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The price can define as the value of the consumer that the service provider should give the
product or service that customer willing to pay for service standard in their opinion. According to
getting a product and service with the reasonable cognitive service quality Woo-seong (Woo-seong,
value. Normally customer will prefer the price with 2006), also defined as the difference of customers
discount or lower prices to decide for purchasing a attitude between recognition and expectation. The
product (Mafini, Dhurup, & Mandhlazi, 2014). Price nature of service has different meaning among the
is the main factor for the customer to purchase the researcher, but they can define in four dimension,
product or service because they have to consider the which is consist of inseparability of production and
value that they have to pay and balance with their consumption, being intangible, perishability, and
income (Kumar, Lee, & Kim, 2009). heterogeneity (Parasuraman, Zeithaml, & Berry,
1985). For the customer evaluation of service quality
2.2.3 Definition of Store image perception can separate in 3 factors, which consist of (1)
interaction quality, which is the communication or
Store image refers to the facility and interaction between service provider and customer,
decoration; communication between customers and (2) service environment, which means the
service provides, where these attributions create atmosphere in the store, facility and service
memorable experiences towards customers' environment, and (3) outcome quality, which is the
satisfaction (Beristain & Zorrilla, 2011). Customers' result or actual service that customer has received
satisfaction toward the store's facility creates a higher from service provide (Brady & Cronon, 2001) (Rust
purchasing intention rate to gain more competitive & Oliver, 1994).
advantages (Torres, Summers, & Belleau, 2001).
2.2.6 Definition of Purchase intention
2.2.4 Definition of Sales Promotion
The researcher defined purchase intention
Sales promotion is the tool that stimulates as the process that customers identify the need to
the customer to purchase the product and services purchase that product, search the product's
(Chandon, Wansink, & Laurent, 2000) (Kwok & information, search the brand that available, and
Uncles, 2005). The sales promotion focuses not only finally decide to purchase (Naser Valaei &
on the benefits and prices but also on brand Nikhashemi, 2017). Purchase intention is the
communication about the product and service (Wah possibility that the customer purchases a product or
Lee, 2002). According to Gedenk and Neslin service in the future. Moreover, increasing
(Gedenk & Neslin, 1999) and Pauwels, Silva-Risso, purchasing intention increase the possibility or
Srinivasan, & Hanssens (Pauwels, Silva-Risso, chance for customers to purchase products or
Srinivasan, & Hassens, 2004), the potential effect of services (Dodds, Monroe, & Grewal, 1991)
over sales promotion can cause a negative perception (Schiffman & Kanuk, 2007). According to the
on brands and products, and misunderstanding of the researchers, purchase intention is an important factor
price and product values itself in predicting customer behavior. For more
explanation, the increase in purchasing intention will
2.2.5 Definition of Service quality tell about the positive brand image or brand
commitment that customers purchase the product and
Service can define as an activity or the services (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975) (Schiffman &
benefit, which customer will get from the service Kanuk, 2007).
provider that be in form of intangibles. On the other
hand, for the form of tangible the customer will get 3. Conceptual Framework
from the product feature, which add value for the
intangible services (Kotler & Keller, 2008). According to the literature review, the
Parasuraman et al. (Parasuraman, Zeithaml, & Berry, researcher has developed the conceptual framework,
1985) defined a cognitive service quality as the which based on the previous chapter about the
objective of service quality will happened between literature review and included the previous
consumer recognition of the outcome of service framework research. This research will come up with
provider and another factor is an expectation of
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seven variables, which consist of five independent Product Keyword Freq Perc
variables and one dependent variable. To show the descripti uenc enta
study about the relationship between independent on y ge
and dependent variables.
1.1 Variety of color 8 100
%
Product Protection the heat 8 100
description %
Price Variety of design 7 88%
Store image Protection the UV 7 88%
perception
Purchasing The way to calculate the price 6 75%
Sale promotion intention
Variety of raw material 5 63%
Service quality
Installation service 5 63%
Customization the size 5 63%
After-sales service 5 63%
Reducing the sunlight 4 50%
Measurement service 3 38%
Figure 1: Conceptual freamework Trend of customers 2 25%
4. Result and Discussion 1.2 The pictures from previous customers 7 88%
The researcher presents the data from the experts can explain about the product
in this market and the customers whose fabric curtain
is products' users within one year. The researcher has description.
grouped the keywords based on the voice recorded
analysis, transcribed into the passages. The Helping customer to have an idea for 5 63%
researcher has matched the emerging themes from decoration their house
the contents analysis drawn from the interviewees,
with the variables illustrated in the conceptual Similar to customer house and idea 5 63%
framework 4.1 Research design This research uses a
qualitative method to collect niche market data with Table 1: Frequency and percentage of product
a specific customer group and a specific expert in
fabric curtain products. The in-depth interview as a description
primary instrument was also employed to gain more
in-depth information from the interviewees. The In this table, the researcher found that the
sampling procedure is purposive sampling, and the most product description that all customers want to
sampling criteria for selection comprise 1. Experts of know is the variety of color and product features with
fabric curtain products in the field who have been in 100% from all interviewees. Next, factors will
the industry for more than 15 years, and 2. Customers consist of a variety of designs and more detail about
who use fabric curtain products within one year. the product feature with 88% from all interviewees.
Moreover, most interviewees agree that the existing
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customer's pictures can explain product descriptions 3.1 Atmosphere: the decoration looks 8 100
with 88% from all interviewees. like the customers building %
Providing a catalog of color, design, 6 75
accessory, and raw material %
Pri Keyword Freque Percent Location: Convenience to access the 6 75
ce ncy age showroom %
2.1 Quality of services provided 8 100% 50
%
Providing a water 4
50
Product feature 7 88% %
Customization the size 7 88% Decoration by furniture 4 38
%
Variety and quality of raw material 5 63%
38
Variety and quality of design 5 63% Separation the zone of color 3 %
Variety and quality of color 4 50% 25
%
Showcase and mockup 3
88
Whole building will spend around %
2.2 30,000-40,000 Baht 6 75% 75
%
One window will spend around 1,000- Providing pictures of customers who 2
already installed the product 88
2,000 Baht 6 75% %
Around 30 minutes to 1 hour for 7
One door will spend around 2,000-4,000 75% spending in the showroom 100
Baht 6 %
Each customer will visit the 6
Table 2: Frequency and percentage of price showroom around 1-2 times 100
%
In this table, the researcher found that most 3.2 The online store is more convenient 7
interviewees are concern about service quality to access 100
toward the range of price that they have to pay with %
100% from all interviewees. Next, the product However, the customer has to visit 8
feature and the customization of The Fabric Curtain the showroom 75
with 88% from all interviewees. The whole %
building's price range in interviewee perception will Showroom Seeing the actual color and raw 8
be around 30,000 - 40,000 Baht, with 75% from all Advantage material 88
interviewees. Next, the range of price for one %
window in interviewee perception will be around More information and suggestion 8
1,000 - 2,000 Baht with 75% from all interviewees. from the salesperson 38
Finally, the range of price for one door in interviewee %
perception will be around 2,000 - 4,000 Baht with Showing the reliability of the brand 6
75% from all interviewees.
Showroom A specific time for opening and 7
Disadvant closing
age
The location is not convenient for the 3
customer to access
Store Keyword Frequ Per
image ency cent
perception age
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Online Open all the time 8 100 give more information with 100% from all
stores 8 % interviewees. On the other hand, the most
Advantage disadvantage for showroom is the range of time for
100 opening and closing with 88%. The main advantage
Update information all the time % for online stores is consist of the opening time for
50 searching the information and more updating
Helping salesperson by the customer 4 % information with 100% from all interviewees. On the
can find general information before other hand, the showroom's most disadvantage is the
visiting the showroom 75 range of time for opening and closing 88%. The main
% advantage of online stores is the opening time to
Online Loading time due to the high pixel of 6 search the information and update information with
stores pictures 50 100% from all interviewees. However, the most
Disadvant % disadvantage of customer concern is loading time on
age 100 the online store with 75%. The most useful
% information that customers want online stores should
Responding rate of admin 4 100 be provided is the showroom's location and the fabric
% curtain price with 100% from all interviewees.
88
3.3 Location of showroom 8 %
63
Selling price 8 % Sale Keyword Freq Perce
63 promot uenc ntage
% ion y
63
Picture from the customer who 7 % 4.1 Ranking no.1: Sales discount 7 88%
already installed
Variety of color 5 Ranking no.2: Addition warranty 6 75%
Ranking no.2: Free installation service or 6 75%
free measurement service
Variety of design 5
Ranking no.3: Buying the product from 4 50%
company requirement space Get 1 free
Variety of accessory 5
4.2 At the beginning of the year (January) 8 100
%
Table 3: Frequency and percentage of store image Summertime (At the end of February 8 100
perception until May) %
In this table, the researcher found that most At the end of the year (December) 7 88%
interviewees perceive the store image as decorating
the customer room or building with 100% from all Table 4: Frequency and percentage of sale
interviewees. Next, the most important facility that promotion
the showroom should provide is a catalog of color,
design, accessory, and raw material with 75% from The researcher found that the customers are
all interviewees. Next, the location of the showroom interested in the sale discount promotion, with 88%
is important for the purchasing intention of of all interviewees in this table. Next, the promotion
customers with 75%. The most advantage for the of additional service and after-sales service with
showroom in interviewee perception is consists of 75%. Finally, the sale promotion about premium or
can see the actual product and having a salesperson extra set of The fabric curtain with 50%. The
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company's suitable time to launch the new promotion provide to customers with 88% from all
based on interviewees will be at the beginning of the interviewees. Also, the staff of The Fabric Curtain
year and summertime with 100% from all company can give a suggestion and estimate the price
interviewees. The second period will be at the end of correctly with 88%. Moreover, the salesperson has to
the year, with 88%. provide a suitable suggestion about the decoration
through the customer house with 63%.
Service Keyword Freq Perce Purchase Keyword Fre Perc
quality uenc ntage intention que enta
y ncy ge
5.1 (Installation staff) Not make any 8 100
damages to the customer's property % 6.1 Yes, product description has influence 8 100
for customer purchasing intention toward %
(Measurement staff) Measurement the 8 100 Product fabric curtain
size correctly % descripti
on
(Salesperson) Providing updating and 8 100
correcting information though customer % Providing correcting information though 8 100
customer %
Providing an after-sales service 7 88%
(Measurement staff) Can give advice and 7 88% 6.2 Yes, price has influence for customer 8 100
suggestions to the customer Price purchasing intention toward fabric %
curtain
(Salesperson) Giving the estimated price 7 88% Providing a reasonable price 6 75%
correctly not too difference
(Salesperson) Can give advice and 5 63% 6.3 Yes, store image perception has 8 100
suggestions to the customer influence for customer purchasing %
Store intention toward fabric curtain
image
Having a training program all the time 4 50% perceptio
n
(Measurement staff) Giving the correct 4 50%
price for the customer
(Atmosphere) Decoration the store can 4 50%
convince the customer to purchase the
(Salesperson) First impression and polite 4 50% product
with customer
(Atmosphere) Decoration the store can 4 50%
show the reliability of the brand
Table 5: Frequency and percentage of service 6.4 Yes, sales promotion has influence for 8 100
quality customer purchasing intention toward %
Sale fabric curtain
In this table, the researcher found that all of promotio
the interviewees are concern about the service from n
salesperson, installation staff, and measurement
staff. The factor that customers are concern with Sales promotion is a tool of marketing for 7 88%
100% from all interviewees are consists of not make making customer easier to purchase a
any damage to customer building, measurement the product
size correctly and giving the correct information of
fabric curtain. Next, the interviewees also focus on
the after-sale service that The Fabric Curtain will
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6.5 Yes, service quality has influence for 8 100 calculate the price from The fabric curtain company.
customer purchasing intention toward % Normally, the customer looking for the fabric curtain
Service fabric curtain come to the showroom and bring the size of their
quality 88% building's windows, doors, or floor plan to calculate
50% the price. If the estimated price is over their budget,
The Fabric Curtain company focus on 7 the customer changes the raw material or design to
both product and services. make the price within their budget. The fabric curtain
company also calculates the price in terms of the
Good service quality creates word of 4 square meter or square yard. Finally, the fabric
mouth among the customer curtain company's service includes measurement
service, installation service, and after-sales service.
Table 6: Frequency and percentage of purchase For measurement service and installation service are
intention the important factors that customers have a concern.
