शिक्षक निर्देशिका कक्षा ८

3= k/df0f'sf] agf]6 s:tf] xG' 5 < k/df0f' s] s] ldn]/ ag]sf] x'G5 xfn] f <
x oL kZ| gsf pTt/af6 kj" 1{ fgsf] phfuf/ ub{} ljBfyLs{ f pTt/df cfjZos
;'wf/ ug{] / c0f' / k/df0f'sf] ;xL kl/efiff atfpg nufpgx' f;] \ .

lgisif{ M /f;folgs kl| tlj|mofdf efu lng ;Sg] tTTTjsf] ;a}eGbf ;fgf] s0fnfO{
k/df0f' elgG5 cyf{t\ tTTTjsf] ;a}eGbf ;fgf] s0fnfO{ k/df0f' elgG5 eg] tTTTj jf
of}lussf ;a} u0' fx¿ oyfjt\ /x]sf] ;a} EfGbf ;fgf] s0fnfO{ c0f' elgG5 .
lj|mofsnfk 2. k/df0fs' f] agf6]

x ljBfyL{sf] kT| o]s ;d"xdf k/df0f'sf] agf]6sf] tof/L df8] n] ljt/0f ug{x' f];\ .
lbOPsf] df]8n] sf cfwf/df ljBfyLx{ ¿nfO{ k/df0fd' f On]S6«f]g, kf| ]6fg] / Go6' «f]g
sxfF cjl:yt 5g\ < logsf] rfh{ s] s:tf] x'G5 < egL ;d"xut 5nkmn u/L
k:| t't ug{ nufpgx' f;] \ .

x b[li6ljxLg ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ k/df0f' df8] nsf] :kz{ u/fpg'xf];\ .
lj|mofsnfk 3. k/df0fs' f] agf]6sf] df8] n lgdf0{ f

x lrqdf b]vfOPcg;' f/sf] sfa{g tTTjsf] k/df0fs' f] df]8n sIffdf k|bzg{
ugx'{ f;] \ / ljBfyLn{ fO{ ltgcf6] } pkkf/df0fljs s0fx¿df 5nkmn u/fpgx' f];\ .

x tTkZrft\ ljBfyL{sf] kT| os] ;d"xdf
A4 ;fOhsf] afSnf] sfuh ljt/0f
ug'x{ f;] \ . To;df tf]lsPsf] k/df0f'sf]
agf6] lrq tof/ ug{ nufpgx' f;] \ .
To;df tf/ jf wfuf] hf8] \g
nufpgx' f];\ / leTtfdf 6fF:g] jf
c8\ofpg nufpgx' f;] \ .

x d'ufsf] ;fgf] jf 7n' f] bfgfnfO{
On]S6f« g] dfGg] / plrt ;ª\Vofdf
OnS] 6«fg] /fvL df8] n tof/ u/L
k:| tt' ug{ nufpg'xf;] \ .

x kf/dfl0fs lk08sf] PsfOsf] rrf{ ugx{' f];\ / 1 gm a/fa/ 6x1023 amu -
k/df0fx¿ lk08sf] PsfO xG' 5 egL ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ hfgsf/L u/fpgx' f;] \ .
o;kl5 ljBfyL{nfO{ kf7o\ k:' tssf] k]h g+= 93 df /xs] f] tflnsf cWoog u/L
lgldt{ tTTjsf] k/df0fs' f] agf]6 j0f{g ug{ nufpg'xf];\ / cfjZos ki[ 7kfi] f0f
k|bfg ug'{xf;] \ .

-u_ dN" ofªs\ g

99

x k/df0f' / c0f'df s] leGgtf 5 <
x On]S6«fg] s]nfO{ elgG5 < c0f' eg]sf] s] xf] <
x k/df0fd' f On]S6«f]g, k|f6] fg] / Go'6«fg] sxfF cjl:yt x'G5g <
x On]S6f« ]g, kf| 6] g / Go'6f« g] sf] rfh{ s:tf] xG' 5 <
-3_ kl/ofh] gf sfoM{
Rff6{ kk] /df tf/ jf wfuf], df]tLsf bfgf jf cGg jf cGo j:t' ko| f]u u/L ;f]l8od
kf/df0f' df8] n agfpg nufpg'xf;] \ .
-ª_ lzIfssf nflu yk k[i7kf]if0f
kfgLsf] c0fs' f] df8] n tof/ ug]{
3/ jf ahf/ -k|ofu] zfnfsf] ;fdfg kfOg] k;n_
af6 Ps k|sf/sf] df6f] Nofpgx' f];\ . df6f]af6
Pp6f 7n' f] / c¿ 2 cf]6f ;fgf 8Nnf
agfpgx' f];\ . a/fa/ nDafOsf b'O{ b'O{ cf]6f
3"/3" O~rsf dl;gf afF;sf sK6/] f -jf ;nfOsf
sf6L_ tof/ kfgx{' f];\ . lrqdf b]vfP h:t} 7n' f] /
;fgf df6fsf 8NnfnfO{ sf]0f agfO{ hf8] \gx' f;] \ .
km/s km/s /ª nufO{ 7n' f] df6fsf] 8Nnf]nfO{
clS;hg k/df0f' / ;fgf df6fsf 8NnfnfO{
xfO8f« h] g k/df0f' agfpg'xf;] \ .

lbg 2= k|f]6fg] , On]S6f« g] / Go6' f« g] sf u0' fx¿
-s_ ljlzi6 p2]Zo

x k|f6] f]g, OnS] 6«f]g / Go'6«fg] sf u0' fx¿ atfpg
-v_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f lj|mofsnfk
ljm| ofsnfk 1 pkkf/df0fljs s0fx¿sf] cjwf/0ff
ljifoj:t' ;'? ug'{cl3 cl3Nnf] lbg l;s]sf / k9]sf ljifoj:t'sf af/d] f kZ| g ugx{' f;] \
h:t} M
i= k/df0fs' f pkkf/dfl0fs s0fx¿ -Sub- atomic particles_ s]s] xg' <
ii= Sub-atomic particles df rfh{ s:tf]s:tf] x'G5 <

100

iii= On]S6f« g] , k|f]6g / Go'6«f]g k/df0f'sf] s'g sg' 7fpFdf cjl:yt x'G5g\ <
pSt kZ| gx¿sf] pTt/ 5nkmn ug]{ / cfjZos k[i7kf]if0f kb| fg ug'{xf;] \ .

ljm| ofsnfk 2 pkkf/df0fljs s0fx¿sf u0' fx¿
pkkf/dfl0fs s0fx¿sf] ;ªs\ t] , lk08, rfh{ / /xg]sf :yfgsf cfwf/df kf7\ok':tsdf
/xs] f] kh] g= 93 df /xs] f] tflnsf zI} fl0fs kf6Ldf agfpgx' f;] \ .
o;/L pSt tflnsfcg;' f/ 5nkmn ljlw ckgfO{ On]S6«f]g, kf| ]6f]g / Go'6«f]gsf] u0' fx¿sf]
;"rL tof/ ug{ nufO{ k|:tt' ug{ nufpg] / lzIfsn] cfjZos ki[ 7kf]if0f k|bfg ug]{
ugx{' f;] \ .
-u_ d"Nofª\sg

x pkkf/dfl0fs s0fx¿sf] gfd atfpm .
x On]S6f« g] , k|f]6fg] / Go'6«f]gsf] k/df0f'df cj:yf jf :yfg eGf .
x OnS] 6«fg] , kf| 6] fg] / Go6' «fg] sf] u'0fx¿ Aftfpm .
-3_ kl/ofh] gf sfo{
Pp6f rf6{ k]k/df On]S6«fg] , k|f]6fg] / Go6' f« g] sf] u0' fx¿sf] t'ngf ul/Psf] tflnsf agfO{
sIffdf k:| t't ug{ nufpg'xf];\ .

lbg 3 kf/dfl0fs ;ªV\ of / kf/df0fljs ef/
-s_ ljlzi6 p2]Zo

x k/df0f'df On]S6«f]g, k|f6] fg] / Go6' f« ]gsf] ;ªV\ of kTtf nufpg / kf/dfl0fs ef/
lgsfNg .

-v_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f ljm| ofsnfk
lj|mofsnfk 1 kf/df0fljs ;ªV\ ofsf] cjwf/0ff
;jk{ y| d kj" 1{ fgsf] kl| tlaDag ugs{ f nflu ljBfyL{nfO{ OnS] 6«f]g, k|f6] fg] / Go6' «f]gsf]
u'0fx¿ eGg nufpg'xf];\ / ljBfyL{n] lbPsf] pTt/ ;xL 5 of 5g} eGg] s'/f klg
ljBfyL{x¿lar 5nkmn u/fP/ dN" ofª\sg ug{ nufpg'xf;] \ .
s'g} ltg cf6] f k/df0fs' f] tof/L df]8n kb| zg{ ug'{xf];\ / af]8{df lgDglnlvt k|Zgx¿
n]vL ljBfyL{nfO{ ;fw] ]/ 5nkmn ug{ nufpgx' f];\ .
1= k|f]6f]gsf] ;ª\Vof / On]S6«f]gsf] ;ª\Vofdf s] ;DaGw 5 <

101

2= k/df0f' ;ª\Vof / k|f]6fg] ;ª\Vofdf s] ;DaGw 5 <
3= k/df0f' ;ªV\ of / OnS] 6f« ]g ;ª\Vofdf s] ;DaGw 5 <
o;/L ljBfyL{af6 cfPsf] pTt/nfO{ g} cfwf/ agfO{ ljBfyLn{ fO{ k/df0f' ;ª\Vofsf]
kl/efiff eGg nufpgx' f];\ / cfjZos ;'wf/ ul/lbgx' f;] \ / lgisif{ lgsfNg ljBfyL{nfO{
pTk]|l/t ugx{' f;] \ . h:tf] M

s'g} klg tTTTjsf nflu M k|f]6f]gsf] ;ªV\ of Ö k/df0f' ;ªV\ of

On]S6f« ]gsf] ;ªV\ of Ö kf| 6] fg] ;ªV\ of Ö k/df0f' ;ªV\ of
ljm| ofsnfk 2 kf/df0fljs ef/

ljBfyL{nfO{ k/df0f' ef/, k/df0f' ;ª\Vof / Go6' f« ]gsf] ;ª\Voflarsf] ;DaGw ePsf] ;q"
k':ts x]/L l6kf]6 ug{ nufpgx' f;] \ / tn lbOPsf] k|Zg h:t} Ps Ps k|Zg tof/ u/L
xn ug{ nufpgx' f;] \ .
;f]l8odsf] k/df0f' ;ª\Vof 11 / kf/dfl0fs ef/ 23 eP ;f]l8od;Fu /x]sf]

sf] ;ªV\ of lgsfn .

k|f]6fg] sf] ;ªV\ of Ö k/df0f' ;ªV\ of
OnS] 6f« ]g ;ª\Vof Ö k|f]6f]g ;ªV\ of Ö k/df0f' ;ªV\ of
kf/dfl0fs ef/ Ö Go'6f« ]gsf] ;ªV\ of ± k|f6] f]gsf] ;ªV\ of
Na sf nflu, k|f6] f]gsf] ;ª\Vof Ö OnS] 6«f]gsf] ;ªV\ of Ö k/df0f' ;ªV\ of Ö 11
kf/dfl0fs ef/ Ö Go'6«f]gsf] ;ª\Vof -12_± kf| 6] fg] sf] ;ª\Vof -11 _ Ö 23

23 = ? + 11

Go'6f]gsf] ;ªV\ of = 23-11

= 12

To;sf/0f k/df0f' ;ªV\ of 11, OnS] 6fg] sf] ;ª\Vof 11 / Go6' f« ]gsf] ;ªV\ of 12 eof] .

x kf/df0fljs ;ªV\ of (Atomic number) = k|f6] fg] sf] ;ª\Vof OnS] 6«fg] sf] ;ª\Vof

x kf/df0fljs ef/ (Atomic weight) kf| 6] f]gsf] ;ªV\ of ± Go'6«fg] sf] ;ªV\ of
x k/df0fs' f] sG] b|df k|f6] f]g / Go6' f« ]g /x]sf x'G5g\ eg] OnS] 6f« g] x¿ rf/l} t/ ljleGg

b'/Ldf 3l' d/x]sf xG' 5g\ .

-u_ d"Nofªs\ g

x k/df0f' ;ªV\ of / kf/df0fljs eg]sf] s] xf] <

102

x k/df0fd' f Go6' f« g] sf] ;ª\Vof s;/L lgsfNg ;lsG5 <
x kf/df0fljs ef/, kf| 6] fg] sf] ;ª\Vof / Go'6f« ]gsf] ;ª\Vofsf] ;DaGw atfpm .
-3_ kl/of]hgf sfo{
kf/df0fljs ;ª\Vof 1-20 ;Ddsf tTTTjx¿sf] kf/df0fljs ef/sf] rf6{k]k/df tflnsf
agfO{ k|:t't ug{ nufpgx' f];\ . lj1fg kf7o\ k':tssf] k[i7 ;ªV\ of 97 df /xs] f]
lj|mofsnfksf] 5nkmn u/fO{ pSt tl/sfn] ljBfyL{nfO{ ljleGg tTTjx¿sf] k/df0f'
df]8n] agfpg nufpgx' f;] \ . k|To]s ljBfyL{nfO{ Ps–Ps df8] n agfpg nufP/ k|bz{g
ug{ nufpgx' f;] \ .
-ª _ ;Gbe{ ;fduL| M (www.education.jlab.org÷11÷pen-number.html)

lbg 4=On]S6f« g] ljGof; (Electronic Configuration)
-s_ ljlzi6 p2]Zo

x kl] /of]l8s tflnsfdf /xs] f klxnf] 20 tTTTjx¿sf] On]S6«f]g ljGof; n]Vg
-v_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f ljm| ofsnfk
ljm| ofsnfk 1 On]S6«f]g 3'Dg] sIf / gfdsf] klxrfg
;j{k|yd lj1fg k':tsdf ePsf] ki[ 7 95 sf] lrq g=+ 11.2 sf] rf6{ cyjf lrq af]8{df
6fF:g'xf];\ jf agfOlbgx' f];\ / s;/L OnS] 6f« g] x¿ ljleGg sIf (shell) x¿df cjl:yt
/xs] f 5g\ egL kZ| g ;f]Wgx' f];\ / klxnf], bf];|f], t;] |f], rf}yf] sIfsf] gfd ljBfyLx{ ¿nfO{
eGg nufpgx' f];\ . bl[ i6ljxLg ljBfyL{x¿sf] nflu rf6{ agfpbF f wfufn] 6fF;/] :kz{ xg' ]
u/L agfOlbg'xf;] \ .
ljm| ofsnfk 2 sIf / OnS] 6f« ]g ;ªV\ of
ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ lj1fg kf7\ok':tssf] kh] g+= 95 sf] tflnsf cWoog ug{ nufpgx' f;] \ /

sf] ;q" k|of]u u/L s;/L ljleGg sIfdf OnS] 6f« ]g ljt/0f ePsf 5g\ eGg] s'/fnfO{
cEof; u/fpgx' f];\ .
ljm| ofsnfk 3 tTTjsf] OnS] 6f« g] ljGof;
ljBfyL{n] tflnsf cWoog ul/;sk] l5 sx] L tTTTjx¿sf] On]S6f« ]g ljGof; tyf
k/df0fs' f] agf6] af8] {df lrq agfO{ 5nkmn u/fpg'xf];\ / On]S6f« g] ljGof; ug]{ tl/sf
atfOlbgx' f];\ . h:t} M
i= xfO8«f]hg (H)
kf/df0fljs ;ªV\ of (At. N.) = 1

103

kf/df0fljs ef/ ( Atomic mass) = 1

Electronic configuration -OnS] 6f« ]g ljGof;_

shell -sIf_ K LMN

Number of electron -OnS] 6«fg] ljGof;_ 1

ii. ;f]l8od (Na)
kf/df0fljs ;ª\Vof (Atomic number) = 11
kf/df0fljs ef/ (Atomic Mass) = 23

Electronic configuration -On]S6f« ]g ljGof;_

shell -sIf_ K LMN

Number of electron -OnS] 6f« g] ;ªV\ of_ 2 81

lj|mofsnfk 4 OnS] 6f]g ljGof; -cEof;_

lj|mofsnfk 3 df ul/Psf] gd"gf On]S6fg] ljGof;cg';f/ lj1fg kf7o\ k:' tssf] k]h
g+=96 sf] tflnd cWoog ug{ nufO{ ;a} ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ klxnf] 20 kf/df0fljs ;ªV\ of
;Ddsf tTTjx¿sf] On]S6f]g ljGof; ug{ nufpgx' f;] \ / cGtdf lgDg lgisif{ lbgx' f;] \ .

