and 1977.

2. How did higher education in Sweden change soon after World War
II?

3. In what way did the reforms of 1977 mark a turning point in
Swedish HE?

4. Describe centralised governance of all HEIs under the högskolan
introduced in 1977. Do you think this is similar or different from
public university governance in Malaysia?

5. What do you understand by the terms centralisation and unification?

6. For what reason(s) was vocational education thought to be of
benefit for students in tertiary institutions?

The 1993 Higher Education Act
About a decade after the implementation of the 1977 reforms there was
dissatisfaction among many Swedes. The inclusion of a vocational bearing in HE
courses meant that individual talent and preferences were not accommodated.
Further, centralisation did not help reduce the financial burden on the public
sector, while research, competition and growth in HE was not stimulated.
Criticism aimed at the single HE system (the högskolan) denounced it as too
narrow, fragmented and vocationally-oriented (Salerno, 2002).

TOPIC 5 HIGHER EDUCATION POLICY IN SWEDEN 107

As a result, the non-social democratic government of 1991 began work toward
new reforms in HE. This led to the enactment of the Higher Education Act in
1993, which paved the way for more reforms in HE. Under this Act, or the
Högskoleförordningen, the stated purpose of HE was to provide education
and carry out research and development. Other areas of emphasis were quality
of practice, effective use of resources, gender equality and the development of
international partnerships in the field.

Some of the reforms that were introduced after 1993 as a result of the Higher
Education Act are described below.

(a) Autonomy and Decentralisation
One of the main policy changes that occurred with the passing of the
Higher Education Act of 1993 was related to autonomy and deregulation
of individual HE institutions. The main areas of autonomy that were
introduced were self-management of resources, finance and programme
design. Universities and other HEIs were also given more freedom in terms
of assessment and the awarding of degrees. This was in direct opposition to
the reforms of 1977, which emphasised central control and national
planning under the högskolan.

(b) Teacher Education
Between 2000 and 2001, teacher education reform took place in Sweden. In
a bill that was passed in 2001, eight teaching degrees were consolidated and
only one teaching degree was offered for the entire public school system.
Under this policy, programme specialisation was allowed for different age
groups and subject areas but all students were to spend the first one and a
half years on a common programme of study. More emphasis was to be
given to teaching methods, special education and teaching practice.

(c) Lifelong Learning
In 1998, HE was designed to provide education for employees engaged
in full-time work by allowing them to earn credits toward a degree or
diploma. Later, in 2001, the Open Higher Education Bill opened more
pathways to HE. Policy changes were also made to provide more people
access to HE, to provide for lifelong learning, to create programmes and
degrees that were aligned to studentsÊ vocations and to include ICT in HE
(Salerno, 2002). In order to cater for such diversification, HEIs were given
the flexibility to implement admission requirements that commensurate
with the type of programmes that were offered.

108 TOPIC 5 HIGHER EDUCATION POLICY IN SWEDEN

Broader recruitment
The expansion of the number of places in higher
education that has taken place during the last fifteen
years has resulted in somewhat broader recruitment.
During the period from 1993 to 1994 up until 2003 to
2004, the proportion of students beginning studies in
higher education from working class background rose
from ˇ8 to 24 percent of all new enrolments, while at the
same time the proportion whose parents were senior
salaried employees declined from 33 to 28 percent.

Lifelong learning
Lifelong learning comprises all the different forms of
learning and individual experiences during an entire
lifetime. Higher education can be regarded as one arena
for lifelong learning. Half of the students in higher
education are older than 25, just over one-fifth older than
30, ten percent have reached 40 and four percent are 50 or
older. Lifelong learning is therefore offered to a relatively
large extent by the higher education institutions. Lifelong
learning in higher education is linked to a large extent
with the participation of women. In every age group in
the population from 30 and upwards, there are twice as
many women studying in higher education as men.

http://web2.hsv.se/publikationer/rapporter/2005/

Regulation and Monitoring of Swedish Higher Education
The responsibility for all HE policy in Sweden rests with the Swedish Riksdag
(Parliament) and the Ministry of Education, Research and Culture. Together, they
make decisions on regulation and monitoring, on funding and on the objectives
and guidelines for HE. An important central government agency that assists the
Ministry with regulation and monitoring is the National Agency for Higher
Education or Högskoleverket. The Agency takes care of all matters related to
assessment, supervision, reviews, research and evaluation. As university education
in Sweden is free, i.e. no tuition fee is charged for HE, all academic and non-
academic staff who work in HEIs are employees of the state.

