HMEF5033 Comparative Education

128 TOPIC 6 EDUCATIONAL PLANNING IN SOUTH AFRICA

In addition to this, South Africa embarked on a plan to incorporate lifelong
learning into the education agenda. Years of under-education, inadequate
infrastructure and a lack of resources had left large number of adult
learners with inadequate skills for the job market. Educational planning
included the establishment of the Adult Basic Education and Training
(ABET) programme which focused on building partnerships with
businesses and community groups for the purpose of human capacity
building in a variety of areas. In 1995, the Minister of Education described
the goal of ABET in the following terms:

ABET should provide a general basic education, promote critical
thinking and empower individuals to participate in all aspects
of society, and promote active learning methods, and, ABET
should lead to nationally recognised certificates based on clear
national standards assessed as learning outcomes.

In addition to ABET, the Further Education and Training (FET) programme
provides both academic and applied learning tracks. Under this initiative,
South Africans have access to lifelong learning, higher education and
training, as well as employment in a number of areas. To provide for
greater diversity in education FET provides three tracks of education:
academic, vocational and occupation-specific.

For adults, classes in basic literacy, in technical and in vocational subjects
have also been made available. The University of Cape Town and
Witwatersrand University offer courses for those who wish to become adult
education instructors. Thus, educational planning followed the principle of
a people-driven approach to development to help South Africans reach
their maximum capacity and thereby meet the needs of the country.

TOPIC 6 EDUCATIONAL PLANNING IN SOUTH AFRICA 129

SELF-CHECK 6.3

1. What do you understand by the phrase a single core syllabus for all
South Africans?

2. What was the rationale for making provisions for adult basic
education in the Constitution of South Africa?

3. Why was lifelong learning form a critical component of the
National Curriculum Framework of 1996?

4. How will technical and in vocational education help human capital
development?

5. To what extent is social integration reflected in the planning of
education for the new South Africa? Justify your views with
evidence from the documents discussed above.

The national flag of the Republic
of South Africa was first used on
27 April 1994. The design and
colours are a synopsis of principal
elements of the countryÊs flag
history. Individual colours, or
colour combinations were different
meanings for different people and
therefore no universal symbolism
should be attached to any of the
colours.

The central design of the flag, beginning at the flag post in a „V‰ form and
flowing into a single horizontal band to the outer edge of the fly, can be
interpreted as the convergence of diverse elements within South African
society, taking the road ahead in unity. The theme of convergence and unity
ties in with the motto of the National Coat of Arms, „Unity is Strength.‰

www.infoplease.com/ipa

130 TOPIC 6 EDUCATIONAL PLANNING IN SOUTH AFRICA

(c) Curriculum 2005

The new curriculum based on the outcomes-based approach became known
as Curriculum 2005 and was first implemented in schools in 1998. It was
called Curriculum 2005 because a final decision on its implementation in
the upper grades was to be made in the year 2005, i.e. a decision on
implementation in Grade 10 in 2006, in Grade 11 in 2007, and in Grade 12 in
2008.

Outcomes-based education or OBE focuses on what the learners should
know and can do at the end of a course of learning and teaching, instead of
the means which are to be used to achieve those results. Under the planned
Curriculum 2005, learnersÊ progress was to be measured against agreed
criteria; formal assessment would employ criterion-referencing in a
transparent manner. All learners who met the agreed criteria for specified
learning outcomes would receive the appropriate credit or credits. Learning
support and feedback were crucial aspects of teaching: if a learner could not
achieve what was expected, he/she would receive the necessary assistance
to meet the required standards. As stated by the then Deputy Director-
General of Education, Dr Chabani Manganyi,

„The new curriculum will be based on the principles of
co-operation, critical thinking and social responsibly, and
should empower individuals to participate in all aspects of
society. This could best be achieved by a national curriculum
which provides a general education as a platform for lifelong
learning. (March 1997)‰

To achieve these aims, the curriculum was organised along eight newly
created Learning Areas, which were:

(i) Language, Literacy and Communication;

(ii) Mathematical Literacy, Mathematics and Mathematical Sciences;

(iii) Human and Social Sciences;

(iv) Natural Sciences;

(v) Technology;

TOPIC 6 EDUCATIONAL PLANNING IN SOUTH AFRICA 131

(vi) Arts and Culture;
(vii) Economic and Management Sciences; and
(viii) Life Orientation.

(For a detailed description on each of these areas, refer to Appendix 3.)

ACTIVITY 6.4

Find out more about Outcomes-based Education in South Africa. How
successful has it been in grooming young South Africans for the 21st
Century?

Postscript
An important aspect of educational planning is time time to think deeply about
a plan for educating an entire nation, time to train teachers and administrators to
effectively operate in the new system and time to conceive of a plan that will
work for all sectors of the population. Although the South African model, i.e.
Lifelong Learning through OBE, was conceptualised after months of discussion
with experts from all over the world, there has been a sense that it was
implemented too hastily. Some experts have felt that many South Africans
needed more time to understand the goals of the curriculum in order to deliver it
effectively (Gilmour, Soudien & Donald, 2000).

In addition to this, there is still tension between practicality and accessibility;
while some quarters feel that English should be the medium of instruction in all
schools, others feel that there would be greater accessibility if the studentsÊ
mother tongues were used. Some parents prefer that their children be taught
in English, but the choice of a language of instruction often rests on the
geographical location of a school. As you can see from the newspaper report
below, this is an ongoing debate in South Africa.

