Revised Subharmbha social 7 2077 for CTP final

Lesson Political Condition of
Medieval Nepal
2

Political Division
Various dynasties such as the Mallas, the Khas, the Shahs and the Sens
etc ruled over Nepal during the medieval period. There were three separate
kingdoms only in the Kathmandu Valley. Although there was only one political
entity in the beginning in the Kathmandu Valley, it got divided into three
states: Kantipur, Patan and Bhadgaon after Yaksha Malla. These kingdoms
also known as the ‘Nepal Mandal’ were ruled by the Mallas.
Similarly, the western Nepal was also
divided into several small kingdoms.
The Karnali region was divided into 22
small kingdoms such as Achham, Jumla,
Jajarkot, Rukum, Salyan, Dailekh, Surkhet
etc. They used to be commonly known as
Baise Rajyas. Baise Rajyas were ruled by
the Challa and the Malla Thakuri and Shah
kings.
The Gandaki region was also divided into
24 small kingdoms like Gorkha, Kaski,
Lamjung, Palpa, Parvat, Tanahun, Rising etc. These states were popularly
known as Chaubise Rajyas. They were ruled by different clans and dynasties
like Shahs, Thakuri Mallas, Khadkas etc. There were three Sen states like
Makawanpur, Chaudandi and Bijaypur in the eastern terai. There were
Limbuwan and Khambuwan to the north of these Sen kingdoms. Medieval
Nepal was fragmented into so many small states that many of them were as
big as only a present day district.

System of Government
All the states were ruled by kings. There was feudalism. Most of the kings
were feudal heads. The kings used to rule their kingdoms at their wills.
Whatever a king said used to be the law.
The early Malla monarchy was based on the divine right theory of kingship.
Kings were the supreme persons. It was hereditary in nature. Generally the
eldest son used to succeed his father. With the exception of a few kings,
the Malla kings ruled as per their whims. Though the Malla kings came

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from the same clan, there was no unity among them. There was hatred,
jealousy and discord among them. However, some kings like Jayasthiti Malla,
Mahendra Malla, Pratap Malla, Bhupatindra Malla, Siddhi Narasinha Malla,
Yaksha Malla largely contributed in the development of their kingdoms. They
contributed in the field of art, architecture, culture and literature and raised
the name and fame of Nepal Mandal.

Internal and External Conflicts
When the king was a minor or inefficient, the ministers and nobles took
the power into their hands. This led to struggle for power between the king
and the nobles, and sometimes between a father and his son. The kings
considered the kingdoms as their private property and ruled at their will.
There was conspiracy, mistrust, instability and internal power conflict in
many of the states. The heirs of the kings fought for the throne and the
kingdoms (Challas and Mallas) got fragmented. That was what happened
in the Kathmandu Valley (Mallas), Palpa (Sens), and Khas kingdoms. The
states were hostile to each other. Even the kings of the same clan had no
co-operation and mutual understanding. One would try to rise at the cost
of others. For example; Gorkha was against Lamjung, Doti against Achham
and Jumla against Bajhang and so on. In this way, we see that the political
situation of the medieval Nepal was full of turmoil, uncertainties, suspicious
and internal fighting. Eventually, as the saying goes, “Divided we fall’, they
fell into the hand of Gorkha King Prithivi Narayan Shah.

Administrative System
A kingdom was divided into several administrative units called Bishayas,
which were administered by Samantas. Similarly, a town was divided into
toles and Pradhans were appointed to administer them. There were Dwares
to look after the smaller settlements. A king’s wish used to be the law. The
King himself used to be the commander of the army. The King himself used
to lead military in the battle.

Points to Remember:

F Various dynasties like Mallas, Khas, Shahs and Sens etc ruled over Nepal
during the medieval period.

F There were 3 kingdoms in Nepal Mandal, 24 in Gandaki and 22 kingdoms in
karnali region.

F There was mistrust, conspiracies, jealousy and power struggle among the
states and within a state.

F All the states were ruled by kings.
F Kings used to consider the kingdoms as their private property and rule at their

will.

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Key Terms and Words:

• Discord: disharmony
• Feudalism: bondage, captivity
• Hatred : severe dislike
• Heirs : person who inherits possession
• Hereditary: genetic, inborn, family
• Nobles: members of important family
• Turmoil : chaos, confusion
• Whims : sudden idea, passing thought

Evaluation Activities

Very short answer questions:

1. Into how many kingdoms was the Nepal Mandal or Nepal Valley
divided?

2. Into how many kingdoms was the Gandaki region divided?
3. Into how many kingdoms was the Karnali region divided?
4. What were the Baise and Chaubise Rajyas?
5. Who established the Sen kingdom?
6. What were the dynasties to rule over Nepal during the medieval

period?
7. What is 'Bishayas'?
8. What were the causes of fragmentation of states?

Short answer questions:

1. What would have had happened if Nepal had not been unified by
Prithivi Narayan Shah?

2. What was the political situation of the Nepal valley during the Mallas
rule?

3. Write the political situation of the medieval Nepal in brief.
4. Describe the administrative system prevalent in the Kathmandu

Valley during Malla period?

Community Based Work:

Compare the political situation of medieval Nepal with present day
political situation of Nepal.

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Lesson Social and Cultural
Condition of Medieval
3
Nepal

Introduction:
Medieval period lasted from 880 to 1769
AD in the history of Nepal. Mallas ruled
during this period. The social and cultural
condition of Nepal during this period is
briefly discussed in this lesson.

Family

There used to be joint family system. People
of three or four generations used to live
together. The society was patriarchal. The
senior male member used to be the head of Malla Dynasty

the family, and sons used to inherit paternal property. Women were considered
inferior to men, and they didn’t have any role in the administration. Mostly
women were confined to household works.

Different family names originated during this period on the basis of their
professions. For example: Bhandari (store keeper), Baidhya (medicine
practitioner), Shrestha (courtiers) etc.

Society
Medieval society was based on religion and traditional customs. The society
was divided into caste system according to Hindu concept. There were
mainly 4 castes (varnas) and 36 sub-castes (jats) based on the occupations
of the people. The four castes were the Bahuns, Chhetries, Baishyas and
Sudras. Each main caste was further divided into sub-castes. For example:
the Newars were divided into the Acharyas, the Vaidhyas, the Shresthas and
Daibagyas.

In those days, the Kathmandu Valley was mainly inhabited by the Aryans
and the Mongols. Aryans practiced mainly Hindusim whereas Mongols were
either Buddhists or nature worshipers. Different stock of people had their
won cultures, traditions and customs.

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Division of society into caste system fragmented the society. Untouchability
was rooted deeply. It caused discrimination between the high caste and low
caste in the society. The high caste people exploited the low caste people.
People of lower castes were prohibited to wear attractive clothes and
expensive ornaments. They needed to show proper respect to the people of
higher castes.

Evil Practices
The society was illiterate, orthodox and traditional. Many evil customs and
practices surfaced during this period. Child marriages, polygamy, sati,
untouchability, slavery etc widely existed. Slaves were treated inhumanely.
They were bought and sold as commodities. Superstition prevailed in every
society. There was purda system in which women had to cover their face with
some clothes.

Marriage
Women were considered inferior to men. Inter caste marriage was not so
common. Children born from a woman lower to her husband caste used to
fall from their caste to lower caste. Widow marriage and remarriage were
accepted. There was a typical system of marriage called Dolaji. In this system,
the bridegroom had to go to the bride’s parental home for solemnizing
marriage, and he had to take the bride’s family name.

Religion

Hinduism and Buddhism were the two
main religions practiced in this period.
People were very much religious
minded. There was religious tolerance
between these two religions. Although
the Malla kings were Hindus, they
respected Buddhism as well. They built
many temples, monasteries, stupas Hanuman Dhoka

and bihars. Nyatpol temple, Hanuman
Dhoka, Mahabouddha, Krishna temple etc were built in this period. Islam
was introduced in the last decade of the fifteenth century and Christianity in
the third decade of the seventeenth century.

Culture and Festivals
The Medieval Nepal was rich in culture and festivals. People of different
castes and tribes observed their own cultures and festivals. Both the kings
and the subjects alike observed various festivals with great pleasure and

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devotion. Various festivals and jatras like Lakhe Naach, Mahakali Naach,
Indra Jatra, Bhoto Jatra, Bisket Jatra, Machhendranath Jatra etc were
popular. People believed in ghosts, spirits, demons, witches, life after death,
reincarnation and supernatural forces.

