HMEF5033 Comparative Education

28 TOPIC 2 THE PURPOSE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

In conclusion, we can say that the many purposes of comparative education
serve national and international interests, and help us plan, reform, improve,
innovate and envision educational ideals. For the purpose of discussion, we
examine in the following sections of this topic, three key goals of comparative
education in detail. They are:

(a) Planning;

(b) Improvement and innovation; and

(c) Education for international understanding.

2.3 PLANNING

Key Strategy to Development
One main purpose of comparative education is to help nations with educational
planning. This is one of the most important aspects of a countryÊs development
activities. It is the means by which a country formulates educational policies,
determines objectives and identifies strategies that will help to meet its human
resource needs. Educational planning is thus directly linked to economic
development and social reform in a country. It is often said that appropriate and
adequate educational planning helps the people of a country deal with problems
related to diseases, over-population, economic decline and under-development.
In turn, proper planning helps build community relations and improves the
social well-being of a people.

Comparative education also plays an important role in determining how one
country can learn from planning activities in another country, especially in the
case of disadvantaged economies. For example, while some countries are
still operating on an agricultural economy characterised by low amounts
of mechanisation, others have moved toward industrialisation and global
marketing. Yet, there are countries that are crafting a national economic agenda
that will help them become more industrialised and more competitive globally. It
follows that if a nation wants to progress toward a higher state of development,
or if it wishes to become more industrialised, the education it provides for its
people must equip them with appropriate or relevant skills and knowledge.

In order to move from one level to another, therefore, educationists, economists,
social scientists and administrators often examine educational issues, problems
and solutions from different countries before they plan and formulate
educational policies and goals for their own country. Nations and governments
often establish what is known as benchmarks, or what they would like to see as

TOPIC 2 THE PURPOSE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION 29

an ideal scenario with regards to their own curricular goals. Thus, they make
plans plans that will help them achieve their ideals. Educational planning is
often accompanied by decisions on educational policies, which, in turn, represent
how a government views its role in providing education for its people.

Planning to Advance Knowledge
Take the case of Central Asia (Figure 2.2), which today houses countries such as
Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. Most of the
people in this region work on farms where agricultural practice relies largely on
age-old skills and practices (see http://www.ucentralasia.org/). Even though
petroleum has been discovered in this region, this is true of large sections of the
population.

Today, various aid agencies have responded to the need for educational planning
and reform in Central Asia so that the citizens will become more knowledgeable
about their economic and agricultural practices. As part of this effort, the
University of Central Asia (UCA) was established in the year 2000. The university
curriculum encompasses economics, humanities, education, management and
engineering. The people responsible for the setting up of UCA realised that
proper educational planning is an important aspect of progress; rather than
just teach people how to become better at farming, they have to become
agriculturalists and economists, among other things. If not for proper educational
planning, the people in Central Asia would be denied of skills and knowledge
that could improve their livelihood.

UCA will help mountain people
adapt to the emerging reality of open
societies and market economies, in
which individuals and groups are free
to initiate activities and enterprises
outside the government, as well as
within it. This places a premium on
understanding economics, finance
and an array of associated practical
skills, including accounting and basic
management.

Figure 2.2: Central Asia
Source: http://www.ucentralasia.org

30 TOPIC 2 THE PURPOSE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

Planning in Plural Societies
Let us consider another aspect of educational planning with respect to
multicultural societies, or what some educators call plural societies. Such
societies are usually characterised by the presence of a number of language
groups, modern-urban and traditional-rural interests, emerging modern
economic classes and religiously dominant groups. In this environment,
„education is increasingly expected to function as the single most influential
force for ameliorating social conflict and facilitating orderly, directed social
change‰ (Bock, 1982:79).

As education plays a central purpose in nation building, careful and prudent
educational planning is called for. This applies to countries with diverse
populations such as Malaysia, Singapore, India and the United States. As
exemplified in Bock (1982), education planning in countries like Malaysia takes
into account the many „historical and cultural forces operating internally, and in
terms of the external conditions of the world system of nations to which the new
nation must adjust‰ (Bock, 1982:80). He quotes Khir Johari, a former Malaysian
Minister of Education:

Our entire educational policy is dictated by the need to mould a single
united nation out of a plural society. Our task is a tremendous one.
Common ideal[s], common ambitions, and common loyalties must be
fostered and not enforced⁄‰ (Speech delivered in Penang Free School
on 17 October 1967, cited in Bock, 1982:80).

This position provides the impetus for planning a school system that is
responsive to the needs of a multicultural and multilingual Malaysian society.
Although the unifying language and the core language taught in all Malaysian
schools is Bahasa Malaysia, many Malaysians to this day have a choice of
attending Chinese-medium, Tamil-medium or Malay-medium schools. In latter
times, educational planning in Malaysia has been responsive to global demands
for scientific and technological knowledge. As Bock puts it, Malaysia belongs to
the world system of nations and must adjust to the global call for labour that
is multiskilled and competent in at least one international language. Thus,
the government has planned and implemented a policy to provide bilingual
education in Malaysian schools: mathematics and science are now taught in
English, while other subjects like history, geography, moral studies and life skills
are taught in Bahasa Malaysia. Thus, educational planning takes into account
both internal factors such as multiculturalism, and external factors such as
globalisation.

TOPIC 2 THE PURPOSE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION 31

ACTIVITY 2.4

What is meant by the following statement?

Planning does not have at all the same meaning in every context;
which concept of planning is appropriate in a given setting depends
very much on the nature of that setting, an observation which has
profound implications for training in educational planning (Weiler,
1982).

2.4 IMPROVEMENT AND INNOVATION

How and Where
Another important purpose of comparative studies of education is to provide a
mechanism for implementing measures that will improve the social and
economic status of a people. Often, this is done by examining how other nations
apply innovative and modern thoughts and ideas in their schools or through the
curricula. According to Freeman and Capper (1999), innovation in education
refers to the maintenance and improvement in the quality of student learning in
an environment of massive change in the teaching and learning context. Freeman
and Capper (1999) outline six broad areas where innovation may be applied, as
follows:

(a) The learning context;

(b) The curriculum to accommodate learnersÊ previous knowledge and
experiences and set them on a course of improved understandings;

(c) Learning activities that achieve learning outcomes;

(d) Assessment that is integrated with desired learning outcomes;

(e) Achievement that is tracked at a formative and summative level; and
(f) Our roles as teachers, from expert content providers to people who can

create and support learning communities, both with our students and
among our peers.

32 TOPIC 2 THE PURPOSE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

You can see from Freeman and CapperÊs list that innovation through
improvement applies to many areas of schooling. However, it is not always
the case that schools are innovatively designed, or that a country can plan
its education and successfully implement education policies that lead to the
improved status of its people. A countryÊs education system evolves over time,
and improvement and innovation are often brought about through comparisons
concerning the educational provisions of different countries. This can be
illustrated with a few examples, as follows:

Pre-innovation
For many years in the past, education in various countries was focussed on
traditional forms of delivery and interaction. Schooling was seen in the form
of fixed curricula, with textbooks and teachers guiding all teaching-learning
activity. Students could only attend school in specific locations while teaching-
learning methodology, classroom interaction, delivery of materials and the
conduct of examinations relied on strict forms of control. For example, at one
time Malaysia followed a strict system of awarding promotions to secondary
school children. In 1966 in Malaysia, if you failed your Form Three examination
the Lower Certificate of Education or LCE (now called PMR) it would have
been be difficult for you to continue your education in a government-aided or
public school. To repeat the yearÊs learning, you would have had to look for a
private school that offered tuition for LCE and register for the examination as an
independent candidate.