To conclude, the South African model for Lifelong Learning through OBE was
aimed at providing equity in education. The three documents analysed above
show that there has been a concerted effort to provide for marginalised groups
so that they too can build on the competencies necessary for the workplace. To
reiterate, the principle of a people-driven approach to development was followed
in educational planning to help South Africans reach their maximum capacity
and thereby meet the needs of the country.

132 TOPIC 6 EDUCATIONAL PLANNING IN SOUTH AFRICA

JOHANNESBURG, 23 June 2006 (IRIN) With South Africa still struggling to improve
education standards, a new report has called on the government to consider using local
languages as a medium of instruction in schools.

The „Report of the Public Hearing on the Right to Basic Education‰ by the South African
Human Rights Commission (SAHRC), examined the host of challenges facing
educational transformation in the country. Among the many problems from poverty to
classroom violence it noted a glaring problem: 42 percent of children in rural schools
had difficulty understanding their teachers.

„An inadequate command of language, whether by the teacher, the learner or both,
constitutes a serious barrier to effective schooling and education,‰ said the report, which
synthesised the views gathered from public hearings held in 2005.

(http://www.irinnews.org/)

Educational planning is critical to the success of basic and advanced
education provided for a people. It is usually done at a national level and
involves many aspects of education: curricula, structure, policy, staffing,
teacher training and funding.

Educational planning is significant for a number of reasons, such as:

There is a strong link between educational planning and national
development.

Educational planning reflects the national agenda, such as economic goals
and social integration policies.

Planning and delivery of education reflects the ideological position of the
political forces within a country.

Educational planning involves a process that requires the cooperation of
many key institutions in a country.

Educational planning often begins with the identification of a peopleÊs needs,
such as the need for human capital development and national development.

TOPIC 6 EDUCATIONAL PLANNING IN SOUTH AFRICA 133

The educational history of a country is often linked to the political and
economic forces that are prevalent at a given time. Thus, education planners
take these factors into consideration when planning a new curriculum or a
new approach to education in a country.

Planning takes a great deal of time and care has to be taken to ensure that
plans that are implemented are relevant and consistent with the needs of the
people in a country.

Adult Basic Education and Training (ABET)
Apartheid
Curriculum 2005
Education Planning and Research Division (EPRD)
European Rule
Ninth Malaysia Plan
Outcomes-based approach
Post-conflict context
Sekolah Wawasan
Soweto
The Bantu Education Act

134 TOPIC 6 EDUCATIONAL PLANNING IN SOUTH AFRICA

Gilmour, D., Soudien, C., & Donald, D. (2000). Post-Apartheid policy and
practice: Educational reform in South Africa. In Mazurek, K., Winzer,
M. A. & Majorek, C. (Eds). (2000). Education in a Global Society: A
Comparative Perspective. Needham Heights: Allyn & Bacon.

Gopinathan, S. (2005). Globalization, the Singapore Developmental State and
Education Policy: A Thesis Revisited. Working paper, National Institute of
Education, Singapore

Parsons, N. (1982). New history of South Africa, London: Macmillan.

Pigou, A. C. (1928). A study in public finance. London: Macmillan and Co.

Weiler, H. N. (1982). Educational Planning and Social Change: A Critical
Review of Concepts and Practices. In Altbach, P. G., Arnove, R. F. & Kelly,
G. P. (Eds.). (1982). Comparative Education. New York: Macmillan.

Topic Goals of the
Primary School
7 Curriculum

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Provide an overview of the various factors that influence the design of

curriculum for basic education at the primary school level;
2. Discuss various factors that influence the development of curricular

goals of basic education; and
3. Compare and contrast curricular goals of basic education in a number

of countries.

INTRODUCTION

This topic will focus on curricular goals, as depicted in the primary school
curriculum in a number of countries. Hence, we deviate from the structure of
earlier topics where the focus was on a case study or a single country. We will
examine curricula in public schools, or basic compulsory education provided
in a number of places, and not private education. In the pages that follow, you will
read about how countries from different parts of the world organise and articulate
their curricula goals, exercise curricular control and formulate core parts of the
curriculum. In addition to this, we will compare the different ways in which
national systems of education treat curricular content, and how they define various
learning areas.

136 TOPIC 7 GOALS OF THE PRIMARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM

7.1 CURRICULAR GOALS 1

In almost all societies, the public school curriculum is driven by economic needs
as well as social issues such as cultural integration and national unity. You will
find that the goals of personal, national and social development are addressed
either implicitly across the curriculum or are explicitly included in religious,
moral or ethics education and/or in subjects such as health education.

For example, the Malaysian education philosophy stresses the need for its
citizens to be intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically balanced.
There is also a call for the people to believe in God, possess high moral standards
and contribute to the betterment of the family. For this reason, the Malaysian
public school curricula aim for intellectual development (e.g. thinking skills and
learning how to learn through mathematics, science, history, etc.) as well as
spiritual development (e.g. good behaviour through religious and moral
education). The former reflects an implicit approach to intellectual development
while the latter is an explicit way to achieve personal or spiritual development
goals.

Another aspect of curricular goals is relevance, that is, the curriculum must help
a people achieve life-goals which they see as relevant to their culture and
livelihood. Let us take the example of Maori medium education in New Zealand.
As most Maoris speak their own language, and practice their own cultural norms
and traditions, the New Zealand government could not offer them a curriculum
that was originally developed for the English speaking community. A translation
from English could not accommodate cultural differences between Maoris and
the European community in New Zealand. To circumvent this problem, a specific
curriculum was developed for Maori medium education to meet the specific
needs for Maori language groups or Iwi. The New Zealand Ministry of Education
considers this move to be significant to providing education that is relevant to
the needs of Maori society.