The customer lacked skill for measurement the size
In this table, the researcher found that all of and did not have a tool for installing the fabric
the interviewees agreed with all of the variables have curtain. Moreover, the incorrect way to measure the
affected to the purchasing intention of customers size will make more sunlight come through the
toward the fabric curtain, which consists of the building. Also, the inappropriate for installing
product description, price, store image perception, process it will make damage to the building. Then,
sales promotion, and service quality with 100% from after-sales service that the company will provide to
all interviewees. the customer in terms of its warranty. The researcher
found that The fabric curtain market uses marketing
5. Conclusion mix 4P and more appropriate, and it should be
adapted with 7Ps service marketing that the company
The researcher found many important product should concern toward customers' purchasing
descriptions that customers want from the fabric intention. The additional three factors are consisting
curtain company. First, the customer wants to know of people, process, and physical evidence. The
information about various colors and product designs variable of service quality can separate into two
that the company provides to customers' choices. major factors: people and processes. These two
Besides, each customer will have ideas for factors focus on improving and utilizing every staff
decoration with their building. Moreover, The fabric in the company to the right tasks and have the highest
curtain is the one factor that customers have to be performance in service quality with customers. Next,
careful when selecting the color and design. If the the store image perception variable can be used in
color and design do not match their building, it likely terms of physical evidence. The physical evidence
changes the feeling and atmosphere. Next, the factor talks about the atmosphere or the facility,
information about the features of The Fabric Curtain, which the store will provide to customers through
which can protect the heat or protect the UV from the their perception
sunlight. Besides, the fabric curtain's raw material
provides different benefits for customers based on 6. Further study
customer concerns. For example, the customer
concerned about the temperature in their house This research uses the in-depth interview
comes from the location where their building has to method to collect and analyze the data, which
face the sun directly. So, they have to select the raw generates new insights of the key informants where
material to protect the heat and reduce their building their insights became keywords as presented in the
temperature or called blackout type. Moreover, The tables, some of which do not exactly match the
fabric curtain is the other tool for helping customers selected variables in the conceptual framework. The
take care of their furniture, wallpaper, electronic online stores are the most interesting key
device, and customers' health, which comes with the characteristic of this research. Nowadays, the online
product feature by reducing the temperature and UV channel is the one important for every business
protection. Next, the information about the way to because of the COVID-19 situation. Also, The Fabric
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Curtain market is the one business that invests in the Delmendo, L. C. (2020). Property in Thailand brings
online channel. However, The Fabric Curtain good returns. So why isn’t the market more
industry is the product that customers cannot see only
the information and pictures. They have to see the vibrant? Global Property Guide.
actual color, raw material, and the suggestion from
the salespersons because the picture in the online Dodds, W., Monroe, K., & Grewal, D. (1991).
channel is not the same as the actual product. The
communication through the online channel has a lot Effects of price, brand, and store
of misunderstanding in the purpose of customers information on buyers’ product evaluation.
because a The Fabric Curtain is a product that has to
spend a lot of time talking about the detail in each Journal of Marketing Research 28 (3), 307-
room and the way to decorate. However, the online
channel is more convenient to access and lower costs 319.
if compare with the showroom. In conclusion, this
research is focused on only the purchasing intention Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude,
of the customer around Bangkok, which might not intention, and behavior: an introduction to
appropriate with other provinces. Because of the theory and research. MA: Addison-Wesley
difference in culture and the way of decoration the Publishing Company.
customers building.
Gedenk, K., & Neslin, S. (1999). The role of retail
Acknowledge: First of all, I would like to thank my promotion in determining future brand
loyalty: Its effect on purchase event
advisor, Dr. Chompu Nuangjamnong, and Dr. feedback. Journal of Retailing, 75(4), 433-
Kitikorn Dowpiset for continuous support and 459.
beneficial advice for this research. Secondly, I
appreciate specialists in the The Fabric Curtain Kahn, B., String, D., & Wang, R. (2002).
market and all of the interviewees who give time to “Information quality benchmarks: product
me for an interview and suggesting this research. and service performance”. Communications
Moreover, I really appreciate my parent for their
understanding and supporting me all the time. Lastly, of the ACM, Vol. 45 No. 4, 184-192.
I would like to thank you with my MBA friends and
administrative staff for their support, advice, and Khare, A., & Rakesh, S. (2011). Antecedents of
cheerful during my MBA study. online shopping behavior in India: an
examination. Journal of Internet
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Association Between HBA1C and Inflammatory Markers:
HS-CRP and Homocysteine
Hathaichanok Kotchapetch1,2,3, Jarasphol Rintra1*, Phakkharawat Sittiprapaporn1,2,3
1Department of Anti-Aging and Regenerative Medicine,
School of Anti-Aging and Regenerative Medicine, Mae Fah Luang University, Bangkok, Thailand
2 Neuropsychological Research Laboratory, Department of Anti-Aging and regenerative Science
School of Anti-Aging and Regenerative Medicine, Bangkok, Thailand
3 Brain Science and Engineering Innovation Research Group, Mae Fah Luang University
Bangkok, Thailand
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
Abstract
Introduction: Hyperglycemia is the condition that if the body has high blood sugar levels, it results in
the insulin resistance and inflammation within the body. It can increase the level of inflammatory
markers suchas hs-CRP and homocysteine in the blood. Both hs-CRP and homocysteine are involved in
inflammation within the body and also are associated with arteriosclerosis diseases such as coronary
artery disease, stroke, and peripheral vascular disease.
Objectives: To study the association between HbA1C and inflammatory markers levels including hs-
CRP and homocysteine.
Methods: About 90 cases, ages between 35 and 65 years were collected data from the Bangkok Anti-
Aging Center’s medical recording between July 2019 and March 2020. Independent variable was HbA1c
and the dependent variables were hs-CRP and Homocysteine. Pearson’s correlation coefficient was used
to detect the correlations between HbA1c and hs-CRP and Homocysteine.
Results: HbA1c was positively correlated with hs-CRP in the blood with statistically significant (r =
0.33, p = 0.001) and HbA1C also was positively correlated with homocysteine with statistically
significant (r = 0.53, p <0.001). In addition, BMI was positively correlated with hs-CRP, and
homocysteine with statistically significant r = 0.33, p = 0.002; 0.32, p = 0.002, respectively.
Conclusion: High levels of inflammatory markers were found not only in those diagnosed with diabetes
but in those with HbA1C diagnosed with pre-diabetes which were found to have high inflammatory
markers as well. Therefore, if we can control HbA1C to normal level (HbA1C < 5.7) without focusing
only on people with diabetes but in people who are pre-diabetes by adjusting diet and exercise to keep
HbA1C and weight to a normal level, it can help to reduce inflammation within the body and blood
vessels and help to reduce arteriosclerosis in the future. This is an important and common complication
in patients with hyperglycemia as well.
Keywords: HbA1C, Hs-CRP, Homocysteine
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Introduction there is a risk of diabetes (Pre-diabetes) and HbA1c
≥ 6.5% means Diabetes.
Inflammation is the leading factor in
atherosclerosis and coronary artery disease by High-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP)
stimulating arterial thrombosis (Silva and de levels were statistically positively correlated with
Lacerda, 2012). There are many inflammatory HbA1c in people with poor sugar control. This is
markers indicating that inflammation in the body, but because hyperglycemia leads to inflammation.
high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP) is the Glycation is the cause of the inflammatory process
best inflammatory marker indicating the risk of which leads to an increase in High-sensitivity C-
arteriosclerosis both in the prevention and treatment reactive protein (hs-CRP) (Ahmed, 2018). Based on
of disease (Koenig, 2013). CRP is generated from the research by Amanullah et al. (2010) found that High-
liver after being stimulated by IL-6 and IL-1β when sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP) is high in
inflammation occurs. CRP can be measured in the people with insulin resistance with statistically
range 10-1,000 mg/L but high-sensitivity C-reactive significant (p < 0.001) and High-sensitivity C-
protein (hs-CRP) can be measured as low as 0.3 mg/L reactive protein (hs-CRP) was found to be higher in
which is sensitive and correlated to coronary artery people with diabetes than in non-diabetic people with
disease in the future. It is useful for assessing the risk statistically significant (p < 0.001). Correspond to the
of coronary heart disease (Ramesh et al., 2019). research of Ahmed (2018) which found a significant
positive relationship between HbA1c and CRP in
Homocysteine is a sulfur-containing amino patients with coronary heart disease (p = 0.001). In
acid. Homocysteine is a metabolite obtained from the addition, high HbA1c, high CRP, and diabetes were
process of demethylation of the amino acid found to be statistically significant (p < 0.05).
methionine which is found primarily in animal Research by Bansal et al. (2016) found that there was
protein. Homocysteine plays a role in the reaction of an increase in homocysteine in patients with Type 2
transmethylation of protein metabolism. There are diabetes mellitus compared to the non-diabetic group
several studies that have found that high with statistically significant. Correspond to the
homocysteine (Hyperhomocysteine) increases the research by Drzewoski et al. (2000) which found that
risk of cardiovascular disease including premature diabetic patients had an increase in homocysteine
coronary artery disease, stroke, and venous with statistically significant (p <0.05).
thromboembolism although the patient had normal
lipid levels (Stampfer et al., 1992). In addition, the Since there is little information available about
abnormality of increased blood homocysteine the study of HbA1c effects to inflammatory markers
(Hyperhomocysteine) levels was reported in those with vascular inflammation (high-sensitivity C-
who had Insufficient intake of vitamin B6 reactive protein (hs-CRP) and homocysteine) in
(pyridoxine), B12 (cobalamin), and folic acid (Currò Thailand. Thus, this study was conducted to study the
et al., 2014). effect of HbA1c with inflammatory markers: High-
sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP) and
HbA1c is a form of hemoglobin. HbA1c in the homocysteine, for the benefit of patients with
patient's blood can reflect the patient's control of hyperglycemia to predict and prevent
diabetes over the past three months. Which is the arteriosclerosis.
mean age of red blood cells (Bonora and Tuomilehto,
2011). HbA1c is currently used in the diagnosis of Materials and Methods
diabetes according to the American Diabetes
Association (ADA) guideline 2018 and the American Study design
Association of Clinical Endocrinologists. By This analytical research aimed to study in two
interpreting the HbA1c as follows, HbA1c <5.7%
means non-diabetes, HbA1c = 5.7 - 6.4% means that objectives, firstly the correlation between
Hemoglobin A1C (HbA1C) and High-sensitivity C-
reactive protein (hs-CRP) in the blood and also to
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study the correlation between Hemoglobin A1C height of 164.14(+7.13) cm with a minimum height
(HbA1C) and Homocysteine in the blood. of 148 cm and a maximum height of 180 cm (see
Table 1).
Study participants
Ninety cases were collected data from the Table 1: Demographic data
Bangkok Anti-Aging Center’s medical records Parameters n Mean(+SD) Min Max
between July 2019 and March 2020. The inclusion
criteria of the patients in the present study were Sex
patients who were 35 – 65 years. The exclusion
criteria were patients who drank more than 2 Male 46
alcoholic drinks per week, smoking, high-sensitivity
C-reactive protein (hs-CRP) ≥ 10 mg/L, history of Female 44
atherosclerosis disease such as coronary artery
diseases, cerebrovascular disease (Stroke), and Age (years) 51.68(+8.75) 35 65
peripheral vascular disease.
Weight (Kg) 67.62(+13.54) 40 107
Ethics
This study only used the number of patients Height (Cm) 164.14(+7.13) 148 180
BMI (Kg/m2) 24.94(+3.92) 16.6 35.8
instead of personal data, so this can ensure the
confidential information. SBP (mmHg) 127.36(+19.1) 93 185
Data collection DBP (mmHg) 81.16(+11.17) 60 110
Selection of 90 cases, ages between 35 and 65
The average of Aspartate aminotransferase
years, were collected data from the Bangkok Anti- (AST) was 24.4(+10.48) units per liter with the
Aging Center’s medical records between July 2019 minimum and maximum values of 10 and 70 units
and March 2020 according to the inclusion criteria per liter. The average of Alanine aminotransferase
and exclusion criteria. Blood results were collected (ALT) was 29.28(+16.5) units per liter with the
from the patient's medical record including blood minimum and maximum values of 10 and 111 units
glucose (HbA1C) data, inflammatory markers (high- per liter. The average of renal function (Creatinine)
sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP), and was 0.84(+0.24) mg/dL with the minimum and
homocysteine), renal function (Creatinine), and liver maximum values of 0.51 and 1.81 mg/dL (see Table
function tests (AST, ALT). Basic patient information 2).
such as gender, age, BMI, and blood pressure were
collected and were analyzed for further statistical Table 2: Liver function test (Aspartate
outcome. aminotransferase (AST) and Alamine
aminotransferase (ALT) and Renal function
Statistical Analysis (Creatinine)
The independent variable was HbA1c. The
Parameters Mean(+SD) Min Max
dependent variables were hs-CRP and homocysteine.
Pearson’s correlation coefficient was used to detect AST (U/L) 24.4(+10.48) 10 70
the correlations between HbA1c and hs-CRP and
Homocysteine. Basic data were analyzed by using ALT (U/L) 29.28(+16.5) 10 111
descriptive analysis.
