शिक्षक निर्देशिका कक्षा ८

ljm| ofsnfk 1 kfgLsf] kl/ro
x lgDg k|Zgx¿ ;fw] L kfgLsf] kl/ro lbg nufpg'xf;] \ .
Kf[YjLdf slt k|ltzt e"efu kfgLn] 9fss] f] 5 <
kfgL 7f];, t/n / UofF; dWo] s'g cj:yf /xg] kbfy{ xf] <
kfgLsf] ;|ft] s] s] xf] <
kfgL s] sfddf k|of]u ul/G5 <
kfgLsf] agf6] df sg' s'g tTTjx¿sf] ;o+ fh] g /xs] f] xG' 5 <
x dfly plNnlvt k|Zgx¿;Fu ;DalGwt >Job[Zo ;fdu|L k|:t't u/L lgisif{
atfpg'xf];\ .

ljm| ofsnfk 2 kfgLsf efl} ts / /f;folgs u'0fx¿
x ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ bO' { ;dx" df ljefhg ugx'{ f];\ .
x kT| o]s ;d"xnfO{ ljs/df kfgL;lxt ljt/0f ugx{' f;] \ .
x Pp6f ;d"xnfO{ kfgLsf efl} ts u0' fx¿df 5nkmn / k/LIf0f ug{ nufpg'xf];\ .
csf{] ;dx" nfO{ kfgLsf] /f;folgs u'0fx¿df 5nkmn / k/LIf0f ug{ nufpg'xf];\
.
x Eff}lts u'0fx¿df 5nkmn / k/LIf0f ubf{ /ª, uGw / :jfb, 7f;] , t/n / UofF;,
kf/bzs{ jf ckf/bz{s, ;'rfns jf sr' fns, hDg] / pDng] cflbnfO{ Wofg
k'¥ofpg eGg'xf;] \ .
x /f;folgs u'0fx¿sf] 5nkmn / k/LIf0f ubf{ o;sf] agf6] , ln6d; kk] /sf]
dfWodaf6 t6:y jf Iff/Lo jf cDnLo h:tf kIfx¿nfO{ Wofg lbg eGg'xf];\ .
x Effl} ts / /f;folgs u'0fx¿sf] k/LIf0f ubf{ bO' { cf6] } ;d"xdf cfjZos
;xhLs/0f ugx{' f];\ .
x Kf|To]s ;d"xnfO{ cfcfkmg\ f] ;d"xsf] lgisif{nfO{ k|:tt' ug{ nufpg'xf;] \ .
x KfT| o]s ;dx" sf] k:| tl' t kZrft\ cfjZos ki[ 7kf]if0f kb| fg ugx'{ f;] \ .

-u_ k|ltlaDag
x kfgL egs] f] s] xf] <
x kfgL sg' s'g tTTj ldn]/ ag]sf] x'G5 <
x kfgLsf ;f| ]tx¿ s] s] x'g\ <
x kfgLsf] s'g} ltg cf]6f efl} ts u'0fx¿ eg .
x kfgLdf sg' } bO' { cf6] f /f;folgs u'0fx¿ pNnv] u/ .

-3_ kl/of]hgf sfo{
Ogf/, gbL, kfv] /L, sj'F f, tfn cflbsf] kfgL / cfsfzaf6 k/s] f] kfgL ;ª\sng u/L
ln6d; k]k/åf/f cDnLokg jf Iff/Lokg eP gePsf] cWoog u/L ;r" L agfpgx' f];\ .

149

lbg M 2 s8f / g/d kfgL

-s_ ljlzi6 p2]Zo

x s8f / g/d kfgLsf] kl/efiff lbg

x s8f tyf g/d kfgL 56' \ofpg

-v_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f ljm| ofsnfk

ljm| ofsnfk 1 s8f / g/d kfgLsf] kl/efiff

x ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ lgDg k|Zg ;f]wL ltgsf] pTt/sf] vf]hL ug{ nufpgx' f];\ .
kfgLsf] ;f| t] x¿ s] s] xfn] fg\ <

s] ltdLn] sk8f wg' ] u/s] f 5f} < s'g ;|f]tsf] kfgLdf nu' f wFb' f a9L lkmF h
cfp5 <

jiffs{ f] kfgL jf z4' kfgLdf n'uf wb'F f ;fa'gdf ;lhn} lkmh cfp5F < o:tf]
lsg xG' 5 <

Ogf/, s'jfsf] kfgLdf n'uf w'bF f ;fa'gl;t lkmh sd jf a9L cfp5F , lsg <

Ogf/, s'jfsf] kfgL k|ofu] u/L g'xfpFbf don ghfg] ;fy} g'xfpFbf skfn
RofkRofk nfU5 . o:tf] lsg xG' 5 xfn] f <

x ljBfyL{x¿af6 k|fKt kl| tljm| ofnfO{ zI} fl0fs kf6Ldf n]Vb} hfg'xf;] \ / cGtdf
lgDg lgisif{ lbgx' f];\ .

lgisif{ M ;fag' ;u“ ;lhn} lkm“h lbg] kfgLnfO{ g/d kfgL elgG5 eg] ;fa'g;“u
;lhn} lkm“h glbg] kfgLnfO{ s8fkfgL elgG5 . g/d kfgLsf pbfx/0fx¿ M
jiffs{ f] kfgL, z4' kfgL cflb xg' \ eg] s8f kfgLsf] pbfx/0fx¿ M s'jf, Ogf/,
kxf8af6 lg:s]sf] d"nsf] kfgL cflb x'g\ .

lj|mofsnfk 2 s8fkfgL / g/dkfgL 56' o\ fpg] k|of]ufTds lj|mofsnfk

x ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ rf/ ;Dfx" df ljefhg ug'{xf];\ / k|To]s ;dx" df ljs/, 8k/,
wf/fsf] kfgL, jiffs{ f] kfgL, kfv] /Lsf] kfgL;lxtsf] ljs/ jf k/LIf0f gnL ljt/0f
ug{'xf];\ .

x Pp6f las/df :ofDk' jf ;fa'gsf] 3f]n agfpg nufpg'xf;] \ .

x pSt ljs/df tof/ ePsf] ;fag' sf] 3fn] nfO{ rf/ cf]6f k/LIf0f gnLdf /fvL
;dx" ut ¿kdf ljt/0f ug'{xf;] \ .

x ljleGg :yfgaf6 ;ª\sng ul/Psf] kfgLdf ;fa'g kfgLsf] kfrF kfFr yfk] f /fvL
xNnfpg nufpgx' f;] \ .

150

x o;/L xNnfpbF f ;a}eGbf sd lkmF h / a9L lkFmh cfpg] cfwf/df s8f / g/d
kfgL 5'6\ofpg nufpg'xf;] \ / lgisif{ lbgx' f;] \ .
hg' ;|f]tsf] kfgLdf ;lhn};uF ;fa'gsf] lkmhF cfp5 Tof] kfgL g/d /
;lhn;} Fu lkmhF gcfpg] kfgL s8f kfgL xf] .

-u_ dN" ofªs\ g
x s8f tyf g/d kfgL egs] f] s] xf] <
x s8f tyf g/d kfgLsf ;|ft] x¿ s] s] x'g\ <
x g/d / s8fkfgL s;/L 5'6o\ fpg ;lsG5 <
-3_ kl/of]hgf sfo{
3/df / j/k/sf kfgLsf ;|f]tx¿af6 kfgL ;ª\sng u/L ;fag' kfgLsf] 3f]n agfO{
s8f / gd/ kfgL 5'6\ o\ fpg nufpg'xf;] \ / rf6{ tof/ u/L sIffsf]7fdf k|:tt' ug{
nufpgx' f];\ .

lbg M 3 s8fkfgLsf ks| f/ tyf kfgLsf] c:yfoL s8fkg x6fpg] tl/sf
-s_ ljlzi6 p2Z] o

x kfgLsf] s8fkgsf k|sf/ atfpg
x c:yfoL / :yfoL s8fkgsf] kl/efiff atfpg
x kfgLsf] c:yfoL s8fkg x6fpg] tl/sf JofVof ug{ / k|bz{g ug{
-v_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f ljm| ofsnfk
ljm| ofsnfk 1 kfgLsf] s8fkgsf] k|sf/
x kfgLsf] s8fkg egs] f] s] xf] < kfgLsf] s8fkg slt ks| f/sf 5g\ < eGg]

k|Zgdf ;f]Rg] hf8] L agfpg] / cge' j cfbfgkb| fg ug]{ tl/sf k|of]u ug'{xf];\ .
x hf]8Ldf 5nkmn ePsf] s'/fnfO{ hf8] Laf6 PshgfnfO{ k|:t't ug{ nufpg'xf;] \ .
x hf]8Laf6 k|:t't ePsf] s'/fnfO{ zI} fl0fs kf6Ldf l6Kb} hfgx' f];\ . cGo hf8] LnfO{

yk s/' f /fVbf gbf]¥ofpg eGgx' f;] \ .
x cGtdf ljBfyL{x¿n] k|:t't u/s] f s'/fx¿nfO{ ;d]6b\ } kfgLsf] s8fkgsf

k|sf/sf] lgisif{ k|:tt' ugx{' f];\ .
x lgisif{ M SoflN;od afOsfaf]{g6, DofUgl] ;od afOsfaf{g] ]6 nj0fx¿ 3n' ]/ /xs] f]

kfgLnfO{ c:yfoL s8fkg elgG5 eg] SoflN;od ;Nkm6] , DofUgl] ;od
;Nkm]6,SoflN;od ;Nkm6] / DofUgl] ;od Snf/] fO8 cflb 3n' ]/ /x]sf] kfgLnfO{
:yfoL s8fkg elgG5 .

151

ljm| ofsnfk 2 kfgLsf] c:yfoL s8fkg x6fpg] tl/sfsf] JofVof / kb| z{g

x kfgLsf] c:yfoL s8fkg s;/L x6fpg ;lsG5 xfn] f < dl:tis dGyg ug{
nufpgx' f];\ .

x dl:tis dGyg kZrft\ cg'ej k|:t't ug{ nufpgxf;] \ / zI} fl0fs kf6Ldf nV] b}
hfgx' f;] \ .

x kfgLsf] c:yfoL s8fkg x6fpg] ljleGg tl/sfx¿ atfpgx' f;] \ h:tf] M pdfn]/,
Snfs{ ljlw k|of]u u/]/ cflb .

x kfgLsf] c:yfoL s8fkg x6fpg] tl/sf dWo] pdfn/] x6fpg] ljlwnfO{ lj1fg
kf7\ok:' tssf] k[=;+= 128 sf] ljm| ofsnfk 2 ;~rfng ug'x{ f;] \ / ljBfyL{x¿nfO{
cjnfs] g ug{ nufpg'xf;] \ . k|of]ufTds ljm| ofsnfk u/fpbF f ljBfyL{x¿nfO{
;xeflutf u/fpg'xf];\ .

-u_ d"Nofª\sg

x kfgLsf] s8fkg slt k|sf/sf] x'G5 < tL s] s] xg' \ <
x kfgLsf] :yfoL / c:yfoL s8fkg eg]sf] s] xf] <
x kfgLsf] c:yfoL s8fkg s;/L x6fpg ;lsG5 <

-3_ kl/of]hgf sfo{

3/sf] wf/f jf Ogf/ jf 6o\ 'a]nsf] kfgLsf] s8fkg kTtf nufO{ k|:tt' ug{ nufpg'xf];\ .

-ª_ yk cWoog ;fdu|L

kfgLsf] c:yfoL s8fkg x6fpFbf kfgLnfO{ pdflnG5 . kfgLnfO{ pdfNbf kfgLdf /xs] f]

Ca(HCO3)2 jf Mg(HCO3)2 h:tf nj0fx¿ c3n' gZfLn sfaf{]g6] eO{ tn lyluG| 5g\ .

Ca(HCO3)2 aq CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O

Mg(HCO3)2 aq MgCO3 + CO2 + H2O

kfgLsf] c:yfoL s8fkg x6fpg, kfgLnfO{ SoflN;od xfO8f« ]S;fO8;uF klg k|ltljm| of
u/fpg ;lsG5 .

Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca (OH)2 aq 2CaCO3 + 2H2O

Mg(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 aq CaCO3 + MgCO3 + H2O

o;/L Ca(HCO3)2 / Mg(HCO3)2 c3n' gzLn sfaf{g] 6] eO{ tn lyluG| 5g\ .

152

lbg M 4/5 kfgLsf] :yfoL s8fkg x6fpg] tl/sf

-s_ ljlzi6 p2Z] o

x kfgLsf] :yfoL s8fkg x6fpg tl/sf JofVof ug{ / k|bz{g ug{

-v_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f ljm| ofsnfk

ljm| ofsnfk 1 kfgLsf] :yfoL s8fkg x6fpg] tl/sf

x kfgLsf] c:yfoL s8fkgnfO{ pdfn]/ / Snfs{ ljlwsf] ko| f]u u/] h:tf] kfgLsf]
:yfoL s8fkg s;/L x6fpg ;lsG5 xf]nf eGg] k|Zgdf bt|' n]vg ljlw ko| f]u u/L
k|:t't ug{ nufpgx' f;] \ .

x ljBfyLn{ ] k:| tt' u/s] f s'/fnfO{ z}Ifl0fs kf6Ldf n]Vg'xf;] \ / lgisif{ k:| t't ugx{' f;] \ .

lgisif{ M kfgLsf] :yfoL s8fkg x6fpg nu' fwg' ] ;f8] f ko| f]u u/]/ tyf k/Dol' 66
ljlwsf] ko| f]u ug{ ;lsG5 . :yfoL s8fkg ePsf] kfgLdf nu' fwg' ] ;f]8f ld;fpbF f
s8fkfgLdf ePsf SoflN;od / DofUgl] ;od cfofu] g / ;fl] 8od sfafg{] ]6lar
kl| tlj|mof eO{ c3n' gzLn sfaf{g] ]6x¿ aG5g\ . o;nfO{ 5fGg] ljlwaf6 5'6\ofOG5 /
g/d kfgL kf| Kt ug{ ;lsG5 .

ljm| ofsnfk 2 kfgLsf] :yfoL s8fkg x6fpg] tl/sf kb| zg{

x ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ rf/ ;d"xdf ljefhg ugx{' f;] \ / kT| os] ;dx" nfO{ s8fkg ePsf]
kfgL, ;fl] 8od sfaf]{g]6, las/, k/LIf0f gnL, ;fa'gsf] 3f]n, rDrf ljt/0f ugx{' f;] \
.

x kfgLsf] :yfoL s8fkg x6fpgsf] nflu lgDg r/0fx¿ cjnDag u/L ko| f]ufTds
lj|mofsnfk u/fpg'xf;] \ .

r/0f ! M las/df cfwf hlt kfgL /fVg nufO{ To;df clnslt SoflN;od jf
DofUgl] ;od Snf/] fO8 ld;fP/ 3fn] agfpg nufpg'xf];\ .

r/0f @ M pSt 3f]nsf] sx] L efu k/LIf0f gnLdf lnP/ / ;fa'gsf] 3f]nsf] s]xL yfk] f
ld;fP/ rnfpg nufpg'xf];\ / lkmhF cfP gcfPsf] cjnf]sg ug{
nufpgx' f;] \ .

r/0f # M las/sf] kfgLdf Ps rDrf nu' f w'g] ;f]8f ld;fP/ rnfpg nufpgx' f;] \ /
pSt 3fn] af6 Ps ltxfO k/LIf0f gnLdf /fVg nufpg'xf];\ / ;fag' kfgLsf]
3fn] sf] s]xL yf]kf /fVg nufO{ rnfpg nufpgx' f];\ .

r/0f M o;/L rnfpFbf ;fa'g kfgLsf] lkmFh b]lvG5 . o;/L :yfoL s8fkg ePsf]
kfgLdf n'uf w'g] ;f8] f ld;fpbF f s8fkg x/fp5F eGg] s'/f kb|z{g ug{
;lsG5 egL lgisif{ lbgx' f];\ .