1 The information in this topic has been adapted from a study by J. Métais (2003), conducted for the
International Review of Curriculum and Assessment Frameworks (INCA) project carried out by
the National Foundation for Educational Research in England and Wales.

TOPIC 7 GOALS OF THE PRIMARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM 137

7.2 CURRICULAR CONTROL

The curriculum of a country is characterised by specific input, that is, curriculum
content, and output, that is, childrenÊs achievement. In most countries, education
planners aim to secure a minimum entitlement for all children, meaning that
there is basic or core content that all children have to be exposed to. Obviously,
this has other purposes, such as ensuring equity in all parts of the country,
adequate preparation for secondary school or for adult life and even to facilitate
continuity for those who change schools. For these reasons, the fundamental
curriculum framework, guidelines and outcomes are often centralised at national,
regional or local government level.

In some countries, schools and districts are given greater autonomy to modify the
curriculum as deemed necessary. For example, South Korea practices
decentralised curricular control. Schools are encouraged to modify the national
curriculum or to develop new subjects to meet the needs, circumstances and
interests of schoolchildren and the local community. This is done to enable
schools and local authorities to devise curricula which are more appropriate for
children and thus contribute to increased diversity of educational programmes.
Very often, there are minimum targets set for schools so that the core content is
covered by each school. However, all over the world, there is a trend toward
greater adaptation to suit the needs of people in smaller localities or specific
language groups.

As you will note from Table 7.1, most countries have given the responsibility of
curricular control to their respective Ministry of Education. However, in
countries such as Canada and Australia, provincial or state departments play a
major role in making decisions about the curriculum.

One looks back with appreciation to the brilliant
teachers, but with gratitude to those who touched our
human feelings. The curriculum is so much necessary
raw material, but warmth is the vital element for the
growing plant and for the soul of the child.

~ Carl G. Jung (1875 1961)

138 TOPIC 7 GOALS OF THE PRIMARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM

Table 7.1: Locus of Curricular Control

Country Agency

Malaysia Ministry of Education, on the advice of the Curriculum Development Centre

Canada Provincial Departments or Ministries of Education

England The Secretary of State for Education and Skills, acting on the advice of the
Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA)

France Ministry of Education, advised by the national curriculum council

Germany Ministers of Education and Culture and the Curriculum Development
Department of the Federal Institute for School and Adult Education

Hungary Ministry of Education through the Centre for Curriculum Development at
the National Institute of Public Education

Ireland The Minister for Education and Science, on the advice of the National
Council for Curriculum and Assessment

Japan Courses of Study are prepared by the Ministry (MEXT) and reviewed by the
Central Council for Education

Italy Ministry of Public Instruction (MPI)

Australia State/territory Ministers of Education advised by curriculum bodies e.g. the
Queensland Studies Authority (QSA), the Tasmanian Office of Education,
the Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority (VCAA), etc.

SELF-CHECK 7.1

1. What does the term „curricular goals‰ mean to you?

2. What do you understand by the following: implicit and explicit
treatment of curricular goals?

3. What do you think is the minimum entitlement in terms of
curriculum content in Malaysian primary schools?

4. Do you think Malaysia exercises centralised or decentralised
control of the curriculum for primary schools? Give a reason for
your answer.

5. Examine Table 7.1 closely. How is Malaysia similar to or different
from other countries in terms of locus of curricular control?

TOPIC 7 GOALS OF THE PRIMARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM 139

7.3 FORMULATION OF THE CURRICULUM

Generally, the curricula in primary schools aim to achieve two ideals:

(a) Equip learners with core essential skills which children need as the basis for
future learning, e.g. reading, writing, and mathematics; and

(b) Provide access to a broad and balanced curriculum, e.g. content areas (such
as history, science, etc.), art, music, physical and moral education.

In some countries, core essential skills such as literacy and numeracy are given
more attention in the primary school than are knowledge-oriented subjects. For
example, Ontario, Canada, puts a strong emphasis on reading, writing and
mathematics at the primary school-level. However, there is acknowledgement of
the importance of Canadian and world history, geography, civics and economics,
the arts, and health issues and physical education in providing well-rounded
education. In Singapore, children in Primary 5 and Primary 6 (aged 10 to
12 years) follow a slightly broader curriculum from that of Primary 1 to
Primary 4 (aged 6 to 10 years).

In France, the revised 2002 curriculum brought about an increased emphasis on
literacy. Teachers are now expected to ensure that basic literacy activities such as
reading, writing and speaking are included in all subject areas. For the pre-
primary (age 5 to 6) and lower primary (age 6 to 8) years, at least two-and-a-half
hours in a day are devoted to reading and writing across the curriculum. For
upper-primary (age 8 to 11) years, children are expected to spend two hours a
day on reading and writing skills. This concentration on literacy skills aims to
provide children with a good grounding in the core essential skills.

140 TOPIC 7 GOALS OF THE PRIMARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM

Another approach to curricula formulation is the provision of holistic learning
and the creation of learning areas rather than subjects. A case in point is
Hungary, where the curriculum has been restructured to include cross-curricular
work instead of subject-based learning.