Creatinine (mg/dL) 0.84(+0.24) 0.51 1.81
Results and Discussion
According to the study, 90 patients were
divided into 46 males and 44 females. The average
age was 51.68(+8.75) years, with a minimum age of
35 and a maximum age of 65. The average weight
was 67.62(+13.54) kg with a minimum weight of 40
kg and a maximum weight of 107 kg. The average
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The average HbA1C was 6.44(+1.83) percent, HbA1c was also positively correlated with
with the minimum and maximum HbA1C of 4.1 and homocysteine with statistically significant (r = 0.53,
13 percent. The average of high-sensitivity C- p < 0.001). This is consistent with previous study
done by Drzewoski et al. (2000) indicating that
reactive protein (hs-CRP) was 2.6(+ 2.75) mg/L, diabetic patients with poor glycemic control
with the minimum and maximum hs-CRP of 0.21 and (Uncontrolled diabetes) had homocysteine levels
significantly higher than controlled diabetes patients
9.9 mg/L. The average of homocysteine was and the healthy control group with p < 0.001. It was
10.26(+0.42) μmol/L with the minimum and also found that HbA1c was positively correlated with
maximum of 8.9 and 11.2 μmol/L (see Table 3). homocysteine in uncontrolled diabetes patients with
statistically significant (r = 0.41; p < 0.05). In
Table 3: HbA1C, hs-CRP and homocysteine data addition, previous study done by Bansal et al. (2016)
found that HbA1c and homocysteine were
Parameters Mean(+SD) Min Max significantly positively correlated (r = 0.416, p
<0.05). In addition, the present study found that
Hemoglobin 6.44(+1.83) 4.1 13 HbA1c was positively correlated with the body mass
A1C (%) index (BMI) with statistically significant (r = 0.34, p
= 0.001). This is consistent with previous study done
hs-CRP 2.6(+2.75) 0.21 9.9 by Amanullah et al. (2010) indicating that Body mass
(mg/L) index (BMI) was significantly associated with
HbA1c (p < 0.001). However, HbA1c was not
Homocysteine 10.26(+0.42) 8.9 11.2 significantly correlated with AST, ALT, and
(umol/L) Creatinine.
From this study, HbA1c was positively Figure 1: Showing positive correlation between
correlated with high-sensitivity C-reactive protein HbA1c and High-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-
(hs-CRP) with statistically significant (r = 0.33, p =
0.001). This is consistent with previous study done
by Amanullah et al. (2010) indicating that high-
sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP) blood levels
were significantly higher in people with diabetes than
in non-diabetic people (p <0.001). In addition,
HbA1C was positively correlated with high-
sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP) with
statistically significant (r = 0.307, p <0.001). Another
study done by Ramesh et al. (2019) found that in type
2 diabetes patients, both HbA1C levels and high-
sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP) were
statistically related (p = 0.004) (see Table 4).
Table: 4 Pearson’s Correlation between Hba1c and
other risk variables in total subjects.
Parameters r p-value
Hs-CRP 0.33 0.001
Homocysteine 0.53 <0.001
BMI 0.34 0.001
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CRP) (r = 0.33, p = 0.001). correlated with homocysteine with statistically
significant (r = 0.32, p = 0.002). This is consistent
with previous study done by Sachan et al. (2012)
indicating that the body mass index (BMI) was
associated with homocysteine levels (p <0.001) (see
Table 5).
Table 5: Pearson’s Correlation between body mass
index (BMI) and other risk variables in total patients.
Parameters r p-value
Hs-CRP 0.33 0.002
Homocysteine 0.32 0.002
Figure 2: Showing positive correlation between
HbA1c and Homocysteine (r = 0.53, p < 0.001).
Figure 4 : Showing positive correlation between
body mass index (BMI) and High-sensitivity C-
reactive protein (hs-CRP) (r = 0.33, p = 0.002).
Figure 3: Showing positive correlation between
HbA1c and body mass index (BMI) (r = 0.34, p =
0.001).
Finally, the body mass index (BMI) was
positively correlated with high-sensitivity C-reactive
protein (hs-CRP) with statistically significant (r =
0.33, p = 0.002). This is consistent with previous
study done by Amanullah et al. (2010) indicating that
body mass index (BMI) was positively correlated
with high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP)
with statistically significant (r = 0.238, p <0.001). In
addition, the body mass index (BMI) was positively
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it can help to reduce inflammation within the body
and blood vessels and help reduce arteriosclerosis in
the future which is an important and common
complication in patients with hyperglycemia as well.
Conclusions
This study investigated the association between
HbA1C and inflammatory markers levels including
hs-CRP and homocysteine. HbA1c was positively
correlated with hs-CRP and homocysteine. High
levels of inflammatory markers were found not only
in those diagnosed with diabetes but in those with
HbA1C diagnosed with pre-diabetes. If we can
control HbA1C to normal level, it can help reduce
inflammation within the body and blood vessels and
help reduce arteriosclerosis in the future.
Figure 5: Showing positive correlation between body Acknowledgments
mass index (BMI) and Homocysteine (r = 0.32, p =
0.002). The first author would like to express her
sincere gratitude to the second and third authors,
Hyperglycemia is the condition that the body research advisers, for their kindness and advice
has high blood sugar levels results in the insulin throughout the research. The first author would like
resistance and inflammation within the body. It can to thank School of Anti-Aging and regenerative
increase the level of inflammatory markers such as Medicine, Mae Fah Luang University, friends and
high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP) and family for giving the great supports and
homocysteine in the blood. The high-sensitivity C- encouragements, so research could be written
reactive protein (hs-CRP) and homocysteine are successfully.
involved in inflammation within the body and also
are associated with arteriosclerosis diseases such as Contributors
coronary artery disease, stroke and peripheral
vascular disease (Koenig, 2013). In the present study, H.K. originated the concept; collected data;
HbA1c was positively correlated with inflammatory conducted the research; designed the study; critically
markers including hs-CRP and homocysteine with analyzed data; performed a literature search; drafted
statistically significant r = 0.33, p = 0.001; r = 0.53, the manuscript. J.R. originated the concept; designed
p < 0.001, respectively. In addition, BMI was the study; interpreted the data; drafted the
positively correlated with hs-CRP, and homocysteine manuscript. P.S. designed the study; interpreted the
with statistically significant r = 0.33, p = 0.002; 0.32, data; critically revised the final version of the
p = 0.002, respectively. These inflammatory markers manuscript. H.K., J.R., and P.S. approved the final
including high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs- version. This research paper is a part of first author’s
CRP) and homocysteine, indicated the risk of (H.K.) Thesis in Anti-Aging and Regenerative
arteriosclerosis which could lead to vascular disease Medicine, School of Anti-Aging and Regeneration
in the future. The high levels of inflammatory Medicine, Mae Fah Luang University, Bangkok,
markers was found not only in those diagnosed with Thailand.
diabetes, but also in those with HbA1c diagnosed
with pre-diabetes (HbA1c 5.7-6.4) which were found References
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can control HbA1c to normal level (HbA1c < 5.7) Ahmed, M., Islam, M. M., Rahman, M. A., Rubaiyat,
without focusing only on people with diabetes but in
people who are pre-diabetes by adjusting diet and K. A., . . . Linda, S. (2018). Correlation
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control in patients with ischemic heart
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bhj.v33i2.39305
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Amanullah, S., Jarari, A., Govindan, M., Basha, M. therapy. Int J Cardiol, 168(6), 5126-5134.
I. & Khatheeja, S. (2010). Association of hs- doi: 0.1016/j.ijcard.2013.07.113
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Biological Sciences, 3(1), 7 – 12. S. (2019). A study of high sensitivity c–
reactive protein (hs-CRP) in relation to
Bansal, S., Kapoor, S., Singh, G. P. & Yadav. (2016). HbA1C in type2 diabetes mellitus in Tertiary
Serum homocysteine levels in type 2 Care Hospital, Mysore. International
diabetes mellitus patients. International Journal of Contemporary Medicine Surgery
Journal of Contemporary Medical Research, and Radiology, 4(1), 2565-4810.
3(11), 2454-7379.
Sachan, R., Patel, M. L., Gupta, P., Sachan, P., . . .
Bonora, E. & Tuomilehto, J. (2011). The pros and Pradeep, Y. (2012). Correlation of plasma
cons of diagnosing diabetes with A1C. homocysteine levels with BMI and insulin
Diabetes Care, 34(Suppl 2), S184– resistance, amongst obese, overweight and
S190. doi: 10.2337/dc11-s216 non obese infertile women. International
Journal of Scientific and Research
Currò, M., Gugliandolo, A. , Gangemi, C., Risitano, Publications, 2(5), 1-6.
R., . . . Caccamo, D. (2014) Toxic effects of
mildly elevated homocysteine concentrations Silva, D. & de Lacerda, A. P. (2012). High-
in neuronal-like cells. Neurochem Res, 39(8), sensitivity C-reactive protein as a biomarker
1485-1495. doi: 10.1007/s11064-014-1338- of risk in coronary artery disease. Rev Port
7 Cardiol, 31(11), 733-745. doi:
10.1016/j.repc.2012. 02.018
Drzewoski, J., Czurpryniak, L., Chwatko, G. & Bald,
E. (2000). Hyperhomocysteinemia in poorly Stampfer, M. J., Malinow, M. R. , Willett, W. C.,
controlled type 2 diabetes patients. Diabetes Newcomer, L. M., . . . Ullmann, D. (1992).
Nutr Metab, 13(6), 319-324. A prospective study of plasma
homocyst(e)ine and risk of myocardial
Koenig, W. (2013). High-sensitivity C-reactive infarction in US physicians, JAMA, 268(7),
protein and atherosclerotic disease: From 877-881.
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The Influence of Social and Economic Context Factors on
Students‘Entrepreneurial Intent – A comparative analysis
Matthias Liedtke*, Prof. Dr. Reza Asghari
Technische Universität Braunschweig, Entrepreneurship Hub, Braunschweig, 38106, Germany
*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
What motivates students to develop startup intentions during their studies? From a political point of view,
students’ startup intentions are a very relevant topic. This article aims to investigate the influence of
social, cultural and economic conditions on the founding intentions of students. As a theoretical
foundation, the theory of planned behaviour is used. Based on data from the Global Entrepreneurship
Monitor (GEM) for the years 2014 - 2016 and the cultural dimensions according to Hofstede, influencing
factors are analysed and compared in a country comparison with the four countries, Germany, Mexico,
South Africa, and Thailand. In order to answer the research question, descriptive analyses using SPSS
were carried out. The results of the analyses show that the attitude towards a foundation, subjective
norms, and perceived behaviour control as well as cultural dimensions vary across countries in the
context of students’ startup intentions.
Keywords: entrepreneurial intention; entrepreneurship; theory of planned behavior
Introduction or often no other possibility is offered. The situation
on the labour market plays an important role in this
Startups and the associated startup intentions of context (Krueger et al., 2000; Pruett et al., 2009).
students are a much-discussed topic in science and Recent research shows that there is a strong
politics. In the course of the Bologna Process and correlation between social, cultural and economic
connection with the latest economic and financial context factors and founding intentions. Therefore,
crisis, the European Commission for example has set the intention of an individual to choose the path to
itself the goal of intensifying the interest of students self-employment depends on many influencing
in setting up their own businesses through various factors, such as the cultural environment (cf. Lee, L.
measures in the coming years (cf. European et al., 2011; Liñán et al., 2011). Culture has an
Commission, 2008; Yerevan Communiqué, 2015). impact on the environment in which the foundation
Accordingly, the investigation of the factors takes place. However, these influencing factors differ
influencing the intentions of startups is an important between countries (cf. Bosma & Schutjens, 2011;
topic for entrepreneurial research (cf. do Paço et al., Freytag & Thurik, 2007). Following Kluckhohn
2011; Schwarz et al., 2009). (1951), Hofstede defines culture as "the collective
programming of the mind that distinguishes the
The study of students against the background of members of a group or category of persons from
founding intentions and their influencing factors others" (Hofstede, 2001). In the context of social
represents a special focus for entrepreneurship acceptance, cultural values are understood as the
research since students have to decide on a career degree to which society considers entrepreneurial
path after completing their studies. For many behaviour, such as risk-taking and independent
students, the step into self-employment is an option
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thinking, to be desirable (cf. Hayton et al., 2002). starting their own business as positive or negative. In
Also, entrepreneurial activities differ across the context of this work, the subjective norms
countries depending on their level of economic describe the pressure exerted by family, friends, or
development (cf. Sternberg & Wennekers, 2005). society on students to point out their intentions to
The Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) shows start a business (cf. Byabashaija & Katono, 2011).
that an average of 68 percent of adults in the The perceived control of behaviour is the perceived
countries surveyed attributes a high status in society ease or difficulty of students in starting a business (cf.
to company founders. Furthermore, the study Liñán et al., 2011). Following the model of Ajzen
concludes that on average 42 percent of adults see (1991), the more positive students’ attitudes and
good opportunities to start a business in their subjective norms towards self-employment are, and
environment (cf. Kelley et al., 2016). This study aims the greater the perceived control of behaviour is, the
to investigate the influence of social, cultural, and greater is the intentions of the students to found a
economic conditions on the startup intentions of company (cf. Ajzen, 1991).
students in Germany, Mexico, South Africa, and
Thailand.
