13.4  Choosing a topic
Key term               It is important that you show interest in and enthusiasm for the subject about
                     which you choose to talk. You are allowed to use cue cards to prompt you about the
Cue cards: Brief     key points but you should not read from a prepared script; this is, after all, a test of
notes written on     your speaking not reading ability.
postcards to remind
you of points you      You may also, if you wish, use a limited range of visual aids to support your talk
intend to make in    but remember that you have only a limited time and too many such aids can inhibit
your talk.           what you have to say.
                     13.3  The discussion
                     The discussion will take the form of a conversation with the teacher/examiner about
                     issues arising from your talk on your chosen topic. The teacher/examiner will not
                     take a confrontational or argumentative approach but will encourage you to expand
                     positively on what you have said.
                       In order to make the best impression, it is important that you have prepared your
                     topic thoroughly. Some of the questions you are asked may well require you to refer
                     to factual information additional to that included in your talk and also to develop or
                     defend your point of view.
                       The teacher/examiner will have taken notes while you were talking, so it is
                     important that you pay careful attention to the questions that you are asked: your
                     listening skills are being tested as well as your speaking ones!
                       The conversation should last about six or seven minutes and the comments
                     made by the teacher/examiner will be kept to the minimum to allow you to express
                     yourself as fully and as fluently as you can.
                     13.4  Choosing a topic
                     It is up to you to choose a topic that you want to introduce and discuss in the test.
                     The only restriction on the choice is that your teacher/examiner must be happy to
                     discuss the topic with you.
                       Make sure you choose a topic that you know something about and are able to
                     discuss. This may sound obvious but students have been known to choose topics
                     which sounded impressive, but about which they knew very little, if anything! You
                     might consider these possibilities:
                     »	 Do you have a hobby?
                     »	 Do you travel much?
                     »	 What do you want to do as a career?
                     »	 Are you passionate about a particular issue?
                     »	 Is your family interesting?
                     »	 Have you been fascinated by a book you have read, or a play or film you have seen?
                     »	 Does a particular person interest you?
                     The following section gives some suggestions about ways of approaching a selection
                     of topics. It also contains some longer articles which might be useful to get you
                     thinking further. You might also find these passages useful as stimulus for other
                     coursework writing assignments.
                     Do you have a hobby?
                     You might collect stamps; you might have thousands of Twitter followers; you might
                     be a martial arts black belt; you might design and make your own clothes; you might
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13	 Speaking and listening skills
                       write songs. The point about a hobby is that it is something you enjoy and find
                       interesting. You should be able to interest other people in it. By way of preparation,
                       ask yourself the following questions:
                       »	 Why did I start this hobby?
                       »	 When did I start?
                       »	 How much time do I spend on my hobby?
                       »	 Why do I enjoy it?
                       »	 Is there anything I can take with me to help me introduce the topic?
                       »	 How else might I make my hobby interesting for the teacher/examiner?
                       Then you can plan your introduction. You might do it in such a way that there are
                       some obvious questions for the teacher/examiner to ask in the discussion.
                Do you travel much?
                       Many of you might be lucky enough to have travelled widely: you may have been
                       to places that you have loved; you may have been to places that you have hated.
                       Either way, you should be able to talk about them in an interesting way. Again, you
                       need to prepare, and the following points might help:
                       »	 Make a list of all the places that you have visited.
                       »	 Group similar places together.
                       »	 Pick out the places that you most liked.
                       »	 Pick out those places that you didn’t like at all.
                       »	 Consider what was most important to you when thinking about a place – the
                          people, the buildings, the scenery?
                       »	 If you were to pick your favourite place, which would it be?
The 10 Lessons to Learn From Travelling
By College Tourist; Author: Nicole Darian, University of Iowa
What the Real World Won’t Teach You                       through my travels and backpacking is that it’s okay
                                                          to wait and have lag time, and if something happens
Contrary to popular belief, traveling can teach you       to go wrong, to be patient when seeking help. Though
more than a classroom, job, or relationship ever will.    it seems that way, traveling isn’t at all luxurious like
I’ve found that people’s definitions of “the real world”  advertisements and glamorous Instagram accounts
vary quite a bit. For me, the real world means packing    make it out to be. Your flight gets cancelled because
up and leaving your comfort zone, the familiar, your      the pilot is sick and you’re stuck in the airport, you
safe place, and experiencing unknown things – a           catch a stomach bug and you’re on bedrest, your
new place, new people who may not understand you,         bus is late, you get on the wrong train, bad weather
unfamiliar customs, the list goes on. Traveling is being  minimizes outdoor activities – it happens on every
in the real world, and here are 10 vital lessons that it  trip, and trust me, it builds character. If things
will teach you.                                           always went smoothly, the adventure wouldn’t exist.
                                                          Patience is truly a virtue and you’ll learn to tackle the
1) To be more patient                                     circumstances as they come, which will make you
                                                          appreciate the experience even more.
Being American and from a big city, the fast-paced
lifestyle is inevitably engrained in me. Waiting for      2) To leave your comfort zone
anything – food at a restaurant, lines for the restroom,
even waiting for a professor or boss to email me back     People don’t enjoy traveling because it means leaving
– drives me crazy. The biggest lesson I’ve learned        behind what’s comfortable for them, whether it’s their
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13.4  Choosing a topic
group of friends, air-conditioning, their favorite foods,                       yourself and appreciate that new place,
pets, the list goes on. Just getting on a plane and                             the people, the language, the clothing,
going is the first step. It’s exhilarating to forget what’s                     and everything in between. Taking
familiar for a bit and expand your horizons. Once you                           the time to come out of your shell and
do, there is no better feeling than taking on unfamiliar                       interact with the local culture is the
territory and making it familiar. All it takes is pulling                       way to experience and appreciate it
the trigger, and you’ll come home with endless stories.                         fully. Again, this can’t be taught, only
                                                                                experienced.