On]S6f« g] x¿n] k/df0f'sf] Gol' Sno;nfO{ jl/kl/ 3'Dbf agfPsf] ;]nnfO{ K, L, M, N cflb
gfdn] hgfOG5 . oL ;]nx¿df a9Ldf jm| dzM 2, 8, 18, 32 cf]6f On]S6«fg] x¿ c6fpg
;S5g\ . o; s'/fnfO{ 2n2 sf] ;"qn] lgwf{/0f ub5{ .

-u_ d"Nofªs\ g

x OnS] 6f« ]g ljGof; eg]sf] s] xf] <

x On]6fg] ljGof; s;/L ul/G5 <

x tn lbOPsf tTTTjx¿sf] OnS] 6«f]g ljGof; / k/df0f' agf]6sf] lrq agfpm .

(a) Lithium (b) Carbon (c) Potassium (d) Flourine (e) Chlorine (f) Calcium

-3_ kl/of]hgf sfo{

kf/df0fljs ;ªV\ of 1-20 ;Ddsf tTTTjx¿sf] OnS] 6f« ]g ljGof; u/L rf6k{ ]k/df k:| t't
ug{ nufpgx' f];\ .

104

lbg 5= ;+oH' otf (Valency)

-s_ ljlzi6 p2]Zo

x ;+oH' otfsf] kl/efiff lbg

x 8'Kn6] / cS66] sf] cjwf/0ff k|i6o\ fpg

x k]l/ofl] 8s tflnsfdf ePsf] klxnf] 20 tTTTjx¿sf] ;o+ H' otf atfpg

x tTTjsf] ;+o'Hotf lge{/ /xg] cj:yf atfpg
-v_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f lj|mofsnfk

ljm| ofsnfk 1. ;+oH' otfsf] cjwf/0ff

x ;jk{ |yd ljBfyL{nfO{ ;o+ H' otf / c0f';"qsf] cy{ kTtf nufpg nufpgx' f;] \ .
o;sf nflu af]8d{ f sx] L tTTTjx¿sf] On]S6«f]g ljGof; bv] fO{ s;/L Ps
csf{;Fu OnS] 6«f]g ng] b]g cyjf share u/L c0f' aGb5 egL atfpg
nufpgx' f];\ . h:t} M

x o;/L lrqdf Na n] Pp6f OnS] 6«fg] Cl nfO{ lbO{ aGb5 / Cl n] Ps
On]S6«f]g lnO{ Cl- aGb5 . oxfF ;fl] 8odsf] ;+oH' otf ±1 x'G5 / Snf]l/gsf]
;o+ 'Hotf –1 x'G5 egL ljBfyLn{ fO{ ;+o'Hotfsf] kl/efiff lbg nufpg'xf];\ .

lj|mofsnfk 2 8'Kn6] / cS6]6sf] cjwf/0ff
x 8'Kn]6 / cS66] sf] cj:yf bl] vg] tTTjsf] On]S6f]g ljGof; ul/Psf] lrq k:| t't
ug{] / lgDg k|Zgsf] pTt/ vfh] L ug{ nufpgx' f];\ .
o k/df0fs' f] aflx/L ;]ndf 2 cf6] f OnS] 6f]g /x/] t6:y k/df0f' aGg]
cj:yfnfO{ s] elgG5 <

105

k/df0f'sf] aflx/L ;]ndf 8 cf]6f OnS] 6fg] ePsf] cj:yfnfO{ s] elgG5 <

8'Kn]6 / cS66] sf] lgod eg]sf] s] xf]nf <

x ljBfyL{x¿n] k|:t't u/s] f cge' jx¿nfO{ ;+Zni] f0f ub}{ 8'Kn]6 / cS6]6 aGg]
cj:yfnfO{ tTTjsf] On]S6f]g ljGof; ul/Psf] rf6s{ f] dfWodaf6 ki| 6 kfg{'xf];\ .

ljm| ofsnfk 3 k]l/of]l8s tflnsfsf] klxnf] kf/df0fljs ;ªV\ of 20 ;Ddsf] tTTjsf]
;o+ 'Hotf

x klxnf] 20 dfq tTTTj ePsf] cfw'lgs kl] /of]l8s tflnsfsf] rf6{ af]8{df
em'G8fpgx' f];\ . ;o+ H' otf / ;o+ H' otf ;"rs On]S6f]gsf] cjwf/0fnfO{ kl| tljDag
ug{ nufO{ kf/df0fljs ;ªV\ of 20 ;Ddsf tTTjsf] ;o+ H' otf kTtf nufpg]
lj|mofsnfk u/fpgx' f;] \ .

1 2 345678

aflx/L H 2
sIfdf 1
/x]sf]
OnS] 6«fg] Le Be B C N O F Ne
;ªV\ of 2,1 2,2 2,3 2,4 2,5 2,6 2,7 2,8
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

2,8,1 2,8,2 2,8,3 2,8,4 2,8,5 2,8,6 2,8,7 2,8,8

K Ca

2,8,8,1 2,8,8,2

ljm| ofsnfk 4 tTTjsf] ;+o'Hotf lge{/ ug{] cj:yf

x sIffsf ljBfyL{nfO{ ;ªV\ ofsf] cfwf/df sDtLdf 4 ;d"xdf ljefhg ugx'{ f];\ .
;f]l8od, cNdfl] god, Snfl] /g / SoflN;od tTTTjsf] OnS] 6f« g] ljGof; ul/Psf]
lgDgfg;' f/sf] Flash card tof/ u/L ljt/0f ug'x{ f;] \ / lgDgfg;' f/sf kZ| g
;fw] L ;d"x 5nkmn u/fpg'xf;] \ / cfjZos k/s] f] 7fpdF f ;xhLs/0f ug{'xf;] \
.

Na-11 Al - 13 Cl - 17 Ca - 20
K LM N K LM N K LM N K LM N
28 1 283 2 87 2 82 8

k/df0f'sf] aflx/L cla{6df slt cf]6f On]S6f« g] 5g\ <

106

k/df0fn' ] slt cf]6f On]S6f« g] lbg jf lng ;S5 <

tTTjsf] ;+oH' otf s'g s'g s'/fdf e/ k5{ <

-u_ dN" ofªs\ g

x ;o+ H' otfsf] eg]sf] s] xf] <

x 8'kn6] lgod egs] f] s] xf] < pbf/0f;lxt eg .

x cS66] lgod eg]sf] s] xf] < o;nfO{ pbfx/0f;lxt atfpm .

x kl] /of]l8s tflnsfsf] klxnf] 20 tTTTjsf] dfq gfd, ;ª\st] / ;o+ 'Hotf n]v .

-3_ kl/of]hgf sfo{
kf/df0fljs ;ª\Vof 1-20 ;Ddsf tTTjx¿sf] OnS] 6«fg] ljGof;;lxt ;+o'Hotf bl] vg]

u/L rf6{k]k/df tflnsf agfO{ k:| t't ug{ nufpgx' f;] \ .
-ª_ yk cWoog ;fduL|
;+o'Hotf kl9;sk] l5 ljBfyL{n] c0f';q" n]Vg lgDg s/' fx¿sf] k"j1{ fg x'gk' b5{ . s]xL
OnS] 6f« k] fh] l] 6e /l] 8sn, On]S6«f]gu] l] 6e /l] 8sn tyf ltgsf l;Dafn] / ;+oH' otf tn
lbOPsf] 5M

/l] 8sn symbol -;ªs\ t] _ ;+o'Hotf

Ammonium 1

Cupric 2

Ferrous 2

Ferric 3

Cuprous 1

Hydroxide 1

Nitrate 1

Sulphate 2

Carbonate 2

Bicarbonate 1

Phosphate 3

Cyanide 1

Nitride 3

Dichromate 2

Permanganate 1

Chlorate 1

107

lbg 6= c0f;' "q

-s_ ljlzi6 p2]Zo

x c0f;' "qsf] kl/ro lbg

x ljleGg ofl} usx¿sf] c0f;' q" n]Vg
-v_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f lj|mofsnfk

ljm| ofsnfk 1 tTTjsf] ;ª\s]t / ;o+ 'Hotf k'g/fjnfs] g

x ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ kf/df0fljs ;ª\Vof 20 ;Ddsf] tTTjx¿sf] ;ªs\ t] /

;o+ 'Hotf tyf /]l8snsf] ;ª\s]t / ;+o'Hotf ;DaGwdf kg' /fjnfs] g
u/fpg'xf];\ / rf6{sf] dfWodaf6 /]l8sn, tTTj / ltgsf] ;o+ 'Hotf ki| 6
kfg'{xf;] \ .

lj|mofsnfk 2 c0f;' "qsf] cjwf/0ff

x s]xL c0fx' ¿sf] gfd z}Ifl0fs kf6Ldf n]vL To; c0fd' f s:tf s:tf tTTTjx¿
ldnL ag]sf 5g\ / ltgsf] ;+oH' otf slt /xs] f] 5 egL kZ| gsf] pTt/ lbg
nufpgx' f];\ .

x ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ c0f;' q" eg]sf] s] xfn] f egL dfly plNnlvt k|Zgsf] cfwf/df
cge' jx¿ k|:t't ug{ nufpg'xf;] \ / /f;folgs kbfy{ tTTj jf ofl} usnfO{
hgfpg] tTTjx¿sf] ;ªs\ t] ;d"xnfO{ g} c0f;' q" elgG5 egL lgisif{ k|:t't
ugx'{ f;] \ .

ljm| ofsnfk 3 c0f;' q" nV] g] tl/sf

x c0f;' q" n]Vbf s:tf s:tf s/' fx¿df Wofg lbg'k5{ egL kZ| g ;fW] g'xf;] \ /
c0f';q" nV] g] tl/sf pbfx/0f;lxt k:| t't ugx'{ f];\ . h:tf] M

h:t} M ;f]l8od Snf/] fO8

;f]l8od (Na) / Snf]l/g (Cl)

;+oH' otf = +1 ;o+ 'Hotf = -1

Na1 Cl1

Na1 Cl1
Na1 Cl1 = NaCl Snf/] fO8

108

x ;+o'Hotfsf] exchange eO{ c0f;' q" aGb5 eGg] s'/fnfO{ lj1fg kf7o\ k:' tssf]
kh] g+ 99 df lbOPsf] 9fFrfcg';f/ rf6{k]k/af6 ki| 6o\ fpgx' f];\ .

x tTkZrft\ klxn] JolStut ¿kdf / To;kl5 kT| o]s aG] rut jf 6a] n' ut
¿kdf tkl;nsf of}lusx¿sf] cf0fljs ;q" nV] g] cEof; u/fg'xf];\ / ;d"xut
¿kdf k:| t't ug{ nufpgx' f]\ / cfjZos k[i7kf]if0f kb| fg ug{'xf;] \ .

x ofl} usx¿ M Pnl' dlgod cS;fO8, Pdf]lgof, DofUgl] ;od Snf/] fO8,
sfa{g8fOcS;fO8, ;f]l8od Snf]/fO8, xfO8fS] nf]l/s cDn, ;Nkm\ol' /s cDn,
kfgL, ;fl] 8od xfO8fc] S;fO8 cflb .

-u_ dN" ofªs\ g
x Sodium, Chlorine & Potassium sf] ;ªs\ t] eg .
x Magnecium sf] ;o+ 'Hotf slt xG' 5 <
x Carbonate sf] ;ª\s]t s] xf] <
x Sodium hydroxide & Aluminium Chloride sf] c0f;' q" n]v .
x kfgLsf] c0f;' "q n]v .

-3_ kl/of]hgf sfo{
sg' } 5 cf]6f ofl} ussf] c0f';q" x¿ lgsfNg] tl/sf JofVof ePsf] rf6{ agfpg
nufpgx' f];\ .

lbg 7= cf0fljs ef/
-s_ ljlzi6 p2]Zo

x cf0fljs ef/sf] kl/ro lbg
x tTTjsf] cf0fljs ef/ lgsfNg
-v_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f ljm| ofsnfk
lj|mofsnfk 1 cf0fljs ef/sf] cjwf/0ff
x lgDg lnlvt k|Zg ;fw] L ljifoj:t'df k|jz] ugx{' f;] \ .
kf/df0fljs ;ªV\ of eg]sf] s] xf] <
kf/df0fljs ef/ egs] f] s] xf] <

109

c0f' eg]sf] s] xf] <
cf0fljs ;q" egs] f] s] xf] <
cf0fljs ;q" s;/L n]lvG5 <

x dfly plNnlvt k|Zgdf 5nkmn u/fO{ ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ cge' j cfbfgk|bfg ug{
nufpg] / kfgLsf] c0f'nfO{ pbfx/0fsf] ¿kdf 5nkmn u/fO{ o;sf] cf0fljs
ef/sf] cfwf/df cf0fljs ef/sf] kl/efiff lbg nufpg'xf];\ .

lgisif{ M c0fs' f] ef/nfO{ g} cf0fljs ef/ elgG5 . c0fd' f /xs] f k/df0f'x¿sf]
kf/df0fljs ef/ hf]8/] cf0fljs ef/ kTtf nufpg ;lsG5 .

ljm| ofsnfk 2 cf0fljs ef/ lgsfNg] cEof;

x ;jk{ y| d ljBfyLx{ ¿nfO{ s'g} tTTjsf] k/df0f' ef/ slt xG' 5 egL kZ| g
;fW] g'xf;] \ . kf/df0fljs ef/ nl] vPsf] rf6{ kb| zg{ ug'{xf];\ . k|blzt rf6{
ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ cWoog ug{ nufpg'xf];\ .

x sx] L c0fx' ¿sf] gfd af]8d{ f n]vL c0f'x¿df ePsf] k/df0f'sf] ef/ hf]8g\
nufpgx' f];\ .

x ljBfyLx{ ¿n] ofu] lgsfnL ;s]kl5 pSt of]u g} cf0fljs ef/ xf] egL
hfgsf/L u/fpgx' f;] \ / o;sf] nflu lZfIfsn] s]xL ofl} usx¿sf] cf0fljs ef/
lgsfNg] tl/sf kb| z{g ug'x{ f];\ h:tf] M

Calcium Carbonate ( )

= Ca sf] k/df0f' ef/ 40 + C sf] k/df0f' ef/ 12 + O sf] k/df0f' ef/ 16 x 3

= 40+12+16×+3

= 40+12+48 = 100 amu ( Atomic mass unit)

o;/L sf] cf0fljs ef/ 100 x'G5 egL k|i6o\ fpgx' f;] \ .

To:t}, ;f]l8od Snf]/fO8 (Sodium Chloride) NaCl
Na sf] kf/df0f' ef/ (23) + Cl Snf]l/gsf] k/df0f' ef/ (35)

= 23+35 amu = 68 amu
o;/L s]xL c0f';"qsf] lx;fa u/L lgsfNg l;sfO{ ;sk] l5 cGo ofl} ussf] c0f';q"
af8] d{ f nv] L pSt c0fx' ¿sf] cf0fljs ef/ lgsfNg sIffdf cEof; u/fpg'xf;] \ .
-u_ d"Nofª\sg

110

x tn lbOPsf k/df0fx' ¿sf] k/df0f' ef/ slt–slt x"G5 <

(a) Na (b) H (c) Cl (d) Al (e) Mg (f) C (g) O (h) F

x cf0fljs ef/ egs] f] s] xf] < lgDg of}lusx¿sf] cf0fljs ef/ kTtf
nufpg'xf;] \ .