The theoretical framework of the founding Figure 5: Framework of startup intention
Source: Modified from Ajzen (1991)
Theory of planned behavior in the context of the
startup intentions of students An international comparison of students‘ startup
intention
An important theory for the analysis of
intentions of any kind is the theory of planned In the following, the startup intentions of
behavior (TPB) developed by Ajzen (1991). The students are presented in an international
theory of planned behavior states that intentions can comparison. This is important because
predict a certain behavior (cf. Ajzen, 1991). Here it entrepreneurial activities differ across countries (cf.
is true that the stronger the intention to exercise a Sternberg & Wennekers, 2005).
behaviour, the higher is the probability of the actual
exercise of this behaviour. These intentions are in The results of the GUESSS study 2018 show
turn influenced by the attitude towards the planned that 9 percent of the globally surveyed students want
behaviour, subjective norms regarding the behaviour, to work in their own company after completing their
and the perceived behavioural control over this studies and thus have startup intentions. This
behaviour. However, as a prerequisite, the behaviour proportion rises to almost 35 percent when it comes
to be exercised can be controlled (cf. ibid.). to the question of which career path students want to
pursue five years after completing their studies (cf.
The theory of planned behaviour is very Sieger et al., 2019). Other studies based on different
suitable as a basis for the analysis of this paper since data also show that a high proportion of students are
a wide range of planned behaviour can be predicted positive about starting a business and have intentions
on the basis of this theory (cf. Engle et al., 2010; to do so (cf. Bruns & Görisch, 2002; Fafaliou, 2012).
Krueger et al., 2000). With regard to the founding intentions of students,
however, differences emerge in an international
In the context of the startup intentions of comparison. Franke and Lüthje (2004), for example
students, this theory is used to test the extent to which conclude that the intentions of German and Austrian
attitudes towards startup, subjective norms, and students to start up a business are significantly lower
perceived behaviour control have a direct influence than those of students at the Massachusetts Institute
on the founding intentions of students (cf. fig. 1). of Technology (MIT). They highlight the different
Current research, which examines the influence of circumstances regarding the macro environment (e.g.
various factors on students' intentions to start a
business, shows that the theory of planned behaviour
is an essential part of numerous scientific papers on
this topic (e.g. Autio et al., 2001; Engle et al., 2010;
do Paço et al., 2011; Kolvereid & Isaksen, 2006;
Iakovleva, et al., 2011; Moriano et al., 2011; Shook
& Bratianu, 2010). In this context, the founding
attitude describes the extent to which students regard
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capital markets, government regulations) and the between the strength of the founding intentions and
micro environment (e.g. universities) between the subjective norms. At the same time, the study shows
USA and the two European countries as a possible that subjective norms differ greatly between
reason for this difference. The personality and countries (cf. Sieger et al., 2014).
attitude factors that were identified as important
indicators for business startups, however, are at a Furthermore, research indicates that attitudes
comparable level for German, Austrian and towards starting up a business, students' subjective
American students (cf. ibid.). The GUESSS study norms, perceived behavioural control, as well as their
shows that the degree of interest of students in entrepreneurial self-efficacy, have a significant
starting a business varies across countries. While the influence on students' startup intentions (cf.
direct startup intentions in some countries such as Kolvereid, 1996; do Paço et al., 2011; Wang, C. K.
Argentina (25.3 percent), South Africa (15.3 & Wong, 2004). Do Paço et al., on the other hand,
percent), Mexico (13.6 percent), China (10.1), describe that subjective norms only have an indirect
France (9.6 percent) Australia (9.1 percent) are above effect on the founding intentions (cf. do Paço et al.,
the average of 9 percent, the founding intentions 2011). These different results can possibly be
among students in most European countries such as attributed to the fact that subjective norms have so far
the England (6.2 percent), Poland (5.4 percent), been little empirically researched (cf. Khalili et al.,
Germany (2.4 percent) are below average. The 2015).
country with the lowest number of direct startup
intention is Japan (1.6 percent) (cf. Sieger et al., The risk aspect as well as socio-demographic
2019). factors such as the entrepreneurial background of the
parents are also influential factors with regard to the
Attitude towards starting up a business, motivation to found a company. Research shows that
subjective norms, and perceived behavioral students' intentions to start a business are greater if at
control in the context of startup intention least some of their parents have already founded a
business themselves (cf. Fafaliou, 2012; Pruett et al.,
Studies on the subject of founding intentions 2009,; Sieger et al., 2014; Wang, C. K. & Wong,
show that the founding attitude correlates with the 2004).
founding intention (cf. Autio et al., 2001; Schwarz et
al., 2009). In addition, it is proven that the spatial Not only the family environment, but also the social
aspect affects the extent to which the founding environment has a strong influence on the founding
attitude of students is pronounced (cf. Liñan et al., intentions of students. The more founders an
2011). Intentions to found a company can result from individual knows in his or her immediate
the fact that the potential founder sees an opportunity environment and the more role models he or she has,
that outweighs the risks. In order to see this the more likely they are to develop startup intentions
opportunity, the attention of the potential founder (Krueger et al., 2000; Nishimura & Tristán, 2011).
must first be drawn to this opportunity. It can
therefore be stated that the attitude influences the The influence of perceived behavioral control
founding intention of students (Krueger et al., 2000). on the startup intentions of students is shown in many
The attitudes towards starting up a business are scientific papers. In this context, perceived
influenced by both pull factors (e.g. implementation behavioral control is described as the feeling of self-
of a profitable option) and push factors (e.g. poor efficacy or the ability to carry out entrepreneurial
economic situation) (cf. Shariff & Saud, 2009). activities. The more knowledge, skills, and
experience the individual has, the lower the
The GUESSS study also shows that the perceived level of difficulty in carrying out
personal environment in the various countries reacts entrepreneurial activities (cf. Nishimura & Tristán,
to the choice of starting a business to varying 2011). Knowledge and skills that can be acquired
degrees. Students in Mexico, Russia, the USA, and through (work) experience exert an influence on the
England for example rate the subjective norms as founding intentions (cf. Walter et al., 2013).
particularly positive. Subjective norms in Germany, Research shows that a lack of economic knowledge
Singapore, and Japan are rated below average. The and entrepreneurial knowledge constitute a barrier to
study thus shows that there is a positive correlation
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entrepreneurship (cf. Fafaliou, 2012; Wang, C. K. & Entrepreneurship research shows that, in terms
Wong, 2004). of cultural dimensions, the founding interest of
students should be greatest in states with a population
Iakovleva et al. (2011) show that students in with a high degree of individualism, a low degree of
industrialised countries have a more positive attitude uncertainty avoidance, a low degree of power
towards startups, higher subjective norms, and higher distance, and a high degree of masculinity (cf.
perceived behavioural control than students in the Hayton et al., 2002). The study by Moriano et al.
developing countries surveyed. On the basis of this shows that subjective norms have no stronger
literature analysis, it can be concluded that in most influence on the startup intentions of students in
countries the founding attitude, subjective norms, collectivist states than on students in individualist
and perceived behaviour control have an influence on states (cf. Moriano et al., 2011).
the founding behaviour of students.
Due to the complexity of the cultural
Cultural and economic context expressions of the populations in a cross-country
comparison, it is not surprising that startup
In addition to the theory of planned behaviour, researchers who analyse the relationship between
economic and cultural (e.g. Hofstedes cultural national culture and business startups sometimes
dimensions) factors that influence students' career might yield different results. However, research
and startup decisions and intentions are also shows that students from different cultural
increasingly coming into the focus of backgrounds have basically similar startup
entrepreneurship research (cf. Freytag & Thurik, motivations and are confronted with the same
2007; Liñán et al., 2011; Moriano, et al., 2011). obstacles to start up a business, such as economic
events. Pruett et al. prove that the cultural and social
Research shows that the influence of cultural dimension can explain only a small part of the
factors on the startup intentions of students varies. It founding intentions (cf. Pruett et al., 2009).
has been shown, for example, that compared to
Anglo-Saxon countries, the aspect of possible failure Various studies show that the economic context
and the associated loss of social status in Asian influences founding intentions. Regional differences
countries represents a stronger obstacle to the step can be observed with regard to the founding
into self-employment. In addition, it can be shown intentions of students. These differences can be
that the cultural factor "social status" makes it easier attributed, among other things, to the economic
to predict the founding interest of students in East development of the individual regions (cf. Liñán et
Asia than, for example, in Anglo-Saxon states (cf. al., 2011.). Due to the most recent global economic
Begley & Tan, 2001). and financial crisis, students are not sure that they
will find a permanent position in the labour market
In their study, Liñán et al. also show that startup after completing their studies (cf. Fafaliou, 2012).
research focuses on the role of cultural differences by This view is supported by the EUROSTUDENT V
depicting the different behaviors between the states study as results of this study show that in some
and regions studied (cf. Liñán et al., 2011). Research European states, especially in some Eastern
also shows that the step of students into self- European states, students regard the chances on the
employment in Romania and other transformation domestic labour market after completing their higher
economies has a relatively low social acceptance (cf. education studies as rather low (cf. Hauschildt et al.,
Shook & Bratianu, 2010). 2015). The GUESSS study (2014) also shows that the
level of development of a state has a strong influence
Empirical studies show that company founders on the founding behaviour of students. This study
have a lower degree of risk aversion than non- shows that, in principle, there is an above-average
company founders and that there is a negative number of startups in developing countries, whereas
correlation between the strength of the founding in "developed countries" the degree of startups is
intentions and the perceived risk of founding below average (cf. Sieger et al., 2014). With regard
intentions (cf. Begley & Tan, 2001; Freytag & to the spatial context and subjective norms, it has also
Thurik, 2007; Pruett et al., 2009; Sieger et al., 2014; been proven that social assessments are higher in
Thomas & Mueller, 2000).
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more developed regions (e.g. Catalonia) than in less What influence do social, cultural, and
developed regions (e.g. Andalusia), and that the level economic conditions have on the founding intentions
of economic development thus has a positive of students?
influence on the perceived subjective norms and
behaviour control (cf. Liñan et al., 2011). Based on existing literature in the context of
students’ startup intentions, the following analysis
Though there is a high political and academic foci have been set:
interest in the study of startup intentions of students,
many research gaps still exist. Only a small number Analysis focus I: Students' startup attitudes,
of researchers have so far dealt with and analysed the subjective norms, and perceived behaviour control in
startup intentions of students and their influencing the context of startup intentions.
factors in the form of national or international
comparative studies (e.g. Autio et al., 2001; Fafaliou, Analysis focus II: The cultural dimensions power
2012; Iakovleva et al., 2011; Kolvereid, 1996; Liñán distance, individualism, masculinity, uncertainty
et al., 2011; Moriano et al., 2011; Pruett et al., 2009; avoidance, and long term orientation
Schwarz et al., 2009). Bergmann et al. make clear
that in studies on student business startups, the Analysis focus III: Students’ startup intentions across
organisational and spatial context, for example in four selected countries (Germany, Mexico, South
which region and in which university students study, Africa, Thailand).
has been widely ignored, although the organisational
and regional context and the intentions of prospective Theoretical framework of the founding
company founders play an important role (cf.
Bergman et al., 2016). This research gap can be Data
attributed, among other things, to the fact that the
spatial aspect is generally ignored by the majority of Data from the Global Entrepreneurship
scientists in the field of entrepreneurship research Monitor (GEM) have been used as data source
(cf. Bosma & Sternberg, 2014; Thomas & Mueller, (Global Entrepreneurship Monitor, 2016). The data
2000). With regard to the cultural influence on the concerning the cultural dimensions are derived from
founding intentions relatively little research was Hofstede (2001).
done in this field until the beginning of the new
millennium (cf. Begley & Tan, 2001). Several The GEM research programme was
researchers recommend investigating in depth the launched in 1999. The data collected annually can be
cultural influence on founding attitudes, subjective used to make cross-national comparisons of national
norms and perceived behavioral control (cf. startup activities. A fundamental goal of GEM is to
Iakovleva, 2011, Liñán & Chen, 2009). show differences in startup activities between
countries. It also aims to find answers to the question
Since there are not many comparative studies of why some countries have a higher number of
that sheds light on the influence of social, cultural, startups than others. The most recent results were
and economic environmental conditions on the published in 2020 and comprises 50 states (cf. Bosma
founding intentions of students, this article intends to et al., 2020; Reynolds et al., 2005; Sternberg &
partially close this research gap. In addition, it is Wennekers, 2005).
intended to generate ideas for further research by
examining students' intentions to found a business In the GEM project, startup intentions are defined on
with a view to their influencing factors (cf. Hayton et the basis of the percentage of individuals who expect
al., 2002; Shook & Bratianu, 2010; Thomas & to start a business in the next three years (cf. Bosma
Mueller, 2000). et al., 2012).