Language and Literature
Formal education like today was not common. Interested people used to
receive education from learned persons informally. The Malla kings had keen
interest in language and literature. They used to encourage their people to
be educated. Learned people were very much respected. King Pratap Malla
himself was a learned person. He was a famous poet of his time, so used
the title ‘Kavindra’.
Education at that time was based on religious and ethical grounds. Sanskrit,
Newari and Maithali were the main languages. Some local dialects were
also in use.

Art and Architecture

Nepali art, sculpture and
architecture reached its
height during this period. The
Malla Kings were very fond
of art and architecture. They
built and renovated many
temples, monasteries and
stupas. Many magnificent
palaces were built. Most of
the temples were built in
pagoda and shikhar styles. Buddhanath Stupa

Locally available materials
were used. Stone, wood, metal etc were widely used to build different things.
Palaces, temples, stupas, patis, pauwas, taps, chautaras, dabalis etc were
built in most attractive and artistic styles. All of the durbar squares in the
Kathmandu Valley were in fact built during this period.

The artistic designs on doors, windows, posts and pillars of the temples
and houses built in those days speak of the high skill of the Nepalese
artists. Artists in those days were found to be very skilled in metal and stone
works as well. The golden doors of Taleju temple and Bhaktapur Durbar are

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beautiful examples of metal works. The metal statues of kings and queens
set up at different places are other such examples. Saraswati of Hadi Gaon,
Bhagawati of Palanchowk, Bhairab of Bhaktapur Durbar, Dachhinkali of
Farping etc are some of the finest art works.

The coins of the Malla period were also designed artistically. The art of
painting was also well developed. There was a practice of drawing pictures
of gods and goddesses on the walls of
temples and houses. Such paintings
could be seen even today.

The fame of Nepalese art and
architecture reached far and wide.
That’s why Mongol King Kublai Khan
invited Nepalese artists to his court to Coins of Malla Period

build monasteries and buildings. One
of the great Nepalese artists, Araniko, led a team of 89 artists to Tibet and
China. They constructed a number of pagoda style buildings there. Thus
the Nepalese art and architectures influenced the art and culture of other
countries in the world as well.

It is a matter of great satisfaction for all of us that some of the medieval
period arts and culture are still protected. They are our identity and glory.
Every effort should be made to preserve and promote them.

Points to Remember:

F Medieval society was based on religion and traditional customs.
F Medieval society had joint family and patriarchal system.
F People were very much religious minded and tolerant.
F Various festivals, jatras, dances and music were in practice in those

days.
F Almost all the Durbar squares and old temples, stupas and monasteries

were built during the Medieval period.
F The Medieval art and culture are depicted by many malla period

structures existing to-day.
F It is our duty to protect, preserve and promote them.

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Key Terms and Words:

• Architecture : design of building
• Concept : idea, approach
• Court : yard, square
• Ethical: moral, righteous
• Orthodox : traditional, customary
• Inherit: acquire, take over
• Patriarchal: parental
• Prevail: dominate, control

Evaluation Activities

Very short answer questions:
1. What type of family system was there in the Medieval Nepal?
2. What is Dolaji system?
3. What was King Pratap Malla’s literary name?
4. Why is Kathmandu known as the city of temples?
5. Name some of the temples built in Medieval period.
6. List out the evil practices of Medieval Nepal.
7. List out the art works of Medieval Nepal

Short answer questions:
1. Art and architecture reflect the contemporary life-style. Justify this
statement with examples.
2. Describe the social life in Nepal during the Medieval period.
3. Write about the art and architecture of the Medieval Nepal.
4. How should we protect our art and culture? Suggest.

Community Based Work:
There may be some art and architecture of Medieval Nepal in or nearby
your locality. Visit and learn about them , and write a report on them.

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Lesson The Hwang-Ho Valley
Civilization
4

Introduction: Human Civilization
Civilization is the opposite of barbarism and chaos. Civilization is an
advanced stage of human society, in which a high level of culture, science,
industry, and government has been reached. Civilization covers a wide
range of human achievement — from the ancient Egyptians, to Mayan and
Chinese civilizations, Western civilization, and everything in between. You
can use the word more generally when you're lost in the woods, you’ll be
looking for signs of civilization: lights in the distance and smoke rising from
chimneys. Civilization comes from Latin civis, "citizen." If you've got citizens,
then you've got government and you're moving right along on the path of
human advancement.

Impact of Geography

The Huang Ho (yellow) river, which originates in the Bayan Har Mountains
in the west, stretches across east China for more than 2,900 miles. It, the
second longest river in China, carries
its rich yellow silt all the way from
Mongolia to the Pacific Ocean. Its
total basin area is about 7,52,000 sq
miles. Also there is Chang Jiang River
or Yangtze River, which is even longer,
stretching about 3,400 miles, runs
across central China. The two major
rivers both merge together to create
Hwang-Ho River (Yellow river)

a great food-producing area. Although
China has two major rivers running through it only 10% of its land is fertile
and has rich enough soil to grow crops unlike 19% in the United States.

The Hwang-Ho River is also known as Yellow River as its water looks yellow.
Due to excessive rain around its upper course, it often flooded causing a
lot of damages. It keeps changing its course destroying settlements after
settlements. So this river is also known as the ‘Sorrow of China’ and the
‘Wandering River’.

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In spite of this, the Hwang-Ho River has great significance in the Chinese
civilization. Seeing the potentiality of farming, the ancient Chinese people
settled and developed a great civilization in and around this river basin.
Lanzhou, Yinchuan, Wuhai, Baotou, Luoyang, Zhengzhou, Jinan etc are some
of the major cities to-day situated on the bank of this river. Without this river,
much of China would turn into a mere desert.

Beginning of Hwang-Ho Valley Civilization
The Hwang Ho civilization, one of the
important civilizations of the world, began
about 4000 years ago. It was the beginning
of the many Chinese Empires. Many of the
ethnic groups and cultures began in this
era in China. This history, in which a vast
area populated by diverse ethnic groups
became, over time, a more or less single
culture, began in the Yellow River Valley.

It started in the valley of the Hwang Ho Qin Shi Huangdi
or Yellow River in North China. In this
civilization, people were wandering hunters
and fishermen, later they learnt to farm, and settled in villages. Gradually,
they developed cities, governments, religions and system of writing. They
coined money and invented a calendar.

The early Chinese kept cattle, horses and sheep. They learnt to make pottery
from clay and jewelry from metals and shells. They played music on whistles,
and make silk from silkworms. Those who settled in the Hwang Ho valley
joined to form kingdoms, other settled in the valley of Yangtze valley.

Different Kingdoms and Dynasties
There was monarchial system. The first dynasty to begin the civilization
was the Shang. The people used to select King. Usually, they used to select
the most powerful one so that he could protect them. But, gradually this
tradition disappeared as the king started to appoint his own son or relative
to succeed him. Hence, monarchy became hereditary. The king used to be
regarded as superior. Below the king, there were nobles to help the king
in state affairs. Businessmen and farmers were in the third hierarchy. War
prisoners, who were in fact defeated people, were made slaves.

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Different dynasties such as Shang, Chous, Chin, Han, Sui, Ming etc ruled
over different periods of time. For about 1500 years, China was divided into
a number of kingdoms. The following were the most significant dynasties in
this civilization:

Qin Kingdom
The word China comes from Qin. By 221 BC the king of Qin conquered all
other kingdoms and then took the title of Qin Shi Huangdi, means “the first
emperor”. China remained an empire for the next 2000 years.

The Qin Shi Huangdi was remembered not only as a ruler who united China,
but as the builder of the Great wall. The Great Wall of China was built
originally to protect the northern borders of the Chinese Empire. It was built
in the 5th BC, and has been rebuilt and maintained from then through the
16th century. It is one of the most famous walls built by the first Emperor of
China, Qin Shi Huangdi. The construction had been continued during the
Ming Dynasty. This Great Wall, a world heritage site, stretches from east to
west, and is 8.5 m high, 5.7 m broad and 8,851.8 km (5,500.3 mi) long. It is
the only human-made structure that could be seen from the moon.

Tang Dynasty
China was ruled by Tang Dynasty from 618 AD to 906 AD. China was perhaps
the most civilized nation in the world – it was called the Golden Age of China.
The Tang capital had many luxurious palaces. The streets of the city were
crowded with many foreigners, such as Arabs, Persians (Iranians), Central
Asians, Syrians, Koreans, Vietnamese and Japanese. Tang Dynasty’s rule
was then the most shining period in China's history, the most powerful and
prosperous country in the world. Particularly, in this glorious period, the
economy, politics, culture and military strength reached an unparalleled and
advanced level. They had started making metal tools. They already knew
how to read and write.

During Tang periods, China had more than 20,000 poets, and several famous
mathematicians and scientists. For example: the Chinese mathematicians
had calculated the length of the year as 364.2444days. They had developed
a method of printing from wood-blocks. One of the oldest printed books in
the world comes from Tang China – Diamond Sutra.