153

-u_ d"Nofª\sg
x kfgLsf] :yfoL s8fkg egs] f] s] xf] <
x kfgLsf] :yfoL s8fkg s;/L x6fpg ;lsG5 <
-3_ yk cWoog ;fduL|
Na2CO3 sf] ko| fu] ubf{ 3n' gzLn MgCl2, MgSO4, CaCl2, CaSO4 h:tf kbfy{
c3'ngzLn MgCO3/ CaCO3 h:tf kbfy{ eO{ lyuG| 5g\ / kfgL g/d aG5 . o;sf]
/f;folgs kl| tlj|mofnfO{ lgDgfg;' f/ k|:tt' ug{ ;lsG5 .

MgCl2 + Na2CO3 MgCO3 + 2NaCl
MgSO4 + Na2CO3 MgCO3 + 2Na2SO4
CaCl2 + Na2CO3 CaCO3 + 2NaCl
CaSO4 + Na2CO3 CaCO3 + 2Na2SO4

154

lbg M 6 ;fl] 8od sfaf{g] ]6

-s_ ljlzi6 p2]Zo

x ;f]l8od sfaf{]g]6sf] kl/ro lbg

x ;f]l8od sfaf]{g]6sf] u'0f / pkof]lutf atfpg

-v_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f lj|mofsnfk

ljm| ofsnfk 1 ;fl] 8od sfaf]{g]6sf] kl/ro / u'0f

x ;fl] 8od sfafg{] 6] sf] /f;folgs agf]6, ;q" cflbsf] cfwf/df o;sf] kl/ro lbg
nufpg'xf];\ .

x ;fl] 8od sfafg{] 6 kb| z{g u/L o;sf] u0' fx¿ ljzi] ftM /ª, agf6] , ;"rs kbfyn{ ]
b]vfpg] u'0fsf] cfwf/df 5nkmn u/fpgx' f];\ .

x ;fl] 8od sfafg]{ ]6nfO{ kfgLdf 3]fNg nufO{ pSt 3f]ndf /ftf] / lgnf] ln6d; kfn}
kfnf] 8'afpg nufpg'xf;] \ / cjnf]sg ug{ nufO{ of] cDnLo, Iff/Lo / t6:y dWo]
s'g u'0f x'G5, 5'6\ofpg nufpgx' f;] \ .

ljm| ofsnfk 2 ;fl] 8od sfaf]g{ ]6sf] pkof]lutf

x ;fl] 8od sfaf{]g6] sf] pkof]lutf ;DaGwdf KfT| o]s a]Grdf a;s] f ljBfyL{x¿nfO{
;d"x dfgL ;dx" ut ¿kdf 5nkmn u/fpgx' f;] \ .

x ;d"xaf6 ;d"xsf] g]tfnfO{ ;dx" df 5nkmn ePsf] s/' f k|:tt' ug{ nufpgx' f;] \ /
lzIfsn] z}Ifl0fs kf6Ldf l6Kb} hfg'xf];\ .

x cGtdf ;f]l8od sfaf{]g]6sf] pkofl] utf ;DaGwdf ;d"xut ¿kdf k|:t't u/s] f
kIfx¿nfO{ ;d6] \b} lgisif{ k|:tt' ugx{ f];\ .

-u_ dN" ofª\sg

x ;fl] 8od sfafg{] ]6sf] c0f' ;'q s] xf] <
x ;fl] 8od sfaf{]g]6sf s'g} b'O{ u0' fx¿ eg .
x ;fl] 8od sfaf{g] 6] sf s'g} bO' { pkofl] utf atfpm .

lbg M 7 ;f]l8od afOsfaf]g{ ]6

-s_ ljlzi6 p2]Zo

x ;f]l8od afOsfaf]{g]6sf] kl/ro lbg

x ;fl] 8od afOsfaf]{g6] sf] u0' f / pkof]lutf atfpg

-v_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f lj|mofsnfk

ljm| ofsnfk 1 ;fl] 8od afOsfafg]{ ]6sf] kl/ro / u'0f

155

x ;fl] 8od afOsfaf{g] 6] sf] /f;folgs agf]6, ;"q cflbsf] cfwf/df o;sf] kl/ro lbg
nufpgx' f;] \ .

x ;fl] 8od afOsfaf{g] ]6 k|bzg{ u/L o;sf] u0' fx¿ ljzi] ftM /ª, agf]6, ;"rs kbfy{n]
b]vfpg] u0' fsf] cfwf/df 5nkmn u/fpgx' f;] \ .

x ;f]l8od sfafg]{ 6] nfO{ kfgLdf 3]fNg nufO{ pSt 3f]ndf /ftf] / lgnf] ln6d;
kfn}kfnf] 8'afpg nufpgx' f;] \ / cjnf]sg ug{ nufO{ of] cDnLo, Iff/Lo / t6:y
dWo] s'g u'0f xG' 5 5'6\ofpg nufpg'xf;] \ .

lj|mofsnfk 2 ;f]l8od afOsfafg{] 6] sf] pkof]lutf

x ;fl] 8od afOsfaf]g{ 6] sf] pkofl] utf ;DaGwdf Kf|Tos] a]Grdf a;]sf ljBfyL{x¿nfO{
;dx" dfgL ;dx" ut ¿kdf 5nkmn u/fpg'xf];\ .

x ;d"xaf6 ;d"xsf] g]tfnfO{ ;d"xdf 5nkmn ePsf] s'/f k:| tt' ug{ nufpgx' f];\ /
lzIfsn] zI} fl0fs kf6Ldf l6Kb} hfgx' f];\ .

x cGtdf ;fl] 8od afOsfaf]{g6] sf] pkof]lutf ;DaGwdf ;d"xut ¿kdf k:| t't u/s] f
kIfx¿nfO{ ;d]6\b} lgisif{ k:| t't ug{xf;] \ .

-u_ d"Nofªs\ g

x ;fl] 8od afOsfaf]g{ ]6sf] c0f' ;q' s] xf] <
x ;f]l8od afOsfaf]g{ ]6sf s'g} b'O{ u0' fx¿ atfpgx' f];\ .
x ;f]l8od afOsfaf]g{ 6] sf sg' } bO' { pkofl] utf atfpgx' f];\ .

lbg M 8 lUn;]/fn]

-s_ ljlzi6 p2]Zo

x lUn;]/f]nsf] kl/ro, u0' f / pkofl] utf atfpg

-v_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f ljm| ofsnfk Propane

ljm| ofsnfk 1 lUn;/] f]nsf] kl/ro /
u0' f

x ;jk{ |yd ljBfyLx{ ¿nfO{

lUn;/] f]nsf] c0' f;q" eGg
nufpgx' f];\ .

x lUn;/] f]n s;/L ag]sf] x'G5 eGg] k|Zgsf] pTt/sf] nflu bt'| nv] g ljlw ko| f]u
ug{'xf;] \ / o;sf] agf6] kl| j|mof ;q" bj\ f/f ki| 6 kfl/lbg'xf];\ . h:tf] M k|fk] g] df ePsf]
ltg cf]6f H nfO{ ltg cf]6f OH ;dx" n] lj:yflkt u//] lUn;]/fn] aGb5 .

156

x ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ rf/ ;dx" df ljefhg ug'x{ f];\ / kT| o]s ;dx" nfO{ lUn;/] fn] jfr
Unf;df ljt/0f u/L o;sf u0' fx¿sf] -/ª, :Jffb, 3n' gzLntf cflbsf] cfwf/df_
;"rL tof/ kfg{ nufpgx' f];\ .

x ;d"xut ¿kdf tof/ ul/Psf] lUn;]/f]nsf] u'0fsf] rf6{ k|:t't ug{ nufpg'xf;] \ /
yk ki[ 7kfi] f0f lbg'xf;] \ .

ljm| ofsnfk 1 lUn;]/f]nsf] pkof]lutf
x ljBfyLn{ fO{ ;d"xdf ljefhg u/L

lUn;]/f]nsf] pkofl] utfsf af/]df 5nkmn ug{
nufpgx' f;] \ . 5nkmn u/fpg' cl3, lgDg
kZ| gx¿ ;fW] gx' f;] \ .
-c_ ld7fO agfpg s'g /;fog ko| f]u ul/G5 <
-cf_ km' 6]sf] 5fnfdf sg' /;fog ko| f]u ul/G5 <
-O_ 5fnf km'6\gaf6 hf]ufpg s'g /;fog ko| fu] ul/G5 <
-O{_ ;fa'g agfpg sg' /;fogsf] k|of]u ul/G5 <
-p_ kmnkm"n / vfBkbfyn{ fO{ g;s' fO{ tyf gs'cfO{ cfl] ;nf] agfpg sg' /;fog ko| fu]
ul/G5 <
x dflysf k|Zgdf 5nkmn u/fO{ lUn;]/f]nsf] pkofl] utfsf] ;"rL tof/ u/L k:| tt'
ug{ nufpgx' f];\ / lgisif{ k|:t't ugx{' f];\ .
lgisif{ M lUn;]/f]n kf| ª\ufl/s cNsf]xn ;dx" df kg{] /;fog xf] . of] 5fnfnfO{ g/d /
d'nfod agfpg, cf}ifwL agfpg, 5fKg] d;L agfpg, :6\ofDk Kof8sf] d;L agfpg,
;fag' agfpg, ld7fO agfpg, kmnkm"n / vfB kbfy{nfO{ g;s' fO{ / gsx' fO{ /fVg
ko| f]u ul/G5 .
-u_ dN" ofªs\ g
-c_ lUn;/] f]nsf] c0f';q" s] xf] <
-cf_ lUn;/] fn] sf] s'g} bO' { u'0fx¿ atfpm .
-O_ lUn;/] f]nsf sg' } rf/ pkof]lutf atfpm .
-3_ kl/of]hgf sfo{
tkfO{Fsf] 3/df, ;d'bfodf, k;ndf lUn;]/fn] sf] k|ofu] sxfF sxfF s;/L ko| f]u ePsf] 5
cjnfs] g / ;fw] vf]h u/L k|ltj]bg tof/ u/L sIffdf k:| t't ugx'{ f;] \ .
-ª_ k|fljlws zAbfjnL

157

Sodium Carbonate: Na2CO3, the water-soluble sodium salt of carbonic acid
Permutit process: a process in where hard water containing such as ca++ is
filtered through a natural sand called the zeolite.
Baking powder: dry chemical leavening agent, a mixture of a carbonate or
bicarbonate and a weak acid, and is used for increasing the volume and
lightening the texture of baked goods.
Additional Information
Glycerol is a simple polyol compound. It is a colorless, odorless,
viscous liquid that is sweet-tasting and non-toxic. The glycerol
backbone is found in all lipids known as triglycerides.
Formula: C3H8O3
IUPAC ID: propane-1,2,3-triol
Density: 1.26 g/cm³
Molar mass: 92.09382 g/mol
Boiling point: 290 °C
Melting point: 17.8 °C
Classification: Polyol
www.freedrinkingwater.com/water.../qualit..
www.britannica.com/science/glycerol
www.webmd.com/.../sodium-bicarbonate.

158

PsfO 16 ;hLjx¿

cgd' flgt 3G6L M 14 -;}4flGts 12 + ko| f]ufTds 2_

1. l;sfO pknlAw

x s]xL ;"Id hLjx¿ -AofS6l] /of, efO/; / kmGhfO_ sf] ;fdfGo kl/ro lbg

x la?jfsf ¿kfGtl/t cªu\ x¿ -h/f, sf08 / kft_ sf] agf]6 / sfox{ ¿ j0fg{ ug{

x lap 5/fOsf tl/sfx¿ JofVof ug{

x lapsf] cªs\ /' 0f xg' cfjZos cj:yfx¿ -xfjf, kfgL, tfk_ sf] j0fg{ u/L lap
cªs\ /' 0f lj|mof k|bzg{ / JofVof ug{

x lapsf] agf6] kb| zg{ ug{ / lapsf ljleGg efusf] sfo{ atfpg

x km"n kmn" g] la?jfsf] hLjgrjm| sf] k|bzg{ a0fg{ ug{

2. ljifoj:t' ljefhg / ;fduL|

lbg÷ ljifoj:t' l;sfO ;fdu|L
3G6L

1 s]xL ;"Id hLjx¿ ;"Id hLjx¿sf] :nfO8 jf rf6,{

AofS6l] /of ;"Idbz{soGq, hd]sf] kmf]x/ kfgL_

2 efO/; / efO/;sf ks| f/ efO/;sf] rf6{

3 kmGhfO{ kmGhfOsf] rf6,{ Rofp, drfs{ f] lrq

4 la?jfsf ljleGg ¿kfGtl/t la?jfsf ¿kfGtl/t cªu\ sf] rf6,{ h/f

cª\ux¿, h/fsf] ¿kfGt/0f, d'n k|0ffnLsf] rf6{, jf:tljs h/f,
h/f / uR' 5] h/f
¿kfGtl/t h/fx¿sf] rf6,{ 7f;] j:t'

5 sf08sf] ¿kfGt/0f ¿kfGtl/t sf08x¿sf] rf6{ jf jf:tljs
j:t'

6 Kfftsf] ¿kfGt/0f ¿kfGtl/t kftx¿sf] rf6{,

¿kfGtl/t kftx¿ jf jf:tljs j:t'

7 lap / o;sf] agfj6 cª\sl' /t lap - PsbnLo / b'O{bnLo _, jf
cª\sl/t lapsf] lrqsf] rf6{

8 PsbnLo / b'O{bnLodf leGgtf PsbnLo / b'O{bnLo lapsf] y}nf]sf] rf6{

159

9 lapsf] sfd / lapsf] 5/fO{ lapsf] efu bl] vg] lrq, lapsf] 5/fOsf]
rf6{

10 lapsf] cªs\ '/0f / o;sf cªs\ l' /t lap, k]h 143 lrq g+= 16.14 sf]
cj:yfx¿ ;fduL|

11 kmn" kmn" g] la?jfsf] hLjgrjm| , kmn"
km"nsf d'Vo efux¿

12 k/fu;]rg / uef{wfg k]h 145 sf] lrq 16.19 / 16.20 rf6{

13 ko| f]ufTds sfo{ -s_ M km"nsf km"n -:qLsz] / / kª' \sz] / :ki6 b]vfpg
ljleGg efu ;lsg] vfnsf] _

14 k|ofu] fTds sfo{ -v_ M lap ljleGg lapsf] ;ª\sng u/]sf] y}nf]sf] rf6{
;ªs\ ng

gf]6M ko| f]ufTds sfo{ -s_ 11 3G6Lkl5 jf pkoS' t cj:yfdf / k|of]ufTds sfo{ -v_ 8
3G6Lkl5 jf pko'St cj:yfdf u/fpg ;lsG5 .