In the past, education in Malaysia was also not completely free in terms of cost;
until the late 1970s, students in many Malaysian secondary schools paid a
monthly fee of RM15 to RM18 to attend school. Of course, with more resources
being devoted to education today, these barriers have been removed and there is
now greater opportunity for Malaysians to participate in formal education. Now
Malaysians from urban and rural areas enjoy free schooling in public schools.
Like many other countries, we also exercise automatic promotion from the
beginning years till the school leaving certificate has been taken.

TOPIC 2 THE PURPOSE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION 33

Implementing Innovative Ideas
Today, most countries have also introduced some form of educational innovation
for the improvement of teaching and learning (see Figure 2.3 for an innovation
model). One example is the use of information and computer technology (ICT) in
education. When the Malaysian education system shifted to English as a medium
of instruction for mathematics and science in 2002, computers were given to
many teachers to be better able to teach science. Another example is the use of
multimodal forms of input for teaching, such as those used in distance education.

Figure 2.3: Freeman & CapperÊs (1999) Educational Innovation Model

34 TOPIC 2 THE PURPOSE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

Examinations have also evolved into open-book tests, electronically-administered
tests, submissions of video-taped footage and tele-conferencing. For example,
twenty years ago, the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) was a
pencil-and-paper test. All candidates had to go to an examination centre and
respond to questions supplied to them on paper.

Today, in many parts of the world TOEFL is taken electronically, that is, you
may have to go to a computer laboratory to take the test. You would be expected
to have sufficient keyboarding skills and would have to know how to scroll up
and down the screen with a mouse. Such electronic tests are an example of an
innovation in education, making it possible for the TOEFL administrators (ETS)
to use ICT to deliver different versions of the test to hundreds of people in many
parts of the world within a short span of time.

The Need to Compare
All of these innovations lead to the understanding that countries experience
progress in education in the same way that there is progress in the economy and
in living conditions. Much of the improvement and innovation is brought about
by many years or even decades of knowledge building and experimentation.
However, it is the comparison of systems across borders that allows for
understandings to be derived, and for one education system to learn from
anotherÊs innovations, experiments, trials and mistakes. If a nation were to stick
to its own singular ways of doing things, its methods will soon become outdated,
and eventually retard progress. Comparative education is therefore a crucial part
of the process of keeping abreast of international developments in innovative
forms of teaching and learning so that nations can achieve greater success in their
efforts to provide education for their people.

TOPIC 2 THE PURPOSE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION 35

ACTIVITY 2.5

Many of us who live in towns and cities use the computer on a daily
basis. We use it to write letters, to communicate with friends and
workmates and sometimes to pay bills.

How would computer education affect the Semelai from Central
Pahang or the Kelabit from Sarawak in Malaysia? How will they
benefit from the use of computers? Can computer education lead to
better livelihood, improved literacy rates or more effective agricultural
practice? Give reasons for your answer.

Semelai children from the Bera Using the computer under the
district in Central Pahang e-bario project in Sarawak

Source: wildasia.net/main/photo.cfm Source: rogharris.org/atwork.htm

Tasik Bera Sarawak
Source: members.fortunecity.com/ Source: www.moeswk.gov.my/

tasik/location kaska/sarawak

36 TOPIC 2 THE PURPOSE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

2.5 INTERNATIONAL UNDERSTANDING

UNESCO Recommendations
A third purpose of comparative education is to promote international
understanding, which refers primarily to amicable cross-border relations through
the exchange of ideas, information, points of view and knowledge among
educationists from different countries. The roots of this dimension of
comparative education are in the Recommendations for Education for
International Understanding, Co-operation and Peace and Education relating
to Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms drawn by UNESCO in 1974
(see http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/77.htm). According to these
recommendations:

(a) „education‰ implies the entire process of social life by means of which
individuals and social groups learn to develop consciously within, and for
the benefit of, the national and international communities, the whole of
their personal capacities, attitudes, aptitudes and knowledge; and

(b) „international understanding,‰ „co-operation‰ and „peace‰ are to be
considered as an indivisible whole based on the principle of friendly
relations between peoples and States having different social and political
systems and on the respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. In
the text of this recommendation, the different connotations of these terms
are sometimes gathered together in a concise expression, „international
education.‰

A guiding principle for these recommendations is:

Education shall be directed to the full development of the human
personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and
fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance and
friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further
the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace.

Interdependence among Nations
The above declaration by UNESCO draws attention to the increasingly
interdependent nature of relationships among nations of our world, and to the
ways in which education can bring about greater cooperation and understanding.
TodayÊs teachers and educators cannot remain isolated within the confines of
their own countries; rather, it is incumbent upon every individual in the field to
be aware of the multicultural, multiracial and multinational nature of our diverse
world.

TOPIC 2 THE PURPOSE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION 37

Teachers and administrators need to have „a sound awareness of other nations
their social milieus, cultures, customs, political and economic processes, education
systems, and so on‰ (Mazurek, Winzer & Majorek, 2000:1). For these reasons, and
using the words of the UNESCO declaration cited earlier, this field aims to
draw comparisons for the benefit of national and international communities by
exercising the principle of friendly relations so that, as we consider our different
social and political systems, we are able to promote understanding, tolerance and
friendship.

The declaration may sound platitudinous, but educationists around the world
have realised the importance of comparative studies to inform teacher education,
educational policy and ways to provide cross-border education. There is a
growing number of initiatives that provide an international dimension to
education and have given vitality to the field.

For example, the Comparative Education Research Centre of the University of
Hong Kong was established in 1994 to encourage participation in and initiate a
wide range of research projects with comparative perspectives. Further away, the
Centre for International Understanding at the University of North Carolina offers
courses in cross-cultural studies and short-term immersion programmes in other
countries. Meanwhile, the Centre for Comparative and International Studies
founded by the University of Zurich and ETH brings together scholars from the
disciplines of political science, history and economics to promote interdisciplinary
cooperation among scholars and experts from across Europe and beyond. No less
important is the work on International Comparative Education at the Stanford
University School of Education, or the work of scholars at the Institute of
Education in London1.

As a medium for international understanding, comparative education has
advanced to include several international agencies. Some of these are the
UNESCO Institute for Education in Germany, the International Bureau of
Education in Switzerland and the International Institute of Educational Planning
in France. A significant development in the field is the growth of an institutional
and intellectual community that supports its growth and provides considerable
knowledge for the promotion of international understanding.

1 For more information on these centres, refer to the following sites: http://www.hku.hk/cerc/;
http://ciu.northcarolina.edu; & http://www.cis.ethz.ch/; http://www.stanford.edu;
http://ioe.ac.uk.

38 TOPIC 2 THE PURPOSE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

ACTIVITY 2.6

Find out more about the following initiatives:
(a) Education for All (EFA)
(b) Millennium Development Goals (MDG)

1. Name some of the countries targeted by these initiatives.

2. How do these initiatives help these nations improve their economic
and social status?

3. How do these initiatives help promote international understanding?

Comparative education serves many purposes, and scholars are generally in
agreement on the general goals of the field.

When comparisons are made, consideration is given to the many internal and
external factors governing education.

One of the aims of comparative education is to determine the basic principles
underlying different national systems of education, or to understand the
different ways in which educational practice is realised.

The field also seeks to explain how different groups of people are affected by
education policies.