The following research question arises from the The empirical analysis is based on the
present presentation: students who participated in the GEM survey. In the
GEM survey, a representative sample of at least
2,000 interviewees aged 18 or older per country is
examined (cf. Amoros & Bosma, 2014). Due to their
thematic focus and questions, the GEM data are used
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in many studies on the subject of founding intentions to start up a company within the next three years. 623
and business startups (cf. Nishimura & Tristan, (86.6 percent) students have currently no intentions
2011). In order to be able to conduct cross-country in this respect.
comparisons, standardised questionnaires were used
for each wave in the GEM project (cf. Amorós, & Description of variables
Bosma; 2014).
Figure 2 shows the conceptual analytical
The GEM questionnaire contains some framework. The analytical framework shows that the
indicators suitable to measure the variables of the descriptive analysis is based on the variables startup
theory of planned behaviour. For this reason, the attitude ("possibilities" and "fear of failure"),
GEM data can be used to study TPB in the context of subjective norms ("desirable career choice", "equal
founding intentions (see Nishimura & Tristán, 2011). standard of living", "status and respect" and "success
The GEM questionnaire contains several items that stories in the media"), perceived behavioural control,
are relevant for answering the hypotheses of this country, and the five cultural dimensions.
master thesis. Table 1 gives an overview of the
relevant questions.
Table 1: Used GEM-Items
Source: Own table based on GEM data (2016) Figure 6: Conceptual framework (Source: own
illustration)
Four states were picked based on their high
number of respective respondents after filtering the Startup intention of students
cases and the availability of data regarding
Hofstede`s cultural dimensions. The selected states The founding intention is the intention of an
for this study are Germany, Mexico, South Africa, individual to found a new company. The intention to
and Thailand. start up is influenced by other factors (cf. Ajzen,
1991; Engle et al., 2010). According to Shook &
The total size of the sample used for this study is 719 Bratianu, founding intentions are conscious states of
students. The sample size for the countries varies mind that precede action but draw attention to the
between 109 (Mexico) and 295 (Germany). A total goal of the foundation (Shook & Bratianu, 2010).
of 96 (13.4 percent) of the students surveyed intend The question used in the GEM questionnaire, which
asks about the founding intention, is: "Are you, alone
or with others, expecting to start a new business,
including any type of self-employment, within the
next three years? (cf. Reynolds et al., 2005). This
self-assessment question is a question with four
possible answers (see Table 1). Since it is necessary
to classify students into two groups in order to
answer the research question, based on their answer
to the question whether they expect to start their own
business in the next three years (first group: students
with intentions to set up their own business within
the next three years; second group: students without
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intentions to set up their own business within the next knowledge, skills, and experience needed to start a
three years), the corresponding cases with the business.
answers "don't know" and "refused" were excluded Hofestede’s cultural dimensions
from the analysis.
For the items "power distance",
Attitudes towards startup intention "Individualism", "Masculinity", "Uncertainty
avoidance" and "long-term orientation" the
The GEM questionnaire contains two questions corresponding values of this cultural dimension
(see table 1) that relate to attitudes towards starting a according to Hofstede (2001) are used. These are
business. The first question is whether there are good values on a scale of 0 - 100, where 100 describes the
opportunities for starting a business in the area where highest possible degree of a population in a country.
the respondent lives in the next six months. This item
is also used in other studies as an important indicator Results and Discussion
of startup attitudes (e.g. Stuetzer et al., 2014). The
second question in this context is whether fear of In order to answer the research question descriptive
failure would prevent respondents from becoming analyses were carried out.
self-employed. An agreement with the first question
points to a positive attitude, whereas an agreement Figure 3 shows that the cultures of the
with the second question shows a negative attitude populations differ across the countries surveyed.
with regard to the foundation (cf. Nishimura & Mexico appears to have the highest degree of power
Tristán, 2011). According to Shaw & Shiu, the distance (81) followed by Thailand (64), South
attitude that one should behave is based on one's own Africa (49), and Germany (35). The degree of
belief in behaviour (cf. Shaw & Shiu, 2003). uncertainty avoidance of the population in Mexico
(82) is much higher than in Germany (65), Thailand
Subjective norms in the context of startup (64), and South Africa (49). However, fear of failure
intention does not significantly correlate with the item A-FF,
which might lead to the assumption, that the student
Four GEM questions (see table 1) are used to groups in the respective countries are less likely to
describe subjective norms. fear failure compared to the overall population.
Considering the cultural dimension "individualism",
In the first question on testing the influence of Germany (67) scores highest followed by South
subjective norms on startup attitudes, students are Africa (65), Mexico (30) and Thailand (20).
asked for their personal opinion as to whether
everyone should have the same standard of living or Figure 7: Comparison of cultural dimensions
not. The second question deals with the subjective Source: Own illustration based on Hofstede (2001)
assessment of students as to whether the majority of
people in the interviewee's country regard starting a Figure 4 shows that the countries differ in terms
business as a desirable career choice. In response to of startup attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived
the third question, students express their personal behavioural control. For example, students in
opinion as to whether those who start a business in Germany and Mexico see better start-up
the country in which they live have a high social opportunities (A - O) in the geographical region in
status and receive respect. The fourth question deals
with media influence. The students are asked
whether, in their opinion, the public media in the
state in which they live show many successful cases
of business startups.
Perceived behavioral control in the context of
startup intention
To measure the perceived behavioral control of
students, students were asked whether they had the
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which they live than their fellow students in South Figure 9: Proportion of students with startup intention (by
Africa and Thailand. Fear of failure can be sex)
considered a barrier to starting up a business. The Source: Own illustration based on Hofstede (2001)
descriptive analysis indicates that the fear of failure
in the context of founding a business is Conclusions
comparatively high in Germany (0.44) and Thailand
(0.5). Figure 4 also shows that in Mexico, South Based on the theory of planned behaviour, this
Africa and Thailand more than half of the students paper examines the social, cultural and economic
surveyed consider starting a business as a desirable environment and its influence on the founding
career choice (SN - DCC). While in Germany, South intentions of students in four selected countries. The
Africa, and Thailand less than 30 % of students research question of this was derived from the
believe that they have the necessary knowledge, existing literature. The results of the descriptive
skills, and experience (PBC) to start a business, analysis were subsequently discussed and elaborated
Mexico ranks highest with 35 %. Based on this we in more detail with the help of the analytical
may conclude that the student population in Mexico framework.
has a higher degree of perceived behavioural control
with regard to the founding intentions compared to Data from the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor
the other countries. for the years 2014 - 2016 have been used for the
analysis. In addition to the GEM data, four cultural
Figure 8: Average value of Theory of Planned Behavior dimensions according to Hofstede were used for the
items (by country) analysis in order to show cultural influences with
regard to the founding intentions.
Source: Own illustration based on GEM data (2014
– 2016). The results indicate that the theory of planned
behaviour (Ajzen, 1991) serves as a useful tool to
Figure 5 shows the percentage of students pursue this research topic. It becomes clear that in the
with startup intentions (by sex). Besides South four countries studied, the minority of students
Africa, startup intention differs by gender. In indicates to have intentions to start up a business in
Germany and Mexico, the percentage of male the near future. However, the intention to start up a
students intending to start up a business is higher than business and its influencing factors vary across
their female counterparts, whereas in Thailand more countries.
female students are intending to start up a business.
The special focus of this article is on the
hitherto unperformed comparative analysis of the
influence of social, cultural, and economic
conditions on the founding intentions of students in
Germany, Mexico, South Africa, and Thailand based
on the theory of planned behaviour. Due to the focus
of this article on social, cultural, and economic
factors, the aspect of university influence on startup
intentions will not be discussed further. This aspect
has already been dealt with by many researchers in
scientific papers (e.g. Lee, S. M. et al., 2006;
Sternberg & Lückgen, 2005), but still requires further
research.
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An Integrated Model of Influence of Perceived Quality, Perceived Value, Brand
Association, Brand Awareness and Brand Uniqueness on Brand Loyalty
Towards a LuxuryBrand in Bangkok, Thailand.
Suwanan Chansuk1, Sirion Chaipoopirutana2
Graduate School of Business, Assumption University, Bangkok,10240, Thailand
E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]
Abstract
Under today's increasingly competitive business environment, maintaining customers' brand loyalty
remains a significant factor. To be successful in any business sector, companies should understand the
customers' needs and create strong brands to achieve long-term business success. The primary purpose of
this study is to investigate the factors affecting brand loyalty towards the top luxury brand in Bangkok,
Thailand. The researchers collected the data from 400 consumers including both Thai males and females at
four shopping malls, in Bangkok by using five-point Likert scale survey questionnaires. All respondents
whom the researchers conducted had experienced purchasing luxury products. The non-probability
sampling procedures including judgment, quota, and convenience sampling techniques were applied to
collect the data from the sampling units . The descriptive analysis and inferential analysis including linear
regression analysis were used to test all the hypotheses. Based on the result of this study, the researchers
found that brand awareness has a significant influence on perceived quality and brand association.
Additionally, brand loyalty is significantly influenced by perceived value, brand uniqueness, perceived
quality, brand awareness, and brand association, respectively.
Keywords: Perceived Quality, Perceived Value, Brand Association, Brand Awareness, Brand
Uniqueness, Brand Loyalty, Luxury brand
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Introduction In academics, brand loyalty was embraced and received
a great deal of attention from researchers when
The global luxury goods market is estimated explaining a brand (Malai and Speece, 2005). Oliver
to increase from $285.1 billion (1997) claimed that brand loyalty directly affects a
U.S. dollars in 2020 to 388 billion U.S. dollars in 2025 lovely brand for consumers regularly re-patronizing in
(Statista report, 2020). According to a Deloitte report the future, even though some marketing strategies and
(2019), the luxury sales growth is 10.8% a year, with situational effects are likely to cause brand switching
the personal luxury goods market growing by 4% actions. Aaker (1991) explained that brand awareness is
percent in 2019 (Bain & Company Luxury Study). the first step to creating loyal customers. Yoo et al.
However, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, revenues (2000) studied marketing mix elements based on brand
in 2020 were rapidly dipping compared to 2019, and equity, involving sports shoes, camera film, and color
many business sectors have been negatively televisions. The study found that there is a positive
relationship between brand awareness on perceived
affected throughout, including the luxury product quality and brand loyalty. Also, Gil et al. (2007)
market. Furthermore, as a highly competitive endorsed the positive effect of brand awareness and
environment nowadays and increases the trend from brand association toward the family's role on
commoditization continues, maintaining brand consumers. It is also directly related to customer brand
loyalty is a critical challenge that many consumer loyalty.Accordingly, Keller & Lehmann (2003)
investigated the relationship between the elements of
goods manufacturers face, especially in the luxury customer-based brand equity. As a result, the
researchers found a significant relationship between
product sector (Martinroll, 2018). Developing brand perceived quality and brand loyalty. Further, Su et al.
(2018) carried out a study of customers' perceptions and
loyalty was reasonably easy for brand luxury in the brand loyalty toward fast fashion clothing and found
that perceived value, brand awareness, and brand
past, as the competition was moderate and customers uniqueness are the significant components that affect
consumer loyalty.
were relatively easy to target due to the strict social Consequently, luxury marketers must consistently
figure out some new strategies to keep customers loyal
class and the tendency of consumersto stay loyal and and to make their brand remain in the primary place in
the luxury market. Hence, the researchers focus on
uncritical towards one brand (Kapferer & Bastien, Customers' brand loyalty towards Gucci brand to
investigate which factors influence the brand loyalty.
2009). However, It has changed as competition has In this study, the researchers collected the primary data
at four shopping malls which are the IconSiam, Siam
increased, and the consumer market has rapidly Paragon, Central Embassy, and the Emporium in
Bangkok, Thailand. The respondents include both
grown. Today's consumers have various male and female customers who have an experience in
purchasing Gucci products.
options for luxury products, and luxury customers'
Research Objective
behaviors are rapidly changed. Customers expected
1. To analyze an influence of brand awareness on
superior quality, superior design, and
perceived quality.
exclusive products. Hence, luxury brands nowadays
2. To investigate an influence of brand awareness on
have to continually catch up with social trends and
brand association.
need a new creative that fuels growth virtually
3. To study an influence of brand awareness, brand
insatiable and can stand in the market.Luxury brand
marketers must consistently figure out some new
strategies to keep customers loyal and make a brand
remain in the luxury market's primary place.