4. ljlzi6 p2Z] o, l;sfO ;xhLs/0f lj|mofsnfk / dN" ofª\sg

lbg 1 sx] L ;I" d hLjx¿ M AofS6l] /of
-s_ ljlzi6 p2]Zo

x ;I" d hLjsf] kl/efiff / ;I" d hLjx¿sf] gfd atfpg
x AofS6l] /ofsf] ;fdfGo kl/ro lbg

x AofS6l] /ofsf sfox{ ¿ atfpg

-v_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f ljm| ofsnfk
lj|mofsnfk 1M ;I' d hLjsf] cjnf]sg

x ljifoj:t'sf] ;xhLs/0f ug{'eGbf cl3Nnf] lbg sx] L ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ ljBfno
jl/kl/ jf ljBfno cfpbF f af6f] j/k/ hd]sf] kmf]x/ kfgL /xs] f] :yfg -cfxfn,
kf]v/L jf vfN8fv'N8L_ sf] 50 ld=ln= hlt gdg' f kfgL ;ªs\ ng u//] Nofpg
nufpg'xf];\ .

160

x pgLx¿n] NofPsf] kfgLnfO{ Ps Ps :nfO8df /fvL ;I" dbz{s oGqdf /fv]/
kmfs] ; ul/;s]kl5 ;a} ljBfyL{nfO{ kfn}kfnf] cjnf]sg ug{ nufpgx' f];\ /
lgDg k|Zgx¿ ;fw] L pTt/ l6kf6] ugx'{ f;] .

(a) ;I" d hLj egs] f] s] xf] ?
(b) ;"Id hLjnfO{ b]Vg s] ug{k' nf{ <
(c) ltdLnfO{ yfxf ePsf] ;"Id hLjx¿sf] gfd s] xf] <
oL kZ| gdf kf| Kt pTt/x¿nfO{ cfjZostfcg';f/ ;RofO{ k:| tt' ugx{' f;] \ .
lj|mofsnfk 2M ljleGg k|sf/sf JofS6l] /of
kf7\ok':tssf] lrq g+ 16.1 / ljleGg cfsf/sf AofS6]l/of -sf]s;, a]l;n;, xl] nsn,
lela|of_] sf] lrq;lxtsf] rf6{ agfO{ sIffdf b]vfpg'xf;] \ . of] rf6{ cjnfs] g u/fO{
5nkmn u/fpb} AofS6]l/ofsf] ;fdfGo kl/ro atfOlbg'xf]; .
lj|mofsnfk 3 M ;d"x sfo{
sIffsf ljBfyLx{ ¿nfO{ b'O{ ;dx" df ljefhg ugx{' f];\ . kT| os] ;d"xnfO{ lgDg kZ| gx¿
;fw] L k|fKt pTt/ l6kf6] ug{x' f;] \ .
(i_ AofS6]l/ofaf6 x'g] kmfObfx¿ s] s] x'g\ <
(ii_ AofS6l] /ofsf] x'g] a]kmfObfx¿ s] s] xg' \ <
ljBfyL{x¿af6 kf| Kt pTt/x¿nfO{ 5nkmn u/fpFb} cfjZostfcg;' f/ ;xhLs/0f
ug'{xf];\ . ;fy} ;"Id hLjx¿n] xfd|f] bl} gs hLjgdf kf/]sf] ;sf/fTds / gsf/fTds
k|efjaf/] atfpgx' f;] \ . To;kl5 ;"Id hLjn] xfd|f] bl} gs hLjgdf k'¥ofPsf] kmfObf
atfpbF } hgfj/ tyf jg:kltdf AofS6]l/ofaf6 nfUg] /fu] af/] klg atfpg'xf];\ .
-u_ d"Nofª\sg

x s:tf hLjnfO{ ;I" d hLj elgG5 ?
x AofS6]l/of s:tf s:tf cfsf/sf x'G5g\ ?
x AofS6]l/ofaf6 nfUg] /f]ux¿ s] s] xg' \ ?
x AofS6]l/ofaf6 xg' ] kmfObf / ak] mfObfsf] tflnsf agfpm .
x AofS6]l/ofsf] lrq agfO{ ljleGg efux¿ b]vfpm .
x AofS6]l/of lrGg] cfwf/x¿ s] s] xg' \ <

161

x ;"Id hLjx¿sf] rf6{ jf :nfO8 bv] fP/ ljBfyLx{ ¿nfO{ s]xL k|Zgx¿ ;fW] g'xf];\
/ ltgLx¿sf] lrq agfpg nufpg'xf];\ .

x ljBfyL{x¿n] tof/ u/L k|:tt' u/s] f] AofS6l] /of nufotsf ;I" d hLjsf
cfsf/df cfjZos ePdf ;'wf/ u/L yk hfgsf/L lbg'xf];\ / ljlifoj:t'ki| 6\ofO{
lbgx' f;] \ .

-3_ kl/ofh] gf sfo{
x hd]sf] kmfx] / kfgL -cfxfn, kfv] /L vfN6f vN' 6L _ 50 ld=ln= hlt kfgL
;ªs\ ng u/L To;sf] Ps yf]kf :nfO8df /fvL ;"Idbz{s oGqaf6 x]/L lrq
agfpg nufpgx' f;] \ .
x s]xL pkof]uL AofS6l] /ofx¿sf] ;r" L agfO{ ltgLx¿sf] pkofu] nV] g nufpg'xf];\
.
x ljleGg AofS6]l/ofx¿sf] tl:j/ ;ª\sng u/L rf6{ kk] /df 6fF;L ltgLx¿sf
af/d] f ;fgf] l/kf]6{ tof/ kfg{x' f;] \ . AofS6]l/ofaf6 nfUg] sx] L /f]ux¿sf] ;"rL
agfpg nufpgx' f];\ .

-ª_ k|fljlws zAbfjnL
x AofS6]l/ofM clt ;"Id Ps sfi] fLo hLj
x l8Knf]sfs] ; M uf]nfsf/ hf]8fdf j[b\lw xg' ] AofS6l] /of

-r_ yk cWoog ;fdu|L
AofS6]l/ofsf] kl/ro
AofS6l] /ofsf] cfsf/ ;fnfvfnf 2 dfOjm| fg]
nfdf] / 0.5 dfOj|mf]g df6] f] xG' 5 . AofS6l] /of
xfjf, kfgL, df6f], vfBkbfy{ tyf hLljt
k|f0fLsf] z/L/ aflx/ jf leq kfOG5 . cfsf/,
kf}li6s dfWod tyf ;d"xut a;fOsf
cfwf/df AofS6l] /ofsf] klxrfg ug{ ;lsG5 .
AofS6l] /ofaf6 x'g] kmfObfx¿

i. jg:klt tyf hGt'sf] dt[ z/L/nfO{
AofS6]l/ofn] ;8fpbF f ToxfFsf hl6n
/f;folgs of}lusnfO{ ;fwf/0f
/f;folgs of}lus -gfO66]« , ;Nkm6] ,

162

sfa{g 8fOcS;fO8_ df kl/0ft xG' 5 . h'g la?jfsf] j[l4sf nflu dnsf ¿kdf
ko| fu] xG' 5 .
ii. e]g]u/ / lrhsf] pTkfbg tyf
slkm / ;'tL{sf] k|zfw] gsf nflu
AofS6l] /ofsf] k|of]u x'G5 .
iii. o;n] b'wnfO{ bxLdf kl/0ft ub5{
.
iv. hf8F tyf /S;L agfpg klg
AofS6l] /ofsf] ko| f]u xG' 5 .
v. AofS6l] /ofsf] k|of]uaf6 k|lthl} js
cf}ifwL -Antibiotic medicine_
k]lG;lng tof/ ug{ ;lsG5 .
AofS6l] /ofaf6 x'g] ak] mfObfx¿
i. ksfPsf] vfbo\ kbfy{nfO{
AofS6l] /ofn] rf8F } sx' fOlbG5 .
ii. AofS6l] /ofn] dflg;df w]/} /fu] x¿
Nofp5F . h:tM}
/fu] sf] gfd AofS6]l/of
xh} f lela|of] sn/] f
wgi' 6ª\sf/ Snf:] 6]l« 8od 6]6fgL
nx/] vfs] L af8] ]6{ ]Nnf k6{\o'l;;
lgdfl] gof l8Knf]sfs] ; lgdfg] L

163

lbg 2 efO/; / efO/;sf ks| f/
-s_ ljlzi6 p2]Zo

x efO/;sf] kl/ro lbg
x efO/;sf] ks| f/ j0fg{ ug{
x efO/;sf] sf/0fn] dflg;sf] z/L/df nfUg] /f]ux¿sf] gfd atfpg
-v_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f ljm| ofsnfk
ljm| ofsnfk 1M efO/;sf] kl/ro
sIffsf ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ lgDg k|Zgx¿ ;fw] L 5nkmn u/fpgx' f;] \ .
i. efO/; egs] f] s] xf] <
ii. s] efO/;nfO{ b]Vg ;lsG5 <
iii. efO/;n] ;hLj / lghL{j bj' } u'0f bv] fp5F , lsg <
ljBfyL{x¿af6 cfPsf pTt/x¿df 5nkmn ub{} efO/;sf] kl/ro atfpgx' f;] \ .
AoflS6l/of]kmh] efO/;sf] lrq b]vfP/ / ;Dej eP AofS6l/of] efO/;sf] lel8of]
kb| z{g u/L efO/;sf af/]df yk ki| 6 kfl/lbgx' f];\ / ;a} ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ cfcfkm\gf]
sfkLdf AoflS6l/of]kmh] efO/;sf] lrq agfpg nufpg'xf;] \ / cfjZos ki[ 7kf]if0f
lbgx' f];\ .
ljm| ofsnfk 2M efO/;sf ks| f/
sIffsf ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ 4 ;d"xdf ljefhg
ug{'xf;] \ . kT| o]s ;dx" nfO{ Ps Ps cfwf/ -
cf>o:yn, cfsf/, cf>obftf / ;fOh_ df
efO/;sf] ks| f/ / Pp6f pbfx/0f n]lvPsf]
d6] fsf8{ ljt/0f u/L pTt/ n]Vg nufpgx' f;] \
. ljleGg efO/;sf] lrq;lxtsf] rf6{
b]vfpbF } ljBfyLx{ ¿nfO{ cjnf]sg ug{ nufO{
o;sf k|sf/ / pkoS' t pbfx/0f;lxt k|i6
kfl/lbgx' f;] \ . efO/;sf] cf>o:yn, cfsf/,
cf>obftf, ;fOh, Go'lSn8 Pl;8sf
cfwf/df ePsf] ljefhgdf yk 5nkmn u/L
ki| 6 ul/lbgx' f;] \ .

164

ljm| ofsnfk 3M efO;/af6 nfUg] /fu] x¿
sIffsf ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ kfn}kfnf] cfkm\gf 3/ kl/jf/ jf lrgs] f JolStnfO{ efO/;n] ubf{
nfu]sf] /fu] sf] gfd eGg nufpgx' f];\ . pgLx¿sf pTt/ af8] {df n]vL k|fKt pTt/df
5nkmn ub{} ;xL jf unt 5'66\ fO{ efO/;n] ubf{ nfUg] yk /f]ux¿sf] gfd / pSt /f]u
nfu]sf] JolStx¿sf] lrq jf k|f]h]S6/af6 k:| t't ugx{' f;] \ .
-u_ dN" ofª\sg

x JofS6l] /of]km]h efO/;sf] lrq agfpm .
x cf>o:ynsf] cfwf/df efO/;nfO{ slt efudf ljefhg ul/Psf] 5 <
x efO/;n] Nofpg ;Sg] /fu] x¿sf] ;"rL agfpm .
x efO/;nfO{ ;hLj / lghL{jsf] ;Ldf/]vf elgG5, lsg <
x Gol' Sn8 Pl;8sf cfwf/df efO/;nfO{ slt ;dx" df ljefhg ul/Psf] 5 <
-3_ kl/ofh] gf sfo{
x cf>o :ynsf cfwf/df kfOg] efO/;sf] tflnsf agfpg nufpgx' f;] \ .
x efO/;sf sf/0f nfUg] /f]ux¿ / /fu] nfus] f JolStx¿sf] lrq agfO{ pSt

/f]uaf6 aRg] pkfox¿sf] rf6{ k:| t't ug{ nufpg'xf;] \ .
-ª_ kf| ljlws zAbfjnL
efO/;M Ps ks| f/sf] ;"Id hLj xf] h;n] hLljt sf]ifleq /x/] /f]u km}nfpg] u5{ .

Virus - an extremely small living thing that causes and that spreads from
one person and animal to another.