3) To be more curious
                                                                            5) To live simply
I recently listened to a TED Radio Hour podcast called
“From Curiosity to Discovery” and I loved every                                 Believe it or not, you can survive
second of it. Fully understanding something that was                            with very, very little and get by just
once just an idea makes traveling so worthwhile. Being                          fine. Most people around the world
in new territory will probe new ideas and curiosities                           do. Traveling extensively forces you
– what the local customs are, the local food, what                              to pack so lightly that you’ll go home
language is spoken, and religious practices. Traveling                          overwhelmed by how much you actually
and interacting with locals and natives will give you                           own. Not only that, but sleeping in
a better understanding, and therefore turn these                                rundown guesthouses, hostels with bed
curiosities into discoveries. This will then make you                           bugs, and tents pitched anywhere that
hungry to learn more, ask questions, and completely                             you can find space really isn’t the end
immerse yourself into a new place.                                              of the world, you just learn to live with
                                                                                it. Steering away from lavish meals on
4) To appreciate other cultures                                                 the town and fancy cocktails on outdoor
                                                                                patios is another experience you may
It’s easy to question and judge cultures that are                               have to sacrifice while traveling if you
different than yours. Traveling or living somewhere                             want to save enough to travel longer. As
completely different gives you a new perspective that’s      a result, you’ll come home and realize that you don’t
different from just hearing or reading about it. The act     need anything more than the essentials to survive.
of being somewhere new allows you to fully immerse
                                                             6) To make friends with strangers
                                                             If you’re traveling alone, you’ll be desperate for human
                                                             interaction. And guess what? Every other traveler
                                                             is too! I’ve found it extremely rare to come across
                                                             another traveler who isn’t eager to hear your story,
                                                             where you’ve been, for how long, and your opinions
                                                             and advice. You can seriously build a global network
                                                             even if you’re traveling for just a few days. It’s a
                                                             beautiful thing to say that you’re friends with people
                                                             around the planet, and you’re all bonded by one
                                                             common trait: love for adventure and new experiences.
                                                             If you’re traveling alone, you’ll never really be alone,
                                                             as there will always be someone wanting to tag along
                                                             for an activity or just sitting next to other travelers on
                                                             public transport. This is definitely my favorite part
                                                             about traveling.
                                                             7) ...but to also embrace your solo
                                                             travel experience
                                                             Admittedly, traveling alone does get lonely. You’re
                                                             constantly saying goodbye to new friends who are
                                                             going to different places, having to leave a new place
                                                             that you’ve mastered and made familiar and taking on
                                                             new territory with minimal information, and
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13	 Speaking and listening skills
sometimes no one to talk about the amazing day             9) To think creatively
you had sightseeing with. Learning to eat meals in
restaurants, go to bars, or walk around a new city         Sometimes it takes a little thinking outside of the box
alone takes some getting used to, but it’s really okay     to get by. No wifi for directions? The restroom you
to do these things alone. Being alone and having time      entered is merely a hole in the ground? The buses to
to reflect on your experiences will help you appreciate    your next planned destination are all booked? There
them more, and you won’t be distracted by outside          are always alternatives, and bumps in the road should
opinions. You also won’t have to deal with conflicts       never keep people from traveling. Studies show that
of interest or compromising on activities! It’s the        people who travel think more creatively and are better
best, and you will come home with a new sense of           at adjusting to new situations. Again, traveling isn’t
independence.                                              full of glitz and glamour as it’s portrayed. There will
                                                           always be something to overcome, forcing us to be
8) To try new things                                       creative.
We’re going to be forced to come out of our shells no      10) To find beauty in small things
matter what. Doing what we’re used to at home doesn’t
always work when we travel so we have to adjust.           Returning from a trip, a study abroad experience, or a
Pick up the language and try not to stick with what’s      weekend away feels rejuvenating once we return. New
familiar. Try a restaurant serving ethnic food and avoid   perspective is gained. A home cooked meal will mean
the touristic restaurants with equivalent food from        so much more to you because you missed it for so long.
home. Take public transportation and learn the system,     The person who smiled at you on the street becomes
it’s not difficult after the first couple of times. Sign   your best friend. Seeing a statue or monument in your
up for an outdoor activity that you might not get the      hometown will remind you of the one you saw abroad.
opportunity to do at home like hiking, sailing, or flying  It’s really the small things that give us joy in life, and
in a helicopter. New places means new opportunities,       they’re usually free. Traveling is one way to learn this.
so try not to pass them up.
                                                            Source: www.huffingtonpost.com/college-tourist/the-10-
                                                            lessons-to-learn-f_b_8056918.html
                  What do you want to do as a career?
                         You may have a very clear idea about what you want to do as a future career, or you
                         may have a part-time job that will provide you with material for your discussion. Do
                         you baby-sit, work in a local shop, run your own website service? Some of you might
                         be hoping that your part-time job will expand into a future career; for others it may
                         just be a means of earning enough money to be able to go out with friends at the
                         weekend.
                            Some of you might have been sent on work experience by your school. Again,
                         through work experience you might have discovered your future career path.
                         Alternatively, you might have been very bored or you might have hated every
                         moment of your experience. Even so, you will have learned something for the future.
                            However you have gained your experience, whatever your ideas, this might be a
                         topic which would work for you. Ask yourself the following questions:
                         »	 Do I know what I want to do as a career?
                         »	 How did I get this idea?
                         »	 Was I influenced by others rather than making up my own mind? (For instance, do
                             you want to do the same job as one of your parents?)
                         »	 Why am I sure I will enjoy this job?
                         »	 How important is the salary to me?
                         »	 Do I think it will be a job for life?
                  Are you passionate about a particular issue?