In the Netherlands, the curriculum review of 1985 resulted in reduced content.
The curriculum now emphasises three learning areas:

(a) Communication
Dutch language, mathematics and English, emphasising a set of core
objectives and output standards;

(b) Content
Orientation of mankind, nature and the world (including geography,
history, technology and science), which are again guided by global core
objectives; and

(c) Personal Development
Art, music and physical education (PE). Greater autonomy is given to
schools for these areas, although a number of global objectives are
specified.

Another latter-day development is that most curricula are now formulated in
terms of learning outcomes or attainment targets. As shown in Table 7.2, this is a
common practice in Australia, Ontario in Canada, England and New Zealand.
(You may also recall that the Outcomes-based Curriculum of South Africa is
designed in this way.) Other countries such as Singapore, Japan and Korea
formulate curricula in line with the skills and objectives to be achieved for the
various subjects being taught.

TOPIC 7 GOALS OF THE PRIMARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM 141

Table 7.2: Curriculum Formulation and Requirements

Country How Curriculum Learning Specific Strategies
Singapore is Organised Outcomes
Programmes for literacy,
In subjects, with some Yes numeracy/mathematics
integration. Eight core skills (national) specifically target the early
and values primary years

Australia Eight Key Learning Areas Six Literacy and numeracy for the
Canada cross-curricular areas New whole primary phase
essential learning (Tasmania)
New Basics (Queensland) Ontario Programmes for literacy and
Yes numeracy/ mathematics
Subjects and some „clusters‰ education, which target the
early years of primary
England Three core and seven education
foundation subjects; key
France skills, cross-curricular themes Literacy and numeracy for the
and religious education whole primary phase
Japan
Korea Subjects and clusters. From Since 2002, emphasis on
New age 8- 11, some separate literacy across the curriculum
Zealand subjects. Integrated arts; and promotion of modern
science technology and foreign languages throughout
maths; humanities primary

Subjects, increase in range Yes Programmes for literacy,
from Year 3 (age 8+) numeracy/ mathematics
education specifically target
Integrated clusters in early early primary
years; subjects from Year 3

Seven essential learning areas
and eight groups of essential
skills

Note: Blank cells indicate a lack of specific information, not an absence of policy.

142 TOPIC 7 GOALS OF THE PRIMARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM

ACTIVITY 7.1

Consider the three learning areas of communication, content and
personal development.

1. Examine the Malaysian primary school curriculum and categorise
the various subjects offered under each of the three learning areas
above.

2. What portion of instructional time is devoted to each of these
learning areas?

3. Read the contents of Table 7.2. Then create a new row for Malaysia
and provide details (in relation to the Malaysian primary school
curriculum) for the following:

(a) how curriculum is organised;
(b) learning outcomes; and
(c) specific strategies used in the formulation of programmes for

different learning areas.

7.4 CURRICULA CONTENT

Primary school education in most countries aims to provide a foundation for
secondary schooling. The following list of learning areas is found in the primary
school curriculum of many countries around the world:

(a) Languages and literacy: mother tongue, national/ regional/ foreign
language;

(b) Mathematics, science and technology;
(c) Humanities, religious/ moral education and citizenship: social studies/

civics, history, geography;
(d) The arts: art, music; and
(e) Physical education: sports, personal/ social/ health education.

TOPIC 7 GOALS OF THE PRIMARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM 143

Although there are many commonalities in the content of the curriculum across
different countries, it is important to realise that there is also a great deal of
variation. The way the curriculum is organised and the weight given to each
learning area may be different between countries. In the sections that follow, we
take a more detailed look at each of these areas and examine how they are taught
in different places.

(a) Languages and Literacy
Language and literacy instruction is one of the most significant parts of a
curriculum. As a learning area, it is not only seen as a vehicle for learning
other areas and subjects, but is also viewed as a matter of social and
political importance. Often languages are assigned different roles, according
to their cultural and political significance. Thus, a language may be
classified as follows: a national language, a medium of instruction, mother
tongue or second/foreign language. Malaysia offers a unique example of
language and literacy education as several languages are taught at the
primary school level: Bahasa Malaysia, Chinese and Tamil, English and
Arabic.

Let us consider the Malaysian example:

(i) There are primary schools that use Bahasa Malaysia, Chinese and
Tamil language as a medium for instruction.

(ii) Bahasa Malaysia is classified both as a medium of instruction and as a
national language.

(iii) In schools where Bahasa Malaysia is a medium of instruction, English
is accorded the position of second language.

As you can see from the Malaysian scenario, a great deal depends on how a
country wishes to project itself, and how cultural and political expectations
weave into the provision of language and literacy education in public
schools.

144 TOPIC 7 GOALS OF THE PRIMARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM

ACTIVITY 7.2

Consider the following. In some Malaysian schools, three different
languages are taught: the national language, the mother tongue and
English.

1. How would you classify the role of English in Tamil-medium
schools or in Chinese-medium schools?

2. What about the role of Arabic in Malay-medium schools?

3. How many different writing scripts are involved in the Malaysian
education system?

Figure 7.1: Alphabets in different languages

TOPIC 7 GOALS OF THE PRIMARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM 145

Let us take now a closer look at language and literacy education with
respect to other countries around the world. A summary is shown in
Table 7.3.

