NOTA SLAID

Clinical assessment

• Assess clinical signs and symptoms that might indicate potential
specific nutrient deficiency.

• Involve

• checking signs of deficiency at specific places on the body
• or asking the patient whether they have any symptoms that might suggest

nutrient deficiency from the patient.

• Clinical signs of nutrient deficiency include

• pallor (on the palm of the hand or the conjunctiva of the eye), Bitot’s spots on
the eyes, pitting edema, goitre

Checking for bilateral pitting oedema

Dietary assessment

• Dietary assessment include looking at past or current intakes of
nutrients from food by individuals or a group to determine their
nutritional status

• 24-hour diet recall, food frequency questionnaire (FFQ)

2.0
OVERVIEW OF BASIC
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

DR. ARNIDA HANI TEH

2.1
Structure of human body

Cells, Tissue, Organs & Systems

• All living organisms are made up of one or more cells.
• Multicellular organisms (like human), are made up of many cells.
• Cells are considered the fundamental units of life.

• The cells are organized into tissues, groups of similar cells that work
together on a specific task.

• Organs are structures made up of two or more tissues organized to
carry out a particular function

• Groups of organs with related functions make up the different organ
systems.

Types of tissues

• Humans (multicellular organism)
are made up of four basic tissue
types:

• epithelial tissue,
• connective tissue,
• muscle tissue, and
• nervous tissue.

Epithelial tissue

• Consists of tightly packed sheets of cells that cover surfaces
• Including the outside of the body and line body cavities
• For example,

• the outer layer of skin
• the lining of small intestine

Connective tissue

• Consists of cells suspended in an extracellular
matrix.

• In most cases, the matrix is made up of protein
fibers like collagen and fibrin in a solid, liquid,
or jellylike ground substance.

• Connective tissue supports and connects other
tissues.

Muscle tissue

• Essential for keeping the body upright, allowing it to move, and even
pumping blood and pushing food through the digestive tract.

• Muscle cells, often called muscle fibers,

• contain the proteins actin and myosin, which allow them to contract.

• There are three main types of muscle: skeletal muscle, cardiac
muscle, and smooth muscle.

Nervous tissue

• Is involved in sensing stimuli (external or
internal cues), and processing and transmitting
information.

• It consists of two main types of cells: neurons,
or nerve cells, and glia.

Organs

• Organs, are made up of two or more types of tissue organized to
serve a particular function.

• For example

• the heart pumps blood, the lungs bring in oxygen and eliminate carbon
dioxide, and the skin provides a barrier to protect internal structures from the
external environment.

• Most organs contain all four tissue types.
• The layered walls of the small intestine provide a good

example of how tissues form an organ.

Organ systems

• Organs are grouped into organ systems

• in which they work together to carry out a particular function for the
organism

• For example:

2.1
Digestion, absorption and

transport system

• The function of the digestive system

• taking in food,
• breaking it down into molecules small

enough to be absorbed,
• absorbing it, and
• eliminating waste products

• Digestion is the breakdown of food so that its nutrients can be
absorbed.

• It includes both mechanical digestion and chemical digestion.

• In mechanical digestion,

• chunks of food are broken into smaller pieces.

• In chemical digestion,

• large molecules like proteins and starches are broken into simpler units that
can be readily absorbed.

• Mechanical digestion, along with some initial chemical digestion,
takes place in the mouth and stomach.

• Chewing breaks food into smaller pieces, and the stomach churns the
food up into a fluid mixture.

• The stomach also acts as a storage tank,

• releasing partially digested food into the small intestine at a rate the small
intestine can handle

• The small intestine is the major site of chemical digestion,

• which is carried out by enzymes released from the pancreas and liver.

• The small intestine is also the main site of nutrient absorption

• molecules like sugars and amino acids are taken up by cells
• and transported into the bloodstream for use.

• The large intestine is the site for :

• recovery of water and electrolytes (sodium, chloride) from indigestible food
matter

• formation and storage of feces
• fermentation of some of the indigestible food matter by bacteria
• maintaining a bacterial population

KARBOHIDRAT

DR. HASLANIZA HASHIM
JABATAN SAINS MAKANAN
UNIVERSITI KEBANGSAAN MALAYSIA

ISI KANDUNGAN:

PENGENALAN KARBOHIDRAT
SUMBER DAN KEPERLUAN KARBOHIDRAT
FUNGSI KARBOHIDRAT
PENCERNAAN, PENYERAPAN DAN METABOLISME KARBOHIDRAT
PENYAKIT BERKAITAN KARBOHIDRAT

PENGENALAN KARBOHIDRAT

▪Merupakan satu daripada tiga sumber utama tenaga dalam diet
▪Dikenali sebagai kanji dan gula
▪Sebahagian besar makanan harian kita adalah dalam bentuk karbohidrat
▪Kebanyakan diet orang Asia mengandungi >60% karbohidrat

◦ Nasi, gandum, gula (makanan utama)

3

Proses Fotosintesis

▪Semua karbohidrat berasal dari tumbuh-tumbuhan
▪bermula dari dalam pokok berdaun hijau melalui proses FOTOSINTESIS

4

Melalui proses fotosintesis:

◦ Tumbuhan boleh memerangkap tenaga cahaya daripada matahari
◦ Di simpan dalam bentuk tenaga kimia dalam karbohidrat
◦ CO2 dari atmosfera dan air dari tanah akan diambil oleh pokok dan digabungkan apabila ada

klorofil (pigmen hijau dalam pokok yang mengandungi magnesium)