Open Education and the Degree Ordinance
A unique feature of Swedish HE policy is the freedom of choice with regards to
courses and degrees. In Sweden, all education is provided in the form of courses,
which may or may not be directly linked to degree programmes. Students make
their own choices about how they can combine courses to earn a degree. All HEIs

TOPIC 5 HIGHER EDUCATION POLICY IN SWEDEN 109

have a system of credits (poäng), whereby a student earns one (1) credit for every
week of successful full-time study. During one academic year a student can earn
40 credits. Based on this centralised system, the completion rates for different
degrees differ from student to student. Under the Swedish Degree Ordinance,
the government has prescribed how general and professional degrees may be
awarded.

Sweden also has what is known as „Contract Education‰ which is also referred to
as commissioned education. Contract education may be given to an organisation
or individual at an agreed upon price that covers the cost of education. The price
and content of the programme of study is presented in the form of a contract,
which is guided by regulations concerning commissioned education.

In 2005, the Swedish government proposed a new higher education programme
and degree structure to facilitate international comparison of its degrees. This
will most likely pave the way for more structured system where the HEI, and not
the student, makes key decisions about courses and degree programmes.

ACTIVITY 5.4

Make a list of all the changes in policy that have resulted from the
Higher Education Act of 1993.

1. To what extent are these related to the massification, diversification,
internationalisation and marketisation of HE?

2. To what extent do these changes reflect an improvement in terms of
access to and flexibility in HE?

Conclusion
Of late, the Swedish government has encouraged the internationalisation
of education, both in terms of the number of foreign students admitted into
Swedish HEIs and the number of Swedish students who study abroad. In fact,
under the education financial support policy for every Swede, many students are
able to get study grants to study in places like the UK and the USA. The move
toward internationalisation is also thought to benefit the country in terms of
benchmarking its programmes, and to allow for greater cross-border cooperation
among SwedenÊs European counterparts.

110 TOPIC 5 HIGHER EDUCATION POLICY IN SWEDEN

Additionally, a professional masterÊs degree has been introduced for working
adults as part of SwedenÊs efforts to promote lifelong learning. Educationists
continue to find ways to provide access to better and more varied education,
both to individuals and to public and private organisations. In a move to further
diversify educational opportunity, attempts are also being made to provide for
the needs of the industry and the workforce as new content and professional
expertise develops in the country.

ACTIVITY 5.5

The paragraph below outlines a major challenge for higher education in
Malaysia. What changes would you recommend to higher education
policy in order to address this challenge?

Increasingly, Malaysian public universities are being assessed in
terms of the employability of their undergraduates and, in this
respect, the Government has emphasised that employability must
be viewed in the context of global job market and not just limited to
Malaysia. It is inevitable that the rapidly changing employment
situation for graduates and for society, at large, will have major
implications for how Malaysian universities conduct their business
henceforth.

(Source: Morshidi Sirat, 2006:130)

The word policy refers to a written principle or rule to guide decision-making
at the institutional or national level. Often a policy directs the course of action
at the national level or within an organisation.

By studying education policy we can understand how universities, colleges
and other post-secondary institutions operate within an education system. It
is also a window to understanding how governments respond to national
labour and economic needs, and how they accommodate global trends in the
field.

Some of the reasons for examining the formulation and implementation of
higher education policy are massification, diversification, internationalisation
and marketisation.