Another aim of comparative education is to understand the ways in which
countries expand, upgrade and reform education.

Comparative studies in education also seek to examine the influence of
culture on education.

Educational planning is a key purpose of comparative education. It is one of
the most important aspects of a countryÊs development activities. It is the
means by which a country formulates educational policies, determines
objectives and identifies strategies that will help meet the human resource
needs in a country.

TOPIC 2 THE PURPOSE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION 39

The improvement of the status of a people and the application of innovative
and modern ideas in schools or through curricula are important goals of
comparative education. This also helps sustain improvement in the quality of
student learning in an environment of rapid change.

Another important aim of comparative education is international
understanding, which refers to amicable relations among nations. This is
often carried out through the exchange of ideas, information, points of view
and knowledge among educationists from different countries.

Comprehensive analysis Macro-level impact

Educationists Pre-innovation

Information and Computer Technology Teaching of English as a Foreign

(ICT) Language (TOEFL)

UNESCO

Bock, J. C. (1982). Education and development: A conflict of meaning. In
Altbach, P. G., Arnove, R. F., & Kelly, G. P. (Eds.) (1982). Comparative
education. New York: Macmillan.

Bruner, J. (1996). The culture of education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press.

Crossley, M., & Watson, K. (2003). Comparative and international research in
education. London: Routledge Falmer.

Freeman, M. A., & Capper, J. M. (1999). Educational innovation: Hype, heresies
and hopes. ALN Magazine, Vol. 3, Issue 2 December 1999. Available:
www.sloan-c.org/.../magazine/v3n2/freeman.asp

Kidd, R. (1915 1982) cited in Knoll, J. H. Development and fundamental
principles of international and comparative adult education research.
Available: http://www.iiz-dvv.de/englisch/Publikationen.

40 TOPIC 2 THE PURPOSE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

Mazurek, K., Winzer, M. A., & Majorek, C. (Eds). (2000). Education in a global
society: A comparative perspective. Needham Heights: Allyn & Bacon.

Phillips, D. (1999). On Comparing. In R. Alexander, P. Broadfoot and
D. Phillips (Eds). Learning from comparing: New directions in comparative
educational research, context, classrooms and outcomes, vol. 1. Oxford:
Symposium Books. Cited in Crossley, M., & Watson, K. (2003). Comparative
and international research in education. London: RoutledgeFalmer.

Sodhi, T. S. (1998). Textbook of comparative education (6th ed.). New Delhi:
Vikas Publishing House.

Weiler, H. N. (1982). Educational planning and social change: A critical review
of concepts and practices. In Altbach, P. G., Arnove, R. F., & Kelly, G. P.
(Eds.) (1982). Comparative education. New York: Macmillan.

Topic The Scope
of Comparative
3 Education

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

1. Define key terms related to education;

2. Relate key terms in education to underlying historical, economic and
socio-cultural factors;

3. Gain an international perspective of the development of an education
system; and

4. Evaluate the educational philosophy, policy, planning, structure,
goals and objectives of one or more countries.

INTRODUCTION

In this topic we will examine how key features of education such as educational
philosophy, policy, planning, structure, goals and objectives may be defined, and
how they are articulated or represented within the context of an educational
system. Using examples from a number of countries, the various sections of
this topic also demonstrate how these concepts may be used in making
comparisons between countries, states or schools of thought. More importantly,
comparisons across countries provide an international perspective on how
historical, socio-historical, political and economical factors shape the development
of the education system in a country. As you read the contents of the pages that
follow, think of the ways in which these terms apply to the education context
where you work or where you are studying.

42 TOPIC 3 THE SCOPE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

3.1 KEY CONCEPTS IN EDUCATION

In most countries, the government plays a critical role in providing basic
education to its citizens. The term basic education refers to the many educational
activities that aim to meet basic learning needs of a people. Generally, it
comprises primary and in some cases lower secondary schooling as well as
formal and informal education. (Refer to definitions below for an understanding
of the term „basic education‰.) In addition to the provision of basic education,
the government also oversees wholly, or in part, educational activity in upper
secondary and post-secondary institutions.

The education provided by a government to the general public may be referred
to as public education, national education, government education, state education,
or even free education. It is often based on a national education philosophy
(Figure 3.1), which is then translated into well-articulated education policies,
goals and objectives. The implementation of these policies, goals and objectives
may be done at a national or regional level, but it involves a great deal of
educational planning, and is directly or indirectly realised through the countryÊs
education structure. The philosophy, policy, planning, structure, goals and
objectives apply to basic education provided through primary and secondary
schools, as well as to post-secondary colleges, universities or technical schools.

Figure 3.1: The cornerstones of a national education system

TOPIC 3 THE SCOPE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION 43

Often when comparativists analyse one or more aspects of a nationÊs education
system, they take into consideration its educational philosophy, planning activities,
policy, goals and objectives as well as its structure. These key features become
useful points of comparison as related issues are discussed. For example, if you
wish to examine how basic education serves the needs of diverse cultures in
India and in Canada, you can examine related policies in the two countries. On
the other hand, if you wish to look at how the curriculum is structured in a
number of places, you may first wish to study the education philosophy as well
as its goals and objectives.

Table 3.1 gives the definitions of formal, non-formal and basic education.

Table 3.1: Definitions of Formal, Non-formal and Basic Education

Education Definition

Basic Education Refers to a whole range of educational activities that take place in
different settings and that aim to meet basic learning needs as
defined in the World Declaration on Education for All. It thus
comprises both formal schooling (primary and sometimes lower
secondary) as well as a wide variety of non-formal and informal
public and private educational activities offered to meet the
defined basic learning needs of groups of people of all ages.

Formal Education Refers to education provided in the system of schools, colleges,
universities and other formal educational institutions that normally
constitutes a continuous „ladder‰ of full-time education for children
and young people, generally beginning at age five, six or seven and
continuing up to 20 or 25 years of age. Formal basic education
usually comprises the primary school grades, but may include
also additional grades (e.g. lower secondary schooling) that are
considered „basic‰.

Non-formal May take place both within and outside educational institutions,
Education and may cater to persons of all ages. Depending on country
contexts, it may cover educational programmes to impart adult
literacy, basic education for out-of-school children, life skills, work
skills and general culture. Non-formal education programmes
do not necessarily follow the „ladder‰ system, may have varying
durations, and may or may not confer certification of the learning
achieved. Refer Figure 3.2 for an example of non-formal education
setting.

Source: http://portal.unesco.org/education/

44 TOPIC 3 THE SCOPE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

Figure 3.2: A non-formal education class for adults held outdoors
Source: www.scdp.org.np/

SELF-CHECK 3.1
1. What do the words philosophy, policy, planning, structure, goals

and objectives mean to you?
2. How can each of these words be defined in the context of the basic

education provided in your country?
3. Why is it important to study these key features of education?
This topic gives you a number of definitions and examples of the various terms
related to an education system so that you are able to:
(a) Understand what they mean in the context of educational practice; and
(b) Use them in making comparisons between countries, states or schools of
thought.
It is also important to compare how different countries define their educational
philosophy, planning, policy, goals and objectives as well as structure to get an
international perspective on these features. As you make these comparisons, you
will realise that education in different countries is influenced by a number of
historical, socio-historical, political and economical factors.

TOPIC 3 THE SCOPE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION 45

Note that subtopics 3.2 to 3.6 contain excerpts of the educational philosophy,
policy, etc. of different countries. To get the full version of each of these
documents you may have to visit the sites that have been identified.