                         If you choose to talk about an issue that you feel passionate about, you must be
                         able to talk without being overdramatic and you must have clear reasons to use to
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13.4  Choosing a topic
Climate Change
While 97 percent of climate scientists            to clean water coming from the shale gas
agree that climate change is occurring and        fracking boom taking place across the country.
greenhouse gas emissions are the main cause,
political will has not been strong enough so      Soil contamination is a major issue across the
far to initiate a massive policy shift away from  world. In China, nearly 20 percent of arable
fossil fuels and toward sustainable forms of      land has been contaminated by toxic heavy
energy. Perhaps more extreme weather events       metals. Soil pollution threatens food security
such as droughts, wildfires, heat waves and       and poses health risks to the local population.
flooding will convince the public to put more     The use of pesticides and fertilizers is also a
pressure on policymakers to act urgently to       major factor in soil pollution
curb carbon emissions and address this issue
before it’s too late.                             What You Can Do: Many of the solutions to
                                                  air pollution are similar to those for climate
What You Can Do: Your home and                    change, though it’s important to either make
transportation could be major sources of          a concerted effort to drive less, or switch to
greenhouse gas emissions. A certified home        a lower-emissions vehicle. Switching over to
energy audit can help make your home more         green energy is also important, as that will
energy efficient. If you commute via biking,      cut back on fossil fuel emissions. If you aren’t
walking or public transportation you are doing    able to install solar or wind power on your
your part to fight global warming, but if you     property or if your utility gets its electricity
must own a motor vehicle, consider trading        from dirty energy sources, consider signing up
in your gas guzzler for a fuel efficient hybrid   for a renewable energy producer like Ethical
or better yet—go electric. When you fly, make     Electric that connects consumers to 100
sure to reduce your carbon footprint from air     percent renewable energy sources to power
miles travelled with carbon offsets from a        their homes.
respected company such as Carbonfund.org.
                                                  Deforestation
Pollution
                                                  Forests are important in mitigating climate
Air pollution and climate change are closely      change because they serve as “carbon sinks,”
linked, as the same greenhouse gas emissions      meaning that they absorb CO2 that would
that are warming the planet are also              otherwise escape into the atmosphere and
creating smoggy conditions in major cities        worsen global warming. It is estimated that
that endanger public health. If you’ve seen       15 percent of total greenhouse gas emissions
horrifying images of pollution-choked Chinese     come from deforestation. Cutting down trees
cities and think the smog is isolated to Beijing
or Shanghai, think again. U.S. scientists are
finding that Chinese pollution is intensifying
storms over the Pacific Ocean and contributing
to more erratic weather in the U.S.
Water and soil pollution might not get the
media attention that air pollution does, but
they are still important public health concerns.
According to the Natural Resources Defense
Council, dirty water is the world’s biggest
health risk. While the Clean Water Act did
much to make American water safe from
harmful pollutants, today there is a new threat
                                                                                                    195
13	 Speaking and listening skills
     also threatens animals and humans who rely        percent of the world’s water is fresh water
     on healthy forests to sustain themselves, and     and 1.1 billion people lack access to clean,
     the loss of tropical rainforests is particularly  safe drinking water. As the current drought in
     concerning because around 80 percent of the       California dramatically shows, access to water
     world’s species reside in these areas. About      is not just an issue for developing countries but
     17 percent of the Amazon rainforest has been      the United States as well. In fact, by the middle
     cut down in the past 50 years to make way for     of this century more than a third of all counties
     cattle ranching. That’s a double whammy for       in the lower 48 states will be at higher risk of
     the climate because cattle flatulence is a major  water shortages, with more than 400 of the
     source of methane gas, which contributes          1,100 counties facing an extremely high risk.
     more to short term climate change than carbon
     emissions.                                        What You Can Do: Just as energy efficiency
                                                       is considered an important solution to the
     What You Can Do: You can support                  issues of climate change and pollution, water
     Rainforest Alliance and similar organizations,    efficiency can help us deal with water scarcity.
     stop using paper towels and use washable          Some ideas to be more water efficient include
     cloths instead, use cloth shopping bags           installing an ENERGY STAR-certified washer,
     (instead of paper), and look at labels to make    using low-flow faucets, plugging up leaks,
     sure you only use FSC-certified wood and          irrigating the lawn in the morning or evening
     paper products. You can also boycott products     when the cooler air causes less evaporation,
     made by palm oil companies that contribute to     taking shorter showers and not running sink
     deforestation in Indonesia and Malaysia.          water when brushing your teeth. Also, consider
                                                       using non-toxic cleaning products and eco-
     Water Scarcity                                    friendly pesticides and herbicides that won’t
                                                       contaminate groundwater. Seventh Generation
     As the population increases and climate           uses plant-derived ingredients for their
     change causes more droughts, water scarcity       household cleaning products.
     is becoming more of an issue. Only three
                                                       Loss Of Biodiversity
                                                       Increasing human encroachment on wildlife
                                                       habitats is causing a rapid loss of biodiversity
                                                       that threatens food security, population health
                                                       and world stability. Climate change is also
                                                       a major contributor to biodiversity loss, as
                                                       some species aren’t able to adapt to changing
                                                       temperatures. According to the World Wildlife
                                                       Fund’s Living Planet Index, biodiversity has
                                                       declined 27 percent in the last 35 years.