The Chinese also had invented gun-powder. Iron Metallurgy was used for
farming tools, utensils and weapons. Soldiers used to wear armours, and

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use chariots and horses in the battle. Their weapons were spears, daggers,
axes, bows and arrows.

The Three Wise Sage Kings
The following kings are regarded as the wise sage kings:
King Yao: a virtuous ruler bringing harmony to society
King Shun: regulating the four seasons, weights, measures, and units of
time
King Yu: rescued China from raging floods of the Yellow River
Social Structure
The kingdom was divided into different territories that were ruled by
aristocratic warlords (military leaders). Although they were leaders of their
land, the King had the power to add and remove them. The Chinese believed
in supernatural forces so that they could talk to the Gods and receive help
when needed.
Gender Roles: Family used to be very important in the Chinese culture. The
authority of the family belonged to the father. The father always arranged the
marriages for his daughters, controlled the amount of education received
by the children and chose the career for his sons. The mother occupied a
subordinate position in the family. Women were unable to own property. A
typical Chinese family contained mother, father, sons and the unmarried
daughters. All the rituals were performed by the males.
Literature: There were many learned people and philosophers. They knew
how to read and write. Paper and even printing were developed. They were
advanced in science, technology, art and literature. There was a lot of literature
back in the civilization time. The Zhan literature was very important to the
Chinese people. There were a few books; the "Book of History" is the actual
history of the Zhou. Another is the "Book of Change" is the manual of diviners.
The "Book of Rites" is the rules of etiquette and rituals for the aristocrats.
Most of the Zhou writings have been destroyed by the first empire.

Economy
The yellow river valley in particular lacked written language for an extensive
period. Because of this, documented economics are rare. What is known is
that the civilization primarily focused on day to day agriculture, rather than
spontaneous growth.

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The Silk Road was a major part of agricultural and business life in China.
People would travel all through the silk-road for trading purposes. Agriculture
used to be the backbone of economy. Irrigation system was developed.
Cattle-rearing was part of agriculture. They used to keep sheep, chickens,
pig, ducks, horses and elephants. The Chinese developed the art of weaving.
They were good at weaving cloth of different designs. They were the ones to
start producing silk for the first time in the human history. They had also
developed the art of pottery. They used to make beautiful clay-pots and
vessels with artistic designs and colours. They used to make bronze pots,
vases, utensils and so on. These arts are still carried on.

Many things were invented in China like paper, printing, umbrella, tea,
sandal, silk etc. The Hwang-Ho civilization has greatly contributed to the
world civilization.

Points to Remember:

F The Hwang-Ho River is also known as Yellow River as its water looks
yellow.

F As it keeps changing its course this river is also known as the ‘Sorrow of
China’ and the ‘Wandering River’.

F The Hwang Ho civilization, one of the important civilizations of the world,
began about 4000 years ago.

F For about 1500 years, China was divided into a number of kingdoms.
F The first dynasty to begin the civilization was the Shang.
F The word China comes from Qin. By 221 BC the king of Qin conquered all

other kingdoms and then took the title of Qin Shi Huangdi, means “the
first emperor”. China remained an empire for the next 2000 years.
F The Qin Shi Huangdi was remembered not only as a ruler who united
China, but as the builder of the Great wall.
F Tang Dynasty’s rule, the Golden Age of China, was perhaps the most
civilized nation in the world.

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Key Terms and Words:

• Aristocratic : privileged, elegant
• Ethnic : racial , national, indigenous
• Hierarchy : order, chain of command
• Merge: bring or come together
• Metallurgy: engineering

Evaluation Activities

Very short answer questions:
1. What is human civilization?
1. What does the word “Hwang Ho” mean in Chinese?
2. How long did Hwang Ho civilization last?
3. What is special about Hwang Ho civilization?
4. What does “Qin Shi Huangdi” mean in Chinese?
5. Why did Chinese remember the first emperor of the kingdom of Qin?
6. For what reason was the Great Wall built?
7. When did Tang rule China?
8. Was the Great Wall completely built during the kingdom of Qin?
9. What are the other names of "Hwang Ho" River.
10. Why is Hwang Ho River called Yellow River.
11. When was the Great Wall built?
12. Where does the word 'China' come from?

Short answer questions:
1. How did people live in Hwang Ho civilization? Describe in brief.
2. What are the contributions made by the Hwang-Ho Civilization to the
world?
3. Give geographical reasons:
(a) Hwang-Ho River water is yellow in colour.
(b) River Hwang-Ho is called the ‘Sorrow of China’.
(c) Great civilizations flourished on river banks.
4. Write about the Great Wall of China ?
5. Write about the Tang rule of China

Community Based Work:
Visit to some of the old cultural heritage sites in your community, and find
out who and when built it? Write a report on this with its sketch.

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Lesson The Mesopotamian
Civilization
5

Location

Mesopotamia, which lies in the Ancent Map of Mesopotamia
present day Middle East, is the
region where the first state in world
history began. A city state had a
king, a city centre, an agricultural
part and a harbor. This State was
called Sumer. The first people
who lived in Mesopotamia were
the Sumerians. Mesopotamia
then was divided in 3 Principal
States: Babylonia, Sumeria and Assyria.

Mesopotamia or "land of rivers" is a name for the area of the Tigris–Euphrates
river system, corresponding to modern-day Iraq, the northeastern section
of Syria and to a much lesser extent southeastern Turkey, smaller parts of
southwestern Iran and Kuwait.

Cradle of Civilization
Mesopotamia is widely considered to be the cradle of
civilization. The indigenous Sumerians and Akkadians
(including Assyrians and Babylonians) dominated
Mesopotamia from the beginning of written history
(3100 BC) to the fall of Babylon in 539 BC.

Around 150 BC, Mesopotamia was under the control of Akkadians
the Parthians. Mesopotamia became a battleground
between the Romans and Parthians. In 226 AD, it fell
to Persians and remained under Persian rule until
the 7th-century.

During this period Mesopotamia housed some of the world's most ancient
highly developed and socially complex states. The region was one of the four
riverine civilizations where writing was invented, along with the Nile Valley in

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Egypt, the Indus Valley in the Indian subcontinent, and Yellow River Valley in
China. Mesopotamia had historically important cities such as Uruk, Nippur,
Nineveh, Assur and Babylon.

Language and Writing
The earliest language written in Mesopotamia was Sumerian. Early in
Mesopotamia's history (around the mid-4th millennium BC) cuneiform script
was invented for the Sumerian language. Cuneiform literally means "wedge-
shaped", due to the triangular tip of the stylus used for impressing signs on
wet clay.
The early logographic system of cuneiform script took many years to master.
Significant portions of Mesopotamian population became literate.

Literature
Libraries were extant in towns and temples during the Babylonian Empire. An
old Sumerian proverb said, "He who would excel in the school of the scribes
must rise with the dawn." Women as well as men learned to read and write.
A considerable amount of Babylonian literature was translated from Sumerian
originals. Many Babylonian literary works are still studied today.

Science and Technology
Mesopotamian people invented many technologies including metal and
copper-working, glass and lamp making, textile weaving, flood control, water
storage, and irrigation. Palaces were decorated with hundreds of kilograms
of these very expensive metals. Also, copper, bronze, and iron were used for
armor as well as for different weapons such as swords, daggers, spears, and
maces.
Mesopotamian mathematics and science was based on 60 numeral system.
This is the source of the 60-minute hour, the 24-hour day, and the 360-degree
circle. The Sumerian calendar was based on the seven-day week. This form
of mathematics was instrumental in early map-making. The Babylonians also
had theorems on how to measure the area of several shapes and solids.
They measured the circumference of a circle as three times the diameter
and the area as one-twelfth the square of the circumference. The volume of
a cylinder was taken as the product of the area of the base and the height.
Astronomy: From Sumerian times, temple priesthoods had attempted to

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associate current events with certain positions of the planets and stars. The
Babylonian astronomers were very adept at mathematics and could predict
eclipses and solstices. Mesopotamian astronomers worked out a 12-month
calendar based on the cycles of the moon. They divided the year into two
seasons: summer and winter. The origins of astronomy as well as astrology
date from this time.
Babylonian astronomy served as the basis for much of Greek, classical
Indian, Byzantine, Syrian, medieval Islamic, Central Asian, and Western
European astronomy.
Medicine: The oldest Babylonian texts on medicine date back to the Old
Babylonian period in the first half of the 2nd millennium BC. The Babylonians
introduced the concepts of diagnosis, prognosis, physical examination, and
prescriptions.
The symptoms and diseases of a patient were treated through therapeutic
means such as bandages, creams and pills. If a patient could not be cured
physically, the Babylonian physicians often relied on exorcism to cleanse the
patient from any curses.