Therefore, the researchers concentrated on
customers' brand loyalty towards the luxury brand in
Bangkok to investigate, which factors influence
Luxury goods' loyalty among consumers in Bangkok,
Thailand.
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association, perceived quality, perceived value, and an expression of a brand, which is directly linked to
brand uniqueness on brand loyalty. customers' memory and creates value for the company
and customers by distinguishing brands, creating
Literature Review positive attitudes/feelings, and helping to obtain
The following theories and related literature information. Keller (1993) classified brand
support the main conceptual framework of this associations into three categories: attributes, benefits,
present study.Brand Awareness and attitudes. As defined by Jeon & Baeck (2016), the
Brand awareness is conceptualized by Aaker brand association provides a psychological
(1991) as a potential buyer's ability to recognize or representation of a brand and is considered a unique
recall a brand as a specific product category. Similarly, brand connection that distinguishes the brand from
Rossiter & Percy (1997) pointed out that brand other brands in the same category (MacInnis and
awareness is the recognition of the brand or the brand Nakamoto, 1991). Dean (2004) also mentioned that
recall of purchase. According to Ehrenberg et al. companies will have a better market positioning by
(1997), brand awareness meant entering the customer's establishing a strong brand association to distinguish
mind as a preferred brand when specific needs have goods or services. Tsang & Qu (2000) explained that
occurred. Furthermore, Aaker (1991) represented that all criteria that influence purchase decisions will be
brand awareness is advantageous when purchasing a directly affected by brand association.
product or service, which helps customers be more
familiar with the product. In addition, Keller (1993) Perceived Value
pointed out that brand awareness consists of both Oliver (1999) defined perceived value as the
brand recognition and brand recall. Aaker (1996)
indicated that brand awareness is measured by brand customer's overall evaluation of a product's usefulness,
recognition, and customer exposure to the brand is the based on expectations of what is obtained and what is
consequence of brand awareness. given. Netemeyer et al. (2004) described that the
general assessment of a customer on the efficiency of
Perceived Quality a product based on the views of what is received
Zeithaml (1988) defined perceived quality as (satisfaction) and what is given (price) as compared to
other brands is referred to as perceived value. Heskett
a customer's attitude about a product's excellence or (2009), described perceived value as the ratio of the
superiority. Keller (2003) indicated perceived quality quality process and the outcomes provided to
as a customer's acknowledgment of a product's quality. consumers when compared to the price and other costs
Aaker (1991) conveyed favorable judgment of a to obtain goods and services. Kirmani & Zeithaml
product's quality and contributed to the company's (1993) and Netemever et al. (2004)
achievements. However, a negative perception of the
product's quality also destroys brand reputation in the stated that perceived value is the trade-off of what a
consumer's mind. While Kotler (1991) also explained customer gets (emotional and functional benefits) for
that a favorable perception of the company's goods or what a customer gives (effort, money, and time). Lim et
services' quality or services leads to customer al. (2014) proposed that perceived value refers to the
satisfaction, and an improvement in the amount of preference or evaluation of whether a product's
profit a company makes. It can be assessed by direct attributes can meet its needs and satisfaction in a
experience of a brand, and evaluations from direct specific situation.
experience are more substantive and more
Brand Uniqueness
comfortable accessioning memories (Netemeyer et The uniqueness of the brand is defined by
al., 2004).
Netemeyer et al. (2004) as the degree to which the
Brand Association customer feels the brand is different from other brands,
Aaker (1991) stated that brand association is and there is a difference when compared with
competitors. Franke & Schreier (2008) and Tian et al.
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(2001) described the uniqueness of the brand as repurchase the product or service. Cobb-Walgren
consumers' feelings that the brand is completely et al. (1995) suggested that intensive brand
different from other brands, and there is a difference
when compared with competitors. It is a desirable awareness may create a feeling of quality for a
brand characteristic that many brands try to obtain brand. Further, Swait et al. (1993) and Yoo et al.
(Keller, 1993; Vigneron and Johnson, 2004) because (2000) concluded that brand awareness has a positive
it offers a competitive advantage over competitors impact on perceived quality. Many researchers also
(Hakala, 2011; Keller and Lehmann, 2006; Ooi and supported that the higher the brand awareness,
Stober, 2008). If the brand is not accepted by
competitors as a unique brand, it will be difficult to the higher the perceived quality (Monoroe,
gain the interest of customers and build customer 1990; Dodds
expectations and interactions (Netemeyer et al.,2004). and Grewal, 1991; Lo, 2002; Lin, 2006).
Brand Loyalty Brand Awareness and Brand Association:
Aaker (1991) conceptualized brand loyalty as Brand wareness involves the connection between the
brand and various associations in memory (Keller,
the consumer's attachment towards a brand, even after 2003). Hence, consumers must also be conscious of a
changing the price or product features (Reisenwitz and brand first to later have a brand association (Aaker,
Gupta, 2011). There are two categories of loyalty: 1991). Lavidge and Steiner's (1961) study found that
behavioral and attitudinal loyalty (Keller, 1998). it has a high positive effect of brand awareness on the
Behavioral loyalty can be measured by a number of brand association. Brand awareness encouraged
repeated purchases, while attitudinal loyalty refers to marketers and business managers to develop the right
the customer's intention to buy the brand as a primary brand name (Aaker, 1991). Besides, according to
choice (Keller, 1998; Yoo & Gordon et al. (1993), the brand association can be
strengthened by raising awareness of products.
Donthu, 2001). In other words, Oliver (1997) defined Several researchers, including Keller (1993), Pitta &
brand loyalty as a strong commitment to regularly Katsanis (1995), Gladden & Funk (2002), Ross et al.
repurchase desired products or services for the future (2006), Gil et al. (2007), Pike et al. (2010), and Buil et
or a commitment to rebuy products or services of a al. (2013) have thoroughly studied and endorsed the
brand as a first choice. Bowen & Shoemaker (1998), positive effect of brand awareness on the brand
loyal customers tend to purchase more frequently association, also the positive relationship between
than non-loyal customers. They will not switch to these two variables.
competitors' products or services due to the price
because they believe that the brand is more satisfying Brand Awareness and Brand Loyalty:
than the other alternatives (Holland and Baker, 2001). Aaker (1991) defined that brand awareness is
Related Literature Review the first step toward building loyal customers. Aaker
and Keller (1990) also described that consumers' brand
Brand Awareness and Perceived Quality: loyalty could be encouraged by good awareness and
Zeithaml (1988) implied that perceived quality is strong image, and the greater the brand awareness is, the
one of the most critical parts of brand awareness. In greater brand loyalty and repurchase intentions are to
other words, growing awareness of a brand would consumers. Further, Peng (2006) mentioned that brand
increase the opportunity of a remarkable quality awareness has the most effects on brand loyalty.
being offered. Aaker (1991) mentioned that According to the studies by Grover and Srinivasan
consumers are more likely to value a brand if they (1992), Kavasslis et al. (2003), and Dickinger et al.
are aware of the brand's quality compared to its (2004) found that there is a positive correlation between
competitors. Therefore, awareness of the brand will brand awareness and brand loyalty. Yoo et al. (2000)
also improve the deep understanding of the brand's also found a positive impact on brand awareness on
quality to encourage customers to purchase or brand loyalty. When businesses develop new products
or services, they should promote their brand awareness
in order to receive the best outcomes (Kuang Chi et al,
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2009) because brand awareness is significantly related association and brand loyalty. Many researchers such as
to
Konecnik and Gartner (2007), Gil et al. (2007), and Buil
brand loyalty (Aaker & Keller, 1990; Wu, 2002;
Chou, 2005; Peng, 2006). et al. (2013) have researched and authorized that there
Perceived Quality and Brand Loyalty: is a positive effect of brand association on brand loyalty.
Wu (2007) mentioned that the perception of
consumers could increase or reduce brand loyalty. Perceived Value and Brand Loyalty: Customers'
Aaker (1991) identified that brand loyalty is a deep
commitment to a brand, and it will be increased when perceived value is one of the main contributors to
consumers perceive more quality of the brand.
Lavidge and Steiner (1961) further indicated that consumer brand loyalty (Lai et al., 2009). He et al.
consumers would repurchase a product or service
when they perceive higher quality because the (2012) and Li et al. (2012) found a positive association
perceived quality and brand loyalty have a strong
connection (Judith and Richard, 2002). Additionally, between perceived value and brand loyalty. It means
Chaudhuri (1999) stated perceived quality as an
essential part of brand loyalty. Customers will decide that perceived value is contributed to generating
to repurchase a brand and stay loyal to it if they gain
the brand's excellent quality or services (Yoo et al., consumer's loyalty or has a positive direct effect on
2000). Fournier (1998) also reported that there is a
positive effect of perceived quality on brand loyalty. brand loyalty (Su, 2016; Su and Chang, 2018).
Several previous studies indicated that high levels of
perceived quality and positive associations could Likewise, Atulkar (2020) showed a
improve the loyalty of a brand, and the relationship
between these two variables has been extensively positive relationship between perceived value
investigated by many researchers, such as Chaudhuri
(1999), Keller and Lehmann(2003), Pike et al. (2010) and brand loyalty. Consequently, perceived value
and Buil et al. (2013).
is the value earned by customers for their investment,
Brand Association and Brand Loyalty: Brand
associations were defined by Aaker (1991) as oftenreferred to as utilitarian value
anything linked to the memory of a brand. It can be
from a wide variety of sources and differing in their (Kesari and Atulkar, 2016). Many researchers
preferences, strength, and uniqueness (Keller,
1993). Lavidge & Steiner (1961) discovered the concluded that perceived value directly influences
relationship between brand association and brand
loyalty. Gordon et al. (1993) also endorsed the brand loyalty (Lin et al., 2006; Gronroos, 2000;
positive effect of the brand association on brand
loyalty. A study by Eggert and Ulaga, 2002; Petrick, 2002).
Chaudhuri (1999) found that a brand with a higher Brand Uniqueness and Brand Loyalty:
brand association has greater customer brand loyalty; Keller(2010) claims that customer expectations of
that means customer's brand loyalty will increase if the products are guided by their awareness and the desirfor
brand association is improved (Gladden & Funk, brand uniqueness derived from personal
2002). Additionally, Ross et al. (2006) found out that experience. The study by Shen et al. (2014) described
there is a significant relationship between the brand that, unique products' apparel satisfies the need for
uniquenessof consumers, which is explained as the
characteristic of seeking differences relative to others so
that one's self-image and social image can be
established and improved. This study found that the
higher the brand uniqueness a brand has, the more it will
increase consumer loyalty. According to Ye el al,
(2012), brand uniqueness is the uniqueness of a brand
that encourages consumers to buy the brand to increase
the number of loyal consumers to a brand. This study
found the same results as Su et al. (2018) who stated that
brand uniqueness has a positive impact on brand
loyalty.
Research Framework
The researchers applied the previous studies
and relevant theories to develop the new conceptual
framework with six variables and seven hypotheses. In
the conceptual framework, the independent variables
are brand awareness, perceived quality, brand
association, perceived value, and brand uniqueness
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towards luxury brands in Bangkok, Thailand. The (Churchill, 1999).
framework is illustrated in Figure 1. There are three In this study, the researchers used the survey
hypotheses which are designed based on the
framework and they are shown as follows: research technique and self-administered
questionnaires to gather the primary data. The paper
Figure1: The Conceptual framework describes five independent variables which are brand
Research Hypothesis awareness, brand association perceived quality,
H1o: There is no significant statistical influence of perceived value, and brand uniqueness and their
brand awareness on perceived quality. effects toward the dependent variable, brand loyalty.
H1a: There is a significant statistical influence of Thus, the researchers applied simple and multiple
brand awareness on perceived quality. regression analysis to analyze hypothesis testing.
H2o: There is no significant statistical influence of
brand awareness on brand association. Firstly, Malhotra and Birks (2006) defined
H2a: There is a significant statistical influence of the population as the group of elements that contain the
brand awareness on brand association. required information and which the research justifies
H3o: There is no significant statistical influence of the result and is conducted. In this study, the
brand awareness, brand association, perceived quality, researchers aimed to study about brand loyalty
perceived value, brand uniqueness on brand loyalty. towards the Gucci brand. Therefore, this study's target
H3a: There is a significant statistical influence of population includes both Thai male and female
brand awareness, brand association, perceived quality, customers who are existing customers and currently
perceived value, brand uniqueness on brand loyalty. using a Gucci brand product. The population of
Gucci's existing customers in Bangkok is unknown.