The Use and Abuse of Comparative Education

Although comparative education characteristically
tends to emphasise differences, the basic similarities of
formal education across countries are also of interest.
With increasing speed, beginning about 1860, the
nations of the world have made available the facilities
for formal schooling to ever-larger fractions of their
populations.

The institutional frameworks, the preparation of
teachers, the equipment used, the systems of grading
and examinations, the issuing of certificates and
diplomas all contribute to the basic commonality
of school systems, wherever they are located. Two
main factors have been at work to create this
standardisation: diffusion of educational practices
across national boundaries and ever-greater sharing of
common objectives for expanding resources for formal
education.

Source: Noah, H. J. (1984).

3.2 EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY

A countryÊs philosophy of education refers to the values, aspirations and ideals
underlying the nature of its education. It is usually a broad statement of what
education means to the people of a country, how they hope to achieve the
national agenda through education, and how the people of the country can
benefit from the education that is provided by the government. A philosophy
does not reflect an implementation plan, but is the basis for educational planning
and development of educational policy.

46 TOPIC 3 THE SCOPE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

Here are examples of statements reflecting the philosophy of education in two
countries.
(a) Malaysia

Education in Malaysia is an on-going effort towards further developing the
potential of individuals in a holistic and integrated manner so as to produce
individuals who are intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically
balanced and harmonious, based on a firm belief in and devotion to
God. Such an effort is designed to produce Malaysian citizens who are
knowledgeable and competent, who possess high moral standards, and
who are responsible and capable of achieving a high level of personal well-
being, as well as being able to contribute to the betterment of the family, the
society and the nation at large. (http://www.moe. gov.my)
(b) South Africa

The framework is intended to develop a higher education system that will:
(i) Promote equity of access and fair chances of success to all who are

seeking to realise their potential through higher education, while
eradicating all forms of unfair discrimination and advancing redress
for past inequalities; and
(ii) Meet national development needs and high-skilled employment needs
presented by a growing economy operating in a global environment
through well-planned and coordinated teaching, learning and research
programmes.
(Adapted from www. polity. org.za/govdocs)
Figure 3.3 illustrates school children from a primary school in South Africa.

TOPIC 3 THE SCOPE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION 47

Figure 3.3: School children from the Crags Primary School, Plattenberg Bay, South Africa
Source: www.awish.net/Africa/willingworkers

SELF-CHECK 3.2

1. The statement on the education philosophy of Malaysia contains the
following lines:
(a) Based on a firm belief in and devotion to God.
(b) Who possess high moral standards.
(c) Contribute to the betterment of the family.

What do these lines tell you about the values and ideals of the
Malaysian people?

2. The following lines are extracted from the higher education
philosophy of South Africa:
(a) Promote equity of access and fair chances of success
(b) Eradicating all forms of unfair discrimination and advancing
redress for past inequalities.

How are these philosophical ideals reflective of the history of South
Africa?

3.3 EDUCATIONAL PLANNING

This refers to an action plan that a country wishes to undertake to achieve the
goals, objectives and strategies that are consistent with its educational
philosophy. It is usually the result of analysis of a countryÊs human resource
needs, and encompasses the formulation and the implementation of programmes
that will meet these needs. Educational planning may include whole-nation plans

48 TOPIC 3 THE SCOPE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

(e.g. plans to address ICT needs in the whole country) or regional or sector plans
(e.g. plans to address under-education in rural areas).
Educational planning is reflected in the statements presented below.
(a) Malaysia MalaysiaÊs Ninth Plan (2006 2010)

The country must raise the capacity of its people by:
(i) Undertaking comprehensive improvement of the education system,

from pre-school to tertiary level, from the aspects of curriculum
and teaching to school facilities, with a special focus on raising the
standard of schools in the rural areas; and
(ii) Creating more avenues for skills development, training and lifelong
learning for the labour force at all levels and for all ages, including in
ICT.
(Selections from http://www.epu. jpm.my/rm9).
(b) Nepal NepalÊs Eighth Plan (1991 97)

In keeping with the needs of the country, emphasis has to be given to
improving the quality of education. For this, it is necessary to increase the
number of trained teachers; improve physical facilities of the schools; focus
on curriculum development and provision of textbooks; and engage in
regular and effective supervision of schools.
(Adapted from http://www.moe.gov.np).
Figure 3.4 illustrates a Nepalese school setting.

TOPIC 3 THE SCOPE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION 49

Figure 3.4: School children in a Nepalese School
Source: www.traveltalker.co.uk/nepal

ACTIVITY 3.1

Focus on the excerpts from MalaysiaÊs Ninth Plan (2006 2010) and
NepalÊs Eighth Plan (1991 97) above. (Note that these Plans were
implemented at different times in the year 2006 in Malaysia and in
the year 1991 in Nepal.)

1. What do you think is meant by each of the following?
(a) Raising the standard of schools in the rural areas.
(b) Creating more avenues for skills development.
(c) Improving the quality of education.
(d) Engaging in regular and effective supervision of schools.

2. Find examples of situations in Malaysia where these four assertions
apply. For example, if you think we need to raise the standard of
schools in rural areas in Malaysia, what would you like to see
changed? What do you think needs to be done in rural schools so
that we can raise the capacity of the Malaysian people, as stated in
the 9th Malaysian Plan?

50 TOPIC 3 THE SCOPE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

3.4 EDUCATIONAL POLICY

Education policy refers to a guiding principle or a course of action that steers a
countryÊs educational programmes or decisions. Commonly, a government
devises a policy after deliberation and discussion among lawmakers, educationists,
social scientists and other interested parties. Education policies often circumscribe
a countryÊs national educational philosophy, and usually include a justification
for a course of action that has been/will be taken.

The following statements are related to education policy in two countries:

(a) India

IndiaÊs commitment to the spread of knowledge and freedom of thought
among its citizens is reflected in its Constitution. The Directive Principle
contained in Article 45 enjoins „the State shall endeavour to provide within
a period of ten years from the commencement of this Constitution, for free
and compulsory education for all children until they complete the age of
fourteen years.‰ Article 29 provides that any citizen having a distinct
language, script, special care of the economic and educational interests of
the underprivileged sections, particularly, the Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes is laid down as an obligation of the State under article 46.
(http://www.education.nic.in)

Table 3.2 shows the education profile of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and
the rest of the population in India.

TOPIC 3 THE SCOPE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION 51

Table 3.2: The Education Profile of Scheduled Castes (SC),
Scheduled Tribes (ST) and the Rest (Rest) of the Population in India

Source: Business Line, Tuesday, May 16, 2006

(b) Singapore

The bilingual policy is a fundamental feature of the Singapore education
system. It ensures that children learn at least two languages in schools
English and their mother tongue. English is essential as it is the language
of commerce, technology and administration. The learning of the mother
tongue, which could be Chinese, Malay or Tamil, enables the children to
keep in touch with their heritage and cultural values.

(www.education18.com).

52 TOPIC 3 THE SCOPE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

ACTIVITY 3.2

1. The information in the above section tells us that both Singapore
and India have made provisions for the needs of diverse groups of
people who form part of their citizenry. To gain an understanding
of how these two countries have addressed issues of diversity, find
out more about educational provisions related to the following:

(a) Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in India.

(b) Bilingual policy and mother tongue education in Singapore.

2. Read the excerpt below on policies related to ICT in education in
Malaysia. Have these policies been implemented in your school or
district? Why, or why not?