AoflS6l] /of]kmh] M AoflS6]l/ofdfly cfjm| d0f ug]{ efO/;
-Rf_ lzIfssf nflu ljifoj:ts' f] yk ki[ 7kf]if0f

x efO/;sf] cy{ Nofl6g zAbdf
ljif -Poison_ xf] . of] ljleGg
cfsf/ - 58sf] cfsf/, uf]nfsf/,
if6sf]0f _ sf] x'G5 . o;sf] Size
25 gfgf]ld6/b]lv 250
gfgf]ld6/;Ddsf] x'G5 . t/

tobacco mosaic virus 300

165

gfgfl] d6/ ;Dd x'G5 . -1 nm = 4 x 10-8 inches _

x efO/; k"0f{ ¿kn] cGo hLjx¿ dfly cfl>t /xg] x'gfn] o;nfO{ clAnu6] /L
kf/f;fO6 elgG5 .

efO/;sf] gfd / o;n] ;fg]{ /fu

efO/;sf] gfd ;fg]{ /fu

dfOshf] efO/; ?3fvfs] L

/fOgf] efO/; ;fwf/0f ?3f

kf/fdfOshf] efO/; xf8,] bfb/' f

cf/af] efO/; kxn] f] Hj/f]

/6] «f] efO/; P8;

lbg M 3 kmGhfO

-s_ ljlzi6 p2]Zo

x kmGhfOsf] kl/ro lbg

x kmGhfOsf] kh| gg\sf] tl/sf atfpg

-v_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f lj|mofsnfk M

ljm| ofsnfk 1

Rofp, drf{sf lrq b]vfpbF } ljBfyLx{ ¿nfO{ tnsf kZ| gx¿
;f]Wg'xf;] M\

i. oL s:tf jg:klt xg' \ <

ii. oL la?jf xl/of] gxg' sf] sf/0f s] xf] <

iii. nfdf] ;do cWof/f] 7fpdF f vfg]s'/f /fVbf lsg
9;' L cfp5 <

iv. Rofpsf] lap x'G5 jf /f]k]sf] b]vs] f 5f} <

v. Rofp bv] fpb} o;sf] h/f, sf08, kft ljsl;t
5, 5}g <
ljBfyL{x¿af6 kf| Kt pTt/ sIffdf 5nkmn ub}{ kmGhfOsf] af/d] f yk

ki| 6 kfl/lbgx' f;] \ . kmGhfOsf] k|hgg\ xg' ] tl/sfnfO{ rf6{ bv] fP/ jf kf| ]hS] 6/sf]
dfWodaf6 kb| z{g u/L k|i6 kfg'x{ f];\ .

166

lj|mofsnfk 2 : Do's/ sf] cjnfs] g ;DaGwL lj|mofsnfk
p2Z] o M Dos' / pdfg{] / xft] nG] ;af6 cjnfs] g ug{] -To grow mucor and observe
them with the help of a hand lens_
;fdu|LM kfp/f6] L jf c? sg' } vfgfsf] ;fgf] 6q' mf, yfn, lrgLkfgLsf] 3fn] , :nfO8, xft]
n]G; -Piece of bread, a plate, sugar solution, glass slide and hand lens._

Procedure

i. kfp/f6] Lsf] ;fgf] 6j' |mfnfO{ Kn6] df /fVgx' f;] \ .
ii. kfp/f6] Lsf] dfly lj:tf/} kfgL / lrgLsf] 3f]n 5lDsg'xf;] \ tfls kfp/f]6L s]xL

cf]l;nf] xf];\ . To;kl5 kfp/f6] LnfO{ dflyaf6 5fK] g'xf];\ .

iii. pSt Kn]6nfO{ yf/] } udL{ / cfl] ;nf] 7fpdF f #—$ lbgsf] nflu 5f]8\gx' f;] \ .
iv. #—$ lbgkl5 tkfO{n] s] cjnfs] g ug{x' G' 5 hand lens åf/f klxn] cfkm"n] x]g'{xf];\

/ ljBfyL{nfO{ klg bv] fpgx' f;] \ / ljBfyL{nfO{ ;fGble{s kZ| g ug{x' f];\ .
v. o;/L b]lvPsf] j:t' s:tf] 5, ljBfyL{nfO{ k|Zg ugx{' f;] \ / cfjZos ki[ 7kfi] f0f

lbgx' f;] \ .
-u_ dN" ofª\sg

x Rofpsf] gfdfª\lst ;kmf lrq agfpm .
x s:tf s:tf kmGhfOnfO{ k/hLjL / dt[ k/hLjL elgG5 <
x kmGhfOsf] ;Gtfg jl[ 2sf ljlwx¿ s] s] xg' \ <
-3_ kl/of]hgf sfo{
x glhss} f] Rofp vt] L cjnfs] g u/L Rofp v]tL s;/L ul/G5 eGg] ljifodf

k|ltj]bg tof/ kf/L sIffdf k|:t't ug{ nufpgx' f;] \ .
x ljBfyLn{ fO{ cfkmn" ] bv] ]sf kmGhfOsf] ;ªs\ ng u/L Specimen agfpg

nufpgx' f;] \ .

167

-ª_ k|fljlws zAbfjnL
k/hLjL Parasite – hLljt j:t'df cfl>t xg' ]
dt[ k/hLjL saprophyte - d[t jf ;8u] ns] f j:t'df cfl>t x'g]
hyphae - Psn TofGbf|
-r_ yk cWoog ;fduL|
kmGhfOsf ljlzi6 u0' fx¿

x oL xl/ts0flaxLg cki' ks la?jf x'g\ . ;]tf sfnf / v/} f /ªsf xG' 5g\ .
x cGo hLljt hLj jf s'lxPsf hl} js kbfy{df pd|G5g\ .
x kmGhfO TofGb|fx¿ hfl] 8P/ ag]sf] x'G5 .
x o;sf] z/L/ s'g} cfwf/df l:y/ xG' 5 .
x o;n] UnfOsfl] hgsf] ¿kdf vfgf ;l~rt u5{ .
x cdy} l' gs k|hggaf6 ;Gtfgsf] j[l4 x'G5 .

lbg 4 la?jfsf ljleGg ¿kfGtl/t cªu\ x¿ M h/fsf] ¿kfGt/0f
-s_ ljlzi6 p2]Zo

x la?jfsf cª\ux¿sf] ¿kfGt/0fsf] kl/ro lbg
x la?jfsf] h/fsf] ¿kfGt/0fsf sf/0f atfpg
-v_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f lj|mofsnfk
lj|mofsnfk 1 lj?jfsf ljleGg ¿kfGtl/t cª\ux¿
sIffsf ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ kfn}kfnf] lgDg k|Zg ;fw] L kf7sf] ;'?cft ugx'{ f;] \ .

168

-c_ la?jfx¿ sxfF sxfF kfOG5g\ <
-cf_ la?jfsf d'Vo cª\ux¿ s] s]
xg' <
-O_ ¿kfGt/0f eg]sf] s] xf] <
ljBfyLx{ ¿af6 kf| Kt pTt/df 5nkmn
ub{} la?jfdf xg' ] ¿kfGt/0faf/] k|i6
kfg{x' f;] \ .
ljm| ofsnfk M 2

x sIffsf] cfsf/cg';f/ 5/5 hgf
ljBfyLx{ ¿sf] ;d"x ljefhg ug{['xf;] \ .

x kT| o]s ;dx" df d]6fsf8{ ljt/0f ugx{' f;] \ / cfkm"n] hfg]sf] b]v]sf] la?jfsf] h/fsf]
¿kfGt/0f / To;sf] sfo{ n]Vg lgb]{zg ugx{' f;] \ .

x ljBfyLx{ ¿n] d]6fsf8d{ f nv] ]sf] s'/fx¿ ;dx" ut ¿kdf k|:tt' ug{ nufpg'xf];\ .
x k:| tt' ul/;sk] l5 h/f k0| ffnL / o;sf] ¿kfGt/0fsf] rf6{sf dbtn] la?jfsf]

h/fdf x'g] ¿kfGt/0faf/] k|i6 kfg'{xf];\ .
x ljBfyL{n] k:| t't u/s] f pko'St a'bF fx¿ ;d"xsf] gfd pNnv] ub{} k:| t'ltdf

;dfjz] ugx' f;] \ .
-u_ d"Nofª\sg

x la?jfdf dV' o d'Vo cª\ux¿ sg' sg' efudf /xs] f xG' 5g\ <
x ¿kfGt/0f egs] f] s] xf] <
x la?jfsf] h/f ¿kfGt/0f xgfsf sf/0f nv] L kT| o]ssf] Ps Ps pbfx/0f b]pm .
x tnsf la?jfdf h/f, sf08 / kft ¿kfGt/0f xg' s' f] Ps Ps sf/0f eg .
-3_ kl/ofh] gf sfo{
-s_ rf6{ kk] /df tn lbOPsf ljleGg sfo{sf nflu ;d"xut ¿kdf ¿kfGtl/t h/fsf]
566\ f56' 6\ } rf6{ agfpg nufpg'xf;] \ .
i. vfBj:t' ;~ro ug{
ii. la?jfnfO{ cfwf/ lbg
iii. ljleGg hLjg k|ljm| of ug{

169

-v_ cfkmg\ f] 3/ jl/kl/ kfOg] la?jfx¿sf] h/fx¿sf] lrq;lxt gfd n]vL ltgLx¿sf]
¿kfGt/0fsf ks| f/ n]Vg nufpg'xf;] \ .
-ª_ k|fljlws zAbfjnL
dn" h/f M of] d'Vo h/f xf] hg' vfBkbfys{ f] e08f/ klg xf] .
u'R5] h/f M of] låtLo h/f xf] hg' rf/}lt/ kmn} G5 .
-r_ yk cWoog ;fduL|

la?jfn] h/f, sf08, kft, :yfg, agfj6 / sfoc{ g';f/ ljleGg ¿kdf kl/jtg{ eO{ sfo{ ub{5g\ .
o;nfO{ ¿kfGt/0f elgG5 . la?jfsf d'Vo cª\ux¿ h/f, sf08 / kftsf] ¿kfGt/0f dV' otof
vfb\oj:t' ;~ro ug,{ cfwf/ lbg / cGo ljleGg hLjg kl| jm| of ;~rfng ug{sf nflu xG' 5 .

lbg M 5 sf08sf] ¿kfGt/0f
-s_ ljlzi6 p2]Zo

x ¿kfGtl/t sf08sf sfox{ ¿ j0fg{ ug{
x jftfj/0fcg';f/ sf08sf] ¿kfGt/0fl;t kl/lrt x'g
-v_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f ljm| ofsnfk
ljm| ofsnfk 1. sf08sf] kl/ro
sf08df x'g] ¿kfGt/0fsf] rf6{ jf
tflnsf b]vfpbF } ljBfyLx{ ¿nfO{ lgDg
k|Zgx¿df 5nkmn ugx'{ f];\ .
a. lj?jfsf sf08df x'g] ¿kfGt/0fsf
kmfObf s] s] x'g\ <
b. ¿kfGtl/t sf08 sxfF sxfF kfOG5 <
ljBfyLa{ f6 cfPsf pTt/df 5nkmn
u/fO{ cfjZos ki[ 7kf]if0f lbg'xf];\ .
ljm| ofsnfk 2: ljleGg lsl;dsf lj¿jfsf

sf08x¿

;txd'lg, ;txdf / ;txdfly xg' ]
la?jfsf] sf08sf pbfx/0f -cfn', Kofh,

170

l;p8L, cb'jf cflb_ af/] ljBfyLn{ fO{ 5nkmn÷;fw] vfh] ug{ nufpg'xf;] \ . ljBfyL{af6
kf| Kt pTt/nfO{ ;dfj]z ub{} cfjZostfcg;' f/ :ki6 kfg{x' f];\ .
ljm| ofsnfk 3
hldgd'lg, ;txdf / ;txdfly xg' ]
sf08sf] ¿kfGt/0fsf] PsPs cf]6f lrq
sf]g{ nufpgx' f;] \ . lrq agfO;s]kl5
;xhLs/0f ub}{ ¿kfGt/0fsf kmfObfaf/]
pkoS' t pbfx/0f;lxt :ki6 kfg{x' f;] \ .
-u_ d"Nofª\sg

x la?jfdf sf08sf] ¿kfGt/0f
eg]sf] s] xf] <

x la?jfsf] sf08sf] hldgdl' g,
;txdf / ;txdfly xg' ]
¿kfGt/0fsf kmfObfx¿ s] s] xg' \
<

x ;txdfly x'g] sf08sf]
¿kfGt/0f sg' sg' la?jfdf
b]Vg ;lsG5 <

-3_ kl/ofh] gf sfo{
i. hldgd'lg sf08sf] ¿kfGt/0f, hldgsf] ;txdf sf08sf] ¿kfGt/0f / hldg
;txdfly x'g] ¿kfGt/0fsf] ¿kfGtl/t efusf] ;ªs\ ng u/L sIffdf k|:t't
ug'{xf;] \ .
ii. ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ cfkmg| f] 3/ jl/kl/ kfOg] la?jfx¿sf] lrq ;lxt ;"rL tof/
kfg{ nufO{ la?jfx¿sf] sf08df s:tf s:tf ¿kfGt/0f ePsf 5g\ pNnv]
ug{ nufpgx' f];\ . ;fy} tL ¿kfGt/0fx¿sf] kmfObfsf af/]df klg k|i6 kfg{
nufpgx' f];\ .

-ª_ kf| ljlws zAbfjnL
sf08 -stem) M hldg dflysf] la?jfsf] efu
uf7F f] -node) M kft tyf k"mn ljsl;t x'g] sf08sf] efu
Pl/on -Aerial) M hldgsf] ;txdfly bl] vg] lj?jfsf] efu

171

lbg M 6 kftsf] ¿kfGt/0f
-s_ ljlzi6 p2]Zo

x kftsf] dV' o sfo{x¿ atfpg
x kftsf] ¿kfGt/0fsf] kl/ro lbg
-v_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f ljm| ofsnfk
ljm| ofsnfk 1
cfkm";uF ePsf] jf agfPsf ¿kfGtl/t kftsf] rf6{ jf
sx] L ;ªsng u/]sf kftx¿ bv] fpFb} ltgsf] cjnfs] g
ug{ nufpg'xf;] \ / lgDg kZ| g ;f]Wgx' f;] \ .
x la?jfsf] s'g sg' efuaf6 kft lg:ss] f] xG' 5 <
x la?jfdf kftn] ug{] d'Vo sfd s] xf] <
ljBfyLa{ f6 k|fKt pTt/nfO{ kfnk} fnf] zI} fl0fs kf6Ldf
l6Kgx' f;] \ / 5nkmn u/fpFb} la?jfaf6 lg:sg] kft /
o;n] ug]{ d'Vo sfdaf/] atfpg'xf];\ .
ljm| ofsnfk 2
cfkm;" uF ePsf] jf agfPsf] ¿kfGtl/t kftsf] rf6{ jf
s]xL ;ª\slnt ¿kfGtl/t kftx¿ bv] fpFb} la?jfx¿sf]
kft ¿kfGtl/t x'Fbf la?jfnfO{ x'g] kmfObf s] s] xg' egL
k|Zg ugx{' f];\ . ljBfyLx{ ¿af6 kf| Kt pTt/nfO{ kfnk} fnf]
z}Ifl0fs kf6Ldf l6Kgx' f];\ / 5nkmn u/L lkr/ KnfG6sf]
lrq ;lxt kftsf] ¿kfGt/0f atfpFb} la?jfx¿sf] kft ¿kfGtl/t xF'bf la?jfnfO{ xg' ]
kmfObfaf/] k|i6 kfg'x{ f];\ .
-u_ dN" ofªs\ g
x la?jfx¿sf kft sg' s'g lsl;dn] ¿kfGt/0f x'G5g\ <
x d?e"lddf kfOg] la?jfsf kft / kfgLdf kfOg] la?jfsf] kftdf s:tf] leGgtf
xG' 5 < o:tf] lsg eof] <
x kftsf] ¿kfGt/0fsf kmfObfx¿ s] s] xg' \ <
x l;pF8Lsf] kft sfF8fsf ¿kdf ¿kfGtl/t xFb' f la?jfnfO{ s] kmfObf x'G5 <
-3_ kl/ofh] gf sfo{
x ljleGg 7fpdF f -cf]l;nf] 7fpF tyf ;'Vvf 7fpF_ kfOg] jg:kltsf] ;r" L agfO{

ltgLx¿sf] kftdf x'g] ¿kfGt/0f / dxTTTjsf af/d] f rf6{ kk] /df lrq agfpg
nufpg'xf];\ .
-ª_ kf| ljlws zAbfjnL
6]lG8n« -Tendril) – la?jfdf tf/ xg' ] h:tf] 33F' fl/Psf] efu
Anf8/ -bladder) - df+;xf/L la?jf pitcher plant df xg' ] Ps k|sf/sf] yn} L