(i) National language instruction. A national language may be included
in the school curriculum for the purpose of social cohesion and
inter-cultural integration. In Switzerland, children learn one of the
countryÊs four national languages i.e. French, German, Italian and
Rhaeto-Romanic [Romansch] although 64% of the Swiss speak
German. Almost all primary age children learn a second national
language for one to three years, and the introduction of a second
foreign language such as English is encouraged. All primary school
teachers have had language training and several schools are
piloting the teaching of some subjects (such as geography, history,
mathematics and sport) through the medium of a foreign language.
Specialists are developing curricula and textbooks for teaching
English at primary school which have, indirectly, influenced the
curriculum and language teaching methodology. There is limited
evaluation of the outcomes of foreign language teaching but the
teacherÊs competence in the foreign language appears to be a crucial
factor for success.

146 TOPIC 7 GOALS OF THE PRIMARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM

Language distribution in Switzerland
www.swissworld.org/eng/swissworld

German
German is by far the most widely spoken language in Switzerland: 64% of the
people speak German.

French
French is spoken in the western part of the country, the „Suisse Romande.‰ Four
cantons are French-speaking: Geneva, Jura, Neuchâtel and Vaud. Three cantons
are bilingual: in Bern, Fribourg and Valais both French and German are spoken.

Italian
Italian is spoken in Ticino and four southern valleys of Canton Graubünden.

Rhaeto-Rumantsch (Rumantsch)
Rumantsch is spoken only in the trilingual canton of Graubünden. The other two
languages spoken there are German and Italian. Rumantsch, like Italian and
French, is a language with Latin roots. It is spoken by just 0.5% of the total Swiss
population.

The many foreigners resident in Switzerland have brought with them their own
languages. The 2000 census showed that speakers of Serbian/Croatian were the
largest foreign language group, with 1.4% of the population. English was the
main language for 1%.

(ii) Medium of instruction. A regional or national language may be used
as a medium of instruction for some or all of the learning areas in the
curriculum. In Wales and Ireland, provision is made for part of the
curriculum to be taught through the medium of Welsh and Gaeilge
respectively. In other schools, children learn these languages but
receive most of their education through the medium of English. In
Singapore, the common language is English and children learn their
mother tongue (Mandarin Chinese, Malay or Tamil) as a second core
subject.

TOPIC 7 GOALS OF THE PRIMARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM 147

(iii) Regional language or minority language or mother tongue
instruction. Instruction in a third language may be included if it is
different from the national language or the medium of instruction.
In Hungary, Ireland, New Zealand, Singapore, Spain and Wales,
minority languages take on a more significant role. In Hungary,
for example, all 13 minorities have the right to education in their
mother tongue. Indeed, the language of instruction for language and
literature, history, geography and culture must be the mother tongue
but, at the same time, minority children must have the opportunity
to become acquainted with the Hungarian language and culture.
Similarly, children who do not belong to the given minority have the
opportunity of acquainting themselves with the culture of the local
minority.

In New Zealand the education system is bilingual throughout. Maori
language has to be provided to all children or parents who request
it. Demand may therefore mean that this subject is offered from
the beginning of primary education. There are Maori schools and
all curriculum statements are available in both English and Maori.
Additionally, in Singapore and Hungary, primary school children
generally receive moral, values and/or cultural education in the
mother tongue, as it is generally accepted that such subjects are most
appropriately taught and understood in the mother tongue.

(iv) Foreign language. A foreign language may be included to enhance
the peopleÊs ability to connect with people in other places/regions.
In Italy, a foreign language is usually offered from Year 2 or 3 (from
age 7 or 8) while in Korea, recent changes to the compulsory
curriculum have led to the ruling that a foreign language is
compulsory from the start of Year 3 (nine-year-olds). In the
Netherlands, English is a compulsory subject at primary level, at least
in the final two years (age 10 12).

In New Zealand, a language other than English or Maori is
increasingly offered to children aged 10 onwards, although this is
not mandatory. The recent Curriculum Stocktake (formal reflection on
the revised curriculum) has highlighted the need to balance two
competing forces, namely, the desire for a New Zealand which
includes people with understanding of languages other than
their own, and the tendency within (what schools perceive as)
an overcrowded and unattainable curriculum, to push aside non-
compulsory foreign and international languages.

148 TOPIC 7 GOALS OF THE PRIMARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM

Table 7.3: Teaching of Languages and Literacy in various countries

Country National Language(s) Other Languages Offered
Australia and/or Mother Tongue
Canada English Languages other than English
England (LOTE), not necessarily from Year 1
France English (French in some provinces)
English (literacy) Not compulsory at primary level, but
Germany encouraged from key stage 2 (age 8)
Hungary French (includes literature from age 8) Foreign languages (formerly
Ireland Regional language in some areas compulsory for age 10 and 11 only;
Italy from 2002, compulsory throughout
Japan German primary)
Korea Modern foreign language from
Malaysia Hungarian or mother tongue (up to 13 Year 3
Netherlands recognised) language and literature Modern foreign language
New Language (Irish (Gaeilge)/English)
Zealand Italian Modern foreign language from
Singapore Year 2/3
Spain Japanese language and literature
Korean language English from Year 3
Sweden National language (Malay) English (as a second language)
Mother tongue (Chinese/Tamil)
Switzerland Dutch (compulsory Frisian in English from later years at least
USA Friesland)
Languages (English, Maori) Optional foreign languages (separate
Wales curriculum guidelines)
English and mother tongue (Mandarin
Chinese, Malay or Tamil) Foreign languages from Year 3.
Castilian (and regional) language and Proposals to be compulsory from
literature age 6.
English; a second foreign language
Swedish/Swedish as a foreign (schools decide when to introduce
language for pupils from the Sami this)
population French/German/Italian/English
French/German/Italian/Rhaeto-
Romanic Proposed foreign languages for 7 to
Language arts (English grammar, 11 year-olds will be introduced from
reading and writing) 2003
Social sciences also includes literature
English/Welsh (as a first or second
language)