◦ Apabila telah digabungkan dan membentuk karbohidrat, karbohidrat disimpan sebagai kanji atau gula

Kanji Gula

Contoh: kentang, ubi kayu, Contoh: pisang,
keledek, gandum, nasi belimbing, betik

5

UNSUR KIMIA

▪ Terdiri daripada unsur karbon (C), hidrogen (H) dan oksigen (O)
▪Formula umum Cn,H2n,On

Karbohidrat boleh didapati dalam 3 bentuk:

Ringkas/ Monosakarida Disakarida

Atom C dan molekul airnya Terdiri daripada 2 ikatan
adalah sama banyak monosakarida, dengan setiap 12
atom C setara mengandungi 11
(CnH2On)
molekul air

(C12H2O11)

Polisakarida

Terdiri lebih daripada 2 ikatan monosakarida

Penyimpanan tenaga

[C6H10O5n

7

Karbohidrat dikelaskan kepada:

Monosakarida • Gula ringkas
• Tidak boleh dihidrolisis kepada bentuk yang lebih ringkas

Disakarida • Boleh dihidrolisis kepada dua molekul monosakarida yang
serupa atau berlainan

Polisakarida • Mengandungi >10 unit monosakarida
*Alkohol gula
• Disediakan daripada gula secara kimia

• Merupakan alkohol gula kompleks (polyols) dimana aldehid (-CHO)
gula aldose dan ketose dihidrogenatkan kepada kumpulan -CH2OH
dalam setiap unit

8

SUMBER DAN KEPERLUAN KARBOHIDRAT

Pengkelasan Karbohidrat Diet

10

MONOSAKARIDA

▪Menjadi asas kepada semua karbohidrat yg kompleks
▪Hampir semua monosakarida mempunyai formula

kimia yg sama:

➢6 atom C, 12 atom H dan 6 atom O (C6H12O6)
➢Setiap monosakarida mempunyai struktur yg berbeza

▪ 3 monosakarida yg penting –

➢ glukosa, fruktosa dan galaktosa

11

Glukosa

▪Sumber: buah-buahan, jagung manis, kentang mentah dan madu
▪Larut air
▪Terhasil daripada hidrolisis karbohidrat yang lebih kompleks dalam sistem pencernaan
▪Glukosa adalah bentuk gula yang biasa dijumpai di dalam sel untuk menghasilkan tenaga
dan disimpan dalam bentuk glikogen dalam hati dan otot

12

Fruktosa

▪Lebih cepat diserap oleh tubuh
▪Tumbuhan juga boleh membentuk fruktosa
▪Didapati dalam madu, bunga, beri, sayur-sayuran berakar, buah-buahan dan pokok menjalar
▪Badan akan menukar fruktosa → glukosa atau dihuraikan kepada serpihan dan membentuk lemak

13

Galaktosa

▪Hanya boleh didapati daripada laktosa (secara hidrolisis semasa proses pencernaan)
▪Boleh dijumpai dalam tisu saraf

14

Manosa

▪Tidak didapati bebas di dalam makanan
▪Tetapi diperoleh daripada manisan yang ada pada kekacang

15

DISAKARIDA

▪Dibentuk daripada dua unit monosakarida

▪Sukrosa, Maltosa dan Laktosa

16

Sukrosa

▪Sumber: Gula biasa, gula tebu, gula mapel
▪Glukosa + Fruktosa

17

Maltosa

▪Glukosa + Glukosa
▪Sumber: Minuman bir, bijirin yang bercambah, kanji bijirin, soya, kentang, keledek

18

Laktosa

▪Glukosa + Galaktosa
▪Hanya terdapat dalam susu
▪Juga dikenali sbagai ‘gula susu’

19

POLISAKARIDA

▪Terdiri daripada unit glukosa yang terikat dalam bentuk rantaian – Amilosa dan Amilopektin

➢Amilosa - Rantaian linear, kelikatan yang tinggi dan tidak stabil, senang mendak
➢Amilopektin – Rantaian bercabang, komponen kanji utama dalam tumbuhan, larut air, ciri yang penting

untuk industri

▪ Sumber: Kanji

20



Dekstrin

▪Merupakan hasil perantaraan dlm hidrolisis kanji kepada maltosa

22

Fiber / Serat

▪Secara teknikalnya, fiber adalah karbohidrat yang tidak boleh dicerna

▪2 komponen utama:

◦ Fiber larut – larut air
◦ Fiber tak larut

▪Kelebihan:

◦ Melancarkan sistem pencernaan
◦ Pelawas

23

Karbohidrat lain

▪Mukopolisakarida

◦ Terdapat secara bergabung dengan protein dalam rembesan dan struktur badan
◦ Memberikan kepekatan kepada rembesan mukus tubuh
▪ Contoh:

◦ Asid hialuronik dalam bendalir pelincir pada sendi
◦ Heparin – bahan antipembekuan darah

24

KEPERLUAN KARBOHIDRAT

▪Pengambilan karbohidrat dalam Piramid Makanan Malaysia 2020: 50 – 65% (menekankan
saranan pengambilan sumber karbohidrat kompleks dan tinggi serat seperti beras perang, roti
bijirin penuh, oat dan jagung).

▪ Pengambilan karbohidrat dalam Piramid Makanan Malaysia 2010 iaitu 55-75%.

PIRAMID MAKANAN 2020

PINGGAN SIHAT MALAYSIA