172

lbg M 7 lap / o;sf] agfj6

-s_ ljlzi6 p2Z] o

x lap / lapsf ks| f/ atfpg

x lapsf] agf]6 k|bz{g ug{ / lapdf xg' ] efux¿sf sfo{ atfpg

x lapsf] dxTTj atfpg

-v_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f ljm| ofsnfk

lj|mofsnfk 1

x kf7sf] lj|mofsnfk 1 cg;' f/ Ps

lbgel/ lehfPsf] uxF,' ds}, rgf,
l;dLsf lap efF8fdf /fvL
ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ sIffdf a]Grut
¿kdf o;sf] cWoog ug{ lbgx' f;] \ .

x o;sf j|mddf ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ lrq
sf]g{ nufO{ lap / lapsf] k|sf/af/]
kZ| g ;f]Wg'xf];\ . ljBfyL{x¿af6 kf| Kt
pTt/df 5nkmn u/fpbF } lap /

lapsf ks| f/af/] ki| 6 kfgx'{ f;] \ .
ljm| ofsnfk 2

173

x kT| os] aG] r jf ;d"xut ¿kdf cª\s'/0f
ePsf] ds} / rgf -PsbnLo / b'O{bnLo_ sf]
lap /fv/] ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ cWoog ug{
lbgx' f;] \ .

x cWoogkl5 cª\s'l/t lapx¿sf] cWoogaf6
s] s] yfxf kfof} egL kZ| g ub{} ;dx" ut
pTt/ k|:tt' ug{ nufpg'xf];\ .

x ljBfyLa{ f6 cfPsf pTt/df 5nkmn u/fpbF }
cªs\ '/0f ePsf lapsf] lrq;lxtsf] rf6{
k|bzg{ ub{} ljleGg efu -/l] 8sn, Knd' n' /
OG8f:] kd{_ tyf To;sf] dxTTjaf/] ki| 6
kfg{x' f;] \ .

-u_ dN" ofª\sg
x lap eg]sf] s] xf] < lapsf ks| f/ s] s] x'g\ <
x lapsf] h/f / sf08 sg' efuaf6 aGb5 <
x cªs\ 'l/t lapn] sxfaF f6 vfb\o kbfy{ kf| Kt ub5{ / o;sf] dxTTTj s] xf] <
x vfBkbfy{ ;~ro ug]{ efusf] gfd s] xf] <
x tn lbOPsf lapx¿df PsbnLo / b'Ob{ nLo lap 5'66\ fpm M

-s_ ds} -v_ rgf -u_ s]/fp -3_ uxF'
-3_ kl/of]hgf sfo{

x lapdf /]l8sn / Knd' n' :ki6 bl] vg] lrq agfpg nufO{ sIffdf k|:tt' ug{
nufpg'xf;] \ .

-ª_ k|fljlws zAbfjnL
lap -Seed) – e|"0f;lxtsf] kl/kSj l8Dasfi] f
xfOnd -hilum) - lapsf] vfN8f] k/]sf] efult/ /xg] ;t] f] bfu
-r_ yk cWoog ;fdu|L M lap cªs\ '/0f xg' xfjf, kfgL / tfkjm| d ;'xfpFbf] x'g'kb5{ .
km"n kmn" g] la?jfsf] k|hgg\ cªu\ km"n xf] . o;df g} efn] lnªu\ sf]if / kf]yL lnªu\
sfi] fsf] ljsf; tyf ldng eO{ hfOuf6] af6 e0"| f ag]/ lap aG5 .

174

lbg 8= PsbnLo / bO' {bnLo lap
-s_ ljlzi6 p2Z] o

x PsbnLo / bO' {bnLo lapsf] tn' gfTds cWoog u/L km/s 5'6\ofpg
-Vf_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f ljm| ofsnfk
ljm| ofsnfk 1 PsbnLo / bO' bnLo lapsf] klxrfg / agf6]

x ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ rf/, kfrF ;d"xdf ljefhg ug{x' f];\ / PsbnLo tyf bO' { bnLo
la?jfsf] lap ljt/0f ugx{' f];\ .

x kT| o]s ;dx" nfO{ lapsf] cjnfs] g ug{ nufO{ To; lap ;DalGwt la?jfsf] gfd
atfpg nufpg'xf;] \ .

x kT| o]s ;dx" sf ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ PsbnLo / b'O{ bnLo la?jfsf] ;"rL tflnsf
agfpg nufpg'xf;] \ .

x ;dx" df /x]sf k|To]s ljBfyL{nfO{ PsbnLo / bO' { bnLo Ps Ps lapsf] lrq
agfpg nufpg'xf;] \ .

x ;dx" af6 ;fd"lxs ¿kdf la?jfsf] gfd ;lxt lapsf] lrq kb| z{g ug{
nufpgx' f];\ .

ljm| ofsnfk 2 PsbnLo / bO' { bnLo lapsf] km/s
x PsbnLo / b'Ob{ nLo la?jfsf] lapsf] lrqsf] cfwf/df ljBfyL{x¿nfO{
km/ssf ab' Ffx¿ ;dx" ut ¿kdf Kflxrfg ug{ nufpgx' f];\ .
x ;dx" af6 PshgfnfO{ PsbnLo / b'O{bnLo laplardf bl] vPsf leGgtfx¿
Kf|:tt' ug{ nufpg'xf;] \ .

-u_ d"Nofªs\ g
x PsbnLo / bO' {bnLo lapsf] agf]6 JofVof u/ .
x PsbnLo / b'O{ bnLo la?jfsf] lapdf s] leGgtf x'G5 <

-3_ kl/of]hgf sfo{
x 3/df PsbnLo / bO' { bnLo lapx¿ s'g sg' ko| fu] ePsf 5g\ ;f]w]/,
cjnf]sg u//] ;"rL agfpg nufpg'xf;] \ / kT| os] lapsf] lrq agfO{ sIffdf
k|:t't ug{ nufpgx' f;] \ .

175

-r_ yk cWoog ;fdu|L
PsbnLo / b'O{bnLo lapsf] leGgtfnfO{ b]vfpg tnsf] lrq ko| fu] ug{'xf;] \ M

176

lbg 9 lapsf] sfd, lapsf] 5/fO{

-s_ ljlzi6 p2]Zo
x lapsf] d'Vo sfdx¿ atfpg
x lapsf] 5/fOsf k|sf/x¿sf] JofVof ug{

-v_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f lj|mofsnfk
ljm| ofsnfk 1 lapsf] sfd
lapsf dV' o sfd s] s] xg' \ < k|Tos] ljBfyLn{ fO{ dlit:s em~hf ljlw k|of]u u/L
k:| t't ug{ nufpgx' f];\ / ljBfyL{x¿n] k:| t't u/s] f kIfx¿nfO{ z}Ifl0fs kf6Ldf nV] b}
hfg'xf;] \ / cGtdf lapsf sfdx¿sf] ;"rL k:| tt' ug'x{ f;] \ .
ljm| ofsnfk 2 lapsf] 5/fOsf ks| f/
sIffsf7] fsf] cj:yf x]/L ljBfyL{x¿sf] ;ª\Vofsf cfwf/df 4 jf ;fe] Gbf a9L ;d"x
lgdf{0f ugx' f;] \ . k|Tos] ;d"xnfO{ lapsf] 5/fOsf 4 tl/sf -hgfj/, xfjf, kfgL / cfkm}
km6' /] _ nl] vPsf d]6fsf8d{ Wo] Ps Ps cf6] f ljt/0f ub{} 5nkmn ug{ lbgx' f];\ . k|To]s
;d"xdf cfkmn" fO{ k/]sf] 5/fOsf] k|sf/sf af/d] f n]Vg lgbz{] g ugx'{ f];\ . ljBfyL{n] nV] g]
jm| ddf ;xhLs/0f ug'{xf];\ .
kT| o]s ;d"xaf6 k|ltlglwTj xg' ] u/L k|:t't ug{ nufpg'xf;] \ . ;d"x k|:tl' tkl5 cfkmn" ]
agfPsf] rf6{ k:| tt' ub{} yk ki| 6 kfl/lbg'xf;] \ . o; ljm| ofsnfkdf ltnsf] sf];f,
km"n;lxtsf] l;?, cDaf cflb sIffdf nu]/ bv] fpg' /fd|f] x'G5 .
-u_ dN" ofªs\ g

x xfdL lsg lap 55f}{ <
x lapn] s] sfd u5{ <
x lapsf] 5/fO{ s;/L s;/L xG' 5 <
x dflg; tyf hLjhGtå' f/f lap s;/L 5l/G5 <
x xfjf tyf kfgLåf/f lap s;/L 5l/G5 <
-3) kl/ofh] gf sfo{
cfkmg\ f] 3/df lap s;/L 5l/Fbf] /x5] < ;fW] f/] sIffdf k|:tt' ug'{xf;] \ .

177

lbg 10 lapsf] cªs\ '/0f / cfjZos cj:yfx¿

-s_ ljlzi6 p2Z] o

x lap cª\s/' 0fsf] kl/ro lbg

x lapsf] cªs\ /' 0f xg' cfjZos cj:yfx¿ atfpg
-v_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f ljm| ofsnfk
ljm| ofsnfk 1
sIffsf ljBfyL{x¿dWo] s]xLnfO{ tnsf kZ| g ug{'xf;] \ M

(a) lapleq e|"0f sg' cj:yfdf /x]sf] xG' 5 <
(b) lap cª\s/' 0f egs] f] s] xf] <
ljBfyLx{ ¿af6 k|fKt pTt/ zI} fl0fs kf6Ldf l6kL sIffdf 5nkmn u/fpg'xf];\ . 6;' f
knfPsf] rgf jf cGo lap b]vfO{ lap cª\s/' 0faf/] atfpgx' f];\ .
ljm| ofsnfk 2
kf7sf] k|ofu] fTds ljm| ofsnfk 1 cg;' f/sf] k|ofu] u/L sIffsf ljBfyLx{ ¿nfO{ kfnk} fnf]
cjnf]sg u/fpg'xf];\ . -las/ kf| Kt geP Knfl:6ssf af]tn sf6]/, las/ h:tf]
agfpg ;lsG5 . _ cjnfs] gkl5 lgDg kZ| g ;f]Wg'xf];\ .
(a) kfgLleq ;fgf] 6';f b]lvG5 t/ kfgLaflx/ /xs] f lap lsg cªsl' /t ePg <
(b) larsf] lap cªs\ l' /t eO{ kftx¿ klg bl] vgs' f] sf/0f s] xf] <
pko{'St k|Zgdf ljBfyLs{ f pTt/ zI} fl0fs kf6Ldf l6kL sIffdf 5nkmn u/fpgx' f];\ .
aF'bfut ¿kdf n]lvPsf] rf6s{ f] dbtn] ljBfyLx{ ¿nfO{ yk ki| 6 kfl/lbg'xf;] \ .
-u_ dN" ofª\sg
i. ;V' vf 7fpFdf lap pld|Fb}g, lsg <
ii. w]/} lr;f] 7fpFdf lap pldF|bg} , lsg <
iii. s:tf] jftfj/0fdf lap pld|G5 <
iv. cªs\ /' 0f x'g cfjZos cj:yfx¿ eP klg slxn]sfxL lap pld|Fbg} , lsg <
v. w]/} ulx/f] hldgd'lg ufl8Psf] lap cªs\ '/0f xbF' }g, lsg <

178

-3_ kl/of]hgf sfo{
;'Vvf df6f,] lr:ofg ePsf] df6f] tyf kfgL / df6f] a/fa/L ePsf] n]bf] df6f]nfO{
PsPs cf]6f Knfl:6ssf] y}nfdf /fVg nufpg] -20–30 gm hlt dfq_ . kT| os] df
Pp6fPp6f lap - pknAw xg' ;Sg] s'g} cGg jf af8] L hftsf _ /f]Kg eGg] /
logLx¿nfO{ ko| fu] zfnf -jf sIffsf]7f _ df /fvL 2–4 lbgkl5 cjnfs] g ubf{ x'g]
kl/jtg{ sf] k|ltjb] g tof/ ug{ nufpg'xf;] \ .
-ª_ kf| ljlws zAbfjnL
OlDa|of] – e0'| f
8f/] dfG6 – ;'ifK' t cj:yf
hld{g;] g – lapsf] cª\s/' 0f
-r_ lzIfssf nflu ljifoj:ts' f] yk ki[ 7kfi] f0f

x lapsf] cª\s/' 0f xg' ;i' f'Kt cj:yfaf6 ;lj|mo agfpg cgs' 'lnt jftfj/0f
cfjZos xG' 5 .

x cgs' "n jftfj/0fdf
lapaf6 gofF la?jf
aGg] kl| j|mofnfO{ lap
cª\s/' 0f elgG5 .

x lap g/d x'g /
lapsf] afj] |mfaf6
;lhn;} Fu /l] 8sn
aflx/ lg:sL h/fdf
kl/0ft x'g kfgLsf]
h?/t k5{ .

x lapsf] cªs\ /' 0fsf
nflu pkoS' t
tfkjm| d -250 bl] v
300 _ sf]
cfjZostf k5{ .
Go"g tfkj|md tyf pRr tfkj|mddf lapsf] cª\s/' 0f xbF' g} .

x lapsf] cª\s/' 0fsf a]nf sf]if ljefhg / sfi] fsf] j[b\lwsf nflu zlStsf]
cfjZostf k5{ . clS;hgsf] pkl:yltdf dfq zlSt kf| Kt x'G5 .