TOPIC 7 GOALS OF THE PRIMARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM 149

(b) Mathematics, Science and Technology
All primary level curricula feature mathematics or numeracy as a separate
subject, except in France, where it is taught as part of science in upper
primary (from age eight). Numeracy has received special attention in many
countries, particularly after the publication of the findings of the Third
International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS). At primary level, the
study of science usually incorporates aspects of biology, physics, chemistry
and sometimes astronomy and geology. The place of technology in the
curriculum varies. In some countries, it is integrated with science as the
application of science; in others, it embraces craft and domestic science; in
yet others, it includes information and communications. Only in England
and Wales is design explicitly included. Refer to Table 7.4 for details on
country-related instruction in this area.

Table 7.4: Teaching of Mathematics, Science and Technology

Country Sciences Technology ICT

Australia Science Technology Integrated/Included in
most curricula

Canada General General A separate subject in some
science/technology science/technology provinces

France „Discovering the world:‰ „Discovering the world‰ ICT is intended to be used
includes sciences. From includes technology. as a tool in the teaching and
age eight Integrated From age eight learning of all subjects
science (Science, Integrated science
technology and
mathematics)

Hungary Man and nature (natural Life management and Informatics (computing
studies, physics, practical studies studies and library use)
chemistry, biology, (technology, home
health studies). Our earth economics, career
and environment orientation)

Japan Science (from Year 3) Home economics and Included in Home
general studies Economics and in Integrated
Studies

Korea Years 1 to 2 Intelligent life Practical arts (technology In 2001, computer education

Years 3 to 6 Science and home economics) became compulsory

Netherlands „Orientation on mankind „Orientation on mankind Computers are increasingly
and the world‰ includes and the world‰ includes used, but schools determine
environment and nature technology how
study

Singapore Science from Year 3 Information literacy skills
included

150 TOPIC 7 GOALS OF THE PRIMARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM

(c) Humanities
The most common subjects that fall under humanities are history and
geography, literature, moral or religious education, civics, social studies
and health education. As shown in Table 7.5, most countries include social
studies as a core part of the curriculum. Let us examine in greater detail
how different countries treat the study of religious education and
citizenship education.

(i) Religious education. Countries which proscribe religious education
may consider values and issues in moral education or ethics
classes (Japan and Korea), or across the curriculum (France and
New Zealand). In Singapore, character education (values education)
aims to ensure the holistic education of the child with an emphasis on
strengthening the instincts for the community and the nation. One
approach has been direct instruction through relevant subjects
and programmes, such as the „National Education‰ programme or
through social studies and civic and moral education (CME). A
second approach cuts across the curriculum. For example, primary
school children develop a concern for living things, and an awareness
of their responsibility for the quality of the environment (through
science), endurance, sportsmanship and fair play (through physical
education, sports and games), and appreciation for local and ethnic
art and music and a sense of pride in their national and cultural
heritage (through the arts).

However, in the USA, New Zealand and most regions of France, state
schools are secular and religious education is prohibited. Similarly, in
Japan and Korea, only private schools (which otherwise generally
follow the compulsory curriculum for publicly-funded schools), may
offer religious education. In New Zealand, religious denominations
who run their own formerly private schools, have integrated into the
state sector so-called „integrated schools‰, while state-subsidised
Roman Catholic schools in Australia are permitted to provide
religious instruction.

In England, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Spain and Wales, religious
education is a statutory element of the school curriculum. Although
schools must provide religious education, individual children (or their
parents) may seek exemption, in which case children undertake an
alternative programme or private study. The Italian Government has
recently approved financial support for private (Catholic) schools, and

TOPIC 7 GOALS OF THE PRIMARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM 151

the Minister is stressing Roman Catholic religious values, for example,
by requiring state schools to display the crucifix and to celebrate
Roman Catholic feast days.

(ii) Citizenship education. Civics education has been a long-established
part of the humanities or social studies curricula in many countries,
such as Canada, France and the Netherlands. However, there has
been a renewed interest in this area, which has led to the recent
introduction of specific (or revised) citizenship courses in Australia,
England, Ireland, Singapore and Wales.

In Australia, the Commonwealth Government initiative,
„Discovering Democracy‰, made the study of citizenship
compulsory for all children from the mid-primary to upper
secondary years (age 9 to 18). Since 1999, children have begun to
learn about democracy and citizenship and are examined each
year to test their knowledge of the history and workings of
government and the nationÊs democratic foundations. They study
topics such as the history of the Australian constitution, the role of
parliament, cabinet and the courts, freedom of speech, religion, the
role and responsibility of the governor general and the history of
indigenous Australians.

England has recently introduced a broad programme of
citizenship and personal, social and health education to primary
schools. A non-statutory national framework has been provided
which sets out what children might be expected to know and be
able to do, but leaves details of content and delivery to schools.
The aim is for seven-year-olds to know the difference between
right and wrong; consider simple social and moral dilemmas;
learn to share and cooperate; be able to recognise their likes,
dislikes and justify their opinions; name and manage their
feelings; and understand that bullying is wrong. By 11 years
of age, children should study current affairs, basic law and
democracy and discuss topical issues, as well as understand
puberty and the consequences of racism and bullying.