TOPIC 5 HIGHER EDUCATION POLICY IN SWEDEN 111

In most countries, HEIs are bound by a number of Acts or laws that prescribe
procedures or processes related to the way HEIs should be governed, where
their funding should come from or how degrees should be awarded.

Some of the key areas that are covered by HE policy are funding, planning,
development, regulation, monitoring, accreditation and quality assurance.

As depicted in the example of Sweden, there are a number of historical, social
and economic factors that influence higher education policy in a country.
Often, higher education policy goes through a period of reform as weaknesses
or shortcomings are discovered in an existing system.

The ultimate aim of higher education policy is the achievement of goals as
stated by the national educational philosophy, as well as the national agenda
as dictated by national economic and labour needs. However, global trends
also inform the direction to be taken by higher education, which, in turn,
influences higher education policy.

(Utbildnings och kultur departementet) Lifelong learning
Broader recruitment Marketisations
Diversification Massification
Higher Education (HE) Ministry of Education, Research
Higher Education Institution (HEI)
Internationalisation and Culture
Vocationally-oriented

112 TOPIC 5 HIGHER EDUCATION POLICY IN SWEDEN

Goedegebuure, L., Kaiser, F., Maassen, P,. Meek, L., van Vught, F., & de Weert, E.
(1994). International perspectives on higher education policy. In
L. Goedegebuure, F. Kaiser, P. Maassen, L. Meek, F. van Vught & E. de Weert
(Eds). (1994). Higher education policy: An international comparative
perspective. Oxford: Pergamon Press.

Hatakenaka, S. (2004). Internationalism in higher education: A review. Available
from: http://www.hepi.ac.uk/pubdetail.asp.

Heyneman, S. P. (2006). Global issues in higher education. The Challenges
of Globalization. Electronic journal, February 2006. Available from:
http://usinfo.state.gov/journals/.

Lee, M. N. N., & Healy, S. (2006). Higher education in South-East Asia. Bangkok:
UNESCO Asia and Pacific Regional Bureau for Education.

Morshidi Sirat (2006). Malaysia. In Lee, M. N. N., & Healy, S. (2006). Higher
education in South-East Asia. Bangkok: UNESCO Asia and Pacific Regional
Bureau for Education.

Svanfeldt, G. (1994). Higher education policy in Sweden. In L. Goedegebuure,
F. Kaiser, P. Maassen, L. Meek, F. van Vught & E. de Weert (Eds). (1994).
Higher education policy: An international comparative perspective. Oxford:
Pergamon Press.

The Observatory on Borderless Higher Education. (2002). International branch
campuses: Scale & significance. Available from: http://www. obhe. ac.uk/
products/reports/publicaccesspdf.

Topic Educational
Planning in
6 South Africa

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Describe, in detail, activities related to education planning;
2. Discuss various factors that influence education planning in a country;

and
3. Compare and contrast education planning activities in two or more

countries.

INTRODUCTION

Figure 6.1: South African Coat In this topic we will take a close look at
of Arms with the motto educational planning with particular reference
„Diverse people unite‰ to South Africa. A study of this country gives us
a unique opportunity to examine the various
Source: www.southafrica.pl considerations that are brought to bear in the
planning of curricula in post-conflict contexts.
Thus, the education agenda of post-apartheid,
Africa-centric democratic South Africa is studied
against several key aspects of planning, viz:

(a) The importance of planning;

(b) Human capital and national development
needs; and

(c) The socio-historically induced challenges
faced by the new government.

114 TOPIC 6 EDUCATIONAL PLANNING IN SOUTH AFRICA

To give you a comprehensive picture of planning activities in the country, three
documents are examined:

(a) The statements on education as stated in the new Constitution of South
Africa;

(b) Lifelong Learning through a National Curriculum Framework; and

(c) Curriculum 2005.

As you read the discussion based on these documents, draw connections
between the content of these documents and the importance of planning with
respect to human capital and national development needs as well as the rationale
for planning activities.