179

lbg 11 km"n kmN' g] la?jfsf] hLjg rj|m
-s_ ljlzi6 p2]Zo

x km' nsf ljleGg efux¿sf] agfj6 / sfoaf/] kl/lrt eO j0fg{ ug{
-v_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f ljm| ofsnfk

lj|mofsnfk 1: km' nsf ljleGg efux¿

x sIffsf ;a} ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ PsPs cf]6f kmn" lbg'xf];\ . cfkmn" ] xftdf lnPsf
kmn" sf ljleGg efux¿sf af/d] f ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ cjnfs] g ug{ eGg'xf;] \ .
km"nsf] rf/} cf6] f efusf] :ki6 x'g] u/L lrq sf]g{ nufpgx' f;] \ . km"nsf]
xl/of], /ª\uLg / leqL efu -:qLs]z/, ks'F ]z/ / uef{zo_ klxrfg ug{
;xhLs/0f ugx{' f];\ .

lj|mofsnfk 2 : kmn" sf ljleGg efusf sfox{ ¿

x Pp6f km"n lnO{ o;sf kT| os] efusf] kb| zg{ ub{} kmn" sf efun] ug{]
sfo{x¿sf ;Gbe{df 5nkmn ugx{' f];\ . ljBfyL{nfO{ k|To]s efudf sfox{ ¿ eGg
nufpg'xf];\ / cfkm"n] af]8d{ f l6kf]6 ub{} hfgx' f];\ . cGtdf cfkm';Fu ePsf]
rf6{ jf af8] d{ f :ki6 lrq sf]/L km"nsf ljleGg efu / o;sf sfo{x¿sf
af/d] f cfjZos ;xhLs/0f ug'x{ f;] \ / lgisifd{ f kU' gx' f];\ .

-Uf_ dN" ofªs\ g
x kmn" sf k|d'v efux¿ s] s] xg' \ <
x o; efusf] gfd s] xf] < -lrq b]vfpbF _}
x lkl:6ndf s] s] efu xG' 5g\ <

-3_ kl/of]hgf sfo{

wt'/fs] f] km"n, 3G6L kmn" jf cGo sg' } kmn" -h;df :qLs] z] / kª' s\ ]z/ ;lhn} 56' \ofpg
;lsof];\ _ sf] xa]l{ /od (Herbarium) agfpg nufpg'xf;] \ .
-ª_ k|fljlws zAbfjnL
sepal M kqbn calyx sf] Psn kq
petal M k'ikbn corolla sf] Psn kq
Stamen M lkmnfdG] 6 / k/fusfi] f ePsf] Ps efn] cªu\
Carpel (pistil) M uef{zo, :6fOn / l:6Udf ldn]/ ag]sf] kfy] L cª\u

180

-r_ yk cWoog ;fduL|

x kqbn, ki' kbn, kª' \s]z/ / :qLs]z/ ePsf] k"0f{ km"n xf] . ck0" f{ kmn" df kmn" sf
rf/ efudWo] sg' } Ps efu cg'kl:yt x'G5 .

x kmn" sf] dxTTjk"0f{ cªu\ kh| gg;uF ;DalGwt xG' 5 . o;df :6fd]g / sfk]n{
/x]sf x'G5g\ .

x kqbn / k'ikbn kmn" sf ;xfos cª\u xg' \ . kqbnn] km"nnfO{ sf]lknf
cj:yfdf ;+/If0f u5{ eg] k'ikbnn] km"nnfO{ a9L cfsifs{ agfpg'sf ;fy}
k/fu;r] g lj|mofdf dxTTjk0" f{ e"ldsf lgjfx{ u5{ .

lbg 12 k/fu;r] g / uefw{ fg

-s_ ljlzi6 p2]Zo

x k/fu;]rgsf] kl/ro lbg

x km"n kmN' g] la?jfdf xg' ] uef{wfg k|lj|mof atfpg

x la?jfsf] hLjgrjm| JofVof ug{
-v_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f lj|mofsnfk

lj|mofsnfk 1 M k/fu;r] g kl| jm| of

x :jk/fu;r] g / k/k/fu;]rg ePsf] rf6{ jf lrq k:| t't ug'x{ f];\ /
k/fu;r] g, :jk/fu;]rg / k/k/fu;]rg oL ltg k|ljm| ofsf af/]df 5nkmn
ub}{ zI} fl0fs kf6Ldf l6kf6] ub{} hfg'xf;] \ . pSt sfod{ f cfkm"n] ;xhLs/0f
ugx' f];\ . :jk/fu;r] g / k/k/fu;r] gsf] rf6{ cfjZos lgb{z] g;lxt
cjnfs] g ug{ nufpgx' f;] \ / cjnfs] gkl5 yk ki| 6 kfl/lbg'xf];\ .

ljm| ofsnfk 2

x lrq 16.19 / sf] /ªu\ Lg rf6{ cfjZos lgbz{] g;lxt cWoog ug{
nufpgx' f];\ . o; qmddf cfkm"n] ;xhLs/0f ug{'xf];\ . ;dx" df 5nkmn u/L
lrq agfpg lgb]z{ g lbgx' f];\ / uef{wfgaf/] k|i6 ul/lbg'xf];\ .

lj|mofsnfk 3

x lrq 16. 20 sf] /ªlug rf6{ bv] fO{ cWoog ug{ nufpgx' f;] \ / k|ltlglwd'ns
;d"xsf ljBfyLx{ ¿af6 k:| tt' ug{ nufpg'xf];\ . k|:tt' Ldf gk'u s/' fx¿sf]
af/d] f yk k[i7kfi] f0f lbg'xf;] \ . kmn" kmN' g] la?jfsf] ;a} efux¿ emlNsg]
la?jf / la?jfsf] hLjgrj|msf] lrq rf6{ kb| zg{ ugx'{ f];\ . la?jfsf]

181

hLjgrjm| sf ;a} cj:yfx¿sf] ;DaGwdf ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ r/0fut ¿kdf kZ| g
;fW] b} hfg'xf;] \ / cGtdf la?jfsf] hLjgrjm| sf ;a} cj:yfx¿ ;DaGwdf
cfjZos ki[ 7kf]if0f lbg'xf];\ .
-u_ d"Nofªs\ g
x k/fu;r] g / uef{wfgdf s] leGgtf 5 <
x Zyogte egs] f] s] xf] <
x df}/Ln] /; r:' bf kmn" nfO x'g] kmfObf atfpm .
x e0|" f sn] fO{ elgG5 <
x k/fu;]rg, uef{wfg / hLjgrj|msf] s] ;DaGw 5 <
-3_ kl/of]hgf sfo{
x la?jfsf] ljleGg cj:yfsf] lrq agfO{ hLjgrjmsf] rj|msf] rf6{ leTtfdf
6f:F g nufpgx' f];\ .
-ª_ kf| ljlws zAbfjnL
pollination M PGy/af6 k/fus0f lg:sL kf]yL cª\usf] l:6Udf;Dd k'Ug] kl| jm| of
zygote M lgif]lrt c08, According to Biology dictionary ; A zygote is the cell

formed when two gametes fuse during fertilization.Thus the fertilization is
the process of union of two gametes where by the somatic chromosome
number is restored and the development of a new individual is initiated.

ovary M uef{zo
pollen tube M k/fuaf6 lg:s]sf] gnL
-r_ yk cWoog ;fduL|
Pp6f kmn" sf] k/fus0f ToxL km"ns} l:6Udf;Dd kU' g] kl| j|mofnfO{ :jk/fu;r] g elgG5 .
of] lålnª\uL -bisexual_ km"ndf dfq x'G5 . lålnª\uL km"n xg' ] la?jfdf efn] / kf]yL
cªu Pp6} km"ndf kfOG5 . o; k|sf/sf] k/fu;r] gaf6 ;Gtltdf ljleGgtf kfOb}g .
Pp6f km"nsf] k/fus0f csf]{ km"nsf] l:6Udf;Dd k'Ug] kl| j|mofnfO{ k/k/fu;]rg elgG5 .
o; ks| f/sf] k/fu;r] gaf6 ;Gtltdf ljleGgtf cfpF5 / ;Gtfg :j:y x'G5 .
efn] n}ªl\ us sfi] f / kf]yL n}ªl\ us sfi] f ldnL o'Udh Zyogte aGg] k|lj|mofnfO{ uef{wfg
elgG5 . uefw{ fg ePsf] kT| o]s l8Dasfi] f lapsf ¿kdf ljsl;t x'G5 .

182

:jk/fu;r] g / k/k/fu;r] gsf nflu lrqx¿

183

PsfO{ 17 sfi] f / tGt'

cg'dflgt 3G6L M 9 (;4} flGts 6 ko| fu] fTds 3)

1. l;sfO{ pknlAw
x Olky]lnod tGt' - hgfj/_ / dl] /:6d]l6s tGt' -jg:klt_ sf] kl/ro lbO{
j0f{g ug{
x dfgj z/L/df sf]if, tGt' / cªu\ sf] cGt/;DaGwsf] JofVof ug{
2. ljifoj:t' ljefhg / l;sfO ;fduL|

lbg ljifoj:t' l;sfO ;fdu|L

1 sfi] f / tGts' f] kl/ro, Olky]lnod sfi] fsf] lrq, Olky]lnod tGts' f]

tGts' f] kl/ro / sfo{ lrq / rf6{ jf :nfO8

2 ke] dG] 6 Olkyl] nod k]ed]G6 / Sol' asn Olky]lnodsf]

So'lasn Olkyl] nod :nfO8, lrq jf rf6{

3 sfn] Dgf/ Olky]lnod sf]nDgf/ / UnfG8n' / Olkyl] nodsf]

UnfG8'n/ Olkyl] nod :nfO8, lrq jf rf6{

4 jg:klt tGt' -dl] /:6dl] 6s tGt' / dl] /:6d]l6s tGt'sf :nfO8, lrq jf

:yfoL tGt'_ rf6{

5 dfgj z/L/df sfi] f, tGt' / cª\usf] sfi] f, tGt', cªu\ sf] lrq

cGt/;DaGw

6 k|0ffnL ljleGg k|0ffnLsf] sfo{ / cª\ux¿sf]

tflnsf

7 k|ofu] fTds sfo{ -s_ h/f tyf sf08sf] h/f tyf sf08sf] 6'Kkf]sf] efu,

6K' kfs] f] efu sf6]/ :nfO8df /fvL :nfO8, ;"Idbz{s oGq, ;fGkm| flgg,

To;df :nfO8n] lyr/] kftnf] agfpg] / se/ :nLk

sx] L yfk] f ;fkm| flgg /fvL se/ :nLkn]

5fk] L ;"Idbz{s oGqdf /fvL xg] {] / lrq

agfpg]

8 k|ofu] fTds sfo{ -v_ dflg;sf] z/L/df sf8{af]8{ kk] /, kl] G;n, O/h] /, dfs{/

kfOg] k0| ffnL, o;sf dV' o cª\ux¿ / kg]

sfo{ ePsf] tflnsf lgdf0{ f ug{ nufpg]

9 k|of]ufTds sfo{ -u_ hGt' / jg:klt sf8{l;6kk] /, l;;fsnd, af8] {dfs{/,

sfi] fsf] lrq agfO{ gfdfªs\ g ug]{ . O/h] /

4. ljlzi6 p2]Zo, l;sfO ;xhLs/0f ljm| ofsnfk / dN" ofª\sg

184

lbg 1 sf]if / tGt,' Olky]lnon tGt'sf] ljzi] ftf / sfo{
-s_ ljlzi6 p2]Zo

x sf]if / tGt'sf] kl/ro lbg
x Olkyl] non tGt' ljz]iftf / sfo{ atfpg
-v_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f ljm| ofsnfk
ljm| ofsnfk 1 sf]if / tGts' f] kl/ro
x lgDg k|Zgx¿ ;f]wL 5nkmn u/fpgx' f];\ .
Pp6f hLjn] hLjge/df s] s] sfo{ ub{5 <
hLjx¿sf] z/L/ s;/L ags] f] x'G5 <
z/L/sf] ;a} eGbf ;fgf] PsfOnfO{ s] elgG5 <
x 5nkmnsf] cfwf/df ;a} cªu\ x¿ sfi] faf6 ags] f x'G5g\ / hLjsf] agf]6cg';f/

hLjg k|ljm| ofx¿ Pp6} sf]if jf a]UnfaU] n} sfi] faf6 xG' 5 egL ki| 6 kfl/lbg'xf;] \ .
x tGts' f] cjwf/0ff ;DaGwdf b|t' n]vg ljlw ko| fu] ug{x' f];\ / ljBfyL{x¿nfO{

Ps Ps u/L nv] ]sf] s/' f k:| tt' ug{ nufpgx' f;] \ .
x ljBfyLn{ ] k:| tt' u/]sf] cfwf/df hgfj/ jf jg:kltsf] tGts' f] rf6{ b]vfpFb}

tGt'sf] cjwf/0ff k|:t't ugx{' f;] \ .
lj|mofsnfk 2 Olkyl] non tGt'sf] kl/ro, ljz]iftf / sfo{x¿

x hgfj/x¿df w]/} sf]ifx¿sf] ;dx" ldnL] tGt' ags] f] x'G5 / tL tGt' ljleGg
k|sf/sf x'G5g\ egL hgfj/ tGts' f k|sf/ nl] vPsf] rf6{ kb| zg{ ug'{xf];\ .

hgfj/ tGts' f ks| f/ M Olkyl] non tGt', dfz+ n tGt', ;o+ f]hL tGt' / :gfo' tGt' .
x hgfj/sf tGt'dWo] Olkyl] nod tGts' f] lrq jf pknAw x'g;s] Olkyl] nod

tGts' f] :nfO8 kb| zg{ ub}{ ljBfyL{x¿df ;dx" ut 5nkmn ug{ nufpgx' f];\ .
x 5nkmndf Olky]lnod tGt'sf] kl/ro, Olky]lnon tGt' kfOg] :yfg / o;sf

ljz]iftfx¿ s] s] xg' ;S5g\ eGg] s'/f 5nkmnkl5 rf6å{ f/f Olky]lnon
tGts' f] ljz]iftf klxrfg ug{ nufpgx' f;] \ .
x Olky]lnon tGt'n] s] s] sfd u5{ < eGg] k|Zgdf ljBfyLn{ fO{ ;fR] g nufO
k:| t't ug{ nufpgx' f];\ / ljBfyLn{ ] k:| tt' u/s] f s/' fx¿nfO{ zI} fl0fs kf6Ldf

185

n]Vb} hfgx' f;] \ / cGtdf o;n] ug]{ sfo{x¿nfO{ Olky]lnon tG'sf] lrqsf]
dfWodaf6 aFb' fut ¿kdf k|i6 kfgx'{ f;] \ .
lgisif{ M 9fSg,] arfpg,] ;f| j ug,{] lgisf;g ug{] / ;f:] g] h:tf sfo{x¿ Olky]lnon
tGtn' ] ub5{ .
-u_ dN" ofªs\ g

x sfi] f / tGt'df s] km/s 5 <
x hgfj/ tGts' f k|sf/x¿ s] s] xg' \ <
x Olky]lnod tGt'sf s'g} ltg cf]6f ljz]iftfx¿ eg .
x Olky]lnod tGt'n] ug{] sg' } rf/cf]6f sfo{x¿ s] s] xfn] fg\ <
-3_ kl/ofh] gf sfo{
s'v/' fsf] z/L/sf] aflx/L efuleqsf] tGt' sf7sf] 6'j|mfn] la:tf/} lgsfnL Pp6f
:nfO8df /fv/] ;I" dbzs{ oGqdf x]g{ nufpgx' f];\ / of] sg' ks| f/sf] tGt';uF
ldNbf]h'Nbf] 5 < klxrfg ug{ nufpgx' f;] \ ;fy} ;f] adfl] hdsf] lrq sf]g{ nufO{
sIffdf k:| t't ug{ nufpg'xf];\ .
-ª_ kf| ljlws zAbfjnL
Epithelial tissue M z/L/ jf o;sf cªu\ x¿sf] ;aeGbf aflx/L kq
-r_ yk cWoog ;fdu|L
Pp6} cfsf/ ks| f/sf sfi] fx¿ ldnL ags] f] ;d"xnfO{ tGt' elgG5 . o;n] vf;
ks| f/sf] sfo{ ub5{ . hgfj/df 4 ks| f/sf tGtx' ¿ kfOG5g\ . tL o; k|sf/ 5g\M

epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscle tissue, and nervous tissue .

hgfj/sf] z/L/sf cª\ux¿sf] aflx/L efu Olky]lnon tGtn' ] ags] f] xG' 5 . of]
tGt' r]K6f, ufn] fsf/, So'lasn / ;lGwdo x'G5g\ . 5fnfsf] aflx/L kq, / d'v,
gfs kmf]S;f] tyf k6] sf] dflyNnf] ;txsf] kftnf] tx Olkyl] nod tGt' xf] . oL tGt'
rK] 6f, uf]nfsf/, So'lasn / u|lGydo x'G5g\ .