152 TOPIC 7 GOALS OF THE PRIMARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM

In Singapore, the character development programme (see also
Religious education above, and Personal, social and health
education and well-being below) was introduced in 2001 as a
reaction to the fact that technological advancements had brought a
knowledge explosion and easy access to good and bad ideas
and influences. In addition, globalisation had led to families
relocating and breaking away from their roots. The programme
aims to guide schools in providing a balanced programme for
each child in three domains: leadership, citizenship, and personal
and social development. Under the citizenship domain, activities
are organised to help children acquire values such as loyalty and
commitment to the nation.

SELF-CHECK 7.2

Examine closely the information in Tables 7.3, 7.4 and 7.5.

1. How do the various countries compare in terms of languages and
literacy, mathematics, science and technology and humanities,
religious and moral education and citizenship are taught?

2. How would you describe teaching of these three learning areas as

practised in Malaysian primary schools?

Table 7.5: Teaching of Humanities, Religious and Moral Education and Citizenship in
various countries

Country Humanities Religious and Moral Citizenship
Australia Education, Ethics
Canada Studies of society and the „Discovering Democracy‰
environment (SOSE) for primary, since 1999
England
France Social studies includes Social studies may include
history, geography civics. Citizenship
education is part of the
History and geography Religious education core curriculum
(RE) (parents may
request exemption) Non-statutory citizenship
guidelines
Discovering the world RE forbidden except
(sciences technology and in Upper Rhine, „Living together‰ (civics)
history-geography) From Lower Rhine and From age 8: civics
age 8: integrated history and Moselle
geography; civics

TOPIC 7 GOALS OF THE PRIMARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM 153

Germany Sachunterricht (economics, Religious education Sachunterricht includes
social studies, history, social studies
geography, science and
technology)

Hungary Man and society includes Man and society includes
social studies, economics, civics
human studies, history
Included in SESE
Ireland Social, environmental and Religious education
scientific education (SESE) Included in social studies
Catholic religion
Italy History, geography and (Optional) Included in social studies
social studies Moral education „We are the first graders‰
Moral education induction programme
Japan Social studies „Orientation on mankind
Civics and moral and the world‰
Korea Social studies (includes education (taught in
history and geography) mother tongue) Included in social sciences

Netherlands „Orientation on mankind Catholic religion Civics and moral
and the world‰ includes (Optional. Children education From 2001,
geography, history may do private citizenship is part of the
study) character development
New Social sciences Social sciences programme
Zealand includes religious Included in knowledge of
studies the natural, social and
Singapore Social studies cultural environment

Spain Knowledge of the natural, Social sciences includes
Sweden social and cultural civics
environment

Social sciences includes
geography, history

USA Social sciences includes Social sciences Social sciences includes
history, geography, includes ethics and multiculturalism and
literature values, religion contemporary issues

Wales History and geography RE (parents may Non-statutory citizenship
request exemption) guidelines

154 TOPIC 7 GOALS OF THE PRIMARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM

(d) Arts Education
Countries all over the world have varied ways of including activities under
the learning area called „the arts‰. In Canada, France, Hungary, Ireland
and Spain, art(s) education includes at least the disciplines of visual
arts (drawing, painting, crafts, etc), music and the study of drama; and
sometimes includes dance and occasionally media studies. For example, in
Singapore and Sweden, crafts are linked to the arts, but in other places they
may be classed as technology. Conversely, drama may be included in
language or language arts courses, while dance may be taught as part of
physical education. Where there is pressure to focus on particular areas, for
example, literacy and numeracy, the time dedicated to the arts tends to
decrease.

(e) Physical Education and Sports
Physical education is part of the curriculum in all countries and may be
combined with health education. Spain is one country where physical
education is an examination subject at the secondary level. England has
recently introduced a broad programme of citizenship and personal, social
and health education (PSHE) to primary schools. In Ireland, social, personal
and health education (SPHE) was introduced as a statutory new curriculum
area with the 1999 primary school curriculum, and in Wales, a programme
of personal and social education (PSE) has recently been introduced and
has recently become compulsory. In Japan, health and personal welfare are
taught as part of several subjects. For example, health is an important
element of physical education, family life is taught in home economics and
moral character and social relationships are taught in moral education. A
more detailed perspective on education for personal, social and physical
well-being in various countries is presented in Table 7.6.

TOPIC 7 GOALS OF THE PRIMARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM 155

(f) Cross-curricular Areas
In addition to core learning areas, education constantly needs to pay
attention to new topics or areas of social concern, such as international
understanding, education for the world of work, computer or information
technology, health education and environmental studies. As a result, the
curriculum in many countries complements the compulsory (and optional)
subject areas with cross-curricular studies. Although these areas are known
by different names, skills derived from this area are considered important
as foundations for learning.