The concept of ICT in education, as seen by the Ministry of
Education, Malaysia, includes systems that enable information
gathering, management, manipulation, access, and communication
in various forms. The Ministry has formulated three main policies
for ICT in education.

(a) The first policy is that of ICT for all students, meaning that
ICT is used as an enabler to reduce the digital gap between
the schools.

(b) The second policy emphasises the role and function of ICT in
education as a teaching and learning tool, as part of a subject,
and as a subject by itself. Apart from radio and television as a
teaching and learning tool, this policy stresses the use of the
computer for accessing information, communication, and as
a productivity tool.

(c) The third policy emphasises using ICT to increase
productivity, efficiency and effectiveness of the management
system. ICT will be extensively used to automate and
mechanise work processes such as the processing of official
forms, timetable generation, management of information
systems, lesson planning, financial management, and the
maintenance of inventories.

Chan Foong-Mae, unpan1.un.org/intradoc

TOPIC 3 THE SCOPE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION 53

3.5 GOALS AND OBJECTIVES

In order to implement educational plans and to realise educational policy,
educationists and administrators of a country normally devise a list of goals and
objectives. One way of differentiating between goals and objectives is to see them
as part of a hierarchy. Goals are statements of a vision, specifying what is to be
achieved. On the other hand, objectives are statements of the specific activities
required to achieve the goals. The following comparison is offered by Lewis
(1996):

(a) Goals are broad; objectives are narrow.

(b) Goals are general intentions; objectives are precise.

(c) Goals are intangible; objectives are tangible.

(d) Goals are abstract; objectives are concrete.

(e) Goals cannot be validated as is; objectives can be validated.

It is important to remember that statements reflecting educational goals are often
accompanied by objectives. In the following example (Figure 3.5), note that the
goal is stated in general terms while the objective is more specific.

Figure 3.5: The goal and the objective stated

54 TOPIC 3 THE SCOPE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

Here are some statements reflecting educational goals and objectives:
(a) European Union

Ministers of education agreed on three major goals to be achieved by 2010
for the benefit of the citizens and the EU as a whole:
(i) To improve the quality and effectiveness of EU education and training

systems;
(ii) To ensure that they are accessible to all; and
(iii) To open up education and training to the wider world.
To achieve these ambitious but realistic goals, [EU Ministers] agreed on
thirteen specific objectives covering the various types and levels of
education and training (formal, non-formal and informal) aimed at
making a reality of lifelong learning. Systems have to improve on all
fronts: teacher training; basic skills; integration of Information and
Communication Technologies; efficiency of investments; language
learning; lifelong guidance; flexibility of the systems to make learning
accessible to all, mobility, citizenship education, etc.
(http://europa.eu.int/comm /education /policies)

TOPIC 3 THE SCOPE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION 55

(b) United States of America

The Congress declares the following as the National Education Goals:

SCHOOL READINESS: By the year 2000, all children in the United States
will start school ready to learn. The objectives for this goal are that:

(i) All children will have access to high-quality and developmentally

appropriate pre-school programs that help prepare children for
school; and

(ii) Every parent in the United States will be a childÊs first teacher and

devote time each day to helping pre-school child learn, and parents
will have access to the training and support they need.

(Adapted from: www.ed.gov/legislation)

Goals are general directions, somewhat nebulous,
that are not specific enough to be measured. Think of
the word „go.‰ It has no end.

Objectives, on the other hand, are specific and
measurable. They can be output objectives, or they
can be attitudinal or behavioural; but most of all,
they can be measured. They are concise and specific.

Think of the word „object.‰ You can touch it. It is http://www.buythemonk
there, it is actual and it is finite. Think of the goals ey.com/images/wedding
as the treasure at the top of a stairway, and the
objectives as the stairs. /staircase

(http://www.geocities.com/wallstreet)

56 TOPIC 3 THE SCOPE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

ACTIVITY 3.3

Read the following pairs of statements and identify the statements that
reflect goals and those that reflect objectives.

1. (A) To improve literacy rates across the country by assuming a
national leadership role through the Ministry of Education.

(B) To allow all Canadian teachers to acquire deepened
knowledge of literacy through a one-year or two-year
training programme.

2. (A) To build the best system of support for children with
disabilities and special needs so that they can participate
more fully in their communities.

(B) To remove administrative and physical barriers that hinder
children with special needs and providing greater access
to all forms of learning services such as computers and
counselling.

3. (A) To improve access to information through public library
initiatives designed to simplify user access to a broader range
of information.

(B) To make Malaysia the best educated and most literate
country in Southeast Asia.

4. (A) To provide young Australians with the skills and knowledge
for the advancement of learning and the dissemination of
knowledge.

(B) To provide adequate funding for instruction and research in
engineering and technology.

TOPIC 3 THE SCOPE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION 57

GENERAL PRINCIPLES REGULATING THE NATIONAL EDUCATION
SYSTEM OF THE REPUBLIC OF TURKEY

The general goals of the National Education System are:

1. To raise all individuals as citizens who are committed to the principles and
reforms of Atatürk and to the nationalism of Atatürk as expressed in the
Constitution, who adopt, protect and promote the national, moral, human,
spiritual and cultural values of the Turkish Nation, who love and always
seek to exalt their family, country and nation, who know their duties and
responsibilities towards the Republic of Turkey which is a democratic,
secular and social state governed by the rule of law, founded on human
rights and on the tenets laid down in the preamble to the Constitution, and
who have internalised these in their behavior;

2. To raise them as constructive, creative and productive persons who are
physically, mentally, morally, spiritually and emotionally balanced, have
a sound personality and character, with the ability to think freely and
scientifically and have a broad worldview, that are respectful for human
rights, value personality and enterprise, and feel responsibility towards
society;

3. To prepare them for life by developing their interests, talents and
capabilities and providing them with the necessary knowledge, skills and
attitudes and the habit of working with others and to ensure that they
acquire a profession which shall make them happy and contribute to the
happiness of society ⁄

Figure 3.6: General principles regulating the national education system
of the Republic of Turkey

Source: http://www.meb.gov.tr/

3.6 EDUCATION STRUCTURE

The education structure refers to the way in which teaching and learning in
schools and tertiary institutions are organised in a country. Generally, the
structure tells you more about the following:

(a) The order or sequence in which institutions providing basic education are
to be attended, e.g. attending primary school before secondary school or a
post-secondary institution;

58 TOPIC 3 THE SCOPE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

(b) The number of years one spends at each level, e.g. six years or seven years
at the primary school; and

(c) The pathways to admission and graduation, e.g. attending primary school
at the age of seven or how one can qualify for admission to an institution of
higher education such as a university.

Let us now take a look at the educational structure of China and Brunei.

(a) China

ChinaÊs education mainly comprises of the following stages:

(i) Pre-school
Children of 3 to 5 years old receive pre-school education at
kindergartens.

(ii) Primary School
For children of 6 to 11 years old. Primary schools are generally run by
local government. Some are run by enterprises and individuals.

(iii) Secondary School
For teenagers of 12 to 17 years old. Secondary schools are generally
run by local governments and educational departments. Secondary
schools include common middle schools, vocational schools and
specialised secondary schools. Common middle schools include junior
schools and senior schools, each with three-year period of schooling.
Some junior middle school graduates are accepted by senior middle
schools while some go to vocational schools and specialised
secondary schools, with a schooling period of three to five years.

(iv) Higher Education
Including two to three years short higher education, undergraduate
education and graduate education.