(a) ;fl] 8od ;Nkm6] (Na2 SO4) (b) SoflN;od gfO6]6« (Ca Cl2)
(c) Pdflgod gfO6]6« ( NH4NO3)
-3_ kl/of]hgf sfo{

sg' } b; cf]6f c0f'x¿sf] gfd n]vL pSt c0f'x¿sf] cf0fljs ef/ ;"qåf/f rf6{ k]k/df
agfpg nufpg'xf;] \ .

lbg 8= dG] 8l] ne / cfw'lgs kl] /ofl] 8s tflnsf
-s_ ljlzi6 p2]Zo

x kl] /of]l8s tflnsfsf] kl/efiff lbg
x dG] 8l] nesf] kl] /ofl] 8s tflnsfsf] kl/ro lbg
x cfwl' gs kl] /ofl] 8s tflnsfsf] kl/efiff lbg
x d]G8l] nesf] kl] /ofl] 8s tflnsf / cfw'lgs tflnsflar km/s 5'6\ofpg
-v_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f lj|mofsnfk
ljm| ofsnfk 1 k]l/of]l8s tflnsfsf] cjwf/0ff

x sIffsf7] fsf] leTtfdf d]G8l] ne / cfwl' gs kl] /ofl] 8s tflnsfsf] rf6{ 6fF;L
ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ lgDg k|Zg ;fw] L 5nkmn u/fpg'xf];\ .

xfn ;Dd slt cf6] f tTTjx¿ kTtf nfu]sf 5g\ <
k|fsl[ ts / sl[ qd tTTjx¿sf] ;ª\Vof slt slt /xs] f 5g\ <
s] ;a} tTTjx¿sf] 5'6\6f56' \6} cWoog ug{ ;Dej xf]nf, lsg <
kl] /of]l8s tflnsf eg]sf] s] xf] <
kl] /of]l8s tflnsfdf u'|k egs] f] s] xf] <
k]l/of]l8s tflnsfdf lkl/o8 egs] f] s] xf] <

111

x dflysf kZ| gx¿df 5nkmn u/fO{ k|Tos] sf] kl] /ofl] 8s tflnsfaf6 cjwf/0ff
ki| 6 kfg{x' f;] \ .

lgisif{ M tTTjx¿nfO{ ltgsf] ;dfg / c;dfg u'0fsf cfwf/df ldnfP/ /flvPsf]
tflnsfnfO{ kl] /of]l8s tflnsf elgG5 .
ljm| ofsnfk 2 d]G8l] ne / cfw'lgs kl] /of]l8s tflnsfsf] kl/ro

x d]G8]lne / cfw'lgs kl] /ofl] 8s tflnsfsf] rf6{ cjnf]sg ug{ nufO{ bj' }
rf6d{ f b]lvPsf d'Vo dV' o s/' fx¿sf] l6kf]6 agfpg nufO{ k|:tt' ug{
nufpg'xf;] \ .

x ljBfyL{x¿n] k:| t't u/s] f kIfx¿nfO{ lzIfsn] zI} fl0fs kf6Ldf d]G8]lne /
cfw'lgs kl] /ofl] 8s tflnsfsf] ;"rLdf n]Vb} hfgx' f];\ .

x cfw'lgs kl] /of]l8s tflnsf Mendeleev d]G8]lnesf] eGbf lsg /fd|f]
(Superior) dflgG5 eGg] s/' fdf ljBfyL{x¿sf] ;d"x agfO{ 5nkmn ug{
nufpg'xf;] \ / kT| o]s ;d"xsf] g]tfnfO{ k|:tt' ug{ nufO{ k[i7kfi] f0f k|bfg
ug'x{ f;] \ .

tTTjx¿sf efl} ts / /f;folgs u0' fx¿ ltgLx¿sf] kf/df0fljs ef/x¿sf kl] /of]l8s
sfo:{ j¿k xG' 5g\ eGg] lgod dG] 8]lnesf] k]l/ofl] 8s tflnsfsf] xf] eg] tTTjx¿sf
efl} ts / /f;folgs / efl} ts u0' fx¿ ltgLx¿sf] kf/df0fljs ;ª\Vofsf k]l/of]l8s
sfo{:j¿k xG' 5g\ eGg] lgod g} cfwl' gs k]l/of]l8s tflnsfsf] lgod xf] .
-u_ dN" ofªs\ g

x kl] /ofl] 8s tflnsf egs] f] s] xf] <
x kl] /ofl] 8s tflnsfdf /x]sf uk|' / lkl/o8 (Group & Period) eGgfn] s]

al' emG5 <
x dG] 8]lne kl] /ofl] 8s tflnsf / cfw'lgs kl] /ofl] 8s tflnsfnfO{ kl/eflift u/ .
x dG] 8l] ne k]l/ofl] 8s tflnsfdf ql' 6x¿ s] s] xg' <
-3_ kl/of]hgf sfo{
DfG] 8]lne kl] /of]l8s tflnsf rf6k{ k] /df tof/ ug{ nufpg'xf];\ .
-ª_ yk cWoog ;fdu|L
lbldqL d]G8l] ne /l;og ;dfhzf:qL lyP . pgn] tTTTjsf] kf/df0fljs ef/sf
cfwf/df Pp6f tflnsf lgdf{0f u/s] f lyP . pgn] ;?' df 63 cf6] f tTTTjx¿nfO{ o;
tflnsfdf ;dfj]z u/s] f lyP . o; tflnsfdf pgn] vfnL 7fpF klg /fvs] f lyP .

112

tTTjx¿sf] efl} ts tyf /f;folgs u'0f tL tTTTjx¿sf] kf/df0fljs ef/sf] bfx] f]l/Psf]
:yfgsf] sfo:{ j¿k ldNg hfG5 . o;}nfO{ d]G8l] ne kl] /ofl] 8s lgod elgG5 .
d]G8l] ne kl] /ofl] 8s tflnsfdf hDdf 8 cf]6f :tDe 5g\, h;nfO{ u'k| elgG5 . o;df
/xs] f q'l6nfO{ ;Rofpb} x]g/L df];n] Ln] cfw'lgs k]l/of]l8s tflnsf lgdf{0f u/s] f xg' \ .
pgn] tTTTjx¿nfO{ kf/df0fljs ;ªV\ ofsf cfwf/df Pp6} tflnsfdf ldnfP/ /fv] .
o;}nfO{ cfw'lgs kl] /of]l8s tflnsf elgG5 .
cfw'lgs kl] /ofl] 8s tflnsfdf 0 u'k| ;lxt 9 cf]6f u'|k / 7 cf]6f lkl/o8 5g\ .
tTTTjx¿nfO{ 4 cf]6f Njs s, p, d / f df ljefhg ul/Psf] 5 . wft', cwft' /
cw{wftd' f 56' 6\ fOPsf] 5 . d]G8l] ne / cfwl' gs kl] /of]l8s tflnsfsf] rf6{ tn lbOPsf]
5M

Mendeleev's Periodic Table

113

Modern Periodic Table

lbg 9= /f;folgs k|ltljm| of / ;dLs/0f
-s_ ljlzi6 p2Z] o

x /f;folgs k|ltljm| of / /f;folgs ;dLs/0fsf] kl/efiff lbg
x /f;folgs kl| tljm| ofx¿nfO{ zAb ;dLs/0fdf JoSt ug{
-v_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f lj|mofsnfk
ljm| ofsnfk 1 /f;folgs kl| tljm| ofsf] cjwf/0ff
x ljBfyLn{ fO{ lgDg lnlvt k|Zg ;f]wL ;f]Rg] hf8] L agfpg] / cge' j

cfbfgkb| fg ug]{ tl/sf k|of]u u/L ljBfyLa{ f6 k|fKt hfgsf/LnfO{ zI} fl0fs
kf6Ldf nV] b} hfg'xf;] \ .
/f;folgs kl/jt{g eg]sf] s] xf] <
zAb ;dLs/0f egs] f] s] xf] <
/f;folgs k|ltljm| of egs] f] s] xf] <
/f;folgs kl| tlj|mofnfO{ s'g sg' ljlwaf6 hgfpg] ul/G5 <

114

x xfO8f« h] g / clS;hg ldn]/ kfgL ags] f] zAb / ;"q ;dLs/0fsf] rf6{ k:| t't
ug{] / o; pbfx/0faf6 dfly plNnlvt kZ| gsf] hjfkm l7s eof] jf ePg
t'ngf ug{ nufpgx' f];\ .

x ljBfyLn{ fO{ :jod\ /f;folgs kl/jt{g x'bF f /f;folgs k|ltlj|mof xG' 5 eGg] s'/f
kTtf nufpg ;xof]u k¥' ofpgx' f];\ / lgDg lgisif{ lbgx' f;] \ M sg' } kbfya{ f6
leGg gofF kbfy{sf] lgdf0{ f xg' ] kl| jm| of g} /f;folgs kl/jt{gaf6 xG' 5 .
/f;folgs kl/jt{g x'g] jm| ddf kbfy{sf k/df0f' tyf c0f'x¿lar ;f6km/] ,
;ª\u7g jf lj36g x'g] k|ljm| of g} /f;folgs kl| tlj|mof xf] . /f;folgs
kl| tljm| ofnfO{ zAb ;dLs/0f / ;q" ;dLs/0fn] hgfOG5 . zAbx¿åf/f
/f;folgs kbfy{sf] gfd k|ofu] u/L nl] vPsf] ;dLs/0f g} zAb ;dLs/0f xf] .

lj|mofsnfk 2 /f;folgs kl| tljm| ofsf] k|ofu] fTds ljm| ofsnfk
ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ sx] L /f;folgs kl| tljm| ofsf pbfx/0f sIffdf k:| tt' ug{ nufpgx' f;] \ /
s]xL /f;folgs k|ltlj|mofsf] ko| fu] fTds lj|mofsnfk sIffsf7] fdf ug{ nufpgx' f;] \ .
h:t} M
x Magnesium l/ag afn]/ b]vfpgx' f];\ / Magnesium l/ag afn/] k|fKt wn' fd] f

ePsf] kbfy{ s] xf] egL ljBfyL{nfO{ ;f]Wg'xf];\ . o;/L kf| Kt x'g] kbfys{ f] ;"q n]Vg
nufpg'xf];\ .
x To:tu} /L lvof nfu]sf] kmnfd b]vfpFb} lvof s] xf] / of] s;/L aG5 < egL kZ| g
;f]Wg'xf;] \ / ljBfyLd{ fem cfjZos 5nkmn u/fpg'xf;] \ . To;kl5 lvofsf] ;"q
n]Vg nufpgx' f;] \ .
x Zn sf 6'qmf dilute HCl df /fVg nufpg'xf;] \ / s] xG' 5 egL cjnfs] g ug{
nufpgx' f];\ / pSt /f;folgs k|ltljm| ofsf] ;q" n]Vg nufpg'xf;] \ .
oL ljm| ofsnfkkl5 ljBfyLn{ fO{ lj|mofsnfk 1 df plNnlvt /f;folgs kl| tljm| ofsf]
kl/efiffsf] ko| f]ufTds¿kn] k'li6 eP gePsf] Plsg ug{ nufpgx' f;] \ / ljBfyLn{ fO{
/f;folgs kl| tlj|mofdf kl| tljm| of/t kbfy{ (Reactant) / pTkflbt kbfy{ (Product)
56' o\ fpg klg nufpgx' f];\ .
-u_ d"Nofª\sg

x /f;folgs kl/jtg{ / /f;folgs k|ltlj|mof eg]sf] s] xf] <

x kl| tljm| of/t / pTkflbt kbfy{ s]nfO{ elgG5 <

x s'g} Ps /f;folgs kl| tljm| of n]vL To;df kl| tljm| of/t / pTkflbt kbfy{
5'6o\ fpgx' f;] \ .

x ZfAb ;dLs/0f /f;folgs ;dLs/0f s]nfO{ elgG5 <

115

x tn lbOPsf] zAb ;dLs/0fnfO{ ;q" ;dLs/0fdf kl/jtg{ u/ .
xfO8«f]hg ± clS;hg Ö kfgL
;f]l8od ± Snf]l/g Ö ;f]l8od Snf]/fO8

-3_ kl/of]hgf sfo{
ljBfno jf 3/ j/k/ eO/xg] /f;folgs k|ltlj|mof klxrfg u/L sDtLdf kfFr zAb
;dLs/0f tof/ u/L sIffdf k|:t't ug'{xf;] \ . jf sg' } b;cf]6f zAb ;dLs/0fx¿nfO{
;"q ;dLs/0fdf abnL rf6{ k]k/df nV] fL sIffsf7] f k:| tt' ugx{' f];\ .
-ª_ kf| ljlws zAbfjnL
Reactant: /f;folgs kl| tljm| ofdf efu lng] kbfy{
Product : Reactant lar /f;folgs k|ltljm| of eO{ aGg] kbfy{

lbg 10 ;"q ;dLs/0f
-s_ ljlzi6 p2]Zo

x ;q" ;dLs/0fsf] kl/ro lbg
x /f;folgs ;dLs/0f n]Vbf Wofg lbgk' g{] s/' fx¿ klxrfg ug{
x /f;folgs kl| tljm| ofnfO{ ;"q ;dLs/0fdf nV] g
-v_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f ljm| ofsnfk
ljm| ofsnfk 1 ;q" ;dLs/0fsf] kl/ro
x ;fl] 8od / Snfl] /g tTTj, ;fl] 8od Snf/] fO8sf] zAb ;dLs/0fsf] kmn\ f;sf8{

b]vfO{ ltgLx¿sf] ;ª\st] , ;o+ H' otf, /f;folgs k|ltljm| ofsf] ;ª\st] df n]Vg]
tl/sf ;DaGwdf ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ k|Zg ub{} pTt/ lbg nufpgx' f;] \ .
x Dfflysf] lj|mofsnfksf] cfwf/df ;"q ;dLs/0fsf] cjwf/0ff lbg nufpg'xf];\ /
lgisif{df k'Ug'xf];\ .
lgisif{ M cf0fljs ;q" åf/f JoSt ul/Psf] ;dLs/0fnfO{ ;"q ;dLs/0f elgG5 .
ljm| ofsnfk 2 /f;folgs ;dLs/0f nV] bf Wofg lbg'kg{] s/' fx¿
x ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ 5 ;dx" df ljefhg u/L xfO8f« h] g / clS;hg ldnL kfgL
ags] f] zAb ;dLs/0f / ;"q ;dLs/0fsf] sf8{ jf zI} fl0fs kf6Ldf nv] L
/f;folgs ;dLs/0f n]Vbf Wofg lbg'kg]{ s'/fx¿ ;dx" ut ¿kdf klxrfg ug{
nufpgx' f];\ .

116

x ;d"xut ¿kdf klxrfg ul/Psf s'/fx¿nfO{ ;dx" ut ¿kdf k|:t't ug{
nufpgx' f;] \ / lzIfsn] zI} fl0fs kf6Ldf nV] b} hfgx' f];\ / lgisif{ k:| tt'
ug{x' f];\ .

lgisif{ M /f;folgs ;dLs/0f n]Vbf jf0f lrx\g, pTkflbt kbfy{ / k|ltlj|mof/t kbfy,{
/f;folgs k|ltlj|mofsf] cj:yfnfO{ hgfpg] lrx\g, zAb ;dLs/0f, ;"q ;dLs/0f
h:tf kIfx¿df Wofg lbg'k5{ .

ljm| ofsnfk 3 ;"q ;dLs/0f n]vg cEof;

x /f;folgs ;dLs/0f nV] bf Wofg lbgk' g{] s'/fx¿sf] cfwf/df ;"q ;dLs/0f
nv] g cEof; u/fpg'xf];\ . h:tf] M

zAb ;dLs/0f DofUg]l;od + clS;hg DofUg]l;od cS;fO8

;q" ;dLs/0f M 2Mg(s) + O2 (g) 2MgO

x cGo /f;folgs k|ltljm| ofx¿sf] ;"rL lzIfsn] z}Ifl0fs kf6Ldf n]Vg'xf];\ /
ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ ;"q ;dLs/0f n]vg cEof; u/fpg'xf];\ / cfjZos ki[ 7kf]if0f
k|bfg ugx'{ f;] \ .

-u_ dN" ofªs\ g

/f;folgs kl| tlj|mofsf lgDg zAb ;dLs/0fnfO{ sfkLdf ;f//] ;"q ;dLs/0fdf kl/0ft
u/ .

i. ;f]l8od + clS;hg ;f]l8od cS;fO8

ii= SoflN;od sfafg{] ]6 SoflN;od cS;fO8 + sfag{ 8fOcS;fO8

iii= kf]6fl;od cS;fO8 + ;Nkm\ol' /s Pl;8 kf]6fl;od ;Nkm6] + kfgL

iv= SoflN;od + xfO8f« S] nf]l/s Pl;8 SoflN;od Snf/] fO8 + xfO8f« h] g

-3_ kl/of]hgf sfo{

b}lgs hLjgdf cge' j u/]sf cyjf cjnfs] g u/]sf /f;folgs kl| tlj|mofnfO{ zAb
;dLs/0f / ;"q ;dLs/0fdf n]vL b]vfpg nufpg] .