6.1 EXAMINING EDUCATIONAL PLANNING

Significance
In any country, educational planning is critical to the success of basic and
advanced education provided for a people. It is usually done at a national level
and involves many aspects of education: curricula, structure, policy, staffing,
teacher training and funding. Planning also involves formulating goals,
objectives and implementing policies. In most countries, the key player in the
planning process is the government, and the planning process involves
economic, social and legal dimensions.

Here are some reasons why educational planning is considered to be of great
importance:

(a) There is a strong link between educational planning and national
development
An education system is expected to deliver a number of outcomes that
help a population grow intellectually, economically and socially. To cite an
example, a ten-year education master education plan was launched in 2005
for the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao, Southern Philippines.
This includes a basic education development plan, and allowing the citizens
access to resources and effective education management. By launching
a long-term educational plan such as this one, the government aims to
improve the economic standing of this Mindanao community and to create
greater social integration with neighbouring Christian communities.

TOPIC 6 EDUCATIONAL PLANNING IN SOUTH AFRICA 115

(b) Educational planning reflects the national agenda, such as economic goals
and social integration policies
For example, Universiti Pertanian Malaysia was set up in the 1970s because
of the nationÊs need to train people for the agricultural sector. Similarly,
as a response to the dominance of ICT at the end of the 20th century,
the Multimedia University was established. For the purpose of social
integration, the Sekolah Wawasan was considered for implementation in
some parts of West Malaysia.

Where no plan is laid, where the disposal of time is
surrendered merely to the chance of incidence, chaos will
soon reign. Victor Hugo (1802 1885)

(c) Planning and delivery of education reflects the ideological position of the
political forces within a country
The planning of curricula and the expected outcomes of education are often
based on the ideology ascribed to by the ruling party. If a government
wants a highly skilled workforce, there is more investment in the education
system both in terms of funding and attention paid to expected outcomes.

However, if the ruling party wants a labour force that is able to work in one
or two sectors (e.g. agriculture or mining) then the exposure and
experiences for learners will be limited. For example, in the late 1800s, the
French established schools in Ivory Coast to train clerks and interpreters to
help manage the country. To create an „elite‰ African political group that
would identify with France and French culture, higher education was
offered to a small group of Ivorians (there were only four Ivorian university
graduates by 1945). Today, the education system in Ivory Coast is an
adaptation of the French education system, mainly because the new
government worked on the model developed by the French. Similar trends
may be observed in other countries that were under foreign rule at one
time.

(d) Educational planning involves a process that requires the cooperation of
many key institutions in a country
You may have noticed that the Ministry of Education in our country
frequently calls upon groups of content experts, religious scholars,
economists, psychologists and social scientists when making key decisions
in the planning process. All of these groups have to participate in the
planning process and cooperate to fulfil national goals. This also refers to
the need for the parties involved in the planning to believe in the goals

116 TOPIC 6 EDUCATIONAL PLANNING IN SOUTH AFRICA

of the mission. There is greater success in the implementation of an
educational plan if planners share a common understanding of the goals
that they hope to achieve.

SELF-CHECK 6.1

In your own words, state the reasons why educational planning is
critical to the success of basic and advanced education provided for a
people.

Scope
Educational planning involves a great deal of research, communication and
advocacy on the part of the planner. The planner may be the government, the
Ministry or the Curriculum Development Centre, but all these three functions
have to be carried out diligently and carefully in order to ensure success of an
educational plan. Take for instance the move to use English for science and
mathematics instruction in Malaysia. Prior to implementation, the planners had
to amass a large knowledge base on the subject. They had to evaluate the existing
programme, hold discussions at various levels and conduct research on the
implementation of such programmes in other contexts.

The second area, communication, refers to how the information is passed from
one level to another, both within the planning community and among the
receiving community, that is teachers, students and administrators. Thus, when
plans for the shift to English for science and mathematics had been drawn up,
everyone in the country had to be informed. Training had to be conducted at
many levels and key personnel from the Ministry of Education had to be
summoned to help with the implementation of this new plan.