Ziggurat

Religion and Philosophy
Mesopotamian religion was the first to be recorded. Mesopotamians believed
that the world was a flat disc, surrounded by a huge, holed space, and above
that, heaven. They also believed that water was everywhere, the top, bottom
and sides, and that the universe was born from this enormous sea.

Babylonian reasoning and rationality developed beyond empirical
observation. The earliest form of logic was developed by the Babylonians.
Logic was employed to some extent in Babylonian astronomy and medicine.

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Babylonian thought had a considerable influence on early Greek and
Hellenistic philosophy.

Babylonian Culture

Festivals: Ancient Mesopotamians had ceremonies each month. The theme
of the rituals and festivals for each month was determined by different
important factors like the Lunar phase (a waxing moon meant abundance
and growth, while a waning moon was associated with decline), the phase
of the annual agricultural cycle, the local mythos and its divine Patrons, the
success of the reigning Monarch, and commemoration of specific historical
events (founding, military victories, temple holidays, etc.)

Art: The art of Mesopotamia rivaled that of Ancient Egypt as the most grand,
sophisticated and elaborate in western Eurasia. The main emphasis was on
various forms of sculpture in stone and clay. Painting was mainly used for
geometrical and plant-based decorative schemes.

Architecture: Brick was the dominant material, as the material was freely
available locally. Stone had to be
brought a considerable distance to
most cities. Mesopotamia architecture
was quite advanced. The ziggurat is
the most distinctive form, and cities
often had large gateways decorated
with beasts in polychrome brick.
Nebuchadnezzar, a great king of
Babylonia, built a beautiful Hanging
Garden, which used to be one of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon

seven wonders of the ancient world.

Music: Some songs were written for the gods but many were written to
describe important events. Although music and songs amused kings, they
were also enjoyed by ordinary people, who liked to sing and dance in their
homes or in the marketplaces. Songs were sung to children who passed them
on to their children. Thus songs were passed on through many generations
as an oral tradition until writing was more universal. These songs provided
a means of passing on highly important information about historical events
through the centuries.

Games: Hunting was popular among Assyrian kings. Boxing and wrestling

168 Social Studies & Population Education Book ~ 7

feature frequently in art, and some form of polo was probably popular, with
men sitting on the shoulders of other men rather than on horses. They also
played a game similar to the sport rugby, but played with a ball made of
wood. They also played a board game similar to backgammon, now known
as the "Royal Game of Ur."
Family life: Mesopotamia had a patriarchal society. As for schooling, only
royal offspring and sons of the rich and professionals, such as scribes,
physicians, temple administrators, went to school. Most boys were taught
their father's trade or were apprenticed out to learn a trade. Girls had to
stay home with their mothers to learn housekeeping and cooking, and to
look after the younger children. Unusual for that time in history, women in
Mesopotamia had rights. They could own property and, if they had good
reason, get a divorce.
Burials: In the city of Ur, most people were buried in family graves under
their houses, along with some possessions. Deceased children were put in
big "jars" which were placed in the family chapel. They used to have common
city graveyards as well.

Economy and Agriculture
Irrigated agriculture spread southwards from the Zagros foothills from about
5,000 BC. Sumerian temples functioned as banks and developed the first
large-scale system of loans and credit. The Babylonians developed the
earliest system of commercial banking.
The need for irrigation led cities to develop along the Tigris and Euphrates
and the branches of these rivers. Major cities, such as Ur and Uruk, took root
on tributaries of the Euphrates.
Other Mesopotamian innovations include the control of water by dams and
the use of aqueducts. Early settlers of fertile land in Mesopotamia used
wooden plows to soften the soil before planting crops such as barley, onions,
grapes, turnips, and apples.
Mesopotamian settlers were some of the first people to make beer and wine.
Although the rivers sustained life, they also destroyed it by frequent floods
that ravaged entire cities. Crops were often ruined so backup sources of
food such as cows and lambs were also kept.

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Government
The geography of Mesopotamia had a profound impact on the political
development of the region. Among the rivers and streams, the Sumerian
people built the first cities along with irrigation canals. Communication
among the isolated cities was difficult and, at times, dangerous. Thus, each
Sumerian city became a city-state, independent of the others. At times one
city would try to conquer and unify the region. As a result, the political history
of Sumer is one of almost constant warfare.
Kings: The Mesopotamians believed their kings and queens were descended
from the City of Gods, but, unlike the ancient Egyptians, they never believed
their kings were real gods. Most kings named themselves “king of the
universe” or “great king”. Another common name was “shepherd”, as kings
had to look after their people.
Laws: City-states of Mesopotamia created the first law codes. They were
drawn from legal precedence and decisions made by Kings. The most
renowned of these was that of Hammurabi, the most famous king of the
Babylonian Empire. Hammurabi's Code (created 1780 BC), is considered to
be the first recorded code of laws. He codified over 200 laws for Mesopotamia.

Points to Remember:

F Mesopotamia, which lies in the Middle East, is the region where the first
state in world history began.

F The region was one of the four riverine civilizations along with the Nile
Valley in Egypt, the Indus Valley in the Indian subcontinent, and Yellow
River Valley in China.

F Mesopotamian people invented metal and copper-working, glass and
lamp making, textile weaving, flood control, water storage, and irrigation.

F An old Sumerian proverb, "He who would excel in the school of the
scribes must rise with the dawn”.

F Babylonian astronomy served as the basis for much of astronomy.
F City-states of Mesopotamia created the first law codes.
F Mesopotamian settlers were some of the first people to make beer and

wine.
F The Babylonians introduced the concepts of diagnosis, prognosis,

physical examination, and prescriptions.

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Key Terms and Words:

• Aqueducts: canal
• Cleanse : wash, clean
• Cuneiform: writing
• Eclipse : shadowing of the sun or moon
• Empirical : practical
• Excel : be superior, be good
• Exorcism: expelling evil spirit
• Extant : in existence, alive
• Logographic : related to puzzle, game
• Maces: weapon
• Mythos : lore, belief
• Polychrome: multi-colour
• Prognosis : forecast, guess, foretelling

Evaluation Activities

Very short answer questions:

1. What does the word “Mesopotamia” mean?
2. What was the name of the first state in the world?
3. What does Cuneiform mean?
4. What was the first recorded code of laws?
5. Where did the first state world begin?

Short answer questions:

1. Where was Mesopotamia situated? Which countries are there now?
2. Describe the contributions made by Mesopotamian civilization to

the world.
3. Why is Mesopotamian called the 'Cradle of Civilization'?

Community Based Work:

There may be a park or a flower garden in your community. Find out from
the gardener when the flowers should be planted and how they should be
taken care of, and write a news story on it.

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UNIT

7

OUR ECONOMIC
ACTIVITIES

In this unit, we will learn the following:
• Our Natural Resources and their Utilization
• Our Industrial Activities
• Relation between Agriculture and Industry
• Our Trade Activities

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Lesson Our Natural Resources &
Their Utilization
1

Introduction: Natural Resources
Natural resources are valuable things found in our environment. They are
gifts of nature. They include water, forest, soil, air, minerals, solar power
etc.

Such resources play very important role in the overall development of a
country. But, the resources mean nothing unless they are fruitfully utilized.
Proper care, preservation, protection, and utilization of the natural resources
is essential to achieve economic development and have quality of life.

Nepal is rich in natural resources. A brief introduction of some of these
natural resources is given below.

Water Mountain
Water is one of the most important
natural resources of Nepal. Nepal is the
second richest country in water resources
in the world after Brazil. Glaciers, snow,
rivers, lakes, ponds and springs are the
sources of water in Nepal. Rivers in Nepal
mostly originate in mountains and flow
from north to south. Underground water
and wells are the major water sources in
Terai and valleys.

Depending on the source and volume of water, rivers in Nepal can be
classified into 3 grades.

Grade One: Those snow-fed rivers that Koshi
originate in the mountains are perennial
and contain huge volume of water are
grade one type rivers. They include the
Sapta Koshi, the Gandaki and the Karnali
and their tributaries. These rivers drain the
eastern, central and western part of Nepal

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respectively. The Sapta Koshi is the largest and the Karnali the longest rivers
of Nepal.

Grade Two: Those rivers like Kanakai, Kamala, Bagmati, Rapti (Chitwan),
Rapti (Dang), Babai and Mechi, which originate in the Mahabharat Hills are
grade two type of rivers. Springs, lakes and rain water are their mian sources.
Hence, they contain much less amount of water during dry season.