(http://www.china culture.org/gb)

TOPIC 3 THE SCOPE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION 59

(b) Brunei

The formal school system in Brunei Darussalam has adopted a 7-3-2-2
pattern.

(i) Primary Education

In Brunei Darussalam it takes seven years, including one year at
pre-school level. Primary education is divided into three stages:
pre-school, lower primary and upper primary.

(ii) Lower Secondary

The duration of schooling at lower secondary level is three years. At the
end of the third year, students sit for the Penilaian Menengah Bawah
(PMB) or Lower Secondary Assessment examination. On completion of
the PMB examination, students have the following options:

To pursue two to three years of upper secondary education leading
to the Brunei Cambridge General Certificate of Education (GCE „O‰
Level) examination or the GCE „N‰ level examination; or

To pursue craft and basic technical level courses at technical or
vocational institutions or enter the employment market.

60 TOPIC 3 THE SCOPE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

(iii) Upper Secondary

Based on performance in the PMB examination, students will be
channeled into a Science, Arts or Technical stream. The duration of
schooling at this level is either two or three years. At the end of
the second year, high academic achievers may sit for the Brunei-
Cambridge GCE Ordinary level (GCE „O‰ Level) examination.
Pre-tertiary and Higher Education
Those students with adequate and relevant „O‰ Level passes may
proceed to do a two-year Pre-University course leading to the Brunei-
Cambridge Advanced Level Certificate of Education examination (GCE
„A‰ Level). Others may decide to opt for employment or undertake
education and training programmes at the Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah
Institute of Education, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, technical colleges,
vocational schools, the nursing college or study abroad.
(http://www.moe.gov.bn/organisation)

Figure 3.7: The picture above shows three Brunei girls of a water village, waiting for a
water taxi to take them to the Muslim afternoon school.
Source: http://www.wunrn.com.

TOPIC 3 THE SCOPE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION 61

ACTIVITY 3.4

Examine the brief description of the Indonesian and Malaysian
education structure presented below:

Indonesian Education Malaysian Education

The Indonesian education system Primary education consists of 6
recognises two different paths of years (Year 1-6) while secondary
education: school education and education consists of 5 years of
out-of-school education. schooling (Form 1-5). Primary
Indonesia adopts a 6-3-3-4 school education is offered in three
education system, which consists tracks: national, Tamil and
of 6 years of primary, 3 years of Chinese. Students from Tamil
junior secondary, 3 years of senior and Chinese primary schools
secondary and 4 years of tertiary often spend an extra year
education. Basic education (Remove Class) at the secondary
consists of primary and junior level. At the end of Form 5,
secondary school education. students take the Sijil Pelajaran
Senior secondary schooling Malaysia (Malaysian Certificate
consists of two streams: general of Education) examination,
and technical/ vocational. before graduating from
secondary school.
(Adapted from:
http://www.ginie. org / cstudies (Adapted from: http://en.
/indonesia/cs-asia-pacific.htm) wikipedia.org /wiki/
Education_in_Malaysia)

1. What are some of the key differences that you can identify between
the two systems?

2. Make a list of questions you would like to ask an Indonesian
education expert about the structure of education in his/her
country.

62 TOPIC 3 THE SCOPE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

3.7 A CASE STUDY

Let us now examine the various features of an education system with respect to
one country, the Republic of Seychelles. As shown in the map (Figure 3.8),
Seychelles is made up of 115 tropical islands located in the Indian Ocean. It has a
population of about 90,000 and the official languages of its people are Creole,
English and French. Education in the Republic is compulsory through grade 10
and is offered through public and private schools. To get a more comprehensive
view of the education system in Seychelles, read the appended article entitled
Education
in Seychelles: An overview by Marie-Therese Purvis (2004: 46-51; Source:
http://www.seychelles.net/smdj). The article (Appendix 1) gives you a
description of the education system in Seychelles, its main characteristics and its
major achievements.

Seychelles culture is a mixture of French and African (Creole) influences. Creole
is the native language of 94% of the people; however, English and French are
commonly used. English remains the language of government and commerce.

About 88% of the adult population is literate, and the literacy rate of school-aged
children has risen to well over 98%. Increases are expected, as nearly all children
of primary school age attend school, and the government encourages adult
education.

TOPIC 3 THE SCOPE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION 63

Figure 3.8: Seychelles
Source: http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/

64 TOPIC 3 THE SCOPE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

ACTIVITY 3.5

CASE STUDY: REPUBLIC OF SEYCHELLES

After you have read the article, make notes on some of the key features
of education in the Republic of Seychelles. Use the following questions
as a guide.

1. Why does the author begin with an outline of historical events?

2. Which lines give you information about the philosophy or
fundamental principles that guide education in Seychelles today?

3. How is the education structure in Seychelles different or similar to
that in your own country?

4. What are some of the policies that were implemented with respect
to reforms introduced in the 1990s? How are these similar or
different from the policies introduced in the 1970s and 1980s?

5. What are some of the main concerns raised by the author?
Elaborate on the comments related to education quality, language
policy, teacher supply and assessment.

6. Would you have difficulty teaching in Seychelles? Why, or why

As governments play a key role in providing basic education to its people,
they are also responsible for the formulation of a nationÊs educational
philosophy, planning activities, policy, structure, goals and objectives. These
features are common to education in most countries and are useful for
drawing comparisons about educational practice in different countries.

A countryÊs philosophy of education refers to the values, aspirations and
ideals of its people. It is a reflection of what education means to the people of
a country, how it is related to the national agenda and how the people of the
country can benefit from education.

TOPIC 3 THE SCOPE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION 65

Educational planning refers to an action plan that a country wishes to
undertake to achieve the goals, objectives and strategies that are consistent
with its educational philosophy. Planning is usually congruent to a countryÊs
human resource needs.

Educational policy refers to a guiding principle or a course of action that
steers a countryÊs educational programmes or decisions.

Goals and objectives help a nation to implement educational plans and realise
educational policy. Goals are statements of a vision, specifying what is to be
achieved while objectives are statements of the specific activities required to
achieve the goals.

Education structure refers to the way in which teaching and learning in
schools and tertiary institutions are organised in a country. Specifically it
shows the way institutions providing basic education are ranked, the number
of years one spends at each level and/or the pathways to admission and
graduation from school or an institution of higher education.

Aspirations Goals
Comparativists Ideas
Education philosophy Objectives
Education planning Policies
Excerpts Values

Purvis, M. T. (2004). Education in Seychelles: An overview. Seychelles Medical
and Dental Journal, Special Issue, Vol. 7, No 1, 46 51. Available from:
http://www.seychelles.net/smdj.

Topic Education
Structure
4 in Japan

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Describe, in detail, the education structure of a country;
2. Discuss issues that are related to the implementation of education

structure; and
3. Compare the education structure of a country with that of your own

country.

INTRODUCTION

In this topic we examine in some detail the education structure of Japan, a
leading industrial nation on the Asian continent. As you read this topic, you will
find that Japan has an education structure that is similar to countries such as
Malaysia: schooling is conducted at the pre-school, primary, lower-secondary,
upper-secondary (or pre-university) as well as the tertiary level. You will also
note that education comes under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education,
Culture, Sports, Science and Technology or Monbukagakusho (MEXT for short).
While the Ministry may be seen as a governing body at the national level, there
are number of prefectures and municipalities that help with administration at the
local level. As in all countries, there are a number of issues that may be raised in
relation to Japanese education. Some of these are: pressure induced by excessive
competition; strict regulation to ensure student discipline; and a lack of
instruction that deals with different levels of ability. As always, it is important to
view these issues within the framework of Japanese societal norms as well as the
socio-political developments within the country.