117

lbg 11/12 ko| fu] fTds ljm| ofsnfk
-s_ ljlzi6 p2]Zo

tTTjsf] k/df0f' tyf of}lussf] df8] n tof/ ug{
-v_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f lj|mofsnfk
lj|mofsnfk

1. clS;hg k/df0fs' f] df8] ]n agfpg nufpg'xf;] \ . -lj1fg kf7o\ k:' tssf] k]h
g+ 97 sf] lj|mofsnfk 1 cg';f/_

2. ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ rf6{ kk] / kml] asn, wfuf], dfs/{ kg] / s/] fpsf] u]8fx¿
pknAw u/fpg'xf;] \ . oL ;fdu|Lsf] ;xofu] n] xfO8f« ]hg, sfag{ / ;f]l8od
tTTTjx¿sf] df]8n agfpg nufpgx' f;] \ .

3. lj|mofsnfk bO' {sf] ;fduL| sf] cfwf/df tkl;nsf c0f'sf] df]8n agfpg
nufpgx' f;] \ . h:t} M , /

4. km\nf; sf8,{ dfs{kg] sf] ko| fu] u/L xfO8f« ]Snf]l/s cDn, ;fl] 8od Snf/] fO8,
sfa{g8fOcS;fO8, Pnl' dlgod cS;fO8, Pdf]lgof, DofUgl] ;od Snf]/fO8sf]
cf0fljs ;"q rf6{ tof/ ug{ nufpg'xf;] \ .

5. k]l/of]l8s tflnsfsf] klxnf] 20 cf6] f tTTjx¿sf] ;ª\s]t, kf/df0fljs
;ª\Vof, kf/df0fljs lk08, k|f]6fg] , Go6' f]g / OnS] 6f]gsf] /rgf rf6{ tof/ kfg{
nufpg'xf];\ .

-u_ kf| ljlws zAbfjnL
On]S6f« ]g ≠ k/df0fs' f] C0ffTds s0f
k|f6] fg] ≠ k/df0fs' f] wgfTds s0f
Go'6«f]g ≠ k/df0f'sf] rfhl{ jxLg s0f
c0f' ≠ of}lussf] ;aeGbf ;fgf] ¿k
k/df0f' ≠ tTTjsf] ;aeGbf ;fgf] ¿k
;Gbe{ ;fduL|

www.middleschoolchemisty.com÷lesson plan÷chapter 4÷lesson 1.)
www.education.jlab.org÷11÷pen-number.html

118

PsfO M 12 ld>0f

cg'dflgt 3G6L M 6 -4 ;}¢flGts ± 2 k|ofu] fTds_

1. l;sfO pknlAw

x ˆ|ofS;gn cf;jg lj|mof (Fractional distillation), l:6d cf;jg lj|mof
(Stem distillation) / jm| fd] f6f]u|fkmLsf] ljlwsf] kl/ro lbg / k|bz{g ug{

2. ljifoj:t' ljefhg / l;sfO ;fduL|

lbg ljifoj:t' l;sfO ;fdu|L

1 cf;jg ljm| ofsf] cf;jg k|lj|mofsf] lrq, kmn\ f:s, :6fG8, ydf{l] d6/,
kl/ro / kb| z{g cfb] fg, tf/sf] hfnL, d]hl/ª l;ln08/, sG8G] ;/ .

2 k|mofS;gn cf;jg k|mofS;gn cf;jg ljm| ofsf] lrq, ydfl{] d6/,
ljm| ofsf] kl/ro / km| fS;gn sf]nDa, km\nf:s, ag/{ , kfgL leq / aflx/

kb| z{g kmfNg] pks/0f .

3 j|mfd] f6f]uf| dLsf] kl/ro jm| fd] f6f]u|fkmL k]k/
/ pkofl] utfx¿

4 jm| f]df6f]uf| kmL – k|ofu] fTds ljm| ofsnfk 1: lkmN6/ kk] /, sfnfd] ;L,

k|ofu] fTds 1 las/ jf l/sfkL, kfgL,

5 j|mfd] f6fu] f| kmL – Kfo| fu] fTds lj|mofsnfk 2 M las/, /ftf] / lgnf] d;L,

ko| fu] fTds 2 lkmN6/ kk] /, kfgL

6 j|mfd] f6f]u|fkmL – Kf|ofu] fTds lj|mofsnfk 3 M sfFrsf] gnL, rssf] w'nf]

k|of]ufTds 3 jf cfNdfl] god cS;fO8, /ftf], lgnf] / sfnf] d;L,
ef8F f] cflb .

3. ljlzi6 p2]Zo, l;sfO lj|mofsnfk / d"Nofª\sg

lbg M 1 cf;jg lj|mof (Distillation)

-s_ ljlzi6 p2]Zo

x cf;jg ljm| ofsf] kl/ro lbg
x cf;jg ljm| ofnfO{ kb| zg{ ug{

-v_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f ljm| ofsnfk

lj|mofsnfk 1. cf;jg ljm| ofsf] kl/ro

x ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ lgDg k|Zg ;f]wL pTt/sf] vf]hL ug{ nufpgx' f];\ .
ld>0f eg]sf] s] xf] <
ld>0f 56' \ofpg] ljlwx¿ s] s] xfn] fg\ <

119

3/df kfgL pdfNbf lg:sg] afkm lr;f] eO{ kfgLsf yf]kfdf kl/0ft ePsf]
bv] s] f 5f} < To;nfO{ s] elgG5 xfn] f <

x Dfflysf k|Zgx¿df 5nkmn u/fO{ ljBfyL{x¿af6 k|fKt ;r" gfx¿nfO{ z}Ifl0fs
kf6Ldf nv] L cf;jg ljm| ofsf] kl/rosf] lgisif{ lbg'xf];\ . h:tf] M t/n
kbfy{nfO{ ttfpbF f afkm aGg] / afkmnfO{ lr:ofpFbf t/n kbfy{df kl/0ft xg' ]
lj|mofnfO{ g} cf;jg ljm| of elgG5 .

ljm| ofsnfk 1. cf;jg ljm| of kb| z{g
x ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ 3 jf 4 ;dx" df ljefhg ug{x' f;] \ . kT| o]s ;d"xnfO{ æg'gsf]

3f]naf6 kfgL s;/L 56' \6fpg ;lsG5 <Æ eGg] k|Zg n]lvPsf] Flash card ljt/0f
ug{] / ljBfyLs{ f] ;dx" df 5nkmn u/fpg'xf;] \ . ;d"x gt] f 5gf]6 ug{ nufO{ k:| tt'
ug{ nufpg'xf];\ .
x kT| o]s ;d"xnfO{ lrgLsf] 3f]n tof/ ug{ nufpg'xf;] \ . o;sf] nflu kf7\ok':tssf]
k]h g+ 106 sf] lrqnfO{ ;d"xut ¿kdf ljt/0f ug'{xf;] \ . ;fy} cfjZos
;fduL| x¿ M cfjZos ;xhLs/0f ub}{ Round bottom flask, condenser,

measuring cylinder, stand, burner, tripod stand, wire gauge, spirit lamp

;lxtsf pks/0fx¿nfO{ h8fg ug{ nufpg'xf];\ .
x ;fdu|Lx¿sf] h8fgkl5 3fn] nfO{ ttfpg nufpgx' f];\ / cjnfs] g ug{ nufpgx' f];\

.
x cjnf]sg ubf{ bl] vPsf kl/jtg{ x¿sf] l6kf6] ug{ nufO{ k:| tt' ug{ nufpg'xf;] \ .
x o; lj|mofsnfksf] pkofl] utf atfpg nufpg'xf;] \ .
x Dfflysf] ko| f]usf] cfwf/df lgisif{ k:| tt' ug{ nufpg'xf;] \ .
Gf'g / kfgLsf] 3f]nnfO{ ttfP/ To;df /xs] f] kfgL afkm agfO{ kg' M lr:ofP/ z'4
¿kdf gg' kf| Kt ug{ ;lsG5 . ;fy} gg' nfO{ a]Un} hDdf ug{ klg ;lsG5 . ;d'bL|
lsgf/df a;fa] f; ug{] dflg;n] cf;jg ljm| ofaf6 ;db' s| f] g'lgnf] kfgLaf6 z4' g'g
/ z4' lkpg] kfgL agfpg] u5{g\ .
-u_ dN" ofªs\ g

x cf;jg lj|mofsf] kl/efiff lbg'xf];\ .
x s:tf s:tf ld>0fsf kbfy{x¿nfO{ cf;jg ljm| ofaf6 56' \ofpg ;lsG5 <
x s] s:tf sfos{ f nflu cf;jg lj|mofsf] k|of]u xG' 5 <
x cf;jg ljm| ofnfO{ ko| f]ufTds ljlwaf6 s;/L kb| z{g ug{ ;lsG5 <
-3_ kl/ofh] gf sfo{
cfkm\gf] efG;fdf x'g] cf;jg lj|mofx¿sf] cjnf]sg u/L k|ltj]bg tof/ u/L sIffdf
k|:tt' ug{ nufpg'xf];\ .

120

lbg M 2 k|mofS;gn cf;jg lj|mof

-s_ ljlzi6 p2]Zo

x km| ofS;gn cf;jg lj|mofsf] kl/ro lbg
x cf;jg lj|mof k|bz{g ug{

-v_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f lj|mofsnfk

ljm| ofsnfk 1 k|mofS;gn cf;jg ljm| ofsf] kl/ro

x km| fS;ng cf;jg lj|mof;uF ;DalGwt tkl;nsf] lrq 6f:F gx' f];\ / of] ljlwaf6
s'g sg' ld>0fx¿ 5'6o\ fpg ;lsG5 < of] ljlwnfO{ s] elgG5 < h:tf kZ| g
;fW] g'xf;] \ .

x lrqsf] cfwf/df k|mfS;gn cf;jg lj|mofsf] kl/efiff atfpg nufpgx' f;] \ /
lgisif{ k|:t't ugx{' f];\ .

lgisif{ M b'O{ jf b'O{ eGbf a9L t/n kbfy{sf] ld>0fnfO{ 5'6o\ fpg] ljlwnfO{ km| fS;gn
cf;jg ljm| of elgG5 .

121

ljm| ofsnfk 2 km| ofS;gn cf;jg lj|mofsf] kb| zg{
x sIffsf] zI} fl0fs kf6Ldf ækfgL / d66\ Ltn] sf] ld>0faf6 d66\ Ltn] s;/L
5'6\6fOG5 <Æ eGg] kZ| g n]Vgx' f;] \ / sIfdf 5nkmn u/fpgx' f];\ .
x ljBfyL{nfO{ 4 ;d"xdf ljefhg ug'x{ f];\ / kT| os] ;d"xnfO{ Ps Ps ydf{]ld6/,
km| ofS;gn gnL, sf]lgsn km\nf:s, /fpG8 a6d km\nf:s, :6\ofG8, l:kl/6
NofDk cflb ljt/0f ugx{' f];\ . k|Tos] ;d"xnfO{ Pp6f kg{] u/L tnsf ld>0f
lbO{ 5'6o\ fpg nufpgx' f];\ .

-i_ kfgL / d66\ Ltn] sf] ld>0f
-ii_ k6] f« n] / d66\ Lt]nsf] ld>0f
-iii_ l8h]n / kfgLsf] ld>0f
-iv_ cNsfx] n / kfgLsf] ld>0f

x k|To]s ;d"xnfO{ k:| t't ug{ nufO{ 5nkmn u/fpgx' f];\ / cfjZos k/]
;xhLs/0f ul/lbgx' f];\ .

-u_ dN" ofª\sg
x km| ofS;gn cf;jg (Fractional distillation) egs] f] s] xf] <
x k|mo\ fS;gn cf;jg lj|mofaf6 s;/L ld>0f 5'6o\ fpg ;lsG5 <
x k|mofS;gn cf;jgaf6 56' \l6g] s]xL ljm| ofsf pbfx/0f s] s] xf]nfg\ <

lbg M 3 jm| fd] f6f]uf| kmL
-s_ ljlzi6 p2]Zo

x jm| f]df6f]u|fkmLsf] kl/efiff lbg
x jm| f]df6fu] |fkmLsf] pkofl] utf atfpg
-v_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f ljm| ofsnfk
lj|mofsnfk 1 j|mfd] f6f]u|fkmLsf] kl/ro
x ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ lgDg k|Zgx¿sf] cfwf/df ljifoj:t'df kj| ]z ug'x{ f];\ .

¾ jm| fd] f6fu] f| kmL sg' efiffaf6 cfPsf] xf] <
¾ sg' sg' ZfAb ldn]/ jm| f]df6f]u|fkmL ag]sf] xf] < ltgsf] cy{ s] xf] <
¾ j|mf]df6fu] f| kmL ljlwsf] ko| f]u ;jk{ y| d s;n] u/s] f lyP <

122

¾ /ª\uLg ldl>t kbfy{x¿ 5'6o\ fpg s'g ljlwsf] ko| f]u ul/G5 <
x dflysf k|Zgx¿sf] 5nkmnsf] cfwf/df j|mfd] f6fu] f| kmLsf] kl/efiff lbg nufpg'xf;] \

.
kl/efiff M ljleGg /ª\uLg kbfys{ f] ld>0faf6 /ªx¿ 5'6\ofpg] ljlw g}
jm| fd] f6f]u|fkmL xf] .
lj|mofsnfk 2 jm| f]df6fu] |fkmLsf] pkofl] utf
x j|mf]df6fu] f| kmL ljlwsf] pkof]lutf ;DaGwdf ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ ;fR] g] hf8] L agfpg] /
cg'ej cfbfgkb| fg ug]{ tl/sf ko| f]u ug'{xf;] \ .
x pSt ljlwcg;' f/ dflysf] lj|mofsnfkkl5 kT| o]s hf8] Ldf 5nkmn ePsf]
hfgsf/LnfO{ hf]8Lut ¿kdf k|:tt' ug{ nufpgx' f];\ .
x hf8] Lut ¿kdf k:| tt' ePsf s'/fx¿nfO{ zI} fl0fs kf6Ldf n]Vgx' f];\ / yk
pbfx/0fx¿ k:| tt' u/L o; ljlwsf] pkofl] utfsf] ;"rL k:| t't ug{ nufpgx' f;] \ .
-u_ d"Nofªs\ g
x j|mfd] f6f]uf| kmLsf] kl/efiff lbg'xf];\ .
x jm| f]df6f]u|fkmLsf pkof]lutf j0fg{ ugx{' f];\ .
-3_ yk cWoog ;fdu|L
j|mfd] f6f]u|fkmL ljlwdf ljleGg tl/sf x'G5g\ . ltgLx¿dWo] tn sx] L ljlwx¿ lbOPsf] 5
M
sfuh jm| f]df6f]uf| kmL (Paper Chromatography)
kftnf] txsf] jm| fd] f6f]u|fkmL (Thin layer Chromatography)
Uof;F j|mf]df6f]u|fkmL (Gas Chromatography)
sf]nd jm| f]df6f]uf| kmL (Column Chromatography)
-j|mfd] f6fu] |fkmL o:tf] ljlw xf], h;df ld>0fsf kbfy{x¿ ld>0fnfO{ ;f:] g] kbfy{df
k7fP/ ld>0fsf kbfyx{ ¿ 5'6\ofOG5 ._
o; ljlwdf ld>0fnfO{ o;df /x]sf kbfyx{ ¿ ;f]:g] kbfy{df k7fP/ ld>0fdf ePsf
ljleGg tTTj jf kbfyn{ fO{ 56' \ofOG5 .
sg' } Ps dfWoddf km/s km/s kbfy{sf] ult km/s km/s xG' 5 eGg] l;4fGtdf cfwfl/t
ljlw jm| fd] f6f]u|fkmL xf] .