186

lbg 2 k]ed]G6 / Sol" asn Olkyl] non tGt'
-s_ ljlzi6 p2]Zo

x k]edG] 6 Olky]lnon tGt' kfOg] :yfg, o;sf] cfsf/ / sfo{ atfpg
x So'lasn Olky]lnon tGt' kfOg] :yfg, o;sf] cfsf/ / sfo{ pNn]v ug{
-v_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f lj|mofsnfk
lj|mofsnfk 1 k]edG] 6 Olky]lnon tGt' kfOg] :yfg, o;sf] cfsf/ / sfo{
x Hfgfj/ tGts' f] k|sf/sf] :d/0f u/fpg bt"| n]vg ljlw ko| f]u ug{x' f;] \ . h'g

ljBfyL{n] klxnf hgfj/ tGt'sf ks| f/sf] gfd atfp5, p;nfO{ :ofjf;L
lbg'xf];\ .
x Hfgfj/ tGt'sf k|sf/sf] gfdfs+ g gu/]sf] rf6{ kb| z{g ug{'xf;] \ / rf/ ks| f/sf
hgfj/ tGt' 56' o\ fpg nufpg'xf;] \ .
x Hfgfj/ tGts' f ks| f/ Olkyl] non tGt'sf] k|sf/sf] rf6{ b]vfO{ o;sf] kl/ro
lbgx' f;] \ / of] kfOg] :yfgsf af/]df 5nkmn ug'{xf;] \ .
x ke] dG] 6 Olkyl] non tGtn] s] s] sfd u5{ xfn] f ;fR] g nufpg'xf];\ / ;f]rs] f]
s'/fx¿ Kf|:t't ug{ nufpgx' f];\ .
x k':tssf] ljm| ofsnfk g+= 1 u/fpgx' f];\ / lrq sfg] { nufpgx' f];\ .
x lrqsf] dfWodaf6 k]edG] 6 Olky]lnon tGt' kfOg] :yfg, cfsf/ / sfo{
atfpg nufpgx' f];\ / ljBfyL{x¿n] k:| tt' u/s] f ljrf/x¿sf] cfwf/df lgisif{
lbg'xf];\ .
lj|mofsnfk 2 So'lasn Olky]lnon tGt' kfOg] :yfg, o;sf] cfsf/ / sfo{
x So"lasn Olky]lnon tGt'sf] lrq rf6{ k|bzg{ ug[x' f];\ / of] kfOg] :yfg,
o;sf] cfsf/ tyf sfoa{ f/] 5nkmn u/fpg'xf];\ .
x ;Dej eP ;Dd So'lasn Olky]lnon tGt'sf] :nfO8 ;"Idbz{s oGqdf /fv/]
cjnf]sg u/fpg'xf];\ / lrq sfg] { nufpg'xf];\ .
-u_ dN" ofª\sg
x ke] dG] 6 / Sol' asn Olky]lnon tGt'sf sfox{ ¿ s] s] xg' \ <
x ke] d]G6 / Sol' asn Olkyl] non tGt'x¿ sxfF sxfF kfOG5g\ <
x k]edG] 6 / Sol' asn Olky]lnon tGtx' ¿sf] cfsf/ s:tf] s:tf] x'G5 <

-3_ kl/ofh] gf sfo{
k]edG] 6 / Sol' asn Olky]lnon tGt'sf] lrq sfg] { nufO{ sfo{ k:| tt' ug{ nufpg'xf;] \ .

187

-ª_ k|fljlws zAbfjnL
ke] dG] 6 Olkyl] nodM Pavement or Squamous epithelium is classified as

endothelium, which lines the blood vessels and the heart, and
mesothelium, which lines the serous cavities.

Sol' asn Olkyl] nod M Epithelium consisting of cube-shaped or prismatic cells

with height about equal to their width.

-r_ yk cWoog ;fduL|
ljleGg cfsf/ ;fOhsf] r]k6f] Ps kq ePsf] tGt' ke] dG] 6 tGt' xf] . o;n] kmfS] ;f,]
d'6,' du[ fn} f / /StgnL cflb ljleGg efusf] aflx/L cfj/0f ag]sf] xG' 5 .
3gfsf/ sf]ifx¿sf] Ps kqn] 9flsPsf] tGt' Sol" asn Olkyl] non xf] . o; ks| f/sf]
tGt' du[ f}nfleqsf gnLx¿, yfO/fO8 ul| Gy, lg:sf;g ul| Gy tyf uef{zosf] leqL
efudf kfOG5 .

There are three principal shapes of epithelial cell: squamous,
columnar, and cuboidal. These can be arranged in a single layer of
cells as simple epithelium, either squamous, columnar, cuboidal,
pseudo-stratified columnar or in layers of two or more cells deep as
stratified (layered), either squamous, columnar or cuboidal.
All glands are made up of epithelial cells. Functions of epithelial cells
include secretion, selective absorption, protection, transcellular
transport, and sensing.
Epithelial layers contain no blood vessels, so they must receive
nourishment via diffusion of substances from the underlying
connective tissue, through the basement membrane. Cell
junctions are well-employed in epithelial issues.

188

Tissues
189

lbg 3 sfn] Dgf/ / UnfG8'n/ Olky]lnon tGt'

-s_ ljlzi6 p2]Zo
x sfn] Dgf/ Olky]lnon tGt' kfOg] :yfg, o;sf] cfsf/ / sfo{ atfpg
x UnfG8'n/ Olky]lnon tGt' kfOg] :yfg, o;sf] cfsf/ / sfo{ j0fg{ ug{

-v_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f ljm| ofsnfk
lj|mofsnfk g=+ 1 sf]nDgf/ Olkyl] non tGt' kfOg] :yfg, o;sf] cfsf/ / sfo{

x sfn] Dgf/ Olky]lnon tGts' f] lrq kfnk} fnf] b]vfO{ oL tGtx' ¿sf] af/]df
;dx" ut ¿kdf ljBfyL{x¿lar 5nkmn ub}{ of] tGt' kfOg] :yfgsf af/]df
5nkmn u/fpgx' f;] \ .

x ;Dej eP;Dd sf]nDgf/ Olky]lnon tGt'sf] :nfO{8nfO{ ;I" dbz{s oGqdf
/fv]/ cjnfs] g u/fO{ cjnf]sg ul/Psf] cfwf/df pSt tGt'sf] lrq agfpg
nufpg'xf];\ .

x o; tGt'sf] ljz]iftf / sfo{ s] s] xf]nfg\ To; ;DaGwdf ;dx" ut 5nkmn ug{
nufO{ k|:tt' ug{ nufpg'xf];\ .

x ljBfyL{x¿n] ;dx" ut ¿kdf 5nkmn u/L k:| t't u/]sf] kIfx¿nfO{ ;d6] L
lrqsf] dfWodaf6 sfn] Dgf/ Olky]lnon tGt'sf] cfsf/,kfOg] :yfg / sfo{
k:| t't ug'{xf];\ .

lj|mofsnfk g+= 2 UnfG8'n/ Olkyl] non tGt' kfOg] :yfg, o;sf] cfsf/ / sfo{
x ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ cfjZos ;ª\Vofdf ljefhg ug'{xf];\ / k|To]s ;dx" nfO{
UnfG8'n/ Olkyl] non tGts' f] lrq ljt/0f ug'{xf;] \ .
x lrqsf] cfwf/df UnfG8n' / Olky]lnon tGt'sf] cfsf/, kfOg] :yfg / sfo{
;DAfGwdf 5nkmn ug{ nufO{ ;d"xut ¿kdf k|:tt' ug{ nufpg'xf];\ .
x ;dx" sf] k:| tt' L kZrft\ cfjZos ki[ 7kf]if0f eP kb| fg ugx'{ f;] \ .

-u_ dN" ofª\sg
x sf]nDgf/ Olkyl] nod / UnfG8n' / Olky]lnon tGt'sf] hLJfsf] s'g efudf
kfOG5g\ <
x sfn] Dgf/ Olky]lnod / UnfG8'n/ Olkyl] nod tGt'sf] sfo{ s] s] xfn] f <
x sfn] Dgf/ Olky]lnon tGt' geP s] xG' 5 xf]nf <

190

-3_ kl/ofh] gf sfo{

sf]nDgf/ / UofG8'n/ Olky]lnod tGts' f] lrq sfg] { nufO{ ltgLx¿sf] sfo{ k:| t't ug{
nufpg'xf];\ .

-ª_ kf| ljlws zAbfjnL

a. columnar epithelium: Epithelium composed of cylindrical cells.

nfDrf] cfsf/df Ps kq] tGt' a;] d]G6 d]Dag|] df /x/] of] tGt' ags] f] xG' 5 . o; ks| f/sf]
tGt'n] k6] , cfGb|f, kh| gg k|0ffnL, lkTt y}nL, ¥ofn u|lGysf leqL cªu\ x¿nfO{ 9fs]sf]
xG' 5 . z/L/sf ljleGg efudf kfOg] u|lGyx¿nfO{ 9fs/] /xs] f ;f| a Olky]lnod sf]ifx¿
ags] f

xG' 5g\ . o:tf sf]ifx¿af6 ag]sf tGtn' fO{ u|fG8'n/ tGt' eGb5g\ . oL tGtx' ¿n] Zn]idf
-Mucus_ xdfg]{ , kl;gf, ¥ofn tyf kfrg /; pTkfbg u5g{ \ .

lbg 4 d]l/:6d]l6s tGt'

-s_ ljlzi6 p2]Zo

x dl] /:6dl] 6s tGts' f] kl/ro lbg

x dl] /:6d]l6s tGt' kfOg] :yfg atfpg

x d]l/:6dl] 6s tGt'sf] juL{s/0f u/L sfo{ atfpg

-v_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f lj|mofsnfk

ljm| ofsnfk 1 jg:klt tGts' f] cjnf]sg

la?jfsf] h/f jf sf08sf]

6K' kfs] f] efu An8] n] sf6]/
:nfO8df /fvL dflyaf6 csf{]
:nfO8n] lyr]/ kftnf]
agfpgx' f;] \ . To;df Ps yf]kf

;k] m| flgg /fvL se/ l:nkn]
5fk] /] ;I" dbz{s oGqdf /fvL
ljBfyLx{ ¿nfO{ kfn}kfnf]
cjnf]sg u/fpg'xf;] \ / ;f]sf]
lrq klg agfpg eGg'xf];\ .

ljBfyL{n] lrq agfpbf ;xhLs/0f ug'x{ f;] \ .

191

ljm| ofsnfk 2 d]l/:6dl] 6s tGts' f] kl/ro,agf6] / kfOg] :yfg / ks| f/
x jg:klt tGt'sf] k|sf/sf] rf6{ k:| t't ug{'xf];\ / o;sf k|sf/ klxrfg ug{
nufpgx' f];\ . ;Dej eP ;Dd dl] /:6dl] 6s tGts' f] :nfO8{ ;"Id bzs{ oGqdf
/fvL cjnfs] g ug{ nufO{ lrq agfpg nufpgx' f];\ .
x lrq rf6{sf] dfWodaf6 d]l/:6d]l6s tGt'sf] kfOg] :yfg, o;sf] agf]6
;DaGwdf 5nkmn u/fpgx' f;] \ .
x :nfO8 cjnf]sg jf lrqsf] cjnfs] gsf] cfwf/df d]l/:6d]l6s tGts' f] ks| f/ M
Plksn / Nf6] /n dl] /l:6d / oL tGtn' ] ug{] sfo{ k:| tt' ug{ nufpgx' f;] \ .

-u_ dN" ofªs\ g
x la?jfdf sg' s'g tGt'x¿ kfOG5g\ <
x d]l/:6dl] 6s tGt' eg]sf] s] xf] <
x Plksn / n]6/n dl] /:dl] 6s s] s] sfo{ ub5{ g\ <
x la?jfsf] 6'Kkf] sfl6lbbF f la?jf a9\bg} , lsg\ <
x Plksn dl] /:6d / n6] /n d]l/:6dlar s] s/' fdf km/s kfOg5 <
-3_ kl/ofh] gf sfo{
Rff6{ kk] /df Plksn / n6] /n dl] /:d]l6s tGts' f] lrq sfg] { nufO{ k|:tt' ug{
nufpg'xf];\ .
-ª_ k|fljlws zAbfjnL
Plksn M h/f jf sf08sf] 6'Kkf]
n]6/n M h/f jf sf08sf] 5p] lt/sf] efu
-r_ yk cWoog ;fduL|
jg:kltsf ljleGg efusf 6'Kkfdf /x]sf] tGtn' fO{ d]l/:d]l6s tGt' elgG5 . dl] /:d]l6s
tGt' bO' { ks| f/sf x'G5g\ . Plksn / n]6/n dl] /:d]l6s . Plksn dl] /:6d]l6sn]
nDafOlt/ jl[ 4 u5{ eg] n]6/n d]l/:6d]l6sn] df]6fOlt/ j[l4 u5{ .