Methodology Malhotra (1999) suggested that the researcher can use
Research Method Used sample size based on a previous study to define the
sample size.
The primary purpose of this study is to
investigate the influence of brand awareness, Hence, the researchers applied the previous
perceived quality, brand association, perceived value, studies to reference the sample size to get a reliable
and brand uniqueness, on brand loyalty towards Gucci sample size. Buil et al. (2013) studied the impact of
customers in Bangkok, Thailand. various factors on brand equity to perceive brand
equity, using 302 respondents for the sample size.
According to Zikmund (2003), the researcher Similarly, Atulkar (2020), who studied the factors that
applied the descriptive research method to find out the influence brand trust and brand loyalty towards mall
research questions because it is used in analyzing shoppers in India and indicated 332 participants for the
which factor may or may not affect the other variables. sample size. Cooper & Schindler (2006) also defined
The descriptive method typically used to measure a that the larger sample increased the estimation
group of people's performance in different situations precision and narrowed the error range. Therefore,
based on previous studies, the researchers determined
400 respondents as the sample size of present study.
This research applied three non
probability sampling methods: (i) Judgment sampling;
the researchers collected the data from males and
females at four shopping malls in the Bangkok area
where Gucci stores are located (Icon Siam, Siam
Paragon,
Central Embassy, and the Emporium). These four
shopping malls sell a wide variety of world-class luxury
brands that might not be found in any other malls; (ii)
Quota Sampling; the researchers used to compute the
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entire sample members and separate them into Findings
subgroups. The 400 questionnaires were distributed Based on the descriptive analysis,
into four equal portions; among 400 respondents found that the majority of
(iii) Convenience Sampling, which is used for a large respondents is female, with 273 respondents (68.3%).
number of respondents to reach the willing and The participants are aged between 21 to 30 years old
convenient target to answer and complete the (46.0%), which accounts for 184 people. The highest
questionnaire. educational level is a bachelor's degree, with
204 respondents (51.0%). Most of the respondents are
The conceptual framework was supported by self-employed, with 156 people (39%). The majority
the contents of the questionnaires and was consistent of respondents have a monthly income above 50,000
with previous studies. The questionnaires included Thai baht with 149 people (37.3%).
both English and Thai. The researcher divided the
questionnaire into four parts. Part 1 consists of a Hypothesis Testing
screening question to identify participants who have According to findings of hypothesis
purchase experience with Gucci. Part 2 and Part 3 are testing, the researcher applied Simple Linear
the attitudinal rating scale. The researchers measure Regression for hypothesis 1 and hypothesis 2, and
the respondent’s attitudes with ratings ranging from 1 Multiple Linear Regression to analyze hypothesis 3. A
(strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) based on the 95% confidence level was set to determine the
five-point Likert scale. Lastly, Part 4 includes hypotheses. After analyzing, all the null hypotheses
demographic information, consisting of five items are rejected as all three have a significance level less
(gender, age, education, occupation, and income). than 0.05. The results are summarized as follows:
After collecting data, the researchers analyzed all data .
by utilizing the statistical software to generate readable
and easily interpreted information.
Data Collection
The primary data is collected from the
respondents at four large shopping malls in Bangkok,
Thailand where most of the luxury stores are located.
The target population is both Thai males and females
who are existing customers and using Gucci products.
The researchers applied a
non-probability sampling technique, which consists
of judgment sampling, quota sampling, and
convenience sampling to collect the data from a total
of 400 respondents during Sept 10 to Oct 4, 2020.
Reliability analysis
Based on the reliability pre-test, the
researchers applied 50 respondents by using
Cronbach’s Alpha. The results showed that all the
question sets of each variable are higher than 0.6. The
reliability of brand awareness, brand association,
perceived quality, perceived value, brand
uniqueness, and brand loyalty at .826, .747, .851,
.862,
.837, and .928, respectively.
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Table 1: The summary of the results from hypothesis testing
Conclusion quota, and convenience sampling techniques were
Maintaining customers' brand loyalty remains applied to collect the data from the sampling units The
a major factor under today's competitive business researchers used a descriptive and inferential analysis
environment. The researchers concentrated on brand to evaluate all hypotheses based on simple and
awareness, brand association, perceived quality, multiple linear regression analysis data. Regarding the
perceived value, and brand uniqueness towards luxury research' findings, brand awareness has a significant
products to determine the brand loyalty based on the influence on perceived quality and brand association.
data analysis. The researchers collected the data from Further, brand loyalty is significantly influenced by
400 consumers in front of the main gate of four perceived value, brand uniqueness, perceived quality,
shopping malls (Icon Siam, Siam Paragon, Central brand awareness, and brand association, respectively.
Embassy, and the Emporium) in Bangkok including
both Thai males and females, who have had an Recommendations
experience in purchasing luxury products by using five According to the data analysis of this
point Likert scale survey questionnaires. The non- research, the result can help marketers better
probability sampling methods including judgment, understand Thailand's luxury goods market
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and the Thai consumer's purchasing behavior. The customers’ brand loyalty towards the Gucci
outcomes from three hypotheses illustrate the brand in Bangkok, Thailand. The researchers
important factors that influence the brand loyalty would like to suggest additional aspects for
of Thai customers to luxury brands. As to the further research.
research findings, the answers from the
questionnaires of this research paper and based on Firstly, to practice this research
the researchers’ investigation, the researchers has framework, further studies can be comprehensive
made suggestions as follows: to apply in other provinces of Thailand, and it can
also be conducted for other luxury brands. Also,
Based on Hypothesis 1, the beta value of further studies can modify this research to
brand awareness is .839 and significantly affects measure customers' behavior between different
perceived quality. Therefore, luxury retailers in countries or different generations.
Thailand should focus on the customers'
perception and improve the product's quality for Secondly, the researchers selected five
creating a positive attitude for the brand. independent variables in this study; brand
Furthermore, the 2nd hypothesis has shown that awareness, perceived quality, brand association,
brand awareness also significantly impacts the perceived value, and brand uniqueness to
brand associations with a beta value of .819. Thus, evaluate consumers' brand loyalty. For further
luxury marketers should build more brand studies, they can consider other variables that
awareness by educating the brand's history and the may affect brand loyalty, such as customer
importance of the brand so that customers can satisfaction or a variable that can be studied
quickly recall and recognize the brand's consumer behavior by extending the present
outstanding characteristics. The study also found study.
that if consumers can identify a brand name when
they want to buy a luxury product, it means that the Furthermore, this research focused on
luxury brand holds greater brand awareness. one specific brand of the luxury goods market
due to limitations. Other researchers could
According to the result of Hypothesis 3, the measure other brands, products, or services in
finding showed that luxury goods manufacturers other countries which helps to get more
should pay much attention to the impact of information and the luxury industry's latest
perceived value, perceived quality, and brand situation.
uniqueness on brand loyalty in order to encourage
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Factors Affecting the Purchasing Decision Facial Skincare Products of
Working Women in Bangkok Metropolis during
Economic Recession Period
Pusanisa Boonmangmee1, Preecha Methavasaraphak2
Abstract
The facial skincare products were in group of convenience goods that customers would buy from their
wanted not needed so can said that facial skincare products were unnecessary for life. However, the
competition in the skincare business was very high. Consumer had a lot of choices to select. This
research aimed to study about factors related and affecting purchasing decision facial skincare products
of working women in Bangkok Metropolis during Economic Recession Period. The quantitative
questionnaires were conducted and also distributed 400 sets of questionnaires to working women who
worked or lived in Bangkok, Thailand which were ever bought facial skincare product within 10 months
ago. A statistical program was used to analyze the data there is three analyses which are descriptive
analysis (frequency, mean and standard deviation), correlation analysis and multiple regression
analysis.
Six factors related and affected on purchasing decision consist of product quality, convenience
place, promotion, brand, self-image and social norms. After analysis by descriptive analysis and
multiple linear regression the result shown only two factors related and affect purchasing decision facial
skincare products of working women that were product quality and brand. The result can be explained
that 36.9% (R2=.369) of the variation affect in purchasing decision facial skincare products of working
women. Others factors consist of convenience place, promotion, self-image and social norms did not
had statistical significantly on purchasing decision of working women in Bangkok. The economic
recession effect from the COVID-19 made the customers were reduced in total income that affected to
spent money less than last pass because of reducing in purchasing power. They had more awareness
and more concern about products value benefit compare in own opinion. The researcher suggestion in
order to improve businesses strategy to maintain or increase the business revenue that the companies
should improve all of sub factor in product quality in good raw material, good result, non-hypoallergenic
test and good texture together with brand on three sub factors in brand experience, brand preference
and brand image.
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Keywords: facial skincare, product quality, convenience place, promotion, brand, self-image,
social norms, purchasing decision.
Introduction comparison prices. Customers will choose the best
option in their mind with their information search.
In beginning of year 2020, the Covic-19 Many data source show the same idea recover period
pandemic occurs in Thailand the first case shown on take time for five years in Thailand and global.
January. The government have to lock down country
and control by announcing work from home policy From UKEssays published on November
that effect to economic and all overview business in (2018), shown that the beauty industry had a large
Thailand until today the GDP decrease(minus) number of companies exist and competing within
continuous for two quarters so Thailand economic the same market size. As the entry barrier are not too
access to economic recession period. During a high, many companies can easily penetrate into the
recession, the economy struggles, people lose work, market. unfortunately, companies without proper
companies make fewer sales and the country’s overall resource management will long stay in that market
economic output declines (D. Rodeck, 2020). So, that for long. However, the customers had a lot of
takes a long time to recovery and sustained choices in their decision. They will have own
economic expansion again. The firms have to adjust standard identity and strength point in mind. If firms
themselves to survival in this recession period from do not develop themselves to respond customer
pandemic effect. satisfaction, they may not sustain in business. The
customer satisfaction created their purchase decision
The facial skincare products are in group of to all type of products.
convenience goods and customers will buy from
their want not need of the products so can say that This research studies about the factors
facial skincare products are unnecessary for life. The effecting purchase decision of facial skincare
firms should think about how to do in the right products in working women that live or work in
marketing activity meet customer expectation and Bangkok area during economic recession period
purchase them to be the part of their life. From the year 2020 and guidance the firm how to survival in
market research.com on May, 2020 of facial care in this crisis.
Thailand by Mintel market sizes based on sales
value through all retail channels including direct to Research Objectives
consumer. The report shows that Market size for
Facial Care in Thailand is given in THB with a 1. To study factors related with the
minimum of five years' historical data. Indeed, purchasing decision facial skincare
demand is higher online and e-commerce with better products of working women in Bangkok
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Metropolis during Economic Recession Decision making process is relate to
Period customer recognize by information comparing and
2. To study factors affecting purchasing finally they will choose the best in mind in the stage
decision facial skincare products of of buyer. Customer will buy the selected brand and
working women in Bangkok Metropolis evaluate by experience of usage, if it meets their
during Economic Recession Period expectation they will keep in mind and repurchase in
the same brand in future. The model of consumer
Scope of Research behavior from figure 1, show the external
stimulating factors are marketing mix(4Ps) and
In this research, the target respondents are others (such as economic, Technological, Political
working women who use facial skincare products and Cultural). So, they transform in the black box of
and work or live in Bangkok of Thailand. The byer’s mind influencing by psychologic factor of
questionnaire will be distributed through online by customers behavior, they will evaluate the
google form. The research question is ‘What are the influencing factors and take decision in step of
factors effecting purchase decision of woman on decision-making process from self-solution. Finally,
facial skincare products focus in working women they will take response to purchase or not from
who live or work in Bangkok area. Product, Brand, Dealer Choice, Purchase timing,
Purchase amount and method of payment.
Literature Review
Purchase Decision
Figure 1- Simple model of Consumer behavior or SR Theory (source: P. Paiboonthavornying, 2015)
Psychological factor is the internal motivate, learning, lifestyle and perception.
influencing factors in purchasing behavior include However, psychological factor is a self-concept and
motivation, personality, value, attitude, memory, belief. The facial skincare’s not need products so the
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Maslow’s Hierachy theory is concerned of Place (W. Riaz, 2011). Marketing mix is the
motivation of consumer’s need which strongly combination of different marketing decision
influences to the purchasing behavior (Solomon, variables being used by the firm to market its goods
Bamossy and Askegaard, 1999). and services. (M. Singh, 2012). Hence, the
Marketing Mix must be developed, focus and
Buyer black box of the consumer is the specific of each business in accordance with
reason to be found influencing factors of consumer providing the better satisfaction to customers
buying behavior and characteristics. The buyer experience. The 4 Ps are used to identify some key
black box is the concept in consumer’s head that factors for company business that what consumers
stimulate from the environment. Then go through want from them, how their product meets or fails to
the buyer black box, where a decision performed. customer needs, how their product is perceived in
The black box consists of the reaction on the world, how they stand out from the competitors
stimuli/environment and factors influencing buying and interact with their customers (A. Twin, 2020).
behavior based on buyer’s characteristics as well as
decision process. The buyer’s decision process is the 1.1.3 Self- image
outcome of the thinking that the buyer’s responses.