Finally, educational planning has to be accompanied by a keen sense of
advocacy. This means that groups of planners have to work with the public to
bring about change that is desired. To use our earlier example, the move to use
English for science and mathematics was advocated through a change in
education policy at the national level and by training teachers in the wider use of
the English language. Thus, educational planning involves an upward process,
that is, changes in policy, and a downward process, that is, working with people
on the ground such as students and teachers.

TOPIC 6 EDUCATIONAL PLANNING IN SOUTH AFRICA 117

ACTIVITY 6.1

Find out more about the Education Planning and Research Division
(EPRD) of the Ministry of Education, Malaysia.

(a) What are some of the activities carried out by this division?

(b) To what extent do the various responsibilities of EPRD include
research, communication and advocacy?

Needs-based Planning
Educational planning often begins with the identification of a peopleÊs needs
(Weiler, 1982). It is a direct reflection of what people in a country expect in terms
of economic, social and political development over time. Let us examine closely
the two main ways in which education planning addresses the needs of society.

(a) The Need for Human Capital Development
As far back as the year 1928, scholars such as Pigou argued for the need to
invest in humans so that it will increase productivity and improve the
economic value of a peopleÊs skills and knowledge. Thus, human capital
development refers to improving the quality and level of education, skills
and experience of people so that they can better serve themselves and the
economy of a country. This has been discussed by Gopinathan, (2005) with
reference to educational planning:

„A key strategy in ⁄ developmental states was the implementation of
policies in education and training designed to boost stocks of human
capital. The enhancement of labour productivity was seen, in the earlier
context of low innovation capacity, to lie in expansion of education⁄ These
developmental states created centrally planned, universally available,
standardised and state driven education systems, which created the
national subjectivities necessary for affiliation to the statesÊ modernisation,
project. The return of investment on education was such that the states
could justify the expansion and diversification of education as high priority;
wealth generated by economic growth justified further investment in
education.‰

118 TOPIC 6 EDUCATIONAL PLANNING IN SOUTH AFRICA

(b) The Need for National Development
Education planning addresses the need for national development at
many levels. This area of education planning is particularly crucial when
you think of nations that are at a post-war stage or those that have
recently achieved independent status for self-government. National
development also becomes a key consideration when we talk about
countries that have plural societies, i.e. multilingual or multicultural
groups, and places where there is a great deal of income disparity.
Education planning for national development often involves building a
curriculum and formulating policies aimed at national integration,
bridging the rich-poor divide and increasing access to education for rural,
poor and marginalised sectors.

SELF-CHECK 6.2

What is the relationship between human capital development and
national development?

Let us take the example of a country like Qatar. In 1970, less than 15 percent
of the population between the ages of 40 and 75 was literate. However, due
to the national development agenda and greater access to education, by
2003 the literacy rate for men was 81% and 85% for women, even though
education was not compulsory. In the 1985 to 1986 academic year, about
1,000 Qataris received government scholarships to pursue higher education
in other countries. According to the national report on the development of
education in the State of Qatar (prepared by Ministry of Education, Qatar in
1996):

„The role of education has become immensely great to the
extent that it has brought about a rapid change in the shape of
life; equally rapid as the other aspects of life in this century
resulting from the scientific and technological achievements
particularly in the field of communication. Thus, development
of education has become imperative so as to be capable of
serving its own goals and strategies‰

Source: (/www.ibe.unesco.org).

TOPIC 6 EDUCATIONAL PLANNING IN SOUTH AFRICA 119

ACTIVITY 6.2

Read the following excerpt from the Ninth Malaysia Plan.

Consideration should also be given to shortening the length of time in
secondary school from 7 years to 6 years for university admission and
to 4 years for school leaving i.e. a school leaving certificate after
4 years secondary education to replace SPM and an additional 2 years
for university matriculation. A standard university matriculation
programme should be adopted to replace STPM.

How will this plan affect MalaysiaÊs overall education structure?