Grade Three: Those small rivers which originate in Churia range fall in this
grade. These rivers are comparatively shorter and mostly remain dry in winter.
They mostly depend on rainfall.
Sirsiya, Manusmara, Hardinath, Ban
Ganga, Mohana, Ratuwa etc are
some such rivers.

Lakes: There are many small and
medium size lakes in different parts
of the country. Lakes are useful
in many ways. These lakes are
sources of many rivers. Some of the
important lakes are: Rara in Mugu; Tilicho Lake

Phewa, Begnas, Rupa, Khaste,
Maidi, Dipang, Gude, Buduwa in Pokara Valley; Shey-Phoksundo in Dolpa;
Satyawati in Palpa; Tilicho in Manag; Shyarpo in Rukum, Kasara in Chitwa;
Barakune Tal in Dang. Similarly, there are Tau Daha and Katuwal Daha in
Kathmandu; Gosai Kunda, Bhairab Kunda, Saraswati Kunda, Damodar
Kunda in Rasuwa.

Among these lakes, Rara, which is also called Mahendra Tal, is the biggest,
Shey-Phoksundo is the deepest, and Tilicho is the highest altitude lakes in
Nepal.

Uses of Water Dhungedhara
Water is used for many purposes
like drinking, cleaning, irrigating
field, generating power and
entertainment. Nepal has not been
able to properly utilize the available
water resources. In spite of so much
of water resources, most of the

174 Social Studies & Population Education Book ~ 7

people have not yet been supplied purified water. People in rural areas still
depend on open sources of water. Urban areas like Kathmandu are facing
acute shortage of drinking water.

Only about 20% of total cultivated land is
covered by irrigation scheme out of which
80% is in Terai. Koshi, Gandak and Tanakpur
are the multi-purpose water projects based
in Terai. Similarly, Chatara, Chandra, Juddha,
Bana Ganga, Kamala, Bagmati, Rapti, Babai
are some irrigation projects in Terai.
Electricity
Nepal’s rivers have very high potentiality of
generating hydro-power. It is estimated that
there is about 83,000 mega-watt(MW) of hydro power potential. But, only
about 650 MW is being generated at present. Some of the major hydro-
power projects are:

• Kali Gandaki ‘A’ (144 MW), Mid-Marshyandi (70 MW), Marshyandi
(69 MW), Kulekhani I (60 MW), Khimti. Khola (60 MW), Bhote Koshi
(36 MW), Kulekhani II (32 MW), Trisuli (21 MW), Chilime (20 MW),
Gandaki (15. MW), Devi Ghat, Trisuli (14.1 MW) etc.

Forest
Forest is one of the important natural resources of Nepal. Presently, about
37 % of the total land is covered by forest. It used to be said, ‘Hariyo ban
Nepal ko Dhan’. But, the forests have been depleting at a very fast rate
in recent years. Indiscriminate cutting of trees and encroachment of forest
areas have been causing alarming decrease in forest areas.

Forest in Nepal can be divided into three major categories according to
geographical and climatic conditions: Sub-Tropical Evergreen Forests,
Deciduous Monsoon Forests and Evergreen Coniferous Forests.

Sob-Tropical Evergreen Forests: Such forests are found in the Terai, Bhabar,
Dun and Churia range up to 1200 m altitude. Trees in these forests are tall
and thick. Sal, Sisau, Simal, Teak, Rose Wood, Khair etc are some examples
of such trees. These forests provide habitat to various wild animals like
elephants, tigers, rhinos, bears, leopards, deer etc.

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Deciduous Monsoon Forests: Such forests are located in the Mahabharat
Hills up to the altitude of 2100 m. Sal, Siasu, Bar, Peepal, chestnut (Katus),
Chilaune, Uttis are the main trees found in these forests. Due to lack of
ground water during winter, these trees shed leaves. Leopards, bears, deer
etc are the animals found in these forests.

Evergreen Coniferous Forests: Such forests Snow Leopard
are found in the Mountain Regions up to
the height of 3300 m. These forests have
evergreen soft wood trees like pines, firs,
spruce, deodars, larches, rhododendrons and
poplar. Similarly, bears, musk deer, ghoral,
jharal (mountain goats), snow leopard, red
panda etc are the species of wild animals
found in these forests.

Uses of Forests
Forests are resources of great economic importance. They not only bring huge
economic benefit to the country but also help in maintaining environment.
They provide firewood, fodder, timber, fruits, medicinal herbs and variety of
raw materials. Forests are the habitat for a wide variety of wild animals.
Forests influence climate, cause rainfall, stop flood, soil erosion, and land
slide. They enrich natural beauty and attract many people. They also increase
the soil fertility by adding organic matter. Forests provide grazing space for
cattle. Above all, Forests help to maintain ecological balance of environment.
Hence, it is our duty to protect, preserve and promote forest resources.

Soil

Soil is the loose material found on the
earth’s surface in which plants grow.
Soil contains minerals particles, water,
air, dead leaves, roots, worms, bacteria
and humus. Soil is essential for growing
crops. It has significant importance Soil Resources
in an agricultural country like ours.
Hence, it is important to conserve soil.
We can conserve soil by planting trees and grass, constructing dams, and
regulating cattle grazing.

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There are 5 major types of soil found in Nepal: Alluvial, Sandy Stony, Rocky,
Lacustrine and Glacial Soils.
Alluvial Soil: It is the soil brought and deposited by rivers. It is fertile and
suitable for growing variety of crops. This type of soil is found in Terai, Inner
Terai and river basins.
Sandy Stony Soil: This type of soil is sandy and stony. It is a mixture of sand,
pebbles and stone. It is not so suitable for cultivation, however, forests grow
well in such soil.
Rocky Soil: This type of soil is formed due to decomposition of parent rocks
exposed to weathering process. It is shallow and poor in humus. Most of the
Mountain and Hill regions contain this type of soil. This type of soil is not
suitable for rice and wheat. However, maize, millet, fruit, tea and soya-bean
can be grown here.
Lacustrine Soil: This type of soil forms at the bottom of lakes and is very
fertile like alluvial. It is black in colour and contains large amount of humus.
Example: soil of the Kathmandu Valley.
Glacial Soil: It is the mixture of sand and stone pieces with very little humus.
Such type of soil is found in Mountains. It is formed by glaciers. Potato,
buckwheat, millet, barley and maize can be grown in this soil.

Mineral
Minerals are chemical substances found deep inside the Earth’s crust.
Minerals are very useful natural resources for the economic development. It
takes a very long period of time to form such substances. As our mountains
and hills are quite young, comparatively there are not much natural resources
in our country. We have discovered very few types of minerals so far, and
they haven’t yet been extracted and utilized properly.

Some of the mineral found out are briefly described below:
• Iron Ore: It is one of the main minerals found in Nepal. Major iron ores
discovered so far are at Phulchowki Hill (South East of Kathmandu
Valley), Labdhi Khola (Chitwan), Kulekhani and Bhainse (Makawanpur),
Pyuthan, Nuwakot, Bhojpur etc. It is used in construction, and making
weapons, tools and utensils.

Social Studies & Population Education Book ~ 7 177

• Copper: It is found in Buddha Khola (Bandipur), Gyaji (Gorkha),
Arghauli (Chisapani), Taplejung, Illam, Baitadi, Nangge (Nuwakot). It
is used in electric wire and making utensils.

• Mica: It is used to make insulators and heating elements. It is found
in Bajhang, Bhojpur, Chainpur, Lamjung, Gosai Kunda, Dhankuta,
Nuwakot, Sundarijal and Sindhuligadi.

• Coal: It is used as fuel to heat and cook. It is found in Dang, Chure
Range, Chitwan, Salyan, Kailali, Kamchanpur, Mustang etc.

• Limestone: It is essential in cement production. Surkhet, Dang,
Makawanpur, Udaypur are found having deposit of limestone.

In addition to these minerals, several other minerals like magnesite, lead,
talc stone, petrol and gas, silver, gold have also been discovered in different
parts of the country. But, due to lack of capital, difficult terrain, technology,
their production and uses are negligible.

Points to Remember:

F Natural resources, gifts of nature, are valuable things found in our
environment. They include water, forest, soil, air, minerals, solar power
etc.

F Natural resources play very important role in the overall development of
a country.

F Nepal is the second richest country in water resources in the world after
Brazil.

F Snow-fed rivers like Sapta Koshi, the Gandaki and the Karnali and their
tributaries are perennial rivers.

F Rara is the biggest, Shey-Phoksundo is the deepest, and Tilicho is the
highest altitude lakes in Nepal.

F Forests which are important resources of Nepal have been depleting at
a very fast rate in recent years.

F Forest in Nepal are of 3 types: Sub-Tropical Evergreen Forests, Deciduous
Monsoon Forests and Evergreen Coniferous Forests.