TOPIC 4 EDUCATION STRUCTURE IN JAPAN 67

CASE STUDY: JAPAN 1

4.1 CONTEMPORARY JAPAN

Japan (Figure 4.1) lies to the east of
China, North Korea and South Korea
and is located in the North Pacific
Ocean. The country consists of four
main islands Hokkaido, Honshu,
Shikoku, and Kyushu and more than
3,000 other islands. About 75% of the
land area is mountainous, with Mount
Fuji or Fujisan rising to 3,776 meters
above sea level.

Figure 4.1: Map of Japan
Source: 1blueplanet.com countries_maps

Japan has a population of 127,463,611 (2006 estimate) with most of its people
(84%) being of Shinto and Buddhist faith. The main language spoken is Japanese,
with English becoming increasingly more common in big cities. The chief of state
is Emperor Akihito, a constitutional monarch, while the head of government is
the prime minister who is elected through legislative elections. Tokyo is JapanÊs
largest city with a population of 12 million (2006 estimate). It became the nationÊs
capital in 1869, and is today the countryÊs industrial and economic hub. Tokyo is
also the centre for Japanese culture and education. The Japanese economy
remains one of the strongest in the world. Japan is a member of the Group of
Eight or G-8, an informal group made up of seven of the worldÊs leading
industrialised nations and Russia. Japan exports cars, electronic devices and
computers while its imports include food, petroleum and wood products.

1 The information used in this topic is a synthesis of findings from reports by the Library of
Congress, the Case Study Project (TIMSS) and the National Committee of Inquiry into Higher
Education. Other sources of information are websites belonging to UNESCO and the Ministry of
Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan.

68 TOPIC 4 EDUCATION STRUCTURE IN JAPAN

Did You Know?
Japan has a small group of Indigenous
People. The Ainu are a people descended
from the first inhabitants of the country.
Under an 1899 law, the Government pursued
a policy of assimilation, imposing mandatory
Japanese-language education for the Ainu.
www.state.gov/g/drl/rls

4.2 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN JAPAN

Pre-World War II By the Imperial Rescript on
beginning of the 20th century, Education (1890)
the education system in Japanese values
Japan was largely localised Confucian
in character and was based on principles
Japanese values. At that time, Centralised
the Japanese were considered control
highly educated with the first national public school
system established in the 1870s (Ellington, 2003). The WW II
educational philosophy was guided by the Imperial
Rescript on Education (1890) which stressed Confucian United States
principles. The society was guided to honour the Education Mission
hierarchical nature of human relations, service to the
country, the pursuit of learning and morality. (1946)
New structure
Things began to change during the early twentieth Non-elitist
century, with German and Christian influences being 9 years of
exerted on education at the tertiary level. Although compulsory
egalitarian and universal primary education was schooling
available, the same could not be said of higher Moral studies
education, or what was known as the higher- abolished
secondary school system. The latter was highly Social studies
selective and elitist, with few opportunities made introduced
available to women. Until the end of World War II, TeachersÊ
Japanese education was controlled by a centralised unions
government. School boards
elected

TOPIC 4 EDUCATION STRUCTURE IN JAPAN 69

Post-World War II The end of World War II marked a Ministry of
crucial time in Japanese education history; the old Education, Japan
system collapsed and new ideas were introduced to
Japanese education by the United States Education (1952)
Mission (1946). As a result, education was restructured Moral education
to be less elitist and compulsory schooling for all re-introduced
Japanese was extended to nine years. Further, the Japanese ideas
curriculum and content of textbooks were reviewed to School boards
be less focused on morality and more on social studies. appointed
In addition, teachersÊ unions were established while
school boards were to be locally elected. It was at this University Control
time that a new 6-3-3 structure aimed at democratising Law (1969) and
education was introduced, a structure which is used in thereafter
Japanese schools till today. Education
reforms

However, when Japanese sovereignty was restored in 1952, the Ministry of
Education of Japan regained control. Moral education was re-introduced and
Japanese ideals were brought back into the curricula. Instead of school boards
being elected, they were now to be appointed. Another important period in the
history of Japanese education was the 1960s when the country was besieged by
student riots. This gave way to the University Control Law (1969) and the
introduction of education reforms in the early 1970s.

SELF-CHECK 4.1

1. What are the main differences between the pre-war and post-war
education structure in Japan?

2. Why do you think moral studies were re-introduced by the
Ministry of Education in 1952? What does this suggest to you about
the culture or tradition of the Japanese?

3. The Japanese introduced the 6-3-3 school structure after World War
II. What is the school structure used in your country today? When
was it first introduced?

70 TOPIC 4 EDUCATION STRUCTURE IN JAPAN

THE FLAG OF JAPAN

DESCRIPTION: The flag of Japan is white with a large red disk (representing
the sun without rays) in the centre

ADOPTION DATE: 13 August 1999

HISTORY: The flag is called Hinomaru (disk of the sun). The
sun recalls the name of Japan (the Land of the Rising Sun)
and worship of Amaterasu Omikami (the Sun Goddess), the
most venerated goddess in the Shinto religion. The colours
also reflect the spirit of Shinto. White is for purity and
integrity, red for sincerity, brightness and warmth.
www.countrywatch.org/flags

4.3 STRUCTURE OF EDUCATION

Today, Japanese education at all levels comes under the jurisdiction of the
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (also known as
Monbusho or Monbukagakusho or MEXT). The Fundamental Law of Education
(1947) spells out the goals of and the governing principles for education at all
levels in Japan.2 This document was revised in 2003 and submitted as the New
Fundamental Law of Education. The other two statutes which play a role in the
regulation and management of education activity in the country are the School
Education Law and the Social Education Law.

This Monbukagakusho sets education standards and is responsible for the
formulation and implementation of national education policy. Three levels
of government administration help administer the various financial and
supervisory educational services in the country. These are the national,
prefectural and municipal levels. The first level of education activity is carried
out at the national level, referring to work that is carried out at the ministerial
level or within the Monbukagakusho. Beneath the Monbukagakusho is the upper
tier of local government made up of prefectures and the lower tier of local
government made up of municipalities (See Figure 4.2). There are 47 prefectures
and over 3,400 municipalities in Japan.

2 More information on management and organisation of education may be obtained from the
Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA, England) and from the Monbukagakusho
website.

TOPIC 4 EDUCATION STRUCTURE IN JAPAN 71

Figure 4.2: Educational governance in Japan

The Japanese hold several important beliefs about education,
especially compulsory schooling: that all children have the ability to
learn the material; that effort, perseverance, and self-discipline, not
academic ability, determine academic success; and that these study
and behavioural habits can be taught. Thus, students in elementary
and lower-secondary schools are not grouped or taught on the basis
of their ability, nor is instruction geared to individual differences.
Source: http://countrystudies.us/japan.

According to the UNESCO Institute of Statistics, 10.5% of government spending
goes to education (2004 estimate). Most children below the age of five (85 %) are
enrolled in pre-primary school. Practically all children of primary school-age are
enrolled in school. In addition, more than half of the population of tertiary age
(54 %) is enrolled in higher education institutions. The literacy rate of the people
in the country is high (see Table 4.1) and Japanese students have generally
recorded high levels of academic achievement by international standards. As
many Japanese view educational excellence as an important life goal, children
and young adults attend extra classes or juku to prepare for examinations. The
Japanese education system reflects local cultural and philosophical ideals.
Learning and education are highly valued with a strong emphasis on moral and
character development. Schooling is aimed at developing the right attitudes and
values such as effort and self-discipline and is attuned to the basic values of
Japanese culture and society.