123

lbg M 4/5/6 j|mfd] f6fu] |fkmL-ko| f]ufTds kb| zg{ _
-s_ ljlzi6 p2Z] o

x j|mf]df6f]uf| kmL ljlwsf] kb| zg{ ug{
-v_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f ljm| ofsnfk
lbg 4 M ko| fu] fTds ljm| ofsnfk 1 sfuh jm| fd] f6f]u|fkmL
lj1fg kf7o\ k:' tssf] k]h g+ 108 sf] ljm| ofsnfk 2 df lbOPsf] ;fduL| x¿sf] k|ofu]
u/L k|of]ufTds ljm| ofsnfk u/pgx' f;] \ .
lbg 5 M ko| fu] fTds ljm| ofsnfk 2 sfuh j|mfd] f6fu] f| kmL
lj1fg kf7\ok:' tssf] kh] g+ 109 sf] lj|mofsnfk 3 df lbOPsf] ;fdu|Lx¿sf] k|of]u
u/L k|ofu] fTds ljm| ofsnfk u/fpg'xf;] \ .
lbg 6 M ko| fu] fTds lj|mofsnfk 3 sfn] d jm| f]df6fu] f| kmL
lj1fg kf7\ok':tssf] k]h g+ 109 sf] lj|mofsnfk 4 df lbOPsf] ;fdu|Lx¿sf] k|of]u
u/L k|of]ufTds ljm| ofsnfk u/fpg'xf;] \ .

;Gbe{ ;fduL|

https://www.kullabs.com/class-8/...8/.../mixt...
htthttps://en.wikipedia.org/.../Fractional_distill.
ps://en.wikipedia.org/.../Chromatograph...

124

PsfO : 13 wft' / cwft'

cgd' flgt 3G6L 8 (7 ;}¢flGts ± 1 k|of]ufTds_

1. l;sfO pknlAw

x ;fwf/0f k]l/ofl] 8s tflnsfdf tTTjx¿nfO{ wft,' cwft' / cww{ ftd' f 5'6o\ fpg

x xfdf| kr| ngsf s]xL wft', cwft' / cw{wft'x¿ -;'g, rfFbL, tfdf, kmnfd,
cfNdf]lgod, l;lnsg / uGws_ sf] kl/ro, ef}lts u0' f, /f;folgs u0' f /
pkofl] utf atfpg

2. ljifoj:t' ljefhg / l;sfO ;fdu|Lx¿

lbg ljifoj:t' l;sfO ;fdu|Lx¿

1 Kf]l/of]l8s Kfl] /ofl] 8s tflnsf
tflnsfdf wft,'
cwft' /

cw{wfts' f] :yfg

2 ;g' ;g' sf efl} ts tyf /f;folgs u0' fx¿ nl] vPsf] rf6{ k]k/,
;'gsf uxgf -cf7F+} L, l;j|mL_ k]l/ofl] 8s tflnsf

3 rfbF L rfbF Lsf efl} ts tyf /f;folgs u'0fx¿ n]lvPsf] rf6{ kk] /,
uxgf, rfFbLaf6 ag]sf] j:t'x¿

4 Tffdf tfdfsf efl} ts tyf /f;folgs u0' fx¿ nl] vPsf] rf6{ k]k/,
tfdfsf] 6'j|mf, l;Ssf, efF8f

5 Kfmnfd kmnfdsf efl} ts tyf /f;folgs u'0fx¿ nl] vPsf] rf6{ kk] /,
kmnfdsf] lsnf, tf/, s'6f], xFl;of

6 cfNdf]lgod cNdfl] godsf ef}lts tyf /f;folgs u'0fx¿ nl] vPsf] rf6{
kk] /, cNdfl] godsf] 6'j|mf

7 l;lnsg l;lnsgsf ef}lts tyf /f;folgs u0' fx¿ nl] vPsf] rf6{
kk] /, l;lnsgaf6 ag]sf j:t'x¿

8 uGws uGwssf efl} ts tyf /f;folgs u'0fx¿ nl] vPsf] rf6{ kk] /,
;Nkm/ -uGws_

3. ljlzi6 p2]Zo, l;sfO ljm| ofsnfk / d"Nofª\sg

125

lbg 1 k]l/of]l8s tflnsfdf wft', cwft' / cww{ fts' f] :yfg

-s) ljlzi6 p2]Zo

x k]l/ofl] 8s tflnsfdf tTTjx¿nfO{ wft,' cwft' / cw{wftd' f 5'6o\ fpg

-v) l;sfO ;xhLs/0f ljm| ofsnfk

ljm| ofsnfk 1 tTTjx¿sf] juLs{ /0f

x lgDg kZ| gx¿ zI} fl0fs kf6Ldf n]vL ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ kZ| gsf] pTt/ vf]hL ug{
nufpg'xf];\ .
xfn;Dd slt cf]6f tTTjx¿ kTtf nfu]sf 5g\ <
kf| s[lts tTTj / s[lqd tTTj egs] f] s] xf] <
k|fs[lts tTTj / s[lqd tTTjx¿ sltcf]6f /x]sf 5g\ <
ljB't\ k|jfx ug{] tTTjsf u'0fsf cfwf/df tTTjx¿nfO{ slt k|sf/df
ljefhg ul/Psf] 5 < tL s] s] xg' \ <

x sIffsf ljBfyLx{ ¿nfO{ 3-4 ;dx" df ljefhg ug'xf]:f\ .
x k|To]s ;dx" nfO{ k]l/of]l8s tflnsfsf] kmf]6f]skL, tfdfsf] 6'jm| f, kmnfdsf] 6'j|mf,

;Nkm/, l;lnsg, cNdfl] god ljt/0f ug'{xf];\ .
x ;dx" sf ljBfyL{nfO{ lbOPsf wfts' f] :j¿k, /ª, s8fkg, kl] /of]l8s tflnsfdf

/x]sf] :yfgsf af/]df 5nkmn ug{ nufpg'xf;] \ .
x k|Tos] ;d"xnfO{ kf| Kt lgisif{ k:| t't ug{ nufpgx' f;] \ .

lj|mofsnfk 2 k]l/of]l8s tflnsfdf wft', cwft' / cww{ ft'sf] :yfg

x k]l/of]l8s tflnsfnfO{ leTtfdf 6f:F g'xf];\ / k]l/of]l8s tflnsfsf] kmf6] f]skL
;d"xut ¿kdf ljt/0f ug{x' f];\ .

x leTtfdf 6fFl;Psf] k]l/of]l8s tflnsf / ljt/0f ul/Psf] kl] /of]l8s tflnsfsf]
cjnfs] g ug{ nufO{ tflnsfdf wft', cw{wft' / cwft' klxrfg ug{ nufO{
k|:tt' ug{ nufpgx' f;] \ .

x tTkZrft\ wft,' cw{wft' / cwft' 56' o\ fOPsf] k]l/of]l8s tflnsf -;Gbe{
;fduL| df bv] fOPsf] h:t}_ ljt/0f ug{'xf;] \ / ;d"xut ¿kdf tof/ kfl/Psf
kIfnfO{ pSt tflnsf;uF tn' gf ug{ nufpg'xf;] \ / ;d"xsf] clGtd k|:tl' t
;fduL| tof/ kfg{ nufpg'xf;] \ .

x ljBfyL{x¿n] ;Df"xut ¿kdf k|:tt' u/s] f kIfx¿nfO{ ;d]6\b} lgDg lgisif{
k|:t't ug'{xf];\ M kl] /of]l8s tflnsfsf] ;dx" i, ii / iii df /x]sf tTTjx¿ wft'
x'g\ . kl] /ofl] 8s tflnsfsf] bflxgl] t/ /xs] f tTTjx¿ cwft' x'g\ eg] k]l/ofl] 8s
tflnsfsf] lardf kg]{ tTTjx¿ cww{ ftx' ¿ xg' \ .

126

-u_ dN" ofª\sg
x xfn;Dd slt cf6] f tTTjx¿ kTtf nfu]sf 5g\ <
x k|fs[lts / s[lqd tTTj eg]sf] s] xf] < slt slt cf6] f tTTjx¿ kf| sl[ ts /
s[lqd tTTjsf ¿kdf /x]sf 5g\ <
x ljB't\ k|jfx ug{] u0' fsf cfwf/df tTTjx¿nfO{ slt ;d"xdf ljefhg ul/Psf]
5 < tL s] s] x'g\ <
x cw{wft' eg]sf] s] xf] < s'g} rf/ cf6] fsf] pbfx/0f b]pm .

-3_ kl/ofh] gf sfo{
k]l/of]l8s tflnsfsf] cWoog u/L klxnf] 20 ;Ddsf tTTjx¿nfO{ wft', cww{ ft' /
cwftd' f juL{s/0f ul/Psf] rf6{ agfO{ sIffdf k|:tt' ug{ nufpg'xf;] \ .
-ª_ lzIfssf nlu yk cWoog ;fdu|L
x kl] /of]l8s tflnsfsf] afoft“ km{ wft,' bfof“tkm{ cwft' / lardf cww{ ft' /xs] f
x'G5g\ .
x cw{wftn' ] wft' / cwft' b'js} f] u'0f b]vfp5“ g\ .
wfts' f af/d] f cWoog ug]{ ljifonfO{ Metallurgy eGb5g\ .
ks| [ltdf kfOg] /f;folgs kbfy{ h;af6 kz| f]wg u/L wft' lgsflnG5, To;nfO{ wfp
elgG5 .

127

lbg 2 ;g'
-s) ljlzi6 p2Z] o

x ;g' sf] kl/ro lbg
x ;g' sf] ef}lts / /f;folgs u0' fx¿ atfpg
x ;g' sf] pkofl] utf atfpg
-v) l;sfO ;xhLs/0f ljm| ofsnfk
lj|mofsnfk 1 ;g' sf] kl/ro
x ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ lgDg k|Zg ;f]wL ;g' wft'sf] kl/ro lbg nufpgx' f;] \ .
;g' sf] /ª s:tf] xG' 5 <
;'g ks| [ltdf z4' ¿kdf kfOG5 jf ld>0fsf] ¿kdf <
;g' sxfF kfOG5 <
;'g k]l/ofl] 8s tflnsfsf] sg' ;d"xdf k5{ <
x Dfflysf k|Zgx¿df 5nkmn u/fO{ ;'gsf] kl/rosf] lgisif{ lbgx' f];\ M ;'g

ks| [ltdf z4' ¿kdf kfOg] rxlsnf] kxn]F f] /ªsf] wft' xf] . of] r66\ fgx¿sf]
lardf / gbLsf] afn'jfdf kfOG5 .
ljm| ofsnfk 2 ;'gsf] ef}lts / /f;folgs u0' fx¿

128

x ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ rf/ ;dx" df ljefhg ug'{xf;] \ / kT| os] ;d"xnfO{ ;'gsf] cf+F7} L
jf l;j|mL jf cGo uxgf ljt/0f ug{'xf];\ .

x kT| o]s ;dx" nfO{ /ª, ljBt' \ kj| fx, ;ljm| otf, cDn;uF sf] kl| tljm| of cflbsf]
cfwf/df 5nkmn ug{ nufO{ ;d"xut ¿kdf k:| t't ug{ nufpg'xf];\ .

x ;dx" ut ¿kdf k|:t't ul/Psf] kIfx¿nfO{ ;d]6\b} >Job[Zo ;fdu|L / ;'gsf]
k|bzg{ u/L o;sf efl} ts / /f;folgs u0' fx¿ k|:tt' ugx{' f;] \ .

lj|mofsnfk 3 ;g' sf] pkofl] utf

x KfT| os] ljBfyLn{ fO{ ;'gsf] pkof]lutfsf] ;r" L tof/ ug{ nufpg] / Ps Ps
u/L k|:t't ug{ nufpgx' f];\ .

x o;/L k|:t't ubf{ klxn] k:| tt' u/]sf] ;fyLn] eg]sf] s'/f bfx] fk] ¥' offpg gxg' ]
lgod agfpg'xf;] \ .

x ljBfyL{n] k:| t't u/]sf ;'gsf] pkof]lutfx¿nfO{ lzIfsn] z}Ifl0fs kf6Ldf
nV] b} hfgx' f];\ .

x cGtdf ;'gsf] pkof]lutf ;DaGwdf 5'6]sf pkofl] utfx¿nfO{ ;dt] ;d6] L
;g' sf] pkof]lutf k|:tt' ug{'xf];\ . -uxgf agfpg], l;Ssf, tSdf, dl" t{ agfpg],
cf}ifwL agfpg] cflb_

-u_ d"Nofª\sg

x ks| [ltdf ;g' z4' cj:yfdf kfOG5, lsg <
x ;g' sf] s'g} b'O{ b'O{ /f;folgs / ef}lts u0' fx¿ eg .
x ;g' nfO{ lsg wft' elgG5 < ;'gaf6 aGg] 5 cf]6f uxgfsf] gfd eg .

-3_ kl/ofh] gf sfo{

glhss} f] ;g' k;ndf hfgx' f;] \ / ;g' nfO{ kufNg] tl/sf / o;af6 ljleGg lsl;dsf
uxgf agfpg] tl/sfsf] cjnf]sg ugx'{ f;] \ . cfkmn" ] kfPsf s/' fnfO{ ;d6] b\ } Pp6f
kl| tj]bg tof/ kf/L sIffdf k:| t't ug{'xf;] \ .

-ª_ lzIfssf nlu yk cWoog ;fduL|

x ;g' n] xfjf tyf kfgL;uF kl| tljm| of gug{] ePsfn] ks| l[ tdf of] z4' cj:yfdf
kfOG5 . o;nfO{ sd lj|mofzLn wft' elgG5 .

x ;'gnfO{ lk6/] kftf agfO{ ljleGg cfsf/df 9fNg ;lsG5 .
x ;g' n] sg' } klg uf9f cDn;Fu k|ltj|mof ubg{} t/ Aqua regia ;Fu eg]

kl| tljm| of u5{ .
x Aqua regia – uf9f gfOl6s« Pl;8 / uf9f xfO8«fS] nfl] /s Pl;8 (1:3) sf]

ld>0fnfO{ Aqua regia elgG5 .