F Nepal is not so rich in mineral resources, and those discovered also
aren’t yet properly utilized.

178 Social Studies & Population Education Book ~ 7

Key Terms and Words:

• Coniferous: evergreen
• Dam : embankment, wall barrage
• Decomposition : not breakdown, dissolution
• Deplete: decrease, diminish
• Glaciers: mountain of ice or snow, snow slide
• Habitat : residence, abode
• In spite of : although, even thought
• Negligible : insignificant
• Perennial : perpetual, constant
• Volume : amount, content

Evaluation Activities

Very short answer questions:
1. What are natural resources?
2. What is soil?
3. What is alluvial soil?
4. What is mineral?
5. What is copper used for?

Short answer questions:
1. What are the types of soil found in Nepal? List them out and describe
any one of them.
2. What are the types of forests found in Nepal? Describe them in brief.
3. What are the uses of water? Explain.
4. What are the importances of forests? What should be done to
conserve forests?
5. What are the natural resources of Nepal ? List them out and write
about two of them.

Community Based Work:
What forest resources are found in your area, and how are they being utilized?
Find out and write a report.

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Lesson Our Industrial
Activities
2

Introduction: Industry Industry
Industry is manufacturing of goods
and finished products for commercial
purpose. It refers to the people and
activities involved in production of
things by using raw materials, skills,
capital, management and means. It
can be cottage, small, medium and
large scale industry. As Nepal is an
agricultural country, it is also called
secondary activity.

Pre-requisites of Industries
The pre-requisites of industries are: Land, labour, management, capital, raw
materials, machine, markets, transportation and communication.

Categories of Industries
In Nepal, the industry is categorized as follows:

• Cottage Industry: An industry that has fixed assets up to two lakhs
rupees, and consumes energy less than 5 kilowatts.

• Small Scale Industry: An industry that has fixed assets of up to 3 corers.
• Medium Scale industry: An industry that has fixed assets of 3 to 10

crores.
• Large scale Industry: An industry that has fixed assets over 10 crores.

Industries Under Cottage Industries
• Handloom, tailoring, presswork
• Woolen carpets, pashmina shawls,
woolen garments, knitting work
• Carpentry, wooden designs, artwork,
bamboo items, cane-based art work

180 Social Studies & Population Education Book ~ 7

and furniture, handmade papers
• Gold, silver, copper and precious stone ornaments
• Leather work from hides tanned at local level
• Stone sculpture work, statues, pottery work, painting and art work
• Handmade gift items of all kinds
• Making of traditional agricultural tools, utensils etc

Salient Features of Cottage Industry

• Use of local raw materials
• Use of skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled manpower
• Use of simple machinery consuming energy below 5 kilowatts
• Requires small space or area
• Simple design, processing and design
• Labour intensive production

Importance of Industries in Nepal
Nepal is the least developed country. Development of industries is vital
for achieving rapid economic growth. The following Points highlight the
importance of industries:

• Industry leads to rapid development
• It provides employment opportunities
• It uplifts living standard
• It makes the country self-dependent
• It promotes export and reduces imports
• Local resources and raw materials are utilized
• It encourages agricultural development
• It promotes skill development and diversification of investment
• It promotes economic activities, saving, investment and income
• It romotes regional development
• It promotes urbanization

Present Situation of Industries in Nepal
Industries in Nepal are being developed very slowly. Most of the industries
are agro and forest based and they are located in Terai. Biratnagar, Birgunj,

Social Studies & Population Education Book ~ 7 181

Hetauda, Janakpur, Dharan, Damak, Butwal, Pokhara, Bhairahawa,
Nepalgunj, Dhangadi and Kathmadu are the main industrial cities. The
other industries like manufacturing tools and equipment for mining are
very limited. Even traditional, cottage and small industries haven’t been
developed much. The existing industries are also not running to the full
extent. The industrial sector contributes less than 15 % to the national
economy. The country depends largely on imported goods. The trade deficit
is growing alarmingly. There are numerous problems in this sector:

Problems and Challenges
• Political instability
• Lack of political commitment
• Lack of term policy, planning and
programming
• Lack of fund or capital
• Lack of security
• Lack of skilled manpower
• Lack of markets
• Lack of equipment, knowledge and technology
• Lack of infrastructures
• Small domestic and competitive international market
• Trade unions politics
• Unsecured investment environment

Possible Measures to Overcome the Problems
• Speed up development of infrastructures
• Mobilize local resources and capital
• Encourage private and foreign investment
• Have political commitment
• Stop bundh and strikes
• Assure physical and investment security
• Provide low interest loans
• Promote local raw materials
• Establish auxiliary industries
• Establish vocational and technical schools
• Develop proper industrial policies and programmes
• Make procedural works simpler and transparent
• Establish dry ports and proper storage facilities

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Key Terms and Words:

• Auxiliary: supplementary, complementary
• Commitment: guarantee, assurance
• Diversification : variety, diversity
• Intensive: demanding
• Investment: finance, transaction
• Mobilize : organize, put in motion
• Pre-requisites: essentials, imperatives
• Urbanization: settlement

Evaluation Activities
Very short answer questions:

1. What is industry?
2. What are the pre-requisites of an industry?
3. What is a cottage industry?
4. Differentiate between small and medium scale industry.
5. What are the types of industries in Nepal?
6. Why is industry called secondary activity in Nepal?

Short answer questions:
1. How does an industry provide employment opportunities? Make a
tree diagram and show it.
2. How do industries help in developing a country? Write.
3. Nepal is backward in industries, why?
4. What is the relation between industrialization and standard of life?
5. What types of industries are suitable for rural areas of Nepal? Give
reason
6. What are the problem and challenges of industry in Nepal ? Suggest
resource to overcome them.
7. What are the importances of industry in Nepal?
8. "Industries in Nepal are either agro or forest based". Justify this
statement.

Community Based Work:

Visit an industry in your locality. Collect information under the given
headings and prepare a report: Name and Type, Date of Establishment,
Number of Employees, Types of Raw Materials Used, Produced Goods,
Markets to Sell Goods etc.

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Lesson Relationships Between
Agriculture & Industry
3

Close Relationship
Economic activities in Nepal are mainly linked with agriculture and industries.
There is a close and inseparable relationship between agriculture and
industry. Nepal is still an agricultural country. Majority of people are engaged
in agriculture for their livelihood. It is not only an occupation or a source of
income, but a way of life for many of our people.

Most of the industries in Nepal are agro-based. Agriculture provides raw
materials to industries. Without
raw materials, industries can’t run.
Cash crops such as tea, coffee, jute,
tobacco, sugarcane, cotton, oil seeds,
rice, fruits etc are processed into
finished products in the industries.
Rice and flour mills, noodle industries,
biscuits factories etc get raw materials
from agriculture. Dairy industries
are provided milk by farmers who Industry

rear cattle. Agriculture stimulates
establishment of agro-based industries.

Similarly, agriculture also depends on industry.
There is the need of various agricultural tools
and equipment like plough, spade, mattock,
hoe, shovel, thresher, etc for agricultural
works. They are manufactured in factories.
Industries produce insecticides, pesticides and
fertilizers to be used in agriculture. Without
which the quality and production of crops will
decline. If there is no industry, the agricultural
raw materials will go as wastes. The industrial
products like generators, spades, harrows,

184 Social Studies & Population Education Book ~ 7

etc make agricultural work easy and efficient. They help in growing the
productivity of agricultural goods. Industry stimulates large scale production
of crops.
In this way, there is like nail and flesh relationship between agriculture and
industry in Nepal. They are very much interdependent and are complementary
to each other. The balanced development of these two sectors is equally
important for our overall economic development.

Agricultural Raw Materials Used By Industries

Industry Agricultural Raw Materials

Food Processing Variety of food grains

Biscuit and Noodle Variety of food grains, flour

Sugar Sugarcane

Cigarette Tobacco

Rice and Corn Rice, wheat, corn, millet, buck wheat etc

Oil Variety of oil seeds

Leather Hide
Paper and Pulp Hay, straw, grass etc

Juice Variety of fruits
Diary Milk

Tea Tea leaves

Need and Prospect of Agro- Industry
based Industries in Nepal
Nepal is an agricultural country.
There is a great need of agro-
based industries in Nepal. If the
farmers can sale their products to
industries, they will be encouraged
to produce more and will earn
more. Earning more means being
able to maintain a better standard
of life. As the majority of people are

Social Studies & Population Education Book ~ 7 185

farmers, their life standard being uplifted means the overall living standard
of the Nepalese people uplifted. If such industries are established, the local
means, resources and raw materials can be well utilized and employment
opportunities can be generated, which will lessen the burden on agriculture
and ultimately enhances economic growth of the country.