In the following pages, we take a look at post-apartheid educational planning
in the Republic of South Africa. Educational planning often begins with the
identification of a peopleÊs needs As you read about South AfricaÊs attempts to
charter a new course for education, consider how they relate to:

(a) The importance of planning; and

(b) Human capital and national development.

120 TOPIC 6 EDUCATIONAL PLANNING IN SOUTH AFRICA

CASE STUDY: SOUTH AFRICA

6.2 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN SOUTH
AFRICA

Traditions

Historically speaking, the Koi and the

San of South Africa had a strong

tradition of informal education. At the

village level, adults were involved in the

transmission of skills and cultural values

through a largely oral tradition. The

education of young people was carried

out through stories of heroism, bravery

and treachery. There was also emphasis

on skills needed for agriculture and other

occupations associated with survival. Figure 6.2: The San and Koi originally

European Rule occupied parts of South Africa
However, a great deal was to change Source: www.sudafrica.co.za

with the advent of colonialism and with the arrival of the French, Dutch and

British on the shores of South Africa. From the 1800s, European schools were set

up, leading to instruction in Christianity and literacy and numeracy skills. Many

English schools were established, as were schools that used Afrikaans1 as a

medium of instruction. The country was rich in resources and coal and diamond

mines were opened in many parts of the country. From the late 19th century,

groups of men were taken away to work in the mines, leaving women in charge

of homes. The traditional informal education system was then disrupted among

communities affected by such moves.

However, at that point in time, there was already a system of segregated and
unequal education in the country. While schooling for the Europeans
was free, compulsory and expanding, education for Africans and other non-
Europeans was neglected. There were insufficient facilities for schooling, teachers
and educational materials due to a serious lack of funding.

1 The language, Afrikaans, has its roots in 17th century Dutch but has been influenced by English,
Malay, German, Portuguese, French and some African languages. Until the 19th century
Afrikaans was a spoken language in Africa and Dutch was used as the formal and written
language. It became an official language in 1925. Although less emphasised, it is spoken by
people of all races in South Africa today.

TOPIC 6 EDUCATIONAL PLANNING IN SOUTH AFRICA 121

Ethnic identity defined the degree to which www.theafrican.com
educational opportunity was to be provided. Under
the apartheid system there were four ethnic In 1953, prior to the
classifications: Blacks, Coloureds, Indians and Whites, apartheid governmentÊs
and the government decided how and what kind of Bantu Education Act, 90%
education was to be provided for each ethnic group. of black South African
They lived separately, and the education they schools were state-aided
received prepared them for different roles in society. and were mission schools.
The Act demanded that
Apartheid all such schools register
The 1950s marked a crucial period in South African with the state, and
history when apartheid (meaning separateness in removed control of
Afrikaans) became entrenched as a system of African education from
government. It all began in 1948 when the National the churches and
Party (NP) won the elections and over the next 45 provincial authorities.
years worked on a social engineering model that This control was
affected two generations of Africans. Under this centralised in the Bantu
system, there were a different set of rules for the Education Department, a
Africans and the Europeans not only in terms of body dedicated to
schooling but also in terms of where they lived and keeping it separate and
how they should travel from one place to another. inferior. Almost all the
mission schools closed
The NP also gave the Afrikaans language new status down. The 1953 Act also
in schools, and after that, all high-school graduates separated the financing of
were required to be proficient in both Afrikaans and education for Africans
in English. Many of the local people lost their land from general state
and their homes as entire villages were removed and spending and linked it to
relocated in less desirable areas. direct tax paid by Africans
themselves, with the
Bantu Education result that far less was
In 1953, The Bantu Education Act was passed in spent on black children
South Africa. In a move to use most government than on white children.
resources for European education, far less attention
was paid to the quality and facilities of schools for From: South Africa
the others. Less than 10% of the per capita income History Online
was spent on Black education. Teachers in Black
schools had little training while the curriculum and
textbook content was designed to prepare the people
only for menial jobs. Ethnic identity defined the
degree to which educational opportunity was to be
provided.