129

lbg 3 rfFbL

-s) ljlzi6 p2]Zo

x rfFbLsf] kl/ro lbg
x rfFbLsf] ef}lts / /f;folgs u'0fx¿ atfpg
x rfFbLsf] pkofl] utf atfpg

-v) l;sfO ;xhLs/0f lj|mofsnfk

ljm| ofsnfk 1 rfbF Lsf] kl/ro

x ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ lgDg k|Zg ;fw] L rfFbL wft'sf] kl/ro lbg nufpg'xf];\ .
rfbF Lsf] /ª s:tf] xG' 5 <
rfFbL k|sl[ tdf z'4 ¿kdf kfOG5 jf ld>0fsf] ¿kdf <
rfFbL sxfF kfOG5 <
rfFbL kl] /of]l8s tflnsfsf] sg' ;dx" df k5{ <
x Dfflysf kZ| gx¿df 5nkmn u/fO{ rfbF Lsf] kl/rosf] lgisif{ lbgx' f;] \ M rfbF L

ks| l[ tdf z4' tyf of}lussf ¿kdf kfOG5 . rfbF L dV' otofM ch{]G6fO6
wfpnfO{ kz| fw] g u/L agfOG5 .

ljm| ofsnfk 2 rfFbLsf] ef}lts / /f;folgs u'0fx¿

x ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ rf/ ;dx" df ljefhg ug'x{ f;] \ / k|Tos] ;dx" nfO{ rfFbLaf6
ags] f uxgf jf j:t' ljt/0f ug{'xf];\ .

x k|To]s ;dx" nfO{ /ª, ljBt' kj| fx, ;lj|motf, cDn;Fusf] kl| tljm| of cflbsf]
cfwf/df 5nkmn ug{ nufO{ ;d"xut ¿kdf k:| tt' ug{ nufpg'xf];\ .

x ;d"xut ¿kdf k|:t't ul/Psf] kIfx¿nfO{ ;d6] \b} >Job[Zo ;fduL| / rfFbLsf]
j:t' k|bzg{ u/L o;sf ef}lts / /f;folgs u'0fx¿ k|:t't ug'{xf];\ .

lj|mofsnfk 3 rfbF Lsf] pkofl] utf

x Kf|Tos] ljBfyLn{ fO{ rfbF Lsf] pkofl] utfsf] ;"rL tof/ ug{ nufpg] / Ps Ps
u/L k:| t't ug{ nufpgx' f];\ .

x o;/L k|:tt' ubf{ klxn] k|:tt' u/s] f] ;fyLn] egs] f] s'/f bfx] f]¥ofpg gx'g]
lgod agfpg'xf];\ .

x ljBfyL{n] k:| t't u/s] f rfFbLsf] pkofl] utfx¿nfO{ lzIfsn] zI} fl0fs kf6Ldf
nV] b} hfg'xf];\ .

x cGtdf rfFbLsf] pkofl] utf ;DaGwdf 56' s] f pkof]lutfx¿nfO{ ;d]t ;d6] L
;'gsf] pkof]lutf k:| t't ug'{xf];\ . -axd' "No ef8F fs8F' f agfpg, uxgf agfpg,
l;Ssf, tSdf, d"lt{ agfpg, ljB't\ n]kg / 6Nsg] agfpg, ljB'tLo

130

pks/0fx¿ agfpg, bfFtdf ePsf vfnL 7fpF eg{, cfi} fwL agfpg k|ofu]
ul/G5 .
-u_ d"Nofªs\ g
x rfFbLsf d'Vo wfpx¿ s] s] x'g\ <
x rfFbLsf s'g} b'O{ efl} ts u'0fx¿ eg .
x rfbF L s'g sg' s'/fx¿sf] nflu ko| fu] ul/G5 <
-3_ kl/of]hgf sfo{
3/df ePsf rfFbLsf uxgf, ;fdfg cflb cjnfs] g u/L rf6{ kk] /df rfbF Lsf efl} ts
u'0fx¿ / pkof]lutf nv] L sIffdf 6f:F g nufpgx' f;] \ .

lbg 4 tfdf
-s_ ljlzi6 p2]Zo

x tfdfsf] kl/ro lbg
x tfdfsf] /f;folgs / ef}lts u'0f atfpg
x tfdfsf pkofl] utfx¿ atfpg
-v_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f ljm| ofsnfk
x kl] /of]l8s tflnsfsf] k|of]u u/L ljBfyLx{ ¿nfO{ tfdfsf] :yfg kTtf nufpgsf

;fy} wft,' cwft' / cww{ ft' s'g xf] < 5'6\ofpg nufpg'xf];\ .
x ks| [ltdf tfdf s:tf] cj:yfdf sxfF kfOG5 < o;sf] d'Vo wfpx¿ s'g s'g xg' \

< wfpaf6 z'4 tfdf k|zf]wg ug{] ljifodf 5nkmn ug{ nufO{ lzIfsn] ;f/f+z
atfpg nufpg'xf];\ .
x ljBfyLx{ ¿sf] ;dx" ljefhg u/L tfdfsf] ef}lts / /f;folgs u'0fx¿ /
pkof]lutfsf af/]df 5nkmn u/fpgx' f;] \ / cGTodf lzIfsn] ;f/fz+ df
atfOlbgx' f];\ .
x tfdfnfO{ lkmSsf / uf9f cDn;uF kl| tljm| of ug{] gug{] ;DaGwdf k|bzg{ ug{x' f;] \
. o;sf] nflu lkmSsf / uf9f s'g cDn;Fu k|ltljm| of u5{ xf]nf < eljiojf0fL
ug{ nufpg'xf;] \ . To;kl5 k|of]u ug{] / cjnf]sg ug{ nufpg'xf;] \ / cGtdf
lgisif{ k|:t't ug{ nufpgx' f;] \ .
-u_ d"Nofª\sg

x tfdfsf] d'Vo wfpsf] gfd eg .

x tfdfsf s'g} bO' { efl} ts u0' fx¿ atfpm .

131

x sg' sg' sfddf tfdfsf] pkofu] ul/G5 <
-3_ kl/of]hgf sfo{
ljleGg 7fpsF f dlGb/ jf cGo tLy:{ yn e|d0f u/L ToxfFsf] 5fgf, 9fs] f, dl" t{ agfpg
sg' sg' wfts' f] ko| f]u ePsf] 5 < kTtf nufpg] / tfdfsf] k|of]u x'gs' f sf/0f s] s]
xg' ;S5 < cgd' fg u/L kl| tj]bg nv] L sIffsf7] fdf k|:t't ug{ nufpgx' f];\ .

lbg 5 kmnfd
-s_ ljlzi6 p2]Zo

x kmnfdsf] kl/efiff atfpg
x kmnfdsf] /f;folgs / ef}lts u'0f atfpg
x kmnfdsf pkof]lutfx¿ atfpg
-v_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f lj|mofsnfk
x kl] /ofl] 8s tflnsfsf] ko| fu] u/L ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ kmnfdsf] :yfg kTtf nufpg

nufpg'xf];\ . of] wft,' cwft' / cw{wft' sg' xf] < 56' \ofpg nufpg'xf;] \ .
x k|s[ltdf kmnfd sg' sg' wfpx¿af6 kz| f]wg ug{ ;lsG5 < 5nkmn u/L

n]Vg nufpg'xf;] \ .
x ljBfyLx{ ¿sf] ;d"x ljefhg u/L kT| o]s ;dx" nfO{ kmnfdaf6 ag]sf j:t'x¿ -

lsnf, tf/, s6' f], xlF ;of cflb_ ljt/0f u/L kmnfdsf] ef}lts / /f;folgs
u'0fx¿ -/ª, 6nstf, ;'rfns Ifdtf, xfjf / kfgLsf] c;/, cDn;uF sf]
kl| tljm| of cflb_ sf] ;r" L tof/ kfg{ nufpg'xf;] \ / k:| t't ug{ nufpg'xf];\ .
x lvof s;/L nfU5 < ljBfyL{x¿lardf 5nkmn u/fpgx' f];\ / k|ofu] zfnfdf
kmnfdsf] cDn;uF sf] /f;folgs kl| tlj|mofnfO{ k|bzg{ ugx'{ f;] \ .
x ;f]xL ;d"xdf kmnfdsf pkof]lutfsf af/]df 5nkmn u/fO{ k:| tt' ug{
nufpg'xf];\ . cGTodf lzIfsn] ;f/fz+ df atfpg'xf];\ .
-u_ d"Nofª\sg
x kmnfd kl] /of]l8s tflnsfsf] s'g ;d"xdf kb{5 <
x kmnfdsf sg' } bO' { b'O{ cf6] f ef}lts / /f;folgs u'0fx¿ atfpm .
x vfg]kfgLsf kfOk lsg kmnfdn] agfOG5 <
-3_ kl/ofh] gf sfo{

132

xf8{jo] / k;ndf uO{ ToxfF ePsf ;fdfgx¿ sg' sg' wft'af6 ags] f 5g\ < wfts' f] s'g
u'0fn] ubf{ o:tf] ;fdfg agfpg ;Dej ePsf] xf] < sf/0f;lxt pNn]v u/L kl| tj]bg
tof/ kfg{ nufpgx' f;] \ .
lbg 6 cNdf]lgod

-s) ljlzi6 p2Z] o
x cfNdfl] godsf] kl/ro lbg
x cfNdf]lgodsf] ef}lts / /f;folgs u0' fx¿ atfpg
x cfNdfl] godsf] pkofl] utf atfpg

-v) l;sfO ;xhLs/0f lj|mofsnfk
ljm| ofsnfk 1 cfNdf]lgodsf] kl/ro

x ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ lgDg kZ| g ;fw] L cfNdf]lgod wft'sf] kl/ro lbg nufpgx' f];\ .
cfNdfl] godsf] /ª s:tf] xG' 5 <
cfNdf]lgod ks| [ltdf z'4 ¿kdf kfOG5 jf ld>0fsf] ¿kdf <
cfNdl' godsf] dV' o wfp s'g xf] <
cfNdf]lgod k]l/ofl] 8s tflnsfsf] s'g ;dx" df k5{ <
x Dfflysf kZ| gx¿df 5nkmn u/fO{ cfNdfl] godsf] kl/rosf] lgisif{ lbgx' f];\ M

cfNdf]lgod ks| [ltdf z'4 ¿kdf kfOFb}g t/ ofl} us / wfpsf ¿kdf kz| :t
kfOG5 . o;sf] d'Vo wfp aS;fO6 xf] .
lj|mofsnfk 2 cfNdfl] godsf] ef}lts / /f;folgs u'0fx¿
x ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ rf/ ;dx" df ljefhg ug'{xf];\ / k|Tos] ;dx" nfO{
cfNdfl] godaf6 ags] f j:t'x¿ M k;]| / s's/ jf ljB'tLo tf/x¿ jf kftf jf
l;Ssf, lAf:s'6 jf rSn6] sf] vfn] jf cGo ;fdfg ljt/0f ugx{' f;] \ .
x k|To]s ;dx" nfO{ /ª, ljBt' \ kj| fx, ;lj|motf, xfjf / kfgLn] kfg{] c;/, lvof
nfUg] jf gnfUg], tfkj|md / kUnfO cflbsf] cfwf/df 5nkmn ug{ nufO{
;d"xut ¿kdf k|:tt' ug{ nufpg'xf];\ .
x ;dx" ut ¿kdf k:| tt' ul/Psf] kIfx¿nfO{ ;d6] \b} >JobZ[ o ;fdu|L /
cfNdfl] godsf] kb| zg{ u/L o;sf ef}lts / /f;folgs u'0fx¿ k:| tt' ug'{xf];\ .
lj|mofsnfk 3 cfNdfl] godsf] pkofl] utf

x Dfflysf] ljm| ofsnfkdf 2 df ljefhg u/s] f] KfT| os] ;d"xnfO{ cfNdf]lgodsf]
pkof]lutfsf] ;r" L tof/ ug{ nufpg] / Ps Ps u/L k|:t't ug{ nufpg'xf;] \ .

133

x o;/L k|:t't ubf{ klxn] k|:t't u/]sf] ;fyLn] eg]sf] s'/f bf]xf¥] ofpg gxg' ]
lgod agfpg'xf;] \ .

x ljBfyL{n] k|:t't u/s] f cfNdf]lgodsf] pkof]lutfx¿nfO{ lzIfsn] zI} fl0fs
kf6Ldf n]Vb} hfgx' f];\ .

x cGtdf cfNdf]lgodsf] pkof]lutf ;DaGwdf 5'6s] f pkofl] utfx¿nfO{ ;dt]
;d]6L cfNdfl] godsf] pkof]lutf k:| tt' ug'{xf;] \ . h:tf] M 3/fo;L efF8fs'8F f
agfpg, xjfO{hxfhsf kf6k'h{fx¿ agfpg, ljB'tLo ;fduL| x¿ agfpg,
;fdfg a]g{, hfnL agfpg, l;Ssf agfpg, vfB j:t' ;'/lIft ug{] vf]n
agfpg cflb .

-u_ d"Nofªs\ g
x cfNdfl] god k]l/of]l8s tflnsfsf] s'g ;d"xdf kb5{ <
x cfNdf]lgodsf sg' } b'O{ cf6] f efl} ts u0' fx¿ eg .
x cfNdfl] godsf] sg' { $ cf]6f pkofl] utfx¿ Aftfpm .

-3_ kl/ofh] gf sfo{
3/ jf 3/ jl/kl/ cNdf]lgodaf6 ags] f ;/;fdfg cjnfs] g u/L ;"rL agfpg nufpg]
/ sIffdf k|:tt' ug{ nufpg] .

lbg 7 l;lnsg
-s_ ljlzi6 p2]Zo

x l;lnsgsf] kl/ro lbg,
x l;lnsgsf] efl} ts / /f;folgs u'0f atfpg,
x l;lnsgsf pkof]lutfx¿ atfpg .
-v_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f ljm| ofsnfk
ljm| ofsnfk 1 l;lnsgsf] kl/ro
x ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ lgDg k|Zg ;f]wL l;lnsg cw{wfts' f] kl/ro lbg nufpgx' f];\ .
l;lnsgsf] /ª s:tf] x'G5 <
l;lnsg ks| l[ tdf z4' ¿kdf kfOG5 jf ld>0fsf] ¿kdf <
l;lnsg sxfF kfOG5 <
l;lnsg k]l/ofl] 8s tflnsfsf] sg' ;dx" df k5{ <

134

x Dfflysf kZ| gx¿df 5nkmn u/fO{ l;lnsgsf] kl/ro lbg'xf;] \ . M ks| l[ tdf
z4' ¿kdf gkfOg] t/ ofl} ussf] ¿kdf k|z:t kfOg] cww{ ft' g} l;lnsg xf] .
o;sf] kd| 'v ;f| ]t afnj' f jf l;lnsf xf] .

ljm| ofsnfk 2 l;lnsgsf] efl} ts / /f;folgs u0' fx¿
x ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ rf/ ;d"xdf ljefhg ugx'{ f;] \ / k|To]s ;dx" nfO{ l;lnsg
cww{ fta' f6 ag]sf j:t' ljt/0f ug'{xf;] \ .
x k|Tos] ;d"xnfO{ /ª, ljB't kj| fx, ;ljm| otf, agfj6-dl0fe, wn' f]_, xfjf kfgL /
cDn;Fusf] k|ltljm| of cflbsf] cfwf/df 5nkmn ug{ nufO{ ;d"xut ¿kdf
k|:tt' ug{ nufpg'xf];\ .
x ;d"xut ¿kdf k:| tt' ul/Psf] kIfx¿nfO{ ;d]6b\ } >Job[Zo ;fduL| / l;lnlsg
cw{wft'sf] kb| z{g u/L o;sf efl} ts / /f;folgs u0' fx¿ k|:tt' ug'x{ f;] \ .

ljm| ofsnfk 3 l;lnsgsf] pkofl] utf
x ljm| ofsnfk b'O{ ubf{ cjnfs] g ul/Psf l;lnsg cw{wft'sf] j:t'sf] cfwf/df
l;lnsgsf] pkofl] utfsf] ;r" L tof/ ug{ nufpgx' f;] \ / Ps Ps u/L k:| t't
ug{ nufpgx' f];\ .
x o;/L k:| tt' ubf{ klxn] k|:t't u/]sf] ;fyLn] eg]sf] s'/f bf]xf]k'¥offpg gxg' ]
lgod agfpgx' f];\ .
x ljBfyL{n] k:| t't u/s] f l;lnsg pkof]lutfx¿nfO{ lzIfsn] zI} fl0fs kf6Ldf
n]Vb} hfgx' f];\ .
x cGtdf l;lnsgsf] pkof]lutf ;DaGwdf 5'6s] f pkofl] utfx¿nfO{ ;d]t ;d]6L
l;lnsgsf] pkofl] utf k:| t't ug'{xf];\ . -sfFr agfpg, df6fsf ef8F fx¿
agfpg, ljBt' Lo pks/0fx¿df cwr{ fnssf?] Kfdf, ljleGg pks/0fx¿nfO{
aflx/af6 kf]ln; ug{ / /ªx¿ agfpg cflb_

-u_ d"Nofªs\ g
x l;lnsg k]l/of]l8s tflnsfsf] sg' ;d"xdf kb{5 <
x l;lnsgsf sg' } b'O{ ef}lts / /f;folgs u'0fx¿ eg .
x l;lnsgsf] pkofl] utf atfpm .

-3_ kl/ofh] gf sfo{
l;lnsgaf6 ag]sf ljleGg ;fdfgx¿sf] cWoog cjnf]sg u/L ;r" L agfpg
nufpg'xf;] \ .