Points to Remember:

F Economic activities in Nepal are mainly linked with agriculture.
F Agriculture and industry have close and complementary relationship.
F Most of the industries in Nepal are agro-based.
F Agriculture stimulates establishment of agro-based industries by

providing raw materials.
F Industry manufactures tools, equipment and chemicals needed for

agriculture.
F Without agricultural raw materials, industry can’t run, and without

industry, agricultural raw materials go wasted.

Key Terms and Words:

• Harrow : a kind of agricultural tool
• Hay : straw, dried grass
• Inseparable: indivisible, integral
• Pesticides : chemical to kill pests
• Stimulate: encourage, promote, inspire
• Ultimately : finally in the end

Evaluation Activities

Very short answer questions:

1. Why is Nepal called an agricultural country?
2. Why are there more agro-based industries in Nepal?
3. What do the industries get from agriculture?
4. What does the agriculture get from industries?

Short answer questions:

1. “Agriculture is the source of food and raw materials.” Explain with
examples.

186 Social Studies & Population Education Book ~ 7

2. Development of agriculture based industries leads to economic
development of Nepal, how?

3. Write a dialogue mentioning the interdependence of agriculture and
industry.

4. Why are called agriculture primary and industry secondary activities?
5. Agriculture and industries in Nepal are inseparable from each other.

Justify with examples.

Community Based Work:

(a) Visit to some industrial fair or exhibition in your neighbourhoods,
observe what domestic industrial products are there, list them along
with the place of production, gather as much information on various
products and write a report on the situation of domestic industrial
products.

(b) Name the following agricultural implements.

Social Studies & Population Education Book ~ 7 187

Lesson Our Trade Activities

4

Introduction: Trade
Trade is exchange or buying and selling of
goods and services between the individuals
or nations. Goods and services produced
in one place are transported to different
places and sold to the wholesalers and
retailers, and who, in turn, sell them to
consumers. It is an important indicator of
economic development of a country.

Trade is one of the important activities of Nepalese economic life. A significant
number of people are engaged in trade and business. Local bodies like VCs,
DAs and the government receive revenue from traders. Trading brings money
and makes a nation rich, prosperous and strong.

Types of Trade

According to the nature and scope of the trade, it can be divided into two
categories: Internal or Domestic Trade and International or Foreign Trade.

Internal (Domestic) Trade: The supply, Internal Trade
distribution, buying and selling of goods and
services within a country is called internal
trade. In this trade, goods and services
produced in a place within the country
or already imported goods and services
are transported to different places in the
country and sold and bought. For example:
the rice grown in Terai is transported to Hills
and Mountains and fruits like apples and
oranges grown in those places to Terai and sold.

International or Foreign Trade: The supply or buying and selling of goods and
services from one country to another is called an international or foreign
trade. The goods and services required from other countries are imported

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and the surplus domestic goods
and services are exported to other
countries. Such a trade is conducted
in convertible hard currencies: US
dollar, Euro etc.

The more a country can export the
more will it earn foreign currency
International Trade

and will have surplus of trade or
favourable trade. It will be opposite or trade deficit if more is imported than
exported. Generally, a developing country like ours exports raw, unfinished,
raw materials and handicrafts, which don’t fetch much money. Nepal exports
raw materials, agricultural products, handicrafts etc. What the developed
countries do is just the opposite. They import raw materials and export
finished goods and earn more money. Nepal imports electronic goods,
medicines, tools, clothes, equipment, machines etc from other countries.

There has to be at least balance of trade or payment. It means balance
between import and export to have favourable trade.

Importance of Foreign Trade
Foreign trade plays important role for the development
of a developing country like ours. Its importances are:

• It helps to expand and develop industries.
• It earns foreign currencies.
• It spreads our goods and services to other

countries.
• It creates employment opportunities.
• It promotes international relationship.
• It enables the country to import appropriate technologies.
• It supplies goods not produced in own country.

Present Status of Nepalese Foreign Trade
Nepal’s foreign trade is not in favourable position. We don’t have well
developed industrial base. What we export are mostly agricultural products,
raw materials and handicrafts, which don’t bring much foreign currencies.
On the opposite, we import a lot of expensive finished goods and services,

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and technologies. It means Nepal has trade deficit almost with all trading
countries.

Problems of Foreign Trade in Nepal and Their Solutions
Foreign trade is not in favour of Nepal. It is not in balance. There are several
problems in foreign trade: landlocked, open border with India, high import
and low export, low quality goods, high cost of production, stiff competition,
lack of proper policy etc.

Solutions
• Enhance industrial base
• Promote export-oriented goods
• Give appropriate incentives to exports
• Improve quality of goods
• Adopt proper trade policies

Points to Remember:

F Trade is exchange or buying and selling of goods and services between
the individuals or nations.

F Trade is one of the important activities of Nepalese economic life.
F Trade can be divided into two categories: Internal or Domestic Trade and

International or Foreign Trade.
F More a country can export more will it earn foreign currency and will

have favourable trade.
F Trade helps to expand and develop industries and earn foreign currencies.

Key Terms and Words:

• Convertible: changeable, exchangeable
• Retailer: merchant, trader, dealer
• Revenue : income, earning, profits
• Technologies: electronics, science
• Tremendous: huge, overwhelming

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Evaluation Activities

Very short answer questions:

1. What is trade?
2. How many types of trade are there?
3. What is trade surplus?
4. What is trade deficit?
5. What is balance of payment or trade?

Short answer questions:

1. Differentiate between internal and external trade.
2. Why is trade necessary? Explain with examples.
3. Suggest ways to maintain favourable trade situation in Nepal.
4. How does the trade differ from developing and developed countries?
5. What are the problems and solutions of Nepal’s international Trade?
6. What are the importance of international trade?
7. Trade is important economic activity of a country. Justify.

Community Based Work:

Visit a local market and make a list of goods available fewer than two
headings: domestic products and imported items analyze the trade
situation of your country based on this and write an editorial for a national
daily.

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UNIT

8

INTERNATIONAL
RELATIONS AND
COOPERATION

In this unit, we will learn the following:
• South Asian Association for Regional Co-operation
• Landlocked Countries, Their Problems and Solutions
• Contemporary World Issues

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Lesson SAARC and Nepal

1

Introduction

The South Asian
Association for Regional
Cooperation (SAARC)
is an organization of
South Asian nations.
It was established
on 8 December
1985. Its founding
member countries are
Bangladesh, Bhutan,
India, Maldives, Nepal,
Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.
Afghanistan joined this
organization in 2007.

Its charter provides Map of South Asia

for the promotion of
economic, social and cultural development within the South Asia region. It
also promotes friendship and co-operation with other developing countries.
It emphasizes collective self-reliance.

Meetings of heads of state are usually scheduled annually. It is headquartered
in Kathmandu, Nepal. The SAARC logo shows two hands joining together.
There are seven doves in between the two hands. The two hands symbolize
friendship and goodwill. Seven doves represent the seven member nations
seeking peace.

Objectives
• To promote the welfare of the people of South Asia and to improve
their quality of life;
• To accelerate economic growth, social progress and cultural
development in the region

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• To contribute to mutual trust, understanding and appreciation of one
another's problems

• To promote collaboration in the economic, social, cultural, technical
and scientific fields

• To strengthen co-operation with other developing countries
• To strengthen co-operation among themselves in international forums

on matters of common interest
• To maintain peace in the region

Principles

• Respect for sovereignty, territorial integrity, political equality and
independence of all members states

• Non-interference in the internal matters
• Cooperation for mutual benefit
• All decisions to be taken unanimously and need a quorum of all eight

members
• All bilateral issues to be kept aside and only multilateral (involving

many countries) issues to be discussed

Secretariat

The Secretariat consists of a
Secretary General and 8 Directors,
one each from the member
countries. The Secretary General
is appointed by the Council of
Ministers from Member Countries
in an alphabetical order for a
three-year term. The first Secretary
General was Mr Abdul Hassan from
Bangladesh. It is Pakistan's turn SAARC Secretarial, Tridevimarga

in 2016. Nepal has nominated Mr
Arjun Bahadur Thapa for this prestigious post.

The Secretariat coordinates and monitors implementation of SAARC
activities. It prepares for SAARC summit and meetings. It serves as a channel
of communication between the Association and its Member States as well
as other regional organizations.

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The SAARC Secretariat and Member States observe 8 December as the
SAARC Charter Day. SAARC expenses are borne by each of the SAARC
countries. India pays the highest: 30.32%, and Pakistan 22.52%, Nepal,
Bangladesh and Sri Lanka 10.72% each, and the rest 5% each. The SAARC
Secretariat is supported by Regional Centres established in Member States
to promote regional co-operation.