Meristem or meristematic tissue is a region of a plant in which active
cell division (MITOSIS) occurs, the cells of the meristem not being
differentiated into a specialist form. Meristematic tissues occur at the
root and shoot tips of plants.

192

Plant tissues in which cells keep on dividing are called meristematic tissue.
Meristematic tissues are present in those parts of plants which keep on
growing. Meristematic tissues are classified on the basis of their location.

193

lbg 5 dfgj z/L/df sf]if, tGt' / cª\usf] cGt/;DaGw
-s_ ljlzi6 p2]Zo

x dfgj z/L/df sfi] f, tGt' / cª\usf] cGt/;DaGw atfpg
-v_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f lj|mofsnfk
lj|mofsnfk 1 : sf]if, tGt' / cª\usf] cGt/;DaGw

x ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ bt'| n]vg ljlwsf] k|ofu] u/L sfi] f, tGt' / cªu\ sf] kl/efiff
nV] g nufO{ k|:t't ug{ nufpgx' f;] \ .

x /ut, xf8, 5fnf, d'6,' kmf]S;f,] sn]hf], d[uf}nf, cfFvf, gfs, d'v dWo] s'g s'g
sf]if, tGt' / cª\u x'g\ 5'6o\ fpg nufpgx' f];\ / sf/0f ;dt] k:| tt' ug{
nufgx' f];\ .

x sf]if, tGt' / cª\usf] ;DaGw emlNsg] lrq, rf6{ k|bz{g ug'{xf];\ / ltgLx¿sf]
cGt/;DaGwsf af/d] f 5nkmn u/fpg'xf;] \ .

x dlN6ldl8of k|fh] ]S6/sf] ;xfotfaf6 sfi] f, tGt' / cªu\ sf] cGt/;DaGw
;DaGwL lel8of] jf Plgd;] g ;fduL| k|:tt' ugx'{ f;] \ / ljBfyL{x¿nfO{
cjnf]sg u/L dV' o dV' o s/' fx¿sf] l6kf6] ug{ nufpgx' f];\ .

x ljBfyL{x¿n] l6kf6] u/s] f s'/fx¿ k|:tt' ug{ nufpgx' f;] \ / ljBfyL{x¿nfO{
yk lh1f;f eP /fVg nufpgx' f;] \ / cfjZos k[i7kfi] f0f k|bfg ugx{' f];\ .

-u_ d"Nofª\sg
x sf]if eg]sf] s] xf] <
x sfi] f slt k|sf/sf x'G5g\ <
x tGt' eg]sf] s] xf] <
x z/L/sf cªu\ x¿ s;/L aGb5g\ <
x d[uf}nf PseGbf a9L sfo{ ug]{ cªu\ xf,] s;/L <

-3_ kl/of]hgf sfo{
dflg;sf] z/L/df kfOg] sf]if, tGt' / cª\ux¿sf] cGt/;DaGw emNsfpg] rf6{ jf lrq
jf tflnsf lgdf0{ f ug{ nufpg'xf;] \ .
-ª_ kf| ljlws zAbfjnL
sfi] f -Cell_ M hLljt j:t'x¿sf] ;a}eGbf ;+/rgfTds / sfofT{ ds PsfO
tGt' -Tissue_ M Ps} cfsf/ / k|sf/sf lglZrt sfd ug]{ sfi] fx¿sf] ;dx"
cªu\ -Organ_M s'g} lglZrt sfd ug]{ tGt'x¿sf] ;d"x

194

lbg 6 k0| ffnL
-s_ ljlzi6 p2]Zo

x k|0ffnLsf] kl/efiff lbg

x dfgj z/L/sf ljleGg k|0ffnLx¿sf] gfd / ltgsf d'Vo sfo{ atfpg

-v_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f lj|mofsnfk

ljm| ofsnfk 1 k|0ffnLsf] kl/ro, ks| f/ / k0| ffnLdf ;dflxt cª\ux¿

x ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ gf} ;dx" df ljefhg ug'{xf;] \ / kT| o]s ;d"xnfO{ tkl;nsf
cªu\ x¿ Nf]lvPsf] d]6fsf8{ ljt/0f ugx{' f];\ / pSt cªu\ x¿ ldn/] aGg]
k|0ffnLsf] gfd eGg nufpgx' f;] \ .

xf8 / s/' s'/] xf8 Dff+ ;n / 5fnf cfdfzo, cfGb|f

Dfl:tis, ;'if'Dgf / :gfo' Dfu[ fn} f, snh] f] / dq" yn} L Zjf; gnL / kmfS] ;f]

c08sfi] f, cG8f;o ¥ofn u|GyL, lk6o\ '6/L u|GyL / Df'6' / /StgnL
yfO/f]O8 uG| yL

x Pp6f ;dx" n] k|:t't ul/;s]kl5 cGo ;dx" nfO{ ;f] ;dx" n] k|:tt' u/]sf] s'/f
l7s xf] jf xfO] g atfpg nufpgx' f;] \ . Pjd\ jm| dn] ;a} ;dx" nfO{ k:| t't ug{
nufpgx' f;] \ .

x Gffc} f6] } ;d"xn] k|:t't u/]kZrft\ k|0ffnLsf] kl/efiff lbg nufpg'xf];\ .

lj|mofsnfk 2 k|0ffnLsf sfo{x¿

x Dffly plNnlvt ;d"xnfO{ g} Ps Ps cf]6f k|0ffnLsf] lrq ljt/0f ugx{' f];\ /
pSt k0| ffnLn] ug{] sfo{x¿sf] ;r" L agfpg nufpg'xf];\ .

x ;dx" n] pSt sfo{ ;s] kZrft\ leTtfdf 6]kn] 6fF:g nufpgx' f];\ / Uofn/L
lx8fO u/fO{ k[i7kfi] f0f eP nV] g nufpg'xf];\ .

x ljBfyL{sf] Uofn/L lx8F fO / ki[ 7kfi] f0f kZrft\ ;dUfd| f kT| o]s k0| ffnL, o;df
efu lng] cª\ux¿ / k|0ffnLn] ug]{ sfo{x¿sf] af/]df >JobZ[ o ;fduL| k:| t't
ugx'{ f];\ / lgisif{ lbgx' f;] \ .

-u_ dN" ofª\sg

x cl:yk~h/ k0| ffnLsf sfox{ ¿ s] s] xg' \ <
x :gfo' k0| ffnLsf] d'Vo sfo{ n]Vg'xf;] \ .
x kfrg k|0ffnLdf efu lng] cªu\ x¿ s] s] xg' \ <

195

x k|hgg k0| ffnL egs] f] s] xf] <
x z/L/df clS;hg / vfgf k'¥ofpg] sfo{ s'g k0| ffnLn] ub{5 < o; k0| ffnLdf

efu lng] cª\ux¿ s] s] xg' \ <
-3_ kl/of]hgf sfo{
dflg;sf] z/L/df kfOg] k0| ffnL / o;sf dV' o cªu\ x¿ tyf sfo{ k|i6 x'g] u/L tflnsf
agfpg nufpg'xf];\ .
-ª_ kf| ljlws zAbfjnL
k0| ffnL -System_ M s'g}] Ps jf PseGbf a9L sfo{ ug{sf nflu ldn/] ag]sf
cª\ux¿sf] ;dx"
lbg 7/8/9 k|ofu] fTds sfo{
lbg Kf|ofu] fTds sfo{
7 -s_ jg:klt tGts' f] :nfO8 lgdf0{ f / cjnf]sg

x kTtLsf] ;xfotfaf6 h/f tyf sf08sf] 6K' kf]sf] efu sf6/] jfr Unf;df
/fVgx' f];\ .

x jfr Unf;df s]xL yf]kf ;K] f|mflgg /fVgx' f];\ / se/ l:nkn] 5f]kL ;"Idbz{s
oGqdf /fvL x]g{ nufpgx' f;] \ / lrq agfpg nufpg'xf];\ .

8 -v_ dflg;sf] z/L/df kfOg] k|0ffnL, o;sf dV' o cª\ux¿ / sfo{ ePsf] tflnsf
lgdf0{ f ug{ nufpgx' f;] \ / k:| t't ug{ nufpg'xf;] \ .

9 -u_ hGt' / jg:klt sfi] fsf] lrq agfpg nufpgx' f];\ / gfdfªs\ g ug{ nufO{
k|:t't ug{ nufpgx' f;] \ .

196

PsfO 18 hLjg kl| jm| of
cgd' flgt 3G6L M 12 ( ;}4flGts 10 / ko| fu] fTds 2)

1. l;sfO pknlAw

x la?jf / hgfj/df x'g] cdy} l' gs / dy} l' gs k|hgg lj|mofsf] j0fg{ ug{

x dfgj z/L/ /St;~rf/ k|0ffnLaf/] kl/ro lbg / kl| jm| of j0f{g ug{

x la?jfdf xg' ] k|sfz ;+Zni] f0f ljm| ofsf] kl/ro lbg / k|ofu] ug{

2. ljifoj:t' ljefhg / l;sfO ;fdu|L

lbg ljifoj:t' l;sfO ;fduL|

1 hLjg k|ljm| of, kh| gg -jg:klt / cd}yl' gs k|hggsf] lrq jf rf6{
hGt'df xg' ] k|hgg_\ cd}y'lgs k|hgg\sf la?jf -af| ofk] mfOnd_
k|sf/ / kmfObf

2 jg:klt / hGtd' f x'g] dy} 'lgs k|hgg, la?jf / hgfj/sf] dy} l' gs k|hgg
uef{wfg, dy} 'lgs kh| ggsf k|sf/ / rf6{
kmfObf

3 dfgj /St;~rf/ k|0ffnL / /utsf] :nfO8, /ut, ;"Idbz{s oGq, rf6{ -
agf6] jgfj6 / sfo{ _

4 d'6' / o;sf] agf6] , eNe / o;sf] sfd d6' s' f] lrq / df]8n

5 /StgnLx¿, /St;~rfng kl| jm| of /StgnL / /St;~rf/ kl| j|mofsf] lrq

6 ks| fz ;+Zn]if0f lj|mof Kf|sfz ;Z+ ni] f0f lj|mofsf] lrq

7 xl/of] la?jfsf] kftdf /x]sf] :6fr{ lj|mofsnfk g+=1 sf] ko| f]u ugs{ f nflu

k/LIf0f -las/, cNsf]xn, cfofl] 8g, xl/of] kft

/ jfrUnf;_

8 ks| fz ;Z+ ni] f0f kl| jm| ofdf k|sfzsf] las/, cNsfx] n, cfofl] 8g, 6k]
cfjZostf nufPsf] kft / jfrUnf;

9 k|sfz ;+Zni] f0f k|ljm| ofdf sfa{g sfl:6s kf]6f; / Knfl:6ssf] y}nf],
8fOcS;fO8 UofF;sf] cfjZostf la?jf

10 k|sfz ;+Zni] f0f kl| j|mofdf clS;hg kfgLdf pd|g] la?jf, ljs/, ;fn] L /

6]i66\oa'

k|= Kff7\ok':tssf] k|ofu] fTds lj|mofsnfk ljBfyL{ :jod\

1

k|= Kff7o\ k':tssf] k|of]ufTds lj|mofsnfk 3 la?jf;lxtsf] udnf

3. ljlzi6 p2]Zo, l;sfO ;xhLs/0f ljm| ofsnfk / dN" ofª\sg

197

lbg 1 hLjg kl| j|mof, k|hgg / cdy} l' gs kh| ggsf ks| f/

-s_ ljlzi6 p2]Zo
x hLjg k|ljm| ofsf] kl/ro lbg
x jg:klt / hGtd' f xg' ] cd}yl' gs kh| gg\sf] k|sf/ / o;sf] kmfObf atfpg

-v_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f lj|mofsnfk
ljm| ofsnfk 1 : hLjgk|lj|mof

x ;j{ky| d ljBfyL{x¿sf] ljifoj:t'k|lt Wofgfsif0{ f u/fpgsf] nflu ;hLjsf]
hLjgkl| j|mof ;DaGwL jfd{ ck -cfwf ;s] G8 hlt gfs / d'v aGb ubfs{ f]
36gf jf cGo sg' } lj|mofsnfk_ ;~rfng ug{x' f];\ .

x ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ 5 ;d"x agfpgx' f;] \ / k|Tos] ;d"xnfO{ tnsf Ps Ps k|Zgsf]
af/]df ;fd"lxs 5nkmn u/L k:| t't ug{ nufpgx' f];\ .

-c_ ;hLjn] o; ;+;f/df hLljt /xg s'g s'g k|ljm| ofx¿ ;~rfng u/s] f x'G5g\ <
-cf_ hLjg kl| j|mof egs] f] s] xf] <
-O_ ;hLjdf k|hgg kl| jm| ofsf] lsg dxTTTj x'G5 <
-O_{ jg:klt / hGt'df xg' ] k|hggdf s] km/s 5 <
k|Tos] kZ| gdf ljBfyLa{ f6 k|fKt pTt/df Ps Ps u/L 5nkmn ub{} ;hLjdf xg' ] hLjg
kl| jm| of / kh| ggsf] dxTTTjaf/] k|i6 kfg{x' f;] \ .
lj|mofsnfk 2 kh| gg cdy} l' gs k|hggs\ f] ks| f/ / pbfx/0f

x ljBfyL{x¿sf] ;ªV\ of cg;' f/ ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ gf} ;dx" df ljefhg ugx'{ f];\ .
x d6] fsf8d{ f n]vs] f lgDg aF'bfx¿ ;dx" ut ¿kdf ljt/0f ugx'{ f;] \ . ;dx" ut

¿kdf tf]lsPsf] ljifoj:t'df 5nkmn ug{sf] nflu cfjZos ;fdu|L lrq rf6{
;d]t ljt/0f ugx'{ f;] \ / 5nkmn ug{ nufO{ uf| lkm6L tl/sfcg';f/ cfjZos
k[i7kfi] f0f lbg nufO{ cGtdf ;dx" af6 Ps Ps hgfnfO{ k|:tt' ug{
nufpgx' f;] \ .
a. k|hgg b. cd}yl' gs k|hgg c. lkm;g d. :kf]?n];g e. al8ª
f. el] h6l] 6e kf| k] fu;] g g. l/h]g]/];g h. km| fUd]G6;] g i. cd}y'lgs kh| gg\sf kmfObf
x cfkmn" ] agfPsf] rf6{ jf lrq jf >Jo bZ[ o ;fduL| k|bz{g u/L ;d"xut ¿kdf
k:| tt' u/s] f cg'ejx¿nfO{ ;d]6L cfjZos ki[ 7kf]if0f lbgx' f];\ .

198