122 TOPIC 6 EDUCATIONAL PLANNING IN SOUTH AFRICA

In reference to Bantu education, Parsons (1982) asserts:

Black schools no longer studied the same syllabuses as non-Black schools,
but followed new Bantu education syllabuses based on officially recognised
Bantu languages. English, which had been the most common medium of
instruction, was stopped in primary schools and limited in secondary schools.
The Bantu Affairs Department had to approve teachers, and also controlled
the local school boards consisting of parents and officials which managed
the everyday running of schools.

The Soweto Uprising

Bantu education was greeted with a great deal of
resentment as Black children were deprived of
reaching their full intellectual and social potential.
The contrast between Black and European schools
was stark: where there were 18 students in a
European classroom, there were 40 in a Black
classroom. Few teachers in Black schools were
certified to teach while very low standards were
maintained for graduation from schools. South
Africans endured Bantu education for almost
20 years before they took their troubles to the road in
a big way. By then, many of their leaders had been
jailed or killed, or had simply „gone missing.‰

Figure 6.3: Famous
picture of a fatally-
wounded Hector
Pieterson, aged 13, on

June 16, 1976.
www.southafrica.info

TOPIC 6 EDUCATIONAL PLANNING IN SOUTH AFRICA 123

In 1976, when compulsory Afrikaans language instruction was enforced in high
schools there were mass protests. In the violence that followed in Soweto2 in
Johannesburg, hundreds of people died, many of them schoolchildren. Thus, the
path was laid for calls for freedom for the Africans, and the term Liberation before
Education became a motto for the people involved in the struggle.

„I will reform Black education so that Natives will
be taught from childhood to realise that equality with
Europeans is not for them.‰ Hendrik Verwoerd, the
National Party's minister of Native Affairs in 1951.

African Rule
It was only in the 1990s that apartheid was considered outdated and non-racial
education was considered for implementation in South Africa. Other aspects of
government began to change as pressure mounted for Black rule in South Africa.
AfricaÊs most famous prisoner, Nelson Mandela, was released from prison in
1990, and led the country to its first free elections in 1994. The country began to
assume a new identity, and informally referred to itself as the Rainbow Nation
of Africa. The new government embraced a culturally diverse people with
11 different official languages and a very rich history.

2 Soweto is an acronym for South West Township, an area located on the south-western part of
Johannesburg designated for Black homes.

124 TOPIC 6 EDUCATIONAL PLANNING IN SOUTH AFRICA

ACTIVITY 6.3

1. Trace the events that led to the Soweto uprising in 1976. What was

the main reason for the uprising?

2. Do you think the African community was justified in rejecting

Bantu Education? Give a reason for your answer.

3. Read the following statement by Desmond Tutu, a South African

freedom fighter who won the Nobel Prize for Peace. Find out what
he meant by „gutter education.‰

I wanted to become a doctor, a physician, and I was admitted to
medical school, but my family did not have the money for fees. So
I ended up becoming a teacher. I stopped being a teacher when
the South African Government introduced a deliberately inferior
education for Blacks called Bantu education, and I felt I wasnÊt
ready to collaborate with this apology for an educational system.
Our children, the 1976 kids who revolted against apartheid in
Soweto, called it „gutter education,‰ and it was gutter education. I
left teaching. (2004)

South AfricaÊs Languages (2001)

Zulu (23.8%) Xhosa (17.6%) Afrikaans (13.3%) Sepedi (9.4%)

English (8.2%) Setswana (8.2%) Sesotho (7.9%) Xitsonga (4.4%)

Others Ndebele, Pedi, Swazi, Venda (7.2%)

Three other languages added in 2004: Gujarati, Hebrew and Latin

www.safrica.info/

TOPIC 6 EDUCATIONAL PLANNING IN SOUTH AFRICA 125

6.3 EDUCATIONAL PLANNING IN THE
RAINBOW NATION

Figure 6.4: Map of South Africa

Let us now examine educational planning in democratic South Africa (Figure 6.4)
after the new government took control. According to Gilmour, Soudien &
Donald (2000), the total population in 1994 was 40.6 million, 75% of whom were
Black Africans. The Asians numbered 3.5 million (9%), Coloureds 1 million (3%)
and Whites 5 million (13%). There were almost 8 million primary schoolchildren
and 3.5 million secondary schoolchildren. The new government had inherited an
education system that was deeply divided. There were 19 different education
departments under apartheid, segmented according to race and geography.