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13.4  Choosing a topic
What You Can Do: As consumers we can             that leads to less arable land, clogged and
all help protect biodiversity by purchasing      polluted waterways, increased flooding and
products that don’t harm the environment.        desertification. According to the World Wildlife
Next time you are at the grocery store, check    Fund, half of the Earth’s topsoil has been lost in
to see if food packaging contains any of the     the last 150 years.
following eco-labels: USDA Organic, Fair Trade
Certified, Marine Stewardship Council or Green   What You Can Do: Support sustainable
Seal. Other product certifications include       agriculture that puts people and the planet
Forest Stewardship Council Certification,        above profit. Show your support for sustainable
Rainforest Alliance Certification and Certified  agriculture by signing this Greenpeace
Wildlife Friendly. Also, reusing, recycling      campaign for “a global food system that
and composting are easy ways to protect          feeds people, enables the small farmer to
biodiversity.                                    thrive, protects the soil, water and climate,
                                                 and promotes biodiversity. This is a system
                                                 free from genetic engineering and chemical-
                                                 intensive agriculture.” On a smaller scale,
                                                 you can make a difference in your backyard
                                                 by switching to non-toxic green pesticides,
                                                 herbicides and fertilizers. The website
                                                 Eartheasy.com sells natural lawn care products
                                                 such as corn gluten organic fertilizer.
                                                  Source: http://inhabitat.com/top-6-
                                                  environmental-issues-for-earth-day-and-what-
                                                  you-can-do-to-solve-them
Soil Erosion And Degradation
Unsustainable industrial agriculture practices
have resulted in soil erosion and degradation
convince your listener. If you start off by advocating that all school uniforms should
be burnt and the teacher/examiner argues against you, you will not do very well if
all you can do is keep repeating ‘I hate it!’ So decide:
»	 What is my subject?
»	 Why do I feel strongly about it?
»	 What do I need to say to make sure the listener understands the subject?
»	 What are likely to be the arguments on the other side and how will I answer
   them?
Is your family interesting?
It is perfectly possible that your aunt is an astronaut. Your father might have been
an Olympic athlete. Your grandmother was possibly the first woman to sail around
the world single-handed. Your brother might be the world pie-eating champion.
In other words, there might be members of your family who have achieved
outstanding success. If so, there is little doubt that you could talk about them in
a fascinating way. You might even be able to bring in a lump of moon rock or an
Olympic gold medal to help in your introduction!
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13	 Speaking and listening skills
                             However, you might believe your family to be interesting for far more simple
                          reasons. Perhaps you have lived in a variety of countries and have had to adapt to
                          frequent moves. Perhaps you come from a very large family who are involved in a
                          wide range of activities, which means that your family life is a non-stop whirlwind.
                             If this is the topic for you, then you must decide on your way into it.
                          »	 Whom or what am I going to talk about?
                          »	 Would others find the person I am going to talk about interesting?
                          »	 Are there things which I should keep private?
                          »	 If the teacher/examiner asks me a question I don’t want to answer, how am I
                             going to get out of it? (There is no problem with politely declining to answer a
                             question and moving on.)
                          »	 Are there any small items I could take to the test that will be useful to illustrate
                             my points?
     Your Family: Past, Present,
     and Future
     January 28, 2014                                        absorbed, and in being so, we forget to care about
                                                             the context of the lives we’re so immersed in. We
     By Tim Urban                                            can use Google to learn anything we want about
                                                             world history and our country’s history, but our
     I have one living grandparent—my father’s mother,       own personal history—which we really should
     who’s 89.                                               know quite well—can only be accessed by asking
                                                             questions.
     Nana.
                                                             During my visit, Nana referred to herself as “the
     I visited Nana recently and went through the usual      last of the Mohicans,” meaning basically everyone
     activities—talking about myself in a loud voice,        she spent her life with is dead—her husband,
     fixing her “broken machine” by unminimizing the         siblings, cousins, and friends are all gone. Besides
     internet browser window, being told to slow down        that being the most depressing fact of all time, it
     Timothy and get in the right lane, even though the      was also a jarring wake-up call that a treasure trove
     turn is still 800 metres ahead. But I also used the     of rich and detailed information about my family’s
     visit as an opportunity to do something I have not      past exists in one and only one place—an 89-year-
     done nearly enough in my life—ask her questions         old brain—and if I didn’t do something, most of
     about our family.                                       that information would be lost forever.
     I don’t know you, but I can almost guarantee            So on this visit, I started asking questions.
     that you don’t ask your grandparents (or older
     parents) enough questions about their lives and         She was annoyed.
     the lives of their parents. We’re all incredibly self-
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13.4  Choosing a topic
But it only took a couple minutes for her to become    the Holocaust? And now that, for the first time,
absorbed in storytelling, and I spent the next three   I know my four paternal great-grandparents and
hours riveted.                                         great-great grandmother as real, complex people
                                                       with distinct personalities, I cannot believe I spent
I learned more than I had ever known about her         my life up to now satisfied with knowing almost
childhood. I knew she and my grandfather had           nothing about them. Especially since it’s their
grown up during the Great Depression, but I never      particular orphanage/sweatshop/Great Depression
really knew the unbelievable details—things like       struggle that has led to my ridiculously pleasant
her seeing a mother and her children being thrown      life.
on to the sidewalk by their landlord and left there
to starve and freeze until every neighbour on the      And as happy as I am that I at least scratched the
block chipped in a coin or two from their own          surface of learning who these people were, I’m now
impoverished situation so the woman could rent a       sad about all of these other grey people:
room for one more month.
                                                       People I now know    People I still know
I learned a ton about my four paternal great-           something about   almost nothing about
grandparents—again, I had known the basic info
about them, but it was the details that for the first                                            My Great-Great-
time made them real people. Three of them grew                                                   Grandparents
up in rough New York orphanages—the fourth
left everything she knew in Latvia in her mid-                                                   My Great-
teens and took a boat alone across the Atlantic,                                                 Grandparents
arriving in New York to work in a sweatshop.