135

lbg 8 uGws

-s_ ljlzi6 p2]Zo

x uGwssf] kl/ro lbg
x uGwssf] efl} ts / /f;folgs u'0f atfpg
x uGwssf] pkofl] utfx¿ atfpg

-v_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f lj|mofsnfk

ljm| ofsnfk 1 uGwssf] kl/ro

x ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ lgDg k|Zg ;f]wL uGwssf] kl/ro lbg nufpg'xf];\ .
uGwssf] /ª s:tf] xG' 5 <
uGws k|s[ltdf z'4 ¿kdf kfOG5 jf ld>0fsf] ¿kdf <
uGws sxfF kfOG5 <
uGws k]l/ofl] 8s tflnsfsf] s'g ;dx" df k5{ <
x Dfflysf kZ| gx¿df 5nkmn u/fO{ uGwssf] kl/ro lbgx' f;] \ M k|s[ltdf z'2

¿kdf tyf Hjfnfdv' L hfg] Ifq] df k|fs[lts ¿kdf kfOg] cwft'nfO{ ;Nkm/
elgG5 . of}lussf] ¿kdf ljleGg wfts' f] ;NkmfO8sf ¿kdf ;Nkm/ kfOG5 .
Kofh, n;'g, tf/] Lsf] tn] df ;d]t ;Nkm/ kfOG5 .
ljm| ofsnfk 2 uGwssf] efl} ts / /f;folgs u0' fx¿

x ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ rf/ ;dx" df ljefhg ugx{' f];\ / k|Tos] ;d"xnfO{ uGws
ljt/0f ug{'xf];\ .

x ;d"xut ¿kdf /ª, ljB't kj| fx, kfgLdf 3'ngzLntf, cDn;uF sf] k|ltljm| of
cflbsf] cfwf/df 5nkmn ug{ nufO{ ;d"xut ¿kdf k|:tt' ug{ nufpg'xf;] \ .

x ;d"xut ¿kdf k|:t't ul/Psf] kIfx¿nfO{ ;d]6b\ } >Job[Zo ;fdu|L / uGws
cwfts' f] k|bz{g u/L o;sf ef}lts / /f;folgs u0' fx¿ k:| t't ug'{xf;] \ .

ljm| ofsnfk 3 uGwssf] pkof]lutf

x lj|mofsnfk bO' { ubf{ cjnf]sg ul/Psf uGws cwfts' f] j:t'sf] cjnf]sgsf]
cfwf/df uGwssf] pkofl] utfsf] ;r" L tof/ ug{ nufpg'xf];\ / Ps Ps u/L
k|:tt' ug{ nufpgx' f;] \ .

x o;/L k|:tt' ubf{ klxn] k:| t't u/s] f] ;fyLn] egs] f] s'/f bfx] f]k'¥offpg gx'g]
lgod atfpgx' f;] \ .

x ljBfyLn{ ] k:| tt' u/s] f uGwssf] pkofl] utfx¿nfO{ lzIfsn] zI} fl0fs kf6Ldf
n]Vb} hfgx' f;] \ .

136

x cGtdf uGwssf] pkofl] utf ;DaGwdf 5'6]sf pkofl] utfx¿nfO{ ;dt] ;d6] L
uGwssf] pkof]lutf k|:t't ug{'xf];\ . -;Nkm\o'l/s cDn agfpg, cf}ifwLsf
¿kdf k|ofu] , aGbs' df af?b agfpg, ;nfOsf] sfF6Ldf af?b agfpg,
sL6gf;s cfi} fwL agfpg, k6sfx¿ agfpg cflb_

-3_ kl/ofh] gf sfo{ M xfdf| ] bl} gs hLjgdf uGwssf] pkof]lutf sxfF sxfF x'G5 <
cleefjs;uF ;f]wvfh] u/L kl| tj]bg nV] g nufpgx' f];\ .
-ª_ ;Gbe{ ;fduL|

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron
http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele029.html
https://www.webelements.com/silicon/
http://www.sulphurinstitute.org/learnmore/sulphur101.cfm

137

PsfO 14 cDn, Iff/ / nj0f

cgd' flgt 3G6L M 6 -4 ;}¢flGts± 2 k|of]ufTds_

1= l;sfO pknlAw

x cDn, Iff/ / nj0fsf] kl/ro lbg, u'0fx¿ j0fg{ ug{ / pkof]lutf atfpg

x ;"rs (Indicator) sf] ;fdfGo kl/ro lbO{ cDn, Iff/ / nj0f 56' o\ fpg,
ln6d;sf] k|ofu] ug{

x la?jfsf] ljleGg efusf /;x¿af6 ln6d; agfpg

x lk=Pr= (PH) Scale sf] ;fdfGo kl/ro / k|ofu] atfpg

2 ljifoj:t' ljefhg / l;sfO ;fdu|L

lbg ljifoj:t' l;sfO ;fduL|

1,2 cDn M kl/ro, sfutL, ;'Gtnf, lgaj' f, ef]u6], lgnf] tyf /ftf] ln6d;
u0' fx¿ / sfuh jf ldyfOn c/]Gh jf kmg] f]Nkmnflyg
pkofl] utf

3 Iff/M kl/ro, NaOH sf] kfgL;uF sf] 3fn] , /ftf] tyf lgnf] ln6d;
u0' fx¿ / k]k/, SoflN;od xfO8«f]cS;fO8
pkofl] utf

4 nj0f M kl/ro, vfg] gg' sf] kfgLdf 3f]n, /ftf] tyf lgnf] ln6d; k]k/,
u0' fx¿ / lgnft] y' f] 3f]n
pkofl] utf

5 ;r" s kbfy{ M sfutL, NaOH sf] 3fn] , vfg] g'gsf 3f]n / PH sfuh
kl/ro lkmSsf xfOO«fS] nfl] /s Pl;8 jf ;N o'l/s Pl;8

6 ;"rs kbfy{ tyf cNsf]xn, /ªu\ Lg k'mnx¿sf] ki' kbnx¿, lkmN6/ kk] /
PH :s]n

3. ljlzi6 p2]Zo, l;sfO ;xhLs/0f lj|mofsnfk / dN" ofª\sg

138

lbg M 1/2 cDn

-s_ ljlzi6 p2]Zox¿

x cDnsf] kl/efiff lbg
x cDnsf u0' fx¿ j0fg{ ug{
x cDnsf] pkoflutf j0fg{ ug{
-v_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f lj|mofsnfk

ljm| ofsnfk 1 kmnkm"ndf x'g] cDn / ;r" s kbfy{sf] k/LIf0f

x ;j{k|yd sIffsf ljBfofyLx{ ¿nfO{ 3-4 ;d"xdf ljefhg ug{x' f;] \ .
x k|Tos] ;dx" nfO{ sx] L ;'Gtnf, cdnf, ufn] e]8f, sfutL, :ofp cflb / lgnf]

ln6d; k]k/ ljt/0f ug'{xf];\ .
x 56' \6f 5'66\ } 6:] 66\o'adf logLx¿sf] 3f]n tof/ kfg{ nufpgx' f];\ .
x k|To]s 6]:66o\ a' df lgnf] ln6d; k]k/ 8'afpg nufO{ cjnfs] g ug{ nufpgx' f;] \

.
x ln6d; kk] /df cfPsf] kl/jtg{ sf] sf/0f atfpg nufpg'xf;] \ .
x To:t}u/L ldyfOn c/]Gh jf kmg] f]Nkmnflyg;uF ld;fO{ /ª\udf cfPsf] kl/jtg{

cjnfs] g ug{ nufO{ k:| tt' ug{ nufpgx' f];\ .
x ljBfyLs{ f] k:| t'ltkl5 cfjZos ;'wf/ ug'{kg]{ ePdf ug{] / ;a} ljBfyLn{ fO{

o:tf kmnkm" n tyf t/sf/Ldf cDn xG' 5 eGg] s/' fsf] hfgsf/L u/fpgx' f;] \ .

lj|mofsnfk 2 cDnsf] kl/ro

x ljBfyLx{ ¿nfO{ ;d"xut ¿kdf dfan{ jf h:tfsf 6'j|mf k/LIf0f gnLdf /fVg
nufpgx' f];\ .

x 6:] 66o\ 'adf lkmSsf xfOOf« ]Snfl] /s Pl;8 jf lkmSsf ;N ol' /s Pl;8 /fVg
nufpg'xf;] \ .

x dfa{n jf h:tfsf 6'j|mf / cDnlar kl| tljm| of eO{ UofF; ags] f] cjnf]sg ug{
nufpg'xf;] \ .

x dfa{n jf h:tfsf] 6'jm| f lvOP/ uPsf] sf/0f atfOlbgx' f];\ . k|To]s ;d"xnfO{
cfkmg\ f] ko| fu] k:| t't ug{ nufpg'xf;] \ .

x dflysf] lj|mofsnfk Ps / b'O{sf] cfwf/df ljBfyLx{ ¿nfO{ tnsf k|Zgx¿
;fW] g'xf;] \ .

cDnnfO{ s;/L kl/eflift ug{ ;lsG5 <

sfutL, ufn] e]F8f, ef]u6,] b'w, bxL h:tf j:td' f s'g s'g cDn xG' 5g\ <

x o;/L k|Zg ;f]lw;sk] l5 ljBfyLx{ ¿nfO{ pSt kZ| gx¿sf] pTt/ lgsfNg
pTk]l| /t ugx{' f];\ .

139

h:t} M

HCl H+ + Cl–

x of] ;dLs/0f x/] L cDnsf] kl/efiff atfpg nufpgx' f;] \ . h:t}M kfgLdf 3'Nbf
wg ljBt' Lo rfho{ 'St xfO8«fh] g (H+) lbg] kbfyn{ fO{ cDn elgG5 .

ljm| ofsnfk 3 cDnsf] u0' fx¿

x ljBfyLx{ ¿nfO{ rf/ ;d"xdf ljefhg u/L sx] L sfutL jf ;G' tnf jf cdnfsf]
/;, leg]u/ / HCl cflb ljt/0f ug{'xf];\ .

x o;/L pknAw u/fOP{ sf] cDnsf] af/d] f tn' gfTds cWoog ug{ nufpg'xf;] \ .
x bO' { km/s km/s k/LIf0f gnL dWo] Pp6fdf dfa{nsf] 6j' m| f /fvL Ps bO' { yf]kf

sfutLsf] /; csf{] k/LIf0f gnLdf dfa{nsf 6j' m| f / Ps b'O{ yf]kf
xfO8f]Snfl] /s Pl;8 /fVg nufO{ kfnk} fnf] cjnfs] g ug{ nufpgx' f];\ . s]
km/s b]lvof] k:| t't ug{ nufpg'xf];\ .
x xfO8fS] nf]l/s cDnn] dfan{ jf h:tfsf] 6j' |mf;Fu k|ltlj|mof u/fpFbf xfO8«fh] g
UofF; aG5 . t/ sfutLdf kf| ª\ufl/s cDn x'G5 o;sf] dfa{n;uF /f;folgs

k|ltljm| of x'bF g} egL :ki6 atfOlbg'xf];\ .
x cDnsf cGo u0' fx¿ :jfb, ;"rs kbfyd{ f xg' kl/jtg{ , Iff/;Fusf] kl| tljm| of

cflbdf 5nkmn u/fO{ lgisif{ k|:t't ug'{xf;] \ .

ljm| ofsnfk 4 cDnsf] ks| f/

x ca sx] L cDnx¿sf] gfd af8] {df nvL o;nfO{ ;femf u0' fcg;' f/ s8f / g/d
cDnsf] k|sf/df 56' \ofpg ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ nufpgx' f;] \ / ljBfyL{x¿sf]
pTt/nfO{ ;w' f/ ub{} tkl;nsf] 9fFrfdf tflnsf agfpg ;xofu] ug{x' f;] \ .

g/d cDn M ;dx" -s_ s8f cDn M ;d"x -v_

;fOl6s« cDn xfO8«f]Snfl] /s cDn

NoflS6s cDn ;Nˆo'l/s cDn

6f6]l{ /s cDn gfOl6«s cDn

x o:t} u/L ;d"x -s_ cDnx¿ af]6lj?jf jf hLjhGtd' f kfOG5 / ;dx" -v_
sf cDnx¿ k|of]uzfnfdf agfOG5 . To:t} k|of]uzfnfdf agfOg] cDn
jg:kltdf kfOg] cDneGbf s8f x'G5g\ eGg] s'/fsf] lgisif{ lbg'xf];\ .

140

x o;kZrft\ ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ k|fªu\ fl/s cDn (Organic Acid) / ckf| ª\ufl/s cDn
(Inorganic Acid) sf] kl/efiff kTtf nufpg nufO{ cfjZos ;w' f/ ul/lbgx' f];\
/ tn pNn]v ul/Psf] em} dxTTjk0" f{ hfgsf/L u/fpg'xf];\ .

dflg;sf] z/L/af6 lg:sg] (HCl) xfO8«Snf]l/s cDn ck|fªu\ fl/s xf] .

ckf| ªu\ fl/s cDnsf] :jfb lngx' b'F }g lsgeg] pSt cDnx¿ s8f xG' 5g\ / pSt
cDnn] 5fnf hnfpg ;S5 . s8f ;Nkm\ol' /s cDnnfO{ th] fj klg elgG5 .

ljm| ofsnfk 5 cDnsf] pkofl] utf

x ;Nkmo\ 'l/s cDn, xfO8«f]Snfl] /s cDn, gfOl6«s cDn, sfaf{]lgs cDn, Pl;l6s
cDn, ;fOl6s« cDn, 6f6f{ l/s cDn, cShflns cDn, P:sljs{ cDn, NoflS6s
cDn, kmld{s cDnsf] gfd d]6fsf8{df nv] L To;sf] pkofl] utf nV] g nufO{
k|:tt' ug{ nufpg'xf;] \ .

x ljBfyL{x¿af6 k|:tt' ePsf kIfx¿nfO{ ;dt] ;d]6L lzIfsn] dlN6ldl8of
k|f]h]S6/sf] ;xfotfaf6 dfly plNnlvt k|Tos] cDnsf] ;q" tyf pkofl] utf
k|i6 kfg'{xf];\ .

-u_ dN" ofªs\ g

x cDn eg]sf] s] xf] <
x k|fª\ufl/s / ckf| ª\ufl/s cDnlar km/s 56' \ofpm .
x cDnsf ef}lts / /f;folgs u'0fx¿ pNn]v u/ .
x cDnsf] pkofu] sxfF sxfF s;/L ul/G5 <
x cDnsf] :jfb lsg cldnf] x'G5 <
-3_ kl/of]hgf sfo{

ltd|f] 3/df ko| fu] ul/g] ljleGg lsl;dsf cDnx¿, cldnf] kmnkmn" x¿sf] cWoog tyf
cjnfs] g u/L Pp6f 5f6] f] k|ltjb] g tof/ ug{ nufpg] jf Pp6f rf6{k]k/df cDnsf]
gfd n]vL ltgsf] ;|f]t / pkof]lutf n]Vg'xf;] \ .