72 TOPIC 4 EDUCATION STRUCTURE IN JAPAN

Table 4.1: Literacy Rates in Japan

Population Gender 2000 2004
Average (%)
Adult Male/Female
(15+) Male 90.8
Female 94.7
Youth Male/Female 86.8
(15 24) Male 97.9
Female 98.2
97.5

Source: UNESCO Institute of Statistics

In terms of schooling at the primary and secondary level, the education structure
in Japan follows the 6-3-3 structure introduced during the post-World War II
period. This means that there are six years of primary or elementary school, three
years of lower-secondary school and three years of upper-secondary school. At
the tertiary level, students usually attend four years in university or college3.
Children below the age of five attend pre-school; however the amount of time a
child spends in pre-school varies. The government provides free and compulsory
basic education for nine years, that is, in the primary and lower-secondary
schools. (Refer to Figure 4.3 for an overview of the Japanese education structure).

SELF-CHECK 4.2

1. Based on the statistics given earlier, what can you say about access
to education for Japanese children?

2. What parallels can you draw between JapanÊs economic
development and access to education in the country?

3. What appears to be the underlying philosophy that shapes
attitudes to education in the country?

3 The duration of courses for medicine, dentistry and veterinary medicine is usually six years. Time
spent in vocational colleges varies according to programme.

TOPIC 4 EDUCATION STRUCTURE IN JAPAN 73

Figure 4.3: The Japanese education structure
Source: Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan

74 TOPIC 4 EDUCATION STRUCTURE IN JAPAN

ACTIVITY 4.1

Examine the education structure of Japan as depicted in Figure 4.3.

1. What similarities do you see between the education structure of
Japan and that of Malaysia?

2. How is the Malaysian and Japanese tertiary education structure
different?

In the following pages, we take a closer look at five levels of schooling in Japan:
(a) Preschool;
(b) Primary (also known as Elementary);
(c) Lower-secondary;
(d) Upper-secondary; and
(e) Higher Education.

„Teaching music is not my main purpose. I want to
make good citizens. If children hear fine music from
the day of their birth and learn to play it, they
develop sensitivity, discipline and endurance. They
get a beautiful heart.‰

Shinichi Suzuki (1898 1998), Japanese violinist and
teacher who introduced millions of children to his
„Suzuki Method.‰

(a) Preschool: Yohchien/Hoikusho
Most children in Japan attend preschool, which may be either run by the
government or privately run. According to Article 78 of JapanÊs School
Education Law, the main objectives of education at the early childhood
stage are:

(i) To cultivate everyday habits necessary for a sound, safe and happy
life to effect a harmonious development of the physical body;

TOPIC 4 EDUCATION STRUCTURE IN JAPAN 75

(ii) To make children experience in the kindergarten a group life and to
cultivate willingness to take part in it as well as the germ of the spirit
of cooperation and independence;

(iii) To cultivate the germ of right understanding of and right attitudes
toward the surrounding social life and happenings around themselves;

(iv) To guide the right use of the language and foster an interest in fairy
tales and picture books; and

(v) To cultivate their interest in expressing themselves through music,
dances, pictures and other means.

Source: UNESCO-APEID, 1996

Most pre-schools are private, and come under one of two categories: the
kindergarten or Yohchien and the day care centre or Hoikusho. Activities
in each of these two pre-school categories are governed by different
Ministries. The kindergarten is guided by the School Education Law, which
means that it comes under the aegis of the Monbukagakusho. Guidelines
for teaching and learning in kindergarten are given in the Course of Study
for Kindergartens. Children from the ages of 3 to 5 can attend kindergarten
for 4 hours a day. Meanwhile, babies and young children below the age of 5
attend day care for about 8 hours a day. These centres follow the Guidelines
of Education and Care in Day Care Centres issued by the Ministry of Health
and Social Welfare. As indicated by UNESCOÊs Institute of Statistics, 85% of
Japanese children were enrolled in pre-schools in the year 2004. As shown
in Figure 4.4, this is twice as many the number of children who were
enrolled in pre-schools in 1991.

Figure 4.4: Enrolment in pre-school education over 14 years
Source: UNESCO Institute of Statistics, 2004

76 TOPIC 4 EDUCATION STRUCTURE IN JAPAN

ACTIVITY 4.2

Read the following excerpt on early childhood education (ECE) in
Malaysia, paying close attention to the first line and to the objectives.
Then compare the objectives given below to those of the Japanese pre-
school.

1. Do you think the objectives of ECE in Malaysia give enough
attention to childrenÊs developmental needs?

2. What are some of the key considerations for drawing up objectives
for ECE?

Early childhood development programmes are instrumental in
preparing the nationÊs young to participate in nation building.
In Malaysia there are two types of institutions that cater to this
need: childcare centres and pre-schools. The childcare centre is
defined as any premise where four children or more from a
household are received to be looked after for a fee. The centre
admits children below four years of age and is categorised into
(i) Home Based Centre and (ii) Institutional Centre. The former
receives less than 10 children, while the latter receives more
than 10 children. These centres offer childcare services ranging
from half-day to full day basis. The objectives of the childcare
centre are as follows:
(a) Assisting working parents so that their children get good

care.
(b) Enhancement of standard of living of the family.
(c) Provide opportunities for people who love children to

work in the childcare centres.
(d) Encouraging involvement of the society in the caring and

nursing of the children.
(Sahara, 2000)

The word ‰courage‰ in
Japanese writing

TOPIC 4 EDUCATION STRUCTURE IN JAPAN 77

(b) Primary School: Shogakkou
In Japan, education at the primary level is compulsory and free for all
schoolchildren. Formal schooling begins at age six, with primary education
offered from Grade One to Grade Six. A high percentage (99%) of primary-
age children are enrolled in school.

In response to education reform and the need for curriculum review,
the Monbukagakusho introduced the Course of Study for Primary Schools
in 1989. As a result, the public school curricula are nationally designed
with a heavy emphasis on Japanese language and moral education. From
an early age, students learn about the complexities of written Japanese and
about the different registers in spoken language.

Other academic subjects that are emphasised are arithmetic, science
and history. There is also a „daily life‰ course which focuses on character
development and teaches children the importance of communal effort and
teamwork. Children also learn art, handicraft, music, homemaking and
physical education. The curricula are represented in government-approved
textbooks which are published by the Monbukagakusho. These textbooks
are distributed free of charge to students from Grades One to Nine. Apart
from this, primary schools generally have 30 to 40 students in a class. Most
schools have good facilities such as teaching materials and audiovisual
equipment for academic work. For co-curricular activities, most schools are
equipped with a gymnasium and/or a swimming pool.

A significant feature of the first six years of basic education is that it is seen
to be important in shaping childrenÊs attitudes and moral character. Every
opportunity is used to teach children about cooperation, about proper ways
to interact in society and about the importance of working as a unified
group. Therefore, moral education is not only studied as a subject, but is
also part of daily life. The statistics indicate that after completing primary
school, almost all primary schoolchildren advance to the lower-secondary
level (UNESCO Institute of Statistics, 2004).

SELF-CHECK 4.3

1. At what age do Japanese children begin and end basic education?

2. Based on the information above, prepare an outline of the primary
school curriculum.