                                                                                                 My Grandparents
I even for the first time heard stories about my
grandmother’s grandmother, who came over                                                         My Parents
separately from Latvia and lived with the family
for her last years—and apparently had quite a                                                                                       Me
personality. Thankfully, she died in 1941, just
months before she would have learned that her          All of this has got me thinking about genealogy
four sons (who unlike their mother and sister,         and how fascinating it is as a concept. What
stayed in Latvia because they had a thriving family    happens if I just keep extending my family tree up
business there) were all killed in the Holocaust.      and up and up? What exactly is a fourth cousin
                                                       and how many of them do I have and where are
I knew none of this. How did I just learn now          they all right now? How weird is it that to some
that my great-grandmother’s four brothers died in      kid in 2300, I’m one of the old-fashioned-looking
                                                       dudes really high in his family tree on a level with
                                                       hundreds of others?
                                                       Source: https://waitbutwhy.com/2014/01/your-family-past-present-
                                                                                                                    and-future.html
Have you been fascinated by a book you have read, or a
play or film you have seen?
If you were to choose this topic, you would find it quite straightforward because the
first thing you would have to do is make sure that the teacher/examiner understands
what you are talking about. You would have to reiterate the plot of a novel, however
briefly; you would have to tell the story of a film or a play and say who was in it,
and perhaps why their performances were so good.
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13	 Speaking and listening skills
                             You may well find that you have to take the lead more than with some of the
                          other topics. One point remains central, though: you must not only be able to tell
                          the teacher/examiner what the book, film or play was about, but you must also be
                          able to explain, perhaps in some detail, why it was so special for you.
                   Does a particular person interest you?
                          A wide-open topic if ever there was one, and many of the points and ideas discussed
                          in this section lead you in. Your person might be a member of your family, it might
                          be a singer or an actor. It might be someone from history who fascinates you.
                          »	 Choose your person.
                          »	 Make sure you know about your subject in detail and can interest a listener.
                                   Study tip
                                   Remember that the discussion will develop from your individual talk. The teacher/examiner will
                                   have been listening very carefully to what you have said and will have some questions to ask.
                                   He/she may also have some ideas of his/her own and will want to see what you think of them. In
                                   order to respond well, you need to:
                                   •	 listen very carefully
                                   •	 take your time in answering thoughtfully.
                       Unit summary
                             In this unit you have reviewed the objectives:
                             •	 articulate experience and express what is thought, felt and imagined
                             •	 present facts, ideas and opinions in a cohesive order which sustains the
                                audience’s interest
                             •	 communicate clearly and purposefully using fluent language
                             •	 use register appropriate to context
                             •	 listen and respond appropriately in conversation.
200
Key terms
Accent The way in which people in a particular country,        Convey Communicate; writers convey meaning when they
   area or social group pronounce words.                          make their ideas understandable for their readers.
Active reading The process involved in making sense of         Coursework portfolio If you are entered for the
   more complicated pieces of writing in which we have            Coursework component of an IGCSE® examination, your
                                                                  portfolio will comprise the three assignments that you
   to engage more closely with what is written and think          submit for final moderation.
   carefully about the meaning of the words used by the        Cue cards Brief notes written on postcards to remind you
                                                                  of points you intend to make in your talk.
   writers.
Adjective A word used to describe a noun, e.g. the angry       Descriptive Descriptive writing is a type of writing that
                                                                  gives clear and concise description of a place, person,
   teacher.                                                       object or event.
Adverb A word, frequently ending in –ly, that is used to
                                                               Dialect A particular form of language peculiar to a specific
   describe the action expressed by a verb, e.g. The teacher      region or social group.
   shouted angrily at the class.                               Directed writing Directed writing is an exercise which
Alliteration The repetition of the same sound at the              requires you to choose relevant details from a stimulus
                                                                  passage and to focus your response on a specified
   beginning of words in a phrase, for example the cold,          audience and to write in a suggested format or genre.
   clear, call of the cuckoo.                                  Direction Instruction (for example, the tone of voice that
Argumentative Argumentative writing is when a writer              should be used to speak a line from a script).
   puts forward and justifies a particular point of view,      Discriminator A more demanding examination question,
                                                                  the correct answering of which distinguishes the more
   either for or against a proposal.                              successful responses.
Audience The people for whom a piece of writing is
                                                               Discursive In discursive writing the purpose may be to
   intended; the spectators at a dramatic or musical              convince or persuade the reader about the importance
                                                                  of a particular belief or simply to present all sides of
   performance.                                                   an argument by comparing or contrasting two or more
Bias The presentation of a prejudiced view of a topic.            things or by presenting arguments for or against the
Colloquial Language more suited to speech than to formal          topic.
   situations.                                                 Distractors Information and details in a comprehension
Colon A punctuation mark (:) used to introduce a list and         passage which, although interesting in themselves,
                                                                  are not relevant to answering any of the questions and
   so on.                                                         should not be included in your answers.
Comma A punctuation mark (,) used to show a slight pause
                                                               Equal weighting Of the same importance.
   and so on.                                                  Exclamation A sudden outcry or remark, usually showing
Complex sentence A long sentence consisting of
                                                                  surprise, anger or pain.
   interlinked main and subordinate clauses and phrases        Exclamation mark A punctuation mark (!) to indicate an
   (e.g. ‘The teacher explained the problem before setting        interjection or exclamation.
                                                               Explicit meaning This is the obvious (or surface) meaning
   a practice exercise for the class which they found to be
                                                                  of a word or phrase.
   easy as they now understood the theory ’).                  Expression The vocabulary you use in your writing and the
Composition task A composition task is a piece of writing
                                                                  accuracy of your spelling, punctuation and grammar.
   such as an essay or narrative in which you respond to a     Extended response to reading This is similar to a directed
   given topic in an original way, using your own ideas and       writing task and you are assessed for both reading
                                                                  and writing. Questions are based on a reading passage
   imagination.                                                   and you should use details included in the passage
Compound sentence A sentence consisting of two or more            to show your understanding of them by developing
                                                                  on information given – for example, by writing a
   main clauses linked by coordinating conjunctions (e.g.         continuation of the story, giving an account of events
   The teacher explained the problem and then gave the            from the perspective of another character etc.