The plan to formulate a new policy framework and to restructure education
began with the setting up of the National Education and Training Forum in 1993.
A substantial amount of resources 23% of the national budget were set aside
for education. Compulsory education with a single core syllabus for all South
Africans from age seven to sixteen was introduced. The first instance of
integration of government-run primary and secondary schools at the national
level was in 1995.

126 TOPIC 6 EDUCATIONAL PLANNING IN SOUTH AFRICA

Below is a description of the various measures that were taken to provide equal
and fair access to education to all South Africans, irrespective or creed or colour.
Additionally, in the spirit of change for the better, these measures were taken to
ensure that education would produce „A prosperous, truly united, democratic
and internationally competitive country with literate, creative and critical citizens
leading productive, self-fulfilled lives in a country free of violence, discrimination
and prejudice.‰ (Vision stated in the White Paper on Education and Training,
1995).

(a) The New Constitution

Foremost, education parity was provided for in the new constitution of the
democratic Republic of South Africa. Section 29 of the Constitution states:

EDUCATION
29. (1) Everyone has the right

(i) to a basic education, including adult basic
education; and

(ii) to further education, which the state, through
reasonable measures, must make progressively
available and accessible.

(2) Everyone has the right to receive education in the
official language or languages of their choice in public
educational institutions where that education is
reasonably practicable. In order to ensure the effective
access to, and implementation of, this right, the state
must consider all reasonable educational alternatives,
including single medium institutions, taking into
account:

(i) equity; The historic
inadequacy of school
(ii) practicability; and education, especially
for black communities,
(iii) the need to redress the results of had the effect that a
past racially discriminatory laws majority of the adult
and practices. population, both in
and out of formal
employment, had no
schooling or
inadequate schooling.

Curriculum 2005

TOPIC 6 EDUCATIONAL PLANNING IN SOUTH AFRICA 127

These statements have guided all educational and training activity since
1994. You will note that there is a provision in the constitution for not only
basic education, but also for adult and further education. The latter was
considered important as, under apartheid, many adults were not able to
take part in literacy-oriented activity, and many qualified Africans had
been denied access to tertiary education.

In addition to this, the plan also included a provision for instruction in the
pupilsÊ own language, which may be in any one of the eleven officially
recognised languages in the country. Note too that the constitution states
that whenever the need arises, the state has to redress the results of past
racially discriminatory laws and practices. Obviously this means that the
new government has assumed a great deal of responsibility; it has to take
steps to remedy or make compensations for far-reaching inequities that
were caused by years of apartheid rule.

(b) Lifelong Learning through a National Curriculum Framework (1996)

The first major statement on curriculum was formulated in 1996 and was
called the National Curriculum Framework. This Framework was informed
primarily by principles contained in three other documents:

(i) The White Paper on Education and Training 1995

(ii) The South African Qualifications Act No. 58, 1995

(iii) The National Education Policy Act 1996

The National Curriculum Framework gave a rationale for major changes in
the education system and emphasised the need to transform teaching and
learning in all schools. It also recommended a shift to a new instructional
paradigm, from the aims-and-objectives approach to the outcomes-based
approach. This was in response to the growing concern that traditional
methods of teaching and training would not produce graduates of the
quality and standards necessary for the future. The National Curriculum
Framework provided a philosophical base for policy makers and
educationists. It became a set of principles and guidelines on organisational
structure for curriculum development at the national, provincial,
community and the school level.