Nepal’s Role in SAARC
Nepal is one of the founding members of the SAARC. The late King Birendra
Bir Bikram Shah had played very important role in its establishment. Nepal
has been actively promoting the ideals and principles of the SAARC. Nepal
is collaborating with other SAARC members in dealing various issues like
terrorism, human trafficking, drug abuses etc. Nepal’s vision of peace,
stability and collective prosperity is in tune with that of SAARC.

• Two of the important SAARC structures, the Secretariat and SAARC
Tuberculosis and HIV/AIDS Centre, are located in Nepal. The
Secretariat is at Tri Devi Marg, Thamel and the Tuberculosis and HIV/
AIDS Centre at Sano Thimi, Bhaktapur.

• Besides these, SAARC Information Centre and SAARC Economic Union
are also located in Kathmandu.

• Nepal hosted the 3rd (1987) and 11th (2002), and 18th Summits in
2014.

• Nepal hosted the first and eigth South Asian Games (SAG).
• Nepali diplomat Mr Yadav Kanta Silwal served as a General Secretary

of the SAARC.
• The SAARC logo was designed by a Nepali artist Mr Shailendra

Maharjan.
• Nepal contributes to the SAARC expenses and 8,000 metric ton of

food grains to the SAARC Food Bank (food security reserve).

SAARC Activities
SAARC has been carrying out several activities such as Integrated Programme
of Action, Launching of South Asian Broadcasting Programme through
Radio and Television Known as SAVE (SAARC Audio-Visual Exchange),
Exchange of Students, Scholars and Researchers, Establishment of SAARC

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Documentation Centre and Establishement of Volunteers’ Programme in
SAARC Countries etc.
The Integrated Programme of Action covers 12 mutually agreed areas:
Agriculture, Education, Health and Population Activities, Meteorology, Postal
Services, Prevention of Drug Trafficking and Drug Abuse, Rural Development,
Science and Technilogy, Sports, Art and Culture, Telecommunications,
Transport and Women in Development.
SAARC Games: South Asian Games are a bi-annual multi-
sport event held among the athletes from South Asia. The
first South Asian Games were hosted by Kathmandu, Nepal
in 1984 and have since been held every two years except for
some occasions. These Games are often considered as the
South Asian version of Olympic Games.
South Asian Free Trade Area (SAFTA): SAFTA was envisaged
primarily as the first step towards the transition to a South
Asian Free Trade Area (SAFTA) leading subsequently
towards a Customs Union, Common Market and Economic Union. The SAFTA
Agreement was signed on 6 January 2004 during Twelfth SAARC Summit
held in Islamabad, Pakistan. The Agreement entered into force on 1 January
2006, and the Trade Liberalization Programme commenced from 1 July
2006.
SAARC Visa Exemption Scheme: The SAARC Visa Exemption Scheme was
launched in 1992. Currently, 24 categories of persons, which include
Dignitaries, Judges of higher courts, Parliamentarians, Senior Officials,
Businessmen, Journalists, Sportsmen, etc are entitled. The validity of the
Visa Sticker is generally for one year.
SAARC Award: The Twelfth Summit (Islamabad, January 2004) approved the
institution of the SAARC Award which comprises a gold medal, a letter of
citation and cash prize of US $ 25,000 to honour and encourage outstanding
individuals and organizations within the region. Its main objectives are:

• To encourage individuals and organizations based in South Asia to
undertake programmes and activities complementing the efforts of
SAARC.

• To encourage individuals and organizations in South Asia contributing
to the improvement of the conditions of women and children.

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• To honour outstanding contributions and achievements of individuals
and organizations within the region in the fields of peace, development,
poverty alleviation, environment protection and regional co-operation.

SAARC Youth Award: The SAARC Youth Award is awarded to outstanding
individuals from the SAARC region. The award is based on specific themes
which apply to each year. The award recognizes and promotes the commitment
and talent of the youth who give back to the world at large through various
initiatives such as Inventions, Protection of the Environment and Disaster
relief. The Committee for the SAARC Youth Award selects the best candidate
based on his/her merits and their decision is final.

Eighteenth SAARC Summit
The Eighteenth SAARC summit was held in Kathmandu, Nepal on 26-27
November 2014. It was attended by Ashraf Ghani - President of Afghanistan,
Sheikh Hasina Wajed - President of Bangladesh, Tshering Tobgay - Prime

SAARC Summit 2014

Minister of Bhutan, Narendra Modi- Prime Minister of India, Nawaz Sharif -
Prime Minister of Pakistan, Abdulla Yameen - President of Maldives, Mahinda
Rajapaksa - President of Sri-Lanka and Sushil Koirala - Prime Minister of

Social Studies & Population Education Book ~ 7 197

Nepal. The Eighteenth Summit wrapped up in Kathmandu on Thursday, 27
November issuing a 36- point Kathmandu Declaration. The SAARC framework
agreement on energy cooperation (electricity) was signed as the two day
summit concluded. The summit adopted the declaration with a motto of
"Deeper Integration for Peace and Prosperity" to deepen cooperation in core
areas of trade, investment, finance, energy, infrastructure and connectivity.
It decided to held the Nineteenth Summit in Pakistan in 2016 A.D. The 19th
SAARC Summit that was scheduled to be held in Pakistan in 15th to 16th
November 2016 was cancelled. Bangladesh, Bhutan and Afghanistan sent
formal official communications to Kathmandu on 27 September for the
Cancellation of Summit when India expressed inability to participate in the
submit due to prevailing circumstances and stepped up diplomatic pressure
on Pakistan after the attack on 18 September on the military base in Uri.

Points to Remember:

F SAARC was established on 8 December 1985 with its secretariat in Kathmandu.
F It aims to promote economic, social and cultural development within the South Asia

Region.
F SAARC logo has seven doves between two hands joining together symbolizing friendship

and goodwill.
F SAARC Secretariat and Member States observe 8 December as the SAARC Charter

Day.
F SAFTA was signed on 6 January 2004 during Twelfth SAARC Summit held in Islamabad,

Pakistan.
F SAARC Charter requires the heads of state or government to meet once a year.
F The Eighteenth Summit was held in Kathmandu.
F The Nineteenth Summit was scheduled to beheld in Pakistan but cancelled.

Key Terms and Words:

• Accelerate: expedite, increase speed
• Citation: mention
• Conformity: compliance, consent
• Charter : treaty, code, document
• Envisaged: foresaw, anticipated, had in mind
• Exemption: immunity, privilege
• Forums: meeting, conference
• Schedule : plan for one's time, calender
• Symbolize : represent, stand for

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Evaluation Activities

Very short answer questions:

1. What is the full form of SAARC? When was it established?
2. How many summits have been held so far?
3. Who is the current General Secretary of the SAARC?
4. What is the full form of SAFTA?
5. Who designed the SAARC logo?

Short answer questions:
1. What are the objectives of the SAARC? Write.
2. Draw and explain the logo of the SAARC.
3. What are the important activities of SAARC? Mention them and write
about 2 of them in brief.
4. How is the SAARC trying to raise the living standard of the people in this
region?
5. List out the names of the SAARC member countries from the smallest
to the largest.
6. Describe Nepal’s roles in the SAARC.
7. What are the principles of the SAARC?
8. How is the budget of the SAARC managed ? In what proportion the
member countries contribute ?
9. Describe various activities of the SAARC.
10. What is SAARC Youth Award? Explain briefly.

Community Based Work:
a. There may be a club in your community. Find out what type of club
is this? Who, when and with what objectives founded this club?
Presently, what activities are being undertaken and how people are
benefited? Write a report.
b. Identify the following flags:

c. Write about the 18th SAARC sumit in detail. 199

Social Studies & Population Education Book ~ 7

Lesson Landlocked Countries,
Their Problems & Solutions
2

What Landlocked Country Means ?
A country that is surrounded by land and whose boundaries are identified
by land features and not by seas is called a landlocked country. Landlocked
country doesn’t border a sea or ocean on any of its sides.

There are more than 200 countries in the world. They are different in many
aspects. Some of them are big and developed, and some small and least
developed or developing. Some are on the sea coast, some island and some
in the interior of the continent.

Nepal is one of the landlocked country in the world. It has no sea or ocean
on any of its sides. It is bordered by China on one side and by India on three
sides. We have to go through either India or China to reach to any nearest
sea or ocean. The nearest sea from Nepal is the Bay of Bengal which is
about 500 km away across Bangladesh.

Landlocked Countries in the World
Nepal is not the only landlocked country. There are several other landlocked
countries in the world like Nepal. Some of the countries like Lesotho in Africa,

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