Table 7.6: Teaching of the Arts and Physical Education in various countries

Country The Arts Physical Education Health and Personal
Australia Welfare
The arts (includes dance, Health and physical
Canada drama, graphic education (HPE) Combined as health
communication, media, and physical
music and visual arts) education (HPE)

The arts Physical education Social studies may
include personal and
England Art and design; music Physical education social education

Physical education Non-statutory
and sports personal, social and
health education
(PSHE) guidelines

France Art (including music). Sport
From age 8: Artistic
Germany education (music and art) Physical education
Hungary and sport
Art and music

Arts (singing and music,
dance and drama, visual
arts, motion picture and
media studies)

156 TOPIC 7 GOALS OF THE PRIMARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM

Ireland Arts education Physical education Social, personal and
health education
Italy Art education and music Physical education (SPHE)
Japan education Physical education
Included in PE, home
Music and art economics, and moral
education
Korea Years 1 to 2 „pleasant life‰ Fine arts includes
Netherlands Music and fine arts physical education „Orientation on
mankind and the
Art orientation (drawing, art Art orientation world‰ includes
and crafts, music, drama/ includes movement promotion of self-
promoting and developing reliance and healthy
the use of language, behaviour
movement)
Health and physical
New Zealand The arts Health and physical well-being
well-being Health education
Singapore Art and crafts Physical education
Spain Physical education „Practical arts
Artistic education; subjects‰ includes
Sweden Knowledge of the natural, „Practical arts health education
social and cultural subjects‰ includes Discretionary
Switzerland environment physical education Health
USA Discretionary Personal and social
Wales „Practical arts subjects‰: Physical education education (PSE)
music, crafts (textiles, Physical education guidelines (statutory
woodwork and metalwork) from September 2003)

Discretionary

Art and music

Art and music

TOPIC 7 GOALS OF THE PRIMARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM 157

ACTIVITY 7.3

Read the following statements on the integrated approach to the
Malaysian primary school curriculum. What are the implications of an
integrated curriculum at the school level? How does it affect teaching
and learning activities on a daily basis?

The elements of knowledge, skills and values are incorporated to bring
about the integrated development of the intellectual, spiritual, emotional
and physical aspects of the individual. The concept of integration is
manifested as follows:

(a) Integration of skills in a subject. For example, in language
teaching, the four skills are speaking (oral skill), listening (aural
skills), reading and writing. Two or more of these skills can be
integrated in a lesson.

(b) Integration of skills across a number of subjects. Drawing, for
example, is one of the activities that can be adopted on Mathematics.

(c) Assimilation of various content in subjects. Elements of science, for
example, are assimilated in the teaching of language.

(d) Integration of values in subjects. Cleanliness and safety, for
example, are given emphasis during practical session.

(e) Elements taught across the curriculum include language. The
environment, science and technology, patriotism, thinking skills
and study skills.

(f) Integration of the curriculum and co-curriculum. Here, co-
curricular activities are reinforced in the formal classroom learning
situation.

(g) Integration of knowledge and practice. For instance, knowledge
acquired can be put into practice outside the formal classroom
situation.

(h) Integration of past experiences and the newly acquired experience
of pupils.

(http://www.ppk.kpm.my/cdc3a.htm)

158 TOPIC 7 GOALS OF THE PRIMARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM

Ofe Motiki
Francistown, Botswana

Mphemelang Ketlhoilwe, a lecturer at the University of Botswana, says that
environmental education is important nationally and globally.

He said as the world is facing environmental problems like pollution,
deforestation, rapid population growth and poverty, something ought to be
done.

Kethoilwe said the Environmental Heritage Foundation (EHF) of Botswana in
Francistown hosts the workshop on the development of resource materials for
teachers and students. The aim of the workshop is to produce a guidebook for
students and teachers about environmental issues and how to bring awareness
to students about the importance of the environment they live in.

(allafrica.com/stories/)

All countries (except Scotland) have a statutory curriculum, prescribed by
national or sub-national authorities.

In countries with a tradition of centrally determined curricula, there is a
strong trend towards increasing local flexibility within prescribed time
allocations.

There is a tendency towards increasing review of curricula to reflect changing
needs, and most countries have undertaken major reforms of the primary
curriculum within the past 15 years. This has been accompanied by a trend
towards the creation of specialist curriculum (or curriculum and assessment)
agencies, separate from Ministries.

In most countries, there are greater expectations in terms of skills and
dispositions, which are perceived as relevant to lifelong learning, employment
and social participation.

Curricula designed during the past fifteen years increasingly stress the role of
transferable skills and, in some cases, reduce prescribed content.

There is a trend towards formulating curricula in terms of learning outcomes.

TOPIC 7 GOALS OF THE PRIMARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM 159

Language learning has traditionally been strong and many have two or more
official languages. A foreign language is often a compulsory part of the
primary curriculum (especially for older pupils).

There is an increasing trend towards offering one or more foreign languages,
and/or extending provision for younger pupils.

Citizenship is part of the curriculum in many countries, either as a separate
subject, or within the humanities.

There is also a tendency to increase the emphasis on personal, social and
health education.

Bilingual
Citizenship
Civic and Moral Education (CME)
Explicity
Foreign language
Holistic learning
Implicity
Integrated approach
Learning areas
Medium of instruction
Mother tongue
National language
Personal and Social Education (PSE)
Personal, Social and Health Education (PSHE)
Social, Personal and Health Education (SPHE)
Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS)

160 TOPIC 7 GOALS OF THE PRIMARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM

Métais, J. (2003) for the International Review of Curriculum and Assessment
Frameworks (INCA) project carried out by the National Foundation for
Educational Research in England and Wales on behalf of the Qualifications
and Curriculum Authority.

APPENDICES

2 APPENDIXES

APPENDIX 1 (TOPIC 3)

164 APPENDICES

APPENDICES 165

166 APPENDICES

APPENDICES 167

168 APPENDICES

APPENDICES 169

APPENDIX 2 (TOPIC 4)

170 APPENDICES

APPENDICES 171

172 APPENDICES

APPENDICES 173

174 APPENDICES

APPENDICES 175

176 APPENDICES

APPENDICES 177

APPENDIX 3 (TOPIC 6)