                                                               Fact A statement that can be proved true.
   class a practice exercise).                                 Factual A factual piece of writing contains details that can
Concision Expressing information clearly and
                                                                  be proved to be true.
   comprehensively using as few words as possible.
Content The subject matter of your writing.
Continuation To write your own ending of a story based
   on the ideas, both explicit and implicit, contained in the
   original extract.
Continuous writing Continuous writing describes
   something like an essay or story that is written in
   linked, flowing paragraphs with no sub-headings, etc.
   It differs from directed writing as writers express their
   original thoughts and ideas and do not have to follow a
   prescribed content or format.
                                                               201
KEY TERMS
Factual writing Writing which explains or gives               Moderator An external examiner who oversees teachers’
   information in a straightforward, unbiased way not            marking of coursework to ensure consistency of the
   influenced by the personal opinions of the writer.
                                                                 standards applied.
First-person narrative A story which is narrated by one       Monotony Lack of variety in tone and sentence structures.
   character describing the events and thoughts that she/     Narrative Narrative writing is writing that tells a story,
   he experiences and distinguished by the use of I or We.
                                                                 either imaginative or true.
Full stop A punctuation mark (.) indicating the end of a      Non-fiction A piece of writing in which the content is
   sentence.
                                                                 factual and not imaginative.
Genre A category of literature, play, novel, short story and  Note-making Writing down very brief summaries of key
   so on.
                                                                 points in a passage relating to the summary question.
Gist The substance or general meaning of a piece of           Objective An objective tone is one which is neutral and
   writing.
                                                                 not influenced by personal feelings.
Graphics/graphical features Graphics are diagrams and         Opinion A personal view or belief that is not substantiated
   other visual images which help to clarify the meaning of
   what has been written in an article.                          by positive knowledge or truth.
                                                              Oral register Language that has characteristics of spoken
Headline A line of words usually printed in large letters as
   the title of a story in a newspaper.                          language.
                                                              Paragraph A distinct portion of writing consisting of
Idiom A form of expression that is particular to a certain
   person or group of people.                                    sentences focused on a single idea.
                                                              Paraphrase Rewording a piece of writing with the intention
Imagery Language (such as similes) used to create a
   figurative description.                                       of making the meaning more clear.
                                                              Passive reading The process by which we register what we
Imaginative (writing) Imaginative writing is writing
   that is not concerned with giving factual information         read on road signs, etc. without consciously having to
   but which creates a story and setting from the writer’s
   imagination.                                                  think about the meaning of the words used.
                                                              Persona The role or character adopted by an author.
Impersonal Has a meaning similar to ‘objective’ – a neutral   Persuasive article Persuasive writing is that produced by
   tone not influenced by personal feelings.
                                                                 writers who are using all their skills to encourage readers
Implicit meaning This is the meaning of a word or phrase
   that is suggested but not stated openly.                      to agree with their point of view.
                                                              Playscript The written version of a play or film.
Informal tone Writing which is close to colloquial            Pointers These are hints in the original text which suggest
   expression.
                                                                 how the author may intend to continue the story.
Informative writing A type of non-fiction writing that        Present tense/Past tense A tense is the form of a verb
   gives factual information about something. Examples of
   informational writing can be found in newspapers and          that indicates the time of the action indicated by the
   reference books.
                                                                 verb. Present tense indicates an action that is taking
Interpret This means to look beyond the literal meaning of
   a word or phrase and attempt to explain what the writer       place in the present (e.g. He eats the cake); past tense
   is implying by the use of these words.
                                                                 indicates an action that has happened previously (e.g.
Irony The use of words to convey a meaning opposite to
   their literal sense.                                          He ate the cake).
                                                              Purpose A writer’s purpose is her/his reason for writing. It
Journalistic Written using the language and register of a
   newspaper report.                                             may be to entertain, persuade, inform, explain, etc.
                                                              Question mark A punctuation mark (?) indicating that a
Key words These are words in an examination question that
   either give clear instructions as to what you should do       question has been asked.
   to answer the questions (e.g. explain, describe) or which  Quotation A quotation is when a word or phrase from a
   make clear what should be the focus of your answer (e.g.
   a character’s behaviour, details of a place, etc.).           text is included in a reader’s answer to a question in
Layout The layout of an article means the way writing and/       order to support a point being made. The word or phrase
   or pictures are set out on a page.
                                                                 should be indicated by the use of quotation marks
Linguistic expression The way the language used by
   writers conveys their thoughts and ideas to a reader.         (inverted commas).
                                                              Rebut Disprove a point made in an argument by another
Metaphor A descriptive comparison in which one thing is
   expressed in terms of another, unrelated object.              speaker.
                                                              Register The form of language used by a speaker or
 202
                                                                 writer in a particular social context – depending on the
                                                                 audience, register may be either formal or informal.
                                                              Rhetorical question Rhetorical questions are questions
                                                                 used by a speaker or writer in order to emphasise a
                                                                 point, rather than requiring a specific answer. For
                                                                 example, ‘Is there anyone present today who wouldn’t
                                                                 welcome an extra week’s holiday?’
Key terms
Salutation The words used at the beginning of a letter to          suggestion of solidity and strength and some readers
   address the person being written to, e.g., Dear Nanny…
                                                                   may associate the word with wealth and richness.
Satirical A satire is a piece of writing, etc. that criticises  Summary writing A summary is a restatement of the main
   people or institutions humorously by mocking them.
                                                                   points of a passage using your own and fewer words
Scanning Reading sections of the passage or article more
   closely once you have established the overall meaning           than the original.