-ª_ yk cWoog ;fduL|

HCl H+ + Cl–

H2SO4 H+ + SO4–

HNO3 H+ + NO3–

CH3COOH H+ + CH3COO–

141

lbg M 3 Iff/

-s_ ljlzi6 p2]Zo

x Iff/sf] kl/efiff lbg, u'0fx¿ j0f{g ug{ / pkofl] utf atfpg

-v_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f lj|mofsnfk

lj|mofsnfk 1 Iff/sf] kl/ro

x sg' } Ps ljBfyL{nfO{ DofUg]l;od l/ag afNg nufpgx' f];\ / DofUg]l;od l/ag
an]/ cfPsf] wn' f] s] xf] < egL ljBfyLn{ fO{ kZ| g ;f]Wgx' f];\ . o;ks| f/

ljBfyL{nfO{ pSt k|ltljm| ofsf] /f;folgs ;dLs/0f nV] g nufgx' f;] \ . h:t} M

2Mg + O2 2 MgO

x o;/L /f;folgs kl| tlj|mofaf6 cfPsf] wn' f]nfO{ Pp6f las/ cyjf lunf;sf]
kfgLdf 3fN] bf s] aG5 xf]nf < ;fR] g nufpgx' f;] \ . Ps hgf ljBfyLn{ fO{
w'nf]nfO{ lunf;df /fVg nufO{ kfgLdf 3f]Ng nufpg'xf];\ / cGo
ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ cjnfs] g ug{ nufpgx' f;] \ . /f;folgs ;dLs/0f;lxt k|:t't

ug{ nufpg'xf;] \ / lgDg lgisif{ k:| t't ug{x' f;] \ M

Mg + H2O MMgg++(O+H2O)2H–
Mg (OH)2

x Mg(OH)2 DofUg]l;od wfts' f] xfO8«f]S;fO8 xf] To:t} NaOH ;f]l8od
xfO8f« S] ;fO8 ;fl] 8od wft'sf] xfO8«fc] S;fO8 xf] . To;}u/L MgO -DofUg]l;od

cS;fO8_ DofUg]l;od wfts' f] cS;fO8 xf] eGg] s'/f pNnv] ub}{ pSt

;r" gfaf6 s;/L wft'nfO{ kl/eflift ug{ ;lsG5 egL ljBfyL{nfO{ ;fW] gx' f];\ .
ljBfyL{af6 cfPsf pTt/nfO{ cfjZos ;'wf/ ub}{ ;xL pTt/ ki| 6 kfl/lbg'xf];\ .
-wft'sf] cS;fO8 jf xfO8f« ]cS;fO8nfO{ Iff/ elgG5_
x ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ Iff/sf cGo pbfx/0fx¿sf] ;"rL tof/ ug{ nufO k:| tt' ug{

nufpgx' f;] \ / lzIfsn] d'Vo d'Vo Iff/sf] d6] fsf8d{ f Psflt/ zAb / csfl]{ t/
;"q ePsf] Iff/ bv] fO{ yk k|i6 kfg{'xf;] \ .

ljm| ofsnfk 2 Iff/sf u0' fx¿

x ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ kfrF ;d"xdf ljefhg u/L lj|mofsnfk 1 df ul/Psf]

lj|mofsnfksf] cfwf/df Iff/sf u0' fx¿sf] ;r" L agfpg nufpgx' f;] \ . o;f] ubf{
sx] L ;ªs\ ]t lbg'xf;] \ h:tf] M :jfb, ;"rsdf /ª kl/jtg{ , cDn /
sfa{g8fOcS;fO8aLrsf] k|ltljm| of cflb .
x kT| os] ;dx" df k/LIf0f gnLdf Iff/ /fvL ;"rs kbfys{ f] k/LIf0f u/L lgisif{
lbg nufpg'xf;] \ .
x ;d"xut ¿kdf k|:t'lt kZrft\ yk k|Zg ;f]Wgx' f];\ . h:tf] M ;a} cNsfnL Iff/
xg' \ / ;a} Iff/ cNsfnL xf]Ogg,\ lsg < o; kZ| gsf] pTt/ ljBfyL{nfO{ 5nkmn

142

u/fO{ kfgLdf g3N' g] Iff/ / 3N' g] Iff/nfO{ k|of]ufTds ¿kdf b]vfO{ pSt
lgisif{sf] kl' i6 ug'x{ f];\ .

ljm| ofsnfk 3 Iff/sf] pkofl] utf

s]xL pkofu] L Iff/sf] ;"qnfO{ d6] fsf8d{ f bv] fpg'xf;] \ / kT| os] sf] gfd / pkofu] kTtf
nufpg] sfo{ lbg'xf];\ jf Iff/sf] gfd / pkof]lutf km/s km/s d]6fsf8d{ f lbO{
k|Tos] sf] gfd / pkofl] utfsf] hf]8f ldnfpg] ljm| ofsnfk ugx'{ f];\ . of] sfo{ ;dx" ut
¿kdf u/fpg ;lsG5 . h;df hg' ;d"xn] klxnf ldnfp5F p;nfO{ ljht] f ;d"x
3fi] f0ff ug{ ;lsG5 .

-u_ dN" ofªs\ g

x Iff/ eg]sf] s] xf] <
x ;a} cNsfnL Iff/ xg' \ t/ ;a} Iff/ cNsfnL xfO] gg\ lsg < sf/0f bp] m .
x sg' } ltg cf]6f Iff/sf] gfd n]vL ltgLx¿sf] pkof]lutf n]v .
x Iff/sf efl} ts / /f;folgs u'0fx¿ Aftfpm .
x ;r" s kbfya{ f6 s;/L Iff/ xf] eGg] s/' f klxrfg ug{ ;lsG5 <
-3_ kl/ofh] gf sfo{

ljBfno tyf 3/df ko| fu] ul/g] Iff/sf] cWoog tyf cjnf]sg u/L gfd, ;q" , u0' f /
pkofl] utfsf] ;"rL tof/ kf/L sIffdf k|:t't ugx{' f;] \ .

lbg M 4 nj0f

-s_ ljlzi6 p2]Zo

x nj0fsf] kl/efiff lbg, u'0fx¿ / pkofl] utf atfpg

-v_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f lj|mofsnfk

ljm| ofsnfk 1 nj0fsf] kl/ro

x ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ $ ;dx" df ljefhg u/L k|Tos] ;d"xdf cfof]8go'St Kofs
ul/Psf] vfg]gg' sf] wn' f] ;d"xdf ljt/0f ugx'{ f;] \ / ;a}nfO{ vfgf-:jfblng_
nufpg'xf];\ .

x rf/cf6] } ;dx" df ljs/ ljt/0f u/L sx] L vfgg] 'gsf] w'nf] ljs/df /fvL kfgLdf
3f]Ng nufpgx' f;] \ / ln6d; k]k/ -b'a} /ftf] / lgnf]_ lnP/ 3f]ndf 8a' fP/ s]
kl/jtg{ xG' 5 egL cjnf]sg ug{ nufO{ lgisif{ tof/ ug{ nufpgx' f];\ .

x dfly plNnlvt lj|mofsnfksf cfwf/df nj0fsf] kl/efiff lbg nufpg'xf];\ .

143

lj|mofsnfk 2 nj0fsf u'0fx¿
x dflysf] ljm| ofsnfk 1 df ul/Psf] ko| fu] fTds cEof;sf] cfwf/ tyf
3n' gzLntf, /ª tyf :jfbsf cfwf/df nj0fsf u'0fx¿sf] ;r" L tof/ ug{
nufpg'xf];\ / k:| t't ug{ nufpg'xf];\ .
x ljBfyL{x¿n] k|:t't u/]sf nj0fsf u0' fx¿sf] ;r" L z}Ifl0fs kf6Ldf n]Vb}
hfg'xf];\ / cGtdf yk u'0fx¿ k:| tt' u/L cfjZos ki[ 7kfi] f0f k|bfg ugx'{ f;] \ .

ljm| ofsnfk 3 nj0fsf] pkof]lutf
x ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ kfFr ;d"xdf ljefhg u/L kT| o]s ;d"xnfO{ ;f]l8od Snf/] fO8,
sk/ ;Nkm6] , DofUg]l;od ;Nkm6] , SoflN;od ;Nkm6] , ;f]l8od sfaf]{g6] ,
;f]l8od afOsfafg{] 6] , Pdf]lgod ;Nkm6] nl] vPsf d]6fsf8{ ljt/0f u/L k|Tos]
nj0fsf] pkof]lutf klxrfg ug{ nufO{ k|:tt' ug{ nufpgx' f];\ / yk k[i7kf]if0f
kb| fg ug'x{ f];\ .

-u_ dN" ofªs\ g
x nj0f egs] f] s] xf] <
x s'g} kfrF cf6] f nj0fsf] gfd n]v .
x nj0fsf] ef}lts / /f;folgs u0' fx¿ eg .
x sg' } kfFr nj0fsf] gfd / pSt nj0fx¿sf] pkof]lutf atfpm .
x s] ;a} nj0fx¿ Gfl' gnf x'G5g\ xfn] f <

-3_ kl/of]hgf sfo{
NaCl, CuSO4, MgSO4, CaSO4, Na2CO3, NaHCO3, (NH4)2SO4 h:tf

nj0fx¿sf] pkofl] utf rf6{ k]k/df tof/ u/L sIffdf k:| t't ug{x' f];\ .
lbg M 5 ;"rs kbfy{ tyf PH :s]n
-s_ ljlzi6 p2]Zo

x ;"rs kbfy{sf] kl/efiff lbg
x ;r" s kbfy{sf] dfWodaf6 cDn, Iff/ / nj0fsf u'0fx¿ 5'6\ofpg
-v_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f lj|mofsnfk
ljm| ofsnfk 1 ;"rs kbfy{sf] kl/efiff
x ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ ;f]Rg] hf8] L agfpg] / cg'ej cfbfgkb| fg ug]{ tl/sf ko| f]u

u/L ;r" s kbfy{ / o;sf k|sf/ ;DaGwdf cge' j cfbfgk|bfg ug{ nufpgx' f;] \
.

144

x hf8] Ldf cg'ej cfbfgkb| fg ul/Psf] s'/fnfO{ sIffdf jm| dzM gbf]xfl] /g] u/L
k:| tt' ug{ nufpgx' f;] \ / lzIfsn] l6kf]6 ub{} hfg'xf;] \ .

x ljBfyL{af6 k:| tt' ul/Psf kIfx¿nfO{ ;d]6b\ } lzIfsn] ;r" s kbfy{sf] kl/efiff
/ k|sf/ atfpg'xf;] \ . -cDn, Iff/ / nj0fnfO{ 5'6\ofpg k|ofu] ul/g]
/;fognfO{ ;"rs kbfy{ elgG5 . ;"rs kbfy{sf] ¿kdf ln6d; sfuh,
ldyfOn c/]Gh / km]gfN] km\yflng ko| f]u ul/G5 ._

lj|mofsnfk 2 ;r" s kbfy{sf] ko| f]ufTds cEof;

x ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ rf/ ;dx" df ljefhg u/L cDn, Iff/ / nj0f ljt/0f u/L
k|To]ssf] 3fn] agfpg nufpg'xf;] \ / ;r" s kbfy{sf] k|ofu] ubf{ kl/jtg{ x'g]
/ªnfO{ tkl;nsf] tflnsfdf eg{ nufpg'xf;] \ .

;"rs kbfy{ cDn Iff/ nj0f

lgnf] ln6d; kk] /

/ftf] ln6d; k]k/

ldyfOn cf/] ]Gh

kmg] fN] kmyflng

-u_ d"Nofª\sg

x ;"rs kbfy{nfO{ s;/L kl/eflift ug{ ;lsG5 <

x s'g} ltg cf6] f ;"rs kbfy{sf] gfd eg .

x ;"rs kbfyn{ ] s;/L cDn, Iff/ / nj0fsf] u0' f 56' o\ fpg ;S5 <

-3_ kl/of]hgf sfo{

;r" s kbfy{sf] k|ofu] u/L sfutLsf] /;, z'¢kfgL, Ogf/sf] kfgL, NaOH sf] 3fn] /
vfn] fsf] kfgL cDnLo, Iff/Lo jf nj0f s:tf] xG' 5 < lgisif{ nv] L sIffdf k:| tt'
ug{x' f;] \ .

lbg M 6 ;"rs kbfy{ tyf PH :s]n
-s_ ljlzi6 p2]Zo

x la?jfx¿sf ljleGg efusf /;x¿af6 ln6d; -;"rs kbfy{_ agfpg
x PH :sn] sf] kl/efiff lbg, ol' ge;n{ ;"rs kbfy{sf] kl/efiff lbg / ljleGg

kbfys{ f] PH dfg kTtf nufpg

145

-v_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f lj|mofsnfk
lj|mofsnfk 1 ;r" s kbfys{ f] lgdf{0f / k/LIf0f

x lj1fg kf7o\ k':tssf] k=[ ;+= 123 df plNnlvt ljm| ofsnfk 2 ug{ ;xhLs/0f
ugx{' f;] \ .

x o;sf] nflu ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ 4 ;d"xdf ljefhg ugx{' f];\ / kT| o]s ;d"xnfO{
km"nx¿sf] k'ikbn, afn'jf, cNsf]xn, lkmN6/kk] /, af]tn, sfuhsf 6'j|mfx¿,
k/LIf0f gnL, cDn, Iff/ ljt/0f ug]{ / kf7\ok':tssf] ljm| ofsnfk 2 r/0fa4
¿kdf u/fpgx' f;] \ .

x Tfof/ kfl/Psf] ln6d; kk] /nfO{ cDn / Iff/df /fvL k/LIf0f ug{ nufpg'xf];\
.

lj|mofsnfk 2 o'lge;n{ ;r" s kbfy{ / PH :sn] sf] kl/ro

x ljmofsnfk 1 sf] cfwf/df ol' ge;n{ ;"rs kbfy{sf] kl/ro lbg nufpgx' f];\
. ;r" s kbfy{ eGbf sg' cy{df ol' ge;n{ ;r" s kbfy{ km/s 5 eGg] s'/fnfO{
5nkmn ug{ nufO{ k|:tt' ug{ nufpg'xf;] \ .

x b'O{ hgf ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ ol' ge;n{ ;"rs kbfys{ f] ko| fu] u/L cDn / Iff/
s8fkg k/LIf0f ug{' nufpgx' f;] \ / cGo ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ cjnfsg] ug{
nufpgx' f;] \ .

x ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ rf/ ;dx" df ljefhg u/L kT| o]s ;dx" nfO{ lkPr :sn] sf]
kmf6] fs] kL ljt/0f ugx{' f];\ / pSt :s]n cWoog u/L :sn] df lbOPsf s/' fx¿
k|:t't ug{ nufpg'xf;] \ .

x s8f cDn, t6:y / s8f Iff/, g/d Iff/ / cDn hgfpg] cs+ x¿ Klxrfg ug{
nufpg'xf];\ .

lj|mofsnfk 3 lkPr dfg kTtf nufpg] ljm| ofsnfk
x PH k]k/sf] dfWodaf6 ljleGg kbfys{ f] PH dfg kTtf nufpg] lj|mofsnfk
;r+ fng ugx'{ f;] \ . h:t} M sfutLsf] /;, gg' kfgLsf] 3f]n, NaOH sf] 3f]n,
bw' , z4' kfgL, Ogf/sf] kfgL, wf/fsf] kfgL cflb .

-u_ d"Nofª\sg

x PH :sn] egs] f] s] xf] <

x o'lge;n{ ;"rs kbfy{ eg]sf] s] xf] <

x o'lge;n{ ;"rs kbfy{ s;/L agfOG5 <

146

x s8f cDn / g/d cDn tyf s8f Iff/ / g/d Iff/sf] dfg lkPr :s]ndf
slt slt x'G5 <

-3_ kl/of]hgf sfo{
PH kk] /]sf] dfWodaf6 ljleGg kbfy{sf] PH dfg kTtf nufO{ rf6{ k]k/df n]Vg] .

-ª_ ;Gbe{ ;fduL|

chemistry.tutorvista.com/.../acids-bases-and
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH

147

PsfO 15 sx] L pkofu] L /;fogx¿

cg'dflgt 3G6L M 8 -7 ;¢} flGts ±1 ko| fu] fTds_

1. l;sfO pknlAw
x kfgLsf efl} ts / /f;folgs u'0fx¿sf] JofVof u/L s8f / g/d kfgLsf]
kl/efiff lbg / 5'6\ofpg

x s8f kfgLsf ks| f/x¿ atfO{ kfgLsf] s8fkg x6fpg] ;/n ljlwx¿ /f;folgs
k|ltljm| ofx¿;lxt -pdfn]/ / w'g] ;f8] f xfn/] _ j0fg{ / kb| z{g ug{

x ;fl] 8od sfaf]g{ 6] , ;f]l8od afOsfaf{g] ]6 / lUn;/] nsf] kl/ro, u0' f / pkofl] utf
atfpg

2. ljifoj:t' ljefhg / l;sfO ;fduL|

j|m=;+= ljifoj:t' l;sfO ;fdu|L

1= kfgLsf efl} ts / /f;folgs rf6{ k]k/, kfgL
u0' fx¿

2= s8f / g/d kfgL, kfgLsf] 6:] 66o\ a" , 8k/, s8f / g/d kfgL, ;fag' sf]
s8fkg 3f]n

3 s8fkfgLsf ks| f/ / kfgLsf] las/, kfgL, 6]:66\oa' , ;fa'gsf] 3f]n,
c:yfoL s8fkg x6fpg] tl/sf ag/{ ,SoflN;od afOsfafg{] 6] , DofUg]l;od
afOsfafg{] 6]

4/5= kfgLsf] :yfoL s8fkg x6fpg] las/, SoflN;od Snf]/fO8 jf DofUg]l;od
tl/sf -ko| f]ufTds_ Snf]/fO8, 6]:66\o'a, ;fag' sf] 3f]n, rDrf,
n'ufwg' ] ;f8] f

6= ;fl] 8od sfaf{g] ]6 ;f]l8od sfaf{g] ]6

7= ;f]l8od afOsfaf{g] 6] ;f]l8od afOsfaf]{g]6

8 lUn;/f]n lUn;/] fn]

3. ljlzi6 p2]Zo, l;sfO ;xhLs/0f lj|mofsnfk / dN" ofªs\ g

lbg M 1 kfgLsf ef}lts tyf /f;folgs u'0fx¿

-s_ ljlzi6 p2]Zox¿

x kfgLsf efl} ts / /f;folgs u'0fx¿ JofVof ug{

-v_ l;sfO ;xhLs/0f ljm| ofsnfk

148