Also, the purchasing behavior is an outcome of A self-image is an internalized mental
decision. What, where, when, why that the consumer picture or ideas you have of yourself. It refers to how
buyer in which quantities? Thus, the black box is the you think and feel about yourself based on your
central element of the consumer buying behavior appearance, performance, and relationships.
that have the relationship towards in brands and That consistently impact your outlook on life as well
companies of a result of buyer thinking. Consumer as your level of happiness and fulfillment (A.
buying behavior affected by cultural, social, Sicinski, 2020). Self-image is related to self-concept
personal and psychological characteristics. The but scope is less broad. Self-concept evaluates on
marketers can’t change or control these factors but how to sees, values, thinks and feels about
they must be aware in order to design attractive themselves (E. Ackerman, 2020). Carl Rogers
offerings from the overview point of the factors. posited the self-image that was a component of self-
concept, along with self-esteem(self-worth) and
2.1.2 Marketing Mix (4 Ps) one’s “ideal self” (McLeod, 2008). The relationship
between how you see yourself (self-image) and what
Marketing Mix refers to set of controllable would you like to be (ideal-self) there are affected
marketing tools that a company uses to create a how much people value on themselves. Each of ideal
desired response in the targeted market that helps self is not only with the actually happens in the life
company to satisfy customers by the product. The and experiences of each people but also include a
set of these tools is generally referred to as 4P’s of difference between a person’s ideal self and actual
Marketing, being Product, Price, Promotion and experience that called incongruence.
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Figure 2 - Ideal Self (source: S. McLeod, 2008)
Carl Rogers Self Theory were the most environment and interpersonal influences in more
important contribution of Rogers to personality effective focus on the individual behavior changing.
science combine with self-theory and his main The role plays in individual behavior by decision
professional focus of psychotherapy process that making there was primary focus of Social Norms
used to understand the reason of changing in Theory.
personality could come from about. The Rogers and
Maslow theory addressed of human behavior. They 2.1.5 Brand Equity
had an optimistic point of view on human behavior
and the capacity of individuals thinking intention Keller's Brand Equity Model or the
and sound, to control their urged, and Customer-Based Brand Equity (CBBE) Model.
accomplishment their maximum capacity. The Kevin Lane Keller, developed the model and
individual humanistic perspective charged in their published it in his widely used textbook, "Strategic
lives and activities which gave the opportunity and Brand Management." The concept of brand equity
change in behavior. The Rogers theory would model was in order to build a strong brand that how
understand people in their humanistic behavior (N. did customers think and feel about the products. So,
Ismail& M. Turkey, 2015). build the right good experiences type around the
brands in a good specific, positive attitude, feeling,
2.1.4 Social Norm belief, opinion and perceptions of brands. A strong
brand equity would not only make the customers buy
A social norm is the accepted behavior that more but they also recommend to others. They could
an individual is expected to conform to in a be brand loyalty and not easy to change them to
particular group, community, or culture (L. Roundy, competitors. They would able to pay as much as they
2020). This theory use people understanding the
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still wanted that products. From the figure below The four had six building blocks help to develop a
there are four steps to build strong brand equity. brand there were six building blocks consisted of the
salience, performance, imagery, judgments, feelings
The key points of Brand Equity model used and resonance (source: The mind tools content team,
to create brand successful were brand identity, brand 2020).
meaning, brand response and brand relationship.
Figure 3 – Keller's Brand Equity Model (source: The mind tools content team, 2020)
Research Framework norm. The dependent variable of this
research is purchasing decision Facial Skincare
The conceptual framework gathering of Products of working women in Bangkok Metropolis
relevant from the previous study on purchasing during Economic Recession Period.
decision that have six similar independent variables
which are product quality, convenience place,
promotion, brand, self-image and social
Convenience Product
Place Quality are
H
Promotion H H Purchasin
Brand H H g
Decision
H6
Self-Image Social-Norm
Figure 4 - The Research Conceptual Framework
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Research Hypothesis purchasing decision consist of product quality,
convention place, promotion, brand, self-Image and
There were six hypotheses that were formulated social norm. Then, the researcher applied for
based on the conceptual framework as the following: collecting primary data from the questionnaire in
google form.
H1a: Product quality affects purchasing decision
facial skincare products of working women in This quantitative research applied for
Bangkok Metropolis during Economic Recession collecting primary data, before go on till complete
Period. 400 respondents, the study would test the reliability
of each variable in the research at N=30 respondents
H2a: Convenience Place affects purchasing conducted by using Cronbach’s’ Alpha in SPSS.
decision facial skincare products of working women Second, descriptive analysis was used to analyze and
in Bangkok Metropolis during Economic Recession explain the demographic data of the respondents
Period. such as background and economic effect. Third, the
relationship between six independent variables and
H3a: Promotion affects purchasing decision dependent variable were examined by correlation
facial skincare products of working women in analysis and multiple linear regression to determine
Bangkok Metropolis during Economic Recession causal relationship. The regression was the
Period. statistical influence program that evaluate influence
of independent variables on dependent variable.
H4a: Brand affects purchasing decision facial This current research used secondary data as a
skincare products of working women in Bangkok source for supporting relationship between variables
Metropolis during Economic Recession Period. as discussed in literature review.
H5a: Self-Image affect purchasing decision The survey questions were created by the
facial skincare products of working women in researcher applied from the factors’ definition in
Bangkok Metropolis during Economic Recession each variables concept so select some dimension of
Period. the question to represent of the main variables and
used Google form to distribute
H6a: Social Norm affects purchasing decision
facial skincare products of working women in The Results of Reliability
Bangkok Metropolis during Economic Recession
Period.
Research Methodology Pretesting Questionnaire
The literature review and conceptual In this part, the reliability test was
frameworks investigated that there were six examined the questionnaire to detect and identify the
independent factors related and affected in mistakes or error in each question. Pretest analysis
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evaluated in small scale about 30 respondents before Convenience 0.776 Acceptable
distribution to next 370 respondents in large Place
populations. The researcher gathered data to test 0.778 Acceptable
reliability of the question in each variable in Promotion 0.799 Acceptable
respondents who had the same characteristic.
Brand
Gliem and Gliem (2003) said that the Self-Image 0.831 good
Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient normally Social Norm 0.791 Acceptable
ranges between 0 and 1. However, there is actually
no lower limit to the coefficient. George and Mallery From table 1, shown the result indicated
(2003) provide the following rules of thumb: “> 0.9 reliability analysis value which tested by Cronbach’s
– Excellent, > 0.8 – Good, > 0.7 – Acceptable, > 0.6 alpha. All variables questions were acceptable value
– Questionable, > 0.5 – Poor, and < 0.5 – results from the alpha value was above 0.7. Thus, the
Unacceptable” overview of the questionnaire was cleared and
understandable for respondents. Also, respondent
To test run Cronbach’s Alpha reliability of have willingness to cooperate the questionnaire in
each variable at the first 30 data were collected for this research. This reliable test applied to use before
conducting pre-testing, identifying the errors, and collecting more 370 respondents to complete data.
evaluating the internal consistency of the
questionnaire. If Cronbach’s Alpha more than or Results of the Study
equal 0.7, which makes it acceptable in the variables
relationship, in this study result would this range of From 400 valid respondents the researchers
Cronbach’s Alpha to cut point if lower than 0.7 collected data and summarized all demographics
would cut of some question to get overall in related factors about age, education, monthly income,
in better value of each variable. financial effect and result from crisis to spent money
on buying facial skincare less or not. A result shown
Table 1- Pre-test result by Reliability Test all of respondents (100%) were working women
(Cronbach’s Alpha) N=30 who live or work in Bangkok and they were ever
purchased facial skincare products by themselves
Variables Cronbach's Reliability within 10 months ago before they did the survey.
Alpha The highest 228 respondents (57%) were age 22-39
Purchasing years, 138 respondents (34.5%) were age between
Decision 0.713 Acceptable 40-54 years, 23 respondents (5.8%) were age less
than 22 years and 11 respondents (2.8%) who above
Product 0.790 Acceptable 54 years which were the lowest respondents. For the
Quality highest education shown 224 respondents (56%)
were graduated bachelor degree, 110 respondents
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(27.5%) were graduated master degree, 59 (27%) and the lowest was social norm which got
respondents (14.8%) were graduated less than only 36 frequency from 400 respondents (9%)
bachelor degree and 7 respondents (1.8%) were respectively.
graduated doctoral degree. In term of monthly
income shown 116 respondents (29%) who have The five of independent variables and
monthly income more than 55,000 Baht, follow by dependent variable shown the result interpreted with
less than 25,001 with 110 respondents (27.5%), the high consist of product quality, purchasing decision
third were 108 respondents (27%) who have total (DV), convenience place, brand and self-image at
monthly income between 25,001 - 40,000 Baht and mean score 4.43, 4.35, 4.20, 4.00, 3.94 respectively.
the lowest were 66 respondents (16.5%) who have Two of independent variables shown the result
total monthly income between 40,001 - 55,000 Baht. interpreted with neutral consist of promotion and
social norm at mean score 3.36, 3.35 respectively.
In term of economic recession effect shown The standard deviation of dependent variable was at
214 respondents (53.5%) were reduced in total 0.69 and others independent variables consist of
income, follow by 138 respondents (34.5%) were self-image, social norm, promotion, convenience
reduced in total income, 35 respondents (8.8%) place, brand and product quality were at the value
could not find a good new job, 21 respondents 1.01, 0.95, 0.89, 0.84, 0.70, 0.65 respectively.
(5.3%) got the effect from company laid off and 7
respondents (1.8%) were got positive to increase in Correlation Analysis
total income by respectively. The economic
recession affected on spending money to buy facial The results had shown the value which
skincare products shown that they were purchased indicated that product quality and brand were in
facial skincare product in this year 2020 less than the level of positive moderate relationship with
last year from 278 respondents (68%) and 128 purchasing decision facial skincare products.
respondents (32%) still purchased the same as pass. Follow by convenience place and self-image
were in the level of positive weak moderate
The questionnaire also asked questions relationship with purchasing decision and the
about the reasons that make working women on last one was promotion in the level of positive
purchasing facial skincare products. As a result, the very weak moderate relationship with
most important reason was product quality at 84.8% purchasing decision facial skincare products of
(339 frequency from 400 respondents), follow by working women in Bangkok Metropolis during
brand at 49.3% (197 frequency from 400 Economic Recession Period. However, social
respondents), promotion at 48.3% (193frequency norm was in the level of positive very weak
from 400 respondents), convenience place got 118 moderate relationship but it was not significant
frequency from 400 respondents (29.5%), self- so that mean no correlate relationship to
image got 108 frequency from 400 respondents purchase decision.
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Table 3- Model Summary from Multiple Regression Analysis
Std. Error Change Statistics Sig. F
R Adjusted R of the R Square F
Model R Square Square Estimate Change Change df1 df2 Change
1 .614a .377 .367 .54653 .377 39.552 6 393 .000
a. Predictors: (Constant), Social Norm, Product Quality, Convenience Place, Promotion, Self-Image, Brand
Table 2 - Correlation Relationship between Independent variables and Dependent variables
Product Quality Significant Value at the Level of Correlation Strength of Correlation
0.01 level (two-tailed)
0.595** Moderate
0.000 0.277** Weak relationship
0.150** Very weak relationship
Convenience Place 0.000 0.438** Moderate
0.279** Weak relationship
Promotion 0.000 0.091 Very weak relationship
Brand 0.000
Self-Image 0.000
Social Norm 0.070
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Adjusted R square (table 3) value is 0. 367 brand, self-image and social norm. However, there
which can explain that 36.7% of the variation affect are another 63.3% of the variation affect in
in purchasing decision facial skincare products of purchasing decision facial skincare products of
working women in Bangkok Metropolis during working women in Bangkok Metropolis during
economic recession period can be explained by the economic recession period can be explained by
six independent variables in this research which are others independent variables.
product quality, convenience place, promotion,
Significant Value & Beta Coefficient Analysis There have statistical significantly influences
affected on purchasing decision facial skincare
Below the table 4, the significant value or products of working women in Bangkok Metropolis
commonly known as “p-value” to examine whether during economic recession period. However, the
there are statistically significant on purchasing significant value of convenience place, promotion
decision or not. The significant value of product and self-image are more than 0.05. There have no
quality, brand and social norm are less than 0.05.
499
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Proceeding AU ICESDE 2020
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Proceeding AU ICESDE 2020
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