                                                                Synonym A word with a similar meaning to another word,
   by skimming, in order to ensure understanding of the
                                                                   e.g. sad, gloomy.
   most important points relating to the overall meaning.       Third-person narrative A form of storytelling in which
Semi-colon A punctuation symbol (;) used to connect
                                                                   a narrator relates all the action through third-person
   independent clauses closely related in meaning.
Simile A descriptive comparison introduced by like or as in        pronouns such as he or she. A third-person narrative
   which one thing is compared directly to another.                allows a narrator to know the thoughts and feelings of
Simple sentence A sentence consisting of one main clause
                                                                   all of the characters in a story.
   only (e.g. The teacher explained the problem).               Tone The mood implied by a piece of writing, conveyed
Skimming Reading quickly through a passage or article in
                                                                   through the writer’s choice of words, sentence structures
   order to gain an overall understanding of its content, in
                                                                   and so on.
   particular by using clues from headlines, sub-headings,      Topic sentence The sentence in a paragraph which sums
   etc.                                                            up the main idea of the paragraph. It is often, but not
Speech A spoken address delivered to an audience.
Standard English The most widely accepted form of the              always, the opening sentence of that paragraph.
                                                                Transcript A written or printed version of words that were
   English language, as written and spoken by educated
                                                                   originally spoken.
   people in both formal and informal contexts.                 Valediction The words used to sign off a letter, e.g. Yours
Structure The overall organisation of your writing and your
                                                                   sincerely, Yours faithfully.
   use of paragraphs to support this.                           Verb A word used to convey an action, state of being or
Structure your argument Organise your ideas logically and
                                                                   occurrence and forming the heart of a sentence; for
   convincingly in paragraphs.
Suggestions and Associations These words are used to               example, ‘The boy ate the cake’, ‘The caterpillar became
   describe the way the vocabulary used by a writer can            a butterfly’.
                                                                Verbatim In exactly the same words as were used
   trigger off connected thoughts in the mind of a reader.
                                                                   originally.
   For example, the adjective golden in a phrase such as        Written expression This means not only how accurately
   ‘the golden cornfield’ has a literal meaning describing         you have expressed yourself in writing, but also involves
   the colour of the grass. However, golden also has the           a consideration of how effectively and logically you have
                                                                   organised the points that you make.
                                                                203
Index
A                                     conversation                         families topic 197–99
                                         speaking and listening            fictional text, summary and reading
accents 115                                 skills 191, 200
active reading 2–15                      writing 144–47                          practice 108–9
                                                                           first-person narrative 171–72
   passive and 4                      conveying meaning 4                  full stops 120
   practising 11–15                   copying other people’s writing 178
   reasons to read 3                  coursework                           G
   skill development 4–6
   skimming and scanning 7–11            see written coursework            genres 82
adjectives 40, 54, 168                coursework portfolios 82, 166        gist, getting the 7–8
adverbs 54, 168                       cue cards 191                        graphics/graphical features 13
alliteration 67                                                            guidelines for summary questions
argumentative writing 50–54, 162      D
   coursework assignment 177–78                                                  34–36
   example 52–54                      descriptive writing 150              guidelines to writing compositions
   practise answering comprehension      coursework assignment 167–69
                                         example 169–70                          148–64
      questions 30–32                    practise answering comprehension     challenges 150–52
   student example under timed              questions 28–30                   examples of students’ work 154–62
                                         student coursework example           features of a good composition
      conditions 158–60                     170–71
   techniques 50–51                      student example under timed             153–54
audience(s) 67                              conditions 160–62                 how to write 152–53
   different styles of writing for       tips for 168–69                      plans 163–64
                                                                              practice 162–64
      different 58–61                 dialects 115                            what to write 154
   example of writing for an 59–61    dialogue, writing 144–47
                                      directed writing 81–98, 128–47       H
B
                                         applying your reading skills 82   handwriting 127
better writer, becoming a                continuation of a story 89–94     headlines 86
   see writer, becoming a better         dialogue 144–47                   hobbies topic 191–92
                                         interviews 142–44
bias 83                                  leaflet writing 94–98             I
books, plays and films topic 199–200     letter writing 135–42
bullet points 70                         persuasive articles 82–86         idioms 116
                                         report writing 86–88              imagery 54
C                                        speech writing 129–35             imaginative writing 54–57
                                      direction 142
careers and work experience           discriminators 70                       example 55–57
      topic 194                       discursive writing 162                  structuring 61
                                      discussion, speaking and listening   impersonal style 42
checking your work                                                         implicit meanings 34
   on a computer 178                        skills 191, 200                improving your writing 114–27
   spelling 153, 178                  distractors 10                          controlling and choosing language
   under timed conditions 151–52      drafting and redrafting work 177
   written coursework 187                                                        125–26
                                      E                                       handwriting 127
checklist, writing 187                                                        paragraphs 122–24
colloquial language 132, 135          effects, how writers achieve 67–74      punctuation 119–21
colons 120                            emotive language 67–69                  spelling 117–19
commas 119, 121                       equal weighting 40                      tenses 125
complex sentences 126                 exclamation marks 120                   using Standard English 115–17
composition                           exclamations 54                      individual talk 190–91
                                      explicit meanings 34                 informal tone 70
   plans 163–64                       expression 151                       informative writing 11
   tasks 82                                                                   active reading of texts 11–13
compound sentences 154                F                                       example 48–50
concision 42                                                                  structuring 61
confidence, speaking 190              facts 106                               style 47
content 151                           factual 47, 62                          summary and reading practice
continuation of a story,              factual writing 47, 62
                                                                                 109–11
      writing a 89–94                    practise answering comprehension  interpretation 19
   example of a question 89–92              questions 24–25                interview, writing an 142–44
continuous writing 67                                                      irony 67
 204
Index
J                                         P                                     script-writing question 144–45
                                                                                semi-colons 120
journalistic writing 86–88                paragraphs 61, 122–24, 152            sentences
                                          paraphrasing 37
K                                         passions and individual talk topics      complex 126
                                                                                   compound 154
key words 7                                     194–97                             simple 126
                                          passive reading 4                        topic 11
L                                         past tense 125                           writing in complete 152
                                          person topic 200                      similes 40, 67, 168–69
language                                  persona 70                            simple sentences 126
   colloquial 132, 135                    persuasive writing 50–54, 82–86       skimming, scanning and 7–11
   controlling and choosing 125–26                                              speaking and listening skills 188–200
   emotive 67–69                             coursework assignment 177–78          books, plays and films 199–200
   Standard English 115–17                   examples 52–54, 83–85                 building confidence 190
                                             techniques 50–51                      careers and work experience 194
layouts 13                                plagiarism 178                           choosing a topic 191–200
   leaflets 94                            planning your writing 61–64              discussion 191, 200
   letters 136–37                            composition plans 163–64              families 197–99
                                             under timed conditions 151            hobbies 191–92
leaflet writing 94–98                     playscripts 142                          individual talk 190–91
   example 94–96                          pointers 89                              an interesting person 200
   practice exercise 96–98                present tense 125                        issues you are passionate about
                                          punctuation 119–21, 153
length, writing to a particular 151, 166  purpose, writer’s 67                        194–97
letter writing 135–42                        to argue or persuade 50–54            testing and marking 190
                                             to entertain 54–57                    travel 192–94
   examples 138                              to inform or explain 47–50         speech writing 129–35
   formal 137                                                                      example of a question 130–32
   to a friend or relative 136            Q                                        practice exercises 132–34
   layout guidelines 136–37                                                     speeches, summary and reading
   practice exercises 139–42              question marks 120
linguistic expression 76                  quotations 40, 83                           practice 107–8
lists 63                                                                        spelling
                                          R
M                                                                                  checking 153, 178
                                          reading                                  improving 117–19
metaphors 67, 169                            see active reading                 spider diagrams 62–63, 164
moderators 178, 190                                                             Standard English 115–17
monotony 154                              reading comprehension questions,      story, writing a continuation of a
                                                more complex 67–74
N                                                                                     89–94
                                             answer techniques 69–70               example of a question 89–92
narrative standpoint 171–72                  emotive language 67–69             structure 61–62, 151
narrative writing 150                        understanding how writers achieve     your argument 132
                                                                                styles of writing
   coursework assignment 171–73                 effect 67                          in answering summary questions
   example 173–74                         reading comprehension, short answer
   practise answering comprehension                                                   42
                                                questions 16–32                    to argue or persuade 50–54
      questions 26–27                        applying your skills 17–19            different styles for different
   student coursework example                argumentative texts 30–32
                                             descriptive texts 28–30                  audiences 58–61
      175–77                                 factual texts 24–25                   imaginative 54–57
   student example under timed               how to approach 19–23                 to inform or explain 47–50
                                             narrative texts 26–27              suggestions and associations 70
      conditions 155–58                      practise answering 24–32           summary questions 33–45
   tips for 172–73                           types of question 19                  complex 75–80
newspaper articles                        rebut 132                                distinguishing between facts and
   active reading of 13–15                register 42, 172–73
   summary and reading practice              oral 132                                 opinions 106
                                          reports, writing 86–88                   example 38–41
      105–6                               rhetorical questions 51, 129, 132        examples of more complex 76–79,
non-fiction 4
note-making 35                            S                                           101–5
                                                                                   fictional text 108–9
O                                         salutation 70                            guide to writing a successful
                                          satire 108
objective tone 42                         scanning, skimming and 7–11                 summary 37–38
opinions 106                                                                       informative text 109–11
oral register 132
                                                                                                                                     205
INDEX
   newspaper article 105–6                issues you are passionate about      challenges 150–52
   practical guidelines 34–36                194–97                            examples of students’ work 154–62
   practice exercises 42–45, 105–13                                            features of a good composition
   speech 107–8                           travel 192–94
   study tips 40, 41                   transcripts 86                             153–54
   style in answering 42               travel topic 192–94                     how to write 152–53
   summary writing 34                  two passages, summary writing based     plans 163–64
   two different accounts 111–13                                               practice 162–64
summary writing 34                           on 111–13                         what to write 154
   guide to successful 37–38                                                writing, improving
   practical guidelines 34–36          V                                       see improving your writing
synonyms 37, 154                                                            written coursework
                                       valediction 70                          assignments 167
T                                      verbatim 86                             descriptive assignment 167–69
                                       verbs 168                               descriptive writing example 169–70
talk, individual 190–91                                                        descriptive writing student
tenses 125                             W
third-person narrative 171, 172                                                   example 170–71
time limits 151                        word count 38, 151, 166                 drafting and redrafting work 177
tone 42, 67, 70, 86, 172–73            work experience and careers             examples of reading passages and
topic sentences 11
topics, choosing examination 150             topic 194                            writing tasks 178–86
topics, speaking and listening skills  writer, becoming a better 46–64         length 166
                                                                               narrative assignment 171–73
      191–200                             arguing or persuading 50–54          narrative writing example 173–74
   books, plays and films 199–200         different styles for different       narrative writing student
   careers and work experience 194
   families 197–99                           audiences 58–61                      example 175–77
   hobbies 191–92                         different styles for different       syllabus requirements 166
   an interesting person 200                                                   writing checklist 187
                                             purposes 47–50                    writing to discuss, argue and/or
                                          imaginative writing 54–57
                                          planning your writing 61–64             persuade assignment 177–78
                                       writing checklist 187                written expression 42
                                       writing compositions, practical
                                             guidelines to 148–64